OceanographyOceanography

OceanographyOceanography

• OceanographyOceanography – – the application of all the application of all science to understanding the science to understanding the phenomena of the oceanphenomena of the ocean

• Oceanography involves chemistry, Oceanography involves chemistry, physics, geology, biology in addition physics, geology, biology in addition to the study of resources and to the study of resources and maritime law and policymaritime law and policy

Oceanographic fields or Oceanographic fields or careerscareers• Chemical OceanographyChemical Oceanography – the study of – the study of

seawater, its composition, and the seawater, its composition, and the chemical reactions it undergoeschemical reactions it undergoes

• Biological OceanographyBiological Oceanography - the study of - the study of living organisms and how they interact living organisms and how they interact with the ocean. This is very similar to with the ocean. This is very similar to marine biologymarine biology

• Physical OceanographyPhysical Oceanography – study of the – study of the physical aspects of the ocean, including physical aspects of the ocean, including motion, temperature, density and salinitymotion, temperature, density and salinity

• Marine Geology Marine Geology – study of the rock and – study of the rock and sediment layers on the ocean floor and sediment layers on the ocean floor and how the continents drift and oceans formhow the continents drift and oceans form

• Ocean Engineering Ocean Engineering – concerned with how – concerned with how to utilize the ocean for man’s benefit to utilize the ocean for man’s benefit (collecting resources, generation of (collecting resources, generation of energy, etc.), or how to overcome the energy, etc.), or how to overcome the challenges the ocean createschallenges the ocean creates

• Marine Policy Marine Policy – the application of law or – the application of law or political science to the oceanspolitical science to the oceans

Characteristics of the OceanCharacteristics of the Ocean• Are economically and recreationally Are economically and recreationally

importantimportant– Almost all international trade moves by Almost all international trade moves by

shipping on the oceansshipping on the oceans– Climate and weather are strongly influenced Climate and weather are strongly influenced

by the oceanby the ocean– Is the principal source of the water that goes Is the principal source of the water that goes

into the water cycle (rain, surface water, into the water cycle (rain, surface water, evaporation, etc.)evaporation, etc.)

– Important source of foodImportant source of food

• Importance (cont.)Importance (cont.)– Source of many resources – Source of many resources –

phosphates, tin, manganese, sand, phosphates, tin, manganese, sand, oil deposits and even the water itselfoil deposits and even the water itself

– May someday be a major source of May someday be a major source of energyenergy

– Control of oceans is a major aspect Control of oceans is a major aspect of warfareof warfare

• In the US, 50% of the population lives In the US, 50% of the population lives within 50 miles of an oceanwithin 50 miles of an ocean

• The oceans and other sources of The oceans and other sources of water cover 72% of the Earth’s water cover 72% of the Earth’s surfacesurface

• Less than 35% of the total land is Less than 35% of the total land is found below the equator – therefore found below the equator – therefore the Southern Hemisphere is over the Southern Hemisphere is over 65% of the Earths’ oceans65% of the Earths’ oceans

• The oceans have a volume of 318 million The oceans have a volume of 318 million cubic milescubic miles

• Have an Have an averageaverage depth of 2.3 miles depth of 2.3 miles

• The oceans’ deepest depth is deeper than The oceans’ deepest depth is deeper than the Earth’s highest heightthe Earth’s highest height– Mt. Everest – Mt. Everest –

8,848 meters 8,848 meters (29,029 feet) (29,029 feet)

– Challenger Deep in the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench – Mariana Trench – 11, 035 meters 11, 035 meters (36,204 feet) (36,204 feet)

Historical Historical OceanographyOceanography

• Earliest “oceanography” was not out Earliest “oceanography” was not out of curiosity, but out of practical of curiosity, but out of practical purposespurposes

• Voyaging – traveling on the oceans for Voyaging – traveling on the oceans for a specific purpose seeking a specific purpose seeking – New lands to claim and / or conquerNew lands to claim and / or conquer– Trade routesTrade routes

The PhoeniciansThe Phoenicians• First regular ocean traders – around First regular ocean traders – around

1200 B.C.1200 B.C.– Sailed the Mediterranean, north to the British Sailed the Mediterranean, north to the British

Islands, and south to the west coast of AfricaIslands, and south to the west coast of Africa

– This was quite an accomplishment due to the This was quite an accomplishment due to the simple, primitive ships they usedsimple, primitive ships they used

The GreeksThe Greeks

• Began to explore Began to explore the open seas the open seas around around 900 – 700 B.C 900 – 700 B.C

