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GRAMMAR
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Grammar
GRAMMAR
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Remember the word SVOMPT. It will help you to construct English sentences:
S V O M P T
Subject
verb object manner place time
I saw Robert at school on Monday.
He passed the exam easily.
Questions:
(W) V S (V) O M P T ||what – who – when – where – why – which – how
1. Yes/No questions:
Inversion: a. verb to be: I am late. - Am I late? – Yes, you are. / No, you are not. b. modal verbs: He can type. - Can he type? – Yes, he can. / No, he can’t.
c. have got: I have got a computer. - Have you got a computer? - – Yes, I have. / No, I haven’t. Auxiliary: other verbs: They finished yesterday. – Did they finish yesterday? – Yes, they did. / No, they didn’t.
2. Wh- questions (using what, who, when, where, why, which, how):
No auxiliary – when asking about the subject: Who made the cake? – Rosie made it.
Auxiliary – when asking about the object, manner, place or time: Who did you meet? – I met Paul. Where does he work?
Preposition at the end of the sentence: Who do you live with? What are you looking at? What’s the weather like?
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3. Alternative questions (choice):
Would you like tea or coffee? – Tea, please.
4. Indirect questions:
Who are those people? Do you know who those people are? (no inversion: S - V) What does she want? I don’t know what she wants. (no auxiliary) Can he help us? I don’t know if/whether he can help us. (yes/no questions)
Exercises:
1. Arrange these words in the right order.
a. in the lab / you shouldn’t work / at night ………..…………………………………….
b. this chapter / you should study / more carefully ……………………………………….
c. the project / when / finish / the students / did / ? ………………………………………
d. saw / the experiment / who / ? ………………………………………………………….
e. enjoyed / the lectures / have / the students …………………………………………….
f. decomposes / acid / at once / carbonic ………………………………………………….
g. electricity / water power / can / make / cheap …………………………………………..
h. smoke / students / in the lab / may / ? …………………………………………………..
2. Arrange these words in the right order.
a. your article / I / in / quickly / last night / bed / read
……………………………………..................................................................................b. till / afternoon / worked / 4 o’clock / the students / this
……………………………………………………………………………………..…….c. gases / to / dioxide / allow / carbon / sun’s / and / enter / rays / other / the
………………………………………………………………………………………......d. climate / models / warming / indicate / computer / of / changes / consequences / of / some /
Earth / a
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
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e. oxide / released / in / coal / nitrous / of / burning / is / the
…………………………………………………………………………………………...f. destroy / can / micro-organisms / cooking / the / only / completely
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
3. Make questions to ask about the underlined statements using who, what or where.
a. I met Dr Seusse last night. ……………………………………………………………..
b. The scientist has found a new chemical element. ………………………………………
c. David took the pictures. …………………………………………..……………………
d. This process occurs naturally under certain conditions. ……………………………….
e. The researchers published their new findings…………………………………………..
f. We will have to redistill the compound………..……………………………………….
g. The condensate flows down the column………………………………………………...
h. Distillation consists in vaporizing a substance………………………………………….
4. Read the text, and then write questions for the answers.
The educational programme is divided into Academic Years, each year being divided into two semesters, with the main vacation in July and August. The undergraduate studies take three years for the Bachelor Degree and five for the Master Degree. In addition to these, the Institute provides also postgraduate courses for PhD students.
All studies proceed on the basis of a curriculum of studies. At the end of each semester every student must obtain a certain number of credits and pass several examinations.
Students may obtain certain scholarships. These may be granted either automatically for excellent study results or on the basis of excellent research achievements, cultural or sports activities, and also to aid in the cases of serious social problems.
Graduates of the Institute usually find employment in plants and research laboratories of chemical and food industries as well as in various research institutes.
a. Academic Years ………………………………………………………………………...
b. in July and August ………………………………………………………………………
c. three years ………………………………………………………………………………
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d. postgraduate courses for PhD students …………………………………………………
e. every student ……………………………………………………………………………
f. excellent study results…………………………………………………………………...
g. chemical and food ………………………………………………………………………
For more practice see:
L.G.Alexander: Longman English Grammar Practice, Longman 1990, pp. 2-9Raymond Murphy: English Grammar in Use, Cambridge 2004, Third edition, pp. 98-99, 102-103Michael Swan & Catherine Walter: How English Works, Oxford 1997, pp. 210-211
SLOVESNÉ ČASY - VERB TENSES
1. Přítomný čas prostý - Present Simple Jedná se o pravidelně se opakující děj v přítomnosti v základním významu. Tento slovesný čas je nejčastěji používaným v odborné, např.chemické a jiné literatuře, protože popisované procesy a stavy jsou prakticky většinou bez jakéhokoliv zřetele ke specifické době. Použití přítomného času slovesa pak nemá nic společného jen s přítomnou dobou a přítomný čas zde má význam nadčasový, což platí všeobecně. Přítomný čas prostý vyjadřuje obecnou platnost daného tvrzení.