• Noticed a current Noticed a current flowing out of the flowing out of the Mediterranean Sea Mediterranean Sea – through the Straits of Gibraltar – through the Straits of Gibraltar

Mediterranean SeaMediterranean Sea

Straits of GibraltarStraits of Gibraltar GreeceGreece

Straits of GibraltarStraits of Gibraltar

Satellite imagery where you can actually see the current flowing into the Mediterranean Sea

• They believed that only rivers had They believed that only rivers had currents, so the ocean must be one currents, so the ocean must be one immense riverimmense river

• okeanosokeanos – Greek word for river – Greek word for river• oceanusoceanus – Latin variant – origin of – Latin variant – origin of

the word “Ocean”the word “Ocean”

• Neither the Greeks nor the Neither the Greeks nor the Phoenicians ever ventured far from Phoenicians ever ventured far from landland

• Slowly over time, sailors began to Slowly over time, sailors began to

keep detailed charts showing keep detailed charts showing

landmarks, harbors, currents, times landmarks, harbors, currents, times

between pointsbetween points

• CartographerCartographer – chart maker – chart maker

• Earliest were probably Mediterranean Earliest were probably Mediterranean

traderstraders

• First chart drawn around 800 B.C.First chart drawn around 800 B.C.

• ChartChart is to water, as map is to land is to water, as map is to land

Portuguese Nautical Chart, c.1504

Modern Nautical ChaModern Nautical Chartrt

Library of AlexandriaLibrary of Alexandria• Founded in 3Founded in 3rdrd Century A.D. Century A.D.

– In Alexandria, EgyptIn Alexandria, Egypt– By Alexander the GreatBy Alexander the Great

• Considered by many to be the worlds Considered by many to be the worlds first Universityfirst University

• Site where students Site where students and scholars from and scholars from all over the all over the region region studied and studied and researched researched

• Much of the knowledge gained was Much of the knowledge gained was kept there – both scientific kept there – both scientific knowledge and extensive chartsknowledge and extensive charts

• Eratosthenes – Greek astronomer, Eratosthenes – Greek astronomer, philosopher, poet and 2philosopher, poet and 2ndnd Librarian of Librarian of AlexandriaAlexandria

• Calculated the circumference of the EarthCalculated the circumference of the Earth

• This led to This led to celestial navigationcelestial navigation (using (using stars)stars)

• Gave rise to the idea of latitude and Gave rise to the idea of latitude and longitudelongitude– Was improved upon by Ptolemy (East / West / Was improved upon by Ptolemy (East / West /

North / South, degrees and minutes)North / South, degrees and minutes)

• 400 A.D. – the library was burned 400 A.D. – the library was burned under Roman ruleunder Roman rule

• Virtually all the charts and records Virtually all the charts and records were lostwere lost

• This began a period known as the This began a period known as the Dark AgesDark Ages, which lasted nearly 1000 , which lasted nearly 1000 yearsyears

The VikingsThe Vikings

• Flourished during the Dark AgesFlourished during the Dark Ages

• Established colonies in Iceland and Established colonies in Iceland and GreenlandGreenland

• Evidence suggests they may have had Evidence suggests they may have had settlements in North America (1000 settlements in North America (1000 A.D.)A.D.)

• Were masterful navigators, sailors Were masterful navigators, sailors and ship buildersand ship builders

PolynesiansPolynesians

• Sailed the South PacificSailed the South Pacific

• Considered to be master sailorsConsidered to be master sailors

• One theory is that the South Pacific One theory is that the South Pacific Islands (Polynesia) were actually Islands (Polynesia) were actually colonized by Native South Americanscolonized by Native South Americans

• This theory was tested in 1947 by This theory was tested in 1947 by Norwegian explorer and writer Thor Norwegian explorer and writer Thor Heyerdahl.Heyerdahl.

• Sailed from South America to Polynesia in Sailed from South America to Polynesia in a hand built reed craft – the a hand built reed craft – the Kon TikiKon Tiki

ChineseChinese• Made and used practical compassMade and used practical compass

• Widely used by 1000 ADWidely used by 1000 AD

• This allowed for This allowed for navigation without navigation without using the stars using the stars

• Improved sail designImproved sail design

• Used ships with multiple Used ships with multiple mastsmasts

• Used moveable sails and Used moveable sails and rudders rudders

• Developed the watertight Developed the watertight bulkheadbulkhead

Prince Henry the NavigatorPrince Henry the Navigator

• Portuguese – 1394-1460Portuguese – 1394-1460

• Was a patron of sailing – was not Was a patron of sailing – was not himself a sailorhimself a sailor