Forma : - ve 3.os.j.č. používáme koncovku -s: he, she, it speaks he, she watches, he studies;
- zápor je tvořen pomocným slovesem do not/don’t, does not/ doesn’t + základním tvarem ( infinitivem ) významového slovem bez to:
I don’t work, she doesn’t study;
- otázka je tvořena pomocí pomocného slovesa do, does + základním tvarem významového slovesa bez “to”
We need a good technical dictionary in order to understand the article. Chemistry is a science which deals with substances. In the lab we don’t use these dangerous chemicals. He doesn’t study at our university.
- forma trpného rodu je tvořena tvary slovesa “be” a minulým příčestím (past participle ) významového slovesa
The laboratory is equipped with experimental technology. Many scientific terms are unknown to non-scientists.
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2. Přítomný čas průběhový - Present Continuous
Tento čas se používá k popisu děje, který probíhá právě teď, v daném okamžiku. Tuto přítomnost je ovšem třeba chápat šíře než jen jako bezprostřední, právě probíhající okamžik. Nejen v odborném jazyce, ale i v běžném vyjadřování to bývá šíře pojímaná přítomná doba.
Forma: tvary slovesa “be” (am, is, are) + tzv. -ing tvar významového slovesa.
At the moment Tom is analysing the substance. Mary is studying at Cambridge this year.
forma trpného rodu je tvořena tvary slovesa “be” + průběhovým tvarem being + minulým příčestím (past participle) významového slovesa
Polarographic methods are being used in the analysis of metals now. The problem is being intensively studied these days.
Přítomného průběhového času se používá také k vyjádření tzv. blízké budoucnosti. Budoucnost bývá vyjádřena příslovečným určením času, např. tomorrow, next week, atd., kdy se tak jedná o vyjádření jistoty, že děj proběhne, či dějů a činností, které jsou připraveny a naplánovány.
According to the programme we are carrying out the experiment next Monday. I am seeing the director tomorrow at 5 o’clock.
Průběhové tvary tvoří slovesa akce, činnosti (action verbs), např. sing, teach, study, talk, listen, play, sit, write, speak, travel atd. Toto pravidlo platí také pro všechny další anglické časy – tj. minulý, budoucí, předpřítomný, předminulý, předbudoucí.
Pozor! Non-action verbs průběhové časy netvoří!Jedná se o slovesa myšlení (verbs of thinking), např. know, remember, recognize, notice, understand, forget; cítění, pocitu (verbs of feeling), např. like, love, want, hate; slovesa smyslového vnímání (verbs of senses) see, hear, smell, taste; některá další slovesa, např. include, matter, cost, prefer, mean, fit, need.
The matter consists of small particles.
Pozor! Některá slovesa mají dva odlišné významy:
a) aktivní = tvoří také průběhovou formu, např. look at = dívat se na něco, taste sth. = ochutnávat něco, feel a material = hmatat, zkoumat hmatem materiál, have ve frázích = dát si něco, think of / about = přemýšlet o, myslet na někoho/něco.
She is having lunch at the moment. Please be quiet! I’m thinking. Why are you smelling the mixture?
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b) neaktivní = netvoří průběhovou formu: look = vypadat (he looks tired), taste = chutnat, feel = cítit se, have = vlastnit, mít, think = myslet.
This juice tastes good. I think you’re right. She’s got a headache.
3. Předpřítomný čas prostý – Present Perfect Simple
Tento čas vyjadřuje děj minulý, který se odehrával v neurčité, nespecifikované minulosti, neoddělené od přítomnosti ostrou hranicí, který však souvisí s přítomností, a to buď svými následky, nebo trváním. Zpravidla vyjadřuje následky minulého děje a do češtiny jej překládáme minulým časem dokonavého slovesa (často můžeme doplnit „již“, „už“). Jestliže však perfektum vyjadřuje děj, který začal v minulosti a ještě trvá v přítomnosti, odpovídá mu v českém překladu většinou čas přítomný.
Nejčastějšími časovými určeními, která odkazují na neurčitou minulost a jsou spojována s předpřítomným časem, jsou např: already, yet, not+yet, just, never, ever, always, often, once, before, recently, lately, …(three, several) times, so far, a též spojeními s použitím for…(two years), since.
Forma : tvary slovesa “have” – have/ has + minulé příčestí (past participle) významového slovesa
The rain has already ruined the tomato crops. We still haven’t discovered life on other planets. I have known him since we met at university.
forma trpného rodu je tvořena tvary slovesa “have” – have/has + been + minulým příčestím (past participle) významového slovesa
Many uses of this method have been described in the literature. The polarographic method has been known for many years. These views have aroused considerable interest.
4. Předpřítomný čas průběhový - Present Perfect Continuous
Tento čas vyjadřuje děj, který začal v minulosti a pokračuje v době, kdy se o něm zmiňujeme, či chceme-li vyjádřit délku tohoto děje. Také pokud děj probíhal po nějakou dobu v nespecifikované, nejčastěji blízké době minulé a má v přítomnosti určité důsledky. Do češtiny jej překládáme přítomným časem. Forma: tvary slovesa “have” – have/has + been + - ing tvar významového slovesa
I have been working in this institute since 2000. He has been waiting for the results for an hour. He can’t drive. He has been drinking. The barometer has been rising since yesterday.
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Předpřítomný průběhový čas netvoří trpný rod, používá se trpný rod prostého předpřítomného času.
The laboratory has been reconstructed since 2007. These results have been published regularly in some periodicals. The problem has been solved for two months.
5. Minulý čas prostý - Past Simple
Tento čas vyjadřuje děj, jenž v minulosti začal a v minulosti také skončil, a to bez jeho následků zasahujících do přítomnosti. Minulý čas odkazuje na určitou identifikovatelnou dobu minulou použitím časových určení typu – yesterday, last week, three hours ago, when I was young, the other day, in the eighteenth century atd. Minulý děj může být zařazen do určité doby minulé také vedlejší větou. Zcela odpovídá českému minulému času ve vidu dokonavém.
Forma: u sloves pravidelných používáme koncovku – ed: he worked, I cried, we travelled; u sloves nepravidelných používáme samostatný tvar, určený pro minulý čas
Becquerel discovered radioactivity in 1896. Long ago, people built houses of wood. It started during those first months when I moved there, after he went abroad.
forma trpného rodu je tvořena tvary slovesa ‘‘be’’ - was/were a minulým příčestí (past participle) významového slovesa
Oxygen was pumped into that container yesterday. Prozac was discovered in 1972.
6. Minulý čas průběhový - Past Tense Continuous
Tento čas popisuje minulý děj, děj dočasného trvání, který probíhal v určitém minulém okamžiku nebo v déletrvající době minulé. Také vyjadřuje děj minulý opakovaný. Velmi často tvoří rámec či pozadí pro hlavní děj věty. Překládáme do češtiny nejčastěji minulým časem v formě vidu nedokonavého slovesa.
I was working on my thesis (for) several months. Pracoval(a) jsem na své diplomové (disertační) práci několik měsíců.
Forma: tvary slovesa ‘‘be’’ pro minulý čas - was/were + ing tvar významového slovesa
He was working on his thesis several months last school term. During the experiment he was using several beakers, test tubes and funnels. He started to carry on his experiment while I was still staying in the lab. Fleming was studying influenza when he discovered penicillin.
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forma trpného rodu je tvořena tvary slovesa ‘‘be’’ - was/ were + being + minulým příčestím významového slovesa
That new element was being examined for a long time. During the experiment both liquids were being slowly heated.
7. Předminulý čas prostý - Past Perfect Simple
Předminulý čas vyjadřuje a popisuje minulý děj, který skončil před jiným dějem minulým nebo skončil či byl ukončen do určité doby v minulosti. Do češtiny tento děj překládáme časem minulým, přičemž předčasnost, kterou tento čas vyjadřuje v angličtině, zůstává v čestině formálně nevyjádřena. Na určitou předminulou dobu lze odkazovat použitím časových určení v souvětí, jako např. when, before, after, as, by the time, long, just, already, yet.
Předminulý čas je často používán ve strukturách nepřímé řeči a souslednosti časů.
Forma: používáme tvar slovesa “have’’ pro minulý čas – had + minulé příčestí významového slovesa
After she had finished the experiment, she cleaned the entire laboratory. Before he wrote the report, he had found out a lot of further information. Everything was just as I had left it in the morning. He showed me the latest issue of the periodical, which had just come out.
forma trpného rodu je tvořena tvarem had + been + minulým příčestím významového slovesa
Before they started the new project, unfortunately, some known details had been omitted. Before Columbus discovered America, people had believed that the Earth was flat. By the time we got to the laboratory, the experiment had already started.