• Sponsored voyages Sponsored voyages and financed and financed shipbuilding shipbuilding

• Led to exploration of Led to exploration of Coast of Africa Coast of Africa

Christopher ColumbusChristopher Columbus• 1492 expedition1492 expedition• ““Discovered” new worldDiscovered” new world

• Navigated using “dead reckoning”, Navigated using “dead reckoning”, his attempts at celestial navigation his attempts at celestial navigation were flawed and inaccuratewere flawed and inaccurate

• Dead reckoning - determining Dead reckoning - determining position by measuring time and speed position by measuring time and speed (to calculate distance traveled) and (to calculate distance traveled) and direction (using a compass)direction (using a compass)

Dead ReckoningDead Reckoning

Ferdinand MagellanFerdinand Magellan

• Was first to circumnavigate the globe Was first to circumnavigate the globe – 1519 – 1522– 1519 – 1522

• First to sail the Pacific from the First to sail the Pacific from the Atlantic (via the Strait of Magellan)Atlantic (via the Strait of Magellan)

• Gave the Pacific ocean it name - Gave the Pacific ocean it name - Mar Mar PacificoPacifico (Pacific Ocean) because of its (Pacific Ocean) because of its apparent stillnessapparent stillness

• Magellan didn’t complete the journey Magellan didn’t complete the journey – was killed in the Philippines– was killed in the Philippines

Captain James CookCaptain James Cook

• Explored the pacific, Australia, New Explored the pacific, Australia, New Zealand, discovered Hawaii, Zealand, discovered Hawaii, circumnavigated Antarctica (1768-circumnavigated Antarctica (1768-1779)1779)

Benjamin FranklinBenjamin Franklin

• Another non-sailor who made a Another non-sailor who made a tremendous contributiontremendous contribution

• While postmaster in the US, heard While postmaster in the US, heard tales of mail reaching US took longer tales of mail reaching US took longer than mail being delivered to Europethan mail being delivered to Europe

• Took readings of water temperature Took readings of water temperature on various trans-Atlantic crossingson various trans-Atlantic crossings

• Identified, mapped (and even named) Identified, mapped (and even named) the Gulf Streamthe Gulf Stream

James Clark RossJames Clark Ross

• British Explorer British Explorer • Explored Arctic as part of expedition Explored Arctic as part of expedition

to reach North Pole (with his uncle Sir to reach North Pole (with his uncle Sir John Ross and Admiral Perry)John Ross and Admiral Perry)

• Led Expeditions exploring South Pole Led Expeditions exploring South Pole (1839 & 1843)(1839 & 1843)

• Ross ice shelf, Ross seal and RRS Ross ice shelf, Ross seal and RRS James Clark Ross (British Arctic James Clark Ross (British Arctic Survey Ship) named for himSurvey Ship) named for him

HMS ChallengerHMS Challenger

• Considered to be the Considered to be the first true oceanographic first true oceanographic expedition – set sail for expedition – set sail for purely research purposes purely research purposes

• Set out from England in 1872, circled the Set out from England in 1872, circled the globe for 4 yearsglobe for 4 years

• Had a crew of 243, and a science party of 6 Had a crew of 243, and a science party of 6 (Physicists, chemists, and biologists)(Physicists, chemists, and biologists)

• Collaborated with expert navigators to map Collaborated with expert navigators to map the seathe sea

• Observation were made at 362 Observation were made at 362 “stations”“stations”– water depthwater depth– temperature at various depthstemperature at various depths– weather conditionsweather conditions– water conditions at surface and water conditions at surface and

sometimes at depthsometimes at depth– seafloor samplesseafloor samples– water sampleswater samples– samples of plant and animal life samples of plant and animal life

at various depthsat various depths

Establishment of Research Establishment of Research Facilities and OrganizationsFacilities and Organizations• 1888 – Marine Biological Laboratory - Wood’s 1888 – Marine Biological Laboratory - Wood’s

Hole, MAHole, MA

• 1906 – Musee’ Oceanographique – Monaco1906 – Musee’ Oceanographique – Monaco

• 1912 – Scripps Institution of Oceanography – 1912 – Scripps Institution of Oceanography – La Jolla, CALa Jolla, CA

• 1930 – Wood’s Hole Oceanographic Institution 1930 – Wood’s Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI)(WHOI)

• 1970 – National Oceanic and Atmospheric 1970 – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) founded by US Gov.Administration (NOAA) founded by US Gov.