8. Předminulý čas průběhový - Past Perfect Continuous
Předminulý přůběhový čas je používán pro vyjádření minulého děje předcházejícího před jiným dějem minulým nebo před bližší dobou minulou a zdůrazňuje jeho dočasné trvání.
Forma: používáme tvar slovesa “have’’ pro minulý čas - had + been + ing tvar významového slovesa
The whole place was deserted, but it was obvious that someone had been staying there.
While I had been preparing all the equipment, Jim had escaped. It was more than a month until I realized what had been happening.
Předminulý čas průběhový netvoří trpný rod, používá se pouze tvar trpného rodu v prosté formě. 9. Budoucí čas prostý a průběhový - Future Simple and Continuous
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Budoucí čas prostý - Future Tense Simple
Budoucí čas prostý svojí formou vyjadřuje děj, jenž bude probíhat v budoucnosti tzv. “čistý budoucí čas” (Pure Future) nebo stav budoucí, obojí v tzv.neutrální budoucnosti. Lze tak vyjádřit jak budoucnost určitou, tak i neurčitou.
Forma: tvoříme pomocí pomocného slovesa will + infinitivu významového slovesa bez ‘‘to’’
Will se používá pro všechny osoby jednotného i množného čísla. Tvar shall byl a je využíván pro vyjádření budoucího času pro 1.osobu jednotného a 1.osobu množného čísla; jeho využítí zůstává zejména ve formě otázek s modálním zabarvením.
This container will hold 5 liters of petrol We will only perform a preliminary analysis. I will return / I shall return to this possibility later. This will be the beaker you are looking for. Shall we do it again? Shall I prepare the equipment for the experiment now?
forma trpného rodu je tvořena pomocným slovesem will + be + minulým příčestím významového slovesa
This container will be filled with sulphur acid. All the experiment will be repeated several times. The conference will be held next week in London.
Budoucí čas průběhový – Future Tense Continuous
Budoucí průběhový čas vyjadřuje děj, který bude probíhat v určitém známém nebo uvedeném čase. Čas je uveden konkrétním příslovečným určením času či jiným časovým vyjádřením.
Forma: tvoříme pomocí pomocného slovesa will + be + ing tvaru významového slovesa
He will be leaving in a few days. You will be hearing from us in any case. We will be working in the lab whole day tomorrow.
Jiné způsoby vyjadřování budoucnosti :
Přítomný čas prostý – pro vyjádření budoucího děje, jenž je přesně určen, dán dle programu, harmonogramu atd.
- The lecture starts on Tuesday at 10.- The last train leaves at 20.40.
Přítomný čas průběhový – pro vyjádření plánu či děje, který je jistý a předem připravený 9 / 37
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- I am seeing the new director tomorrow morning.- He is studying at Yale University next school term.
vazba going to - pro vyjádření tzv. blízké budoucnosti – budoucnost, která je závislaá na vůli či úmyslu mluvčího; vyjadřuje úmysl, chystání se, záměr; současně ji lze využít pro vyjádření predikce
- We are going to carry out the experiment again to gain some better results.- Don’t worry! The wound is going to heal.- Look! The glass is going to fall.
10. Předbudoucí čas prostý a průběhový - Future Perfect Simple and Continuous
Předbudoucí čas prostý zahrnuje budoucnost předcházející před pozdější dobou budoucí. Používáme jej pro děje a činnosti, které budou v nějaký okamžik v budoucnosti, o kterém mluvíme, již dokončené (“tou dobou už to bude hotové”). Vyskytuje se zpravidla s časovým určením či celou vedlejší větou časovou.
Forma: tvoříme pomocí pomocného slovesa will + have + minulého příčestí významového slovesa
By the time we get to the classroom, the lecture will have started. You will probably have heard the news.
forma trpného rodu je tvořena pomocným slovesem will + have + been + minulého příčestí významového slovesa
By the end of this year the new building of our university will have been finished. We hope that by the end of this century a new drug against cancer will have been
found.
Předbudoucí průběhový čas vyjadřuje, co v nějaký moment v budoucnosti bude už nějaký čas probíhat. Počátek tohoto děje nebo činnosti se může vztahovat k minulosti a trvat až do určitého okamžiku v budoucnosti.
Forma: tvoříme pomocí pomocného slovesa will + have + been + ing tvaru významového slovesa
Next year I will have been working at the Institute for fifteen years. By the time I arrive there, they will have been waiting for me for two hours.
Souslednost časů - Sequence of Tenses
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A. Roentgen showed that the X-rays could penetrate matter. Roentgen ukázal (objevil), že paprsky X mohou pronikat hmotou.
B. Roentgen reported that he had discovered a new kind of rays. Roentgen oznámil, že objevil nový druh paprsků.
C. Roentgen reported that in 1891 he discovered a new kind of rays. Roentgen oznámil, že r. 1891 objevil nový druh paprsků.
D. It was not known if the results of tests would be useful. Nevědělo se (nebylo známo), zda výsledky zkoušek budou užitečné.
E. Chemists found that all organic compounds contain carbon. Chemici zjistili, že všechny organické sloučeniny obsahují uhlík.
Sousledností časů (Sequence of Tenses, český termín též časová souslednost) rozumíme závislost tvaru určitého slovesa ve vedlejší předmětné větě na čase slovesa v hlavní či řídící větě. Podstatou časové souslednosti je pojetí minulého děje, který skončil v minulosti a nepřesahuje do reálné přítomnosti nebo do budoucnosti, jako uzavřeného celku, v němž nelze užívat přítomný, minulý a budoucí čas z hlediska nynější reálné přítomnosti. !!! Je-li věta hlavní v čase minulém (např. “he said”, “I asked”, “she thought”), musí tomuto času odpovídat i časy ve větě vedlejší (na rozdíl od češtiny). Prakticky dochází k posunu o “jeden čas zpět”.
Je-li v angličtině (týká se to i jiných jazyků) sloveso v hlavní větě v čase přítomném, předpřítomném nebo budoucím, čas slovesa ve vedlejší větě není ovlivněn a nemění se. Podobně je tomu, jedná-li se o stále či obecné platné tvrzení – v těchto případech časový posun není nutný.
Pro překlad časové souslednosti z angličtiny platí tato pravidla:
Je-li v hlavní nebo řídící větě minulý čas (past tense) nebo předminulý čas (past perfect) nebo podmiňovací způsob minulý reálný (skutečný, resp. uskutečnitelný - v angličtině se ve vedlejší větě časy posouvají, ale v češtině nikoliv.
a) angl. minulý čas ve vedlejší větě se do češtiny překládá přítomným časem
He told me he was there the day before. b) angl. předminulý čas ve vedlejší větě se do češtiny překládá minulým časem
He told them he had written the report the day before yesterday.
c) je-li ve vedlejší větě časové určení, datum či letopočet, překládá se angl. minulý čas do češtiny také minulým časem
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Roentgen reported that in 1891 he discovered a new kind of rays.
d) angl. kondicionál ve vedlejší větě se překládá budoucím časem
He informed us that he would prepare the the copy later.
Pro překlad z češtiny do angličtiny je tedy třeba dbát na posun časů podle následujících pravidel. Po čase minulém a předminulém a po podmínkovém způsobu reálném (skutečném) minulém nebo nereálném (neskutečném) v přítomnosti či v minulosti v hlavní resp. řídící větě se v angličtině ve vedlejší větě (tj. po spojkách že, zda, kdy, kde) mění:
a) přítomný čas v minulý
- Pokud se ovšem jedná o stále či obecně platné tvrzení, k posunu dojít nemusí, tzn. ve vedlejší větě můžeme užít jak čas přítomný, tak minulý (např. He proved that the earth is/was round; Tom said he wants/wanted to visit Paris next year.).
b) předpřítomný čas v předminulý
c) minulý čas v předminulý
- K tomuto posunu dochází zejména, pokud by mohlo dojít k nesprávnému pochopení. Jinak je možné věty v minulém čase ponechat v nepřímé řeči beze změny, např.:direct Lucy said: “I woke up feeling ill, so I didn’t go to school.”
reported Lucy said she woke up feeling ill, so she didn’t go to work.” or
Lucy said she had woken up feeling ill, so she hadn’t gone to school.”
d) will + INF se změní ve would + INF, pokud nejde o platné tvrzení
Nepřímá řeč a nepřímá otázka – Indirect speech and indirect question Pravidla časové souslednosti se uplatňují v nepřímé řeči , tj. v reprodukci přímé řeči nebo přímé otázky po slovesech s významem mluvení, myšlení a vnímání, např. say, tell, ask, answer, reply, announce, report, write, read, want to know, know, learn (dovědět se), fee. Vedlejší věta se připojuje k řídící větě spojkou that = že, která se může vynechat (zejména v hovoru), pokud se tím neporuší smysl věty.
I told you I wouldn’t forget. Řekl jsem ti, že nezapomenu. She promised she would send some information. Slíbila, že pošle
nějaké informace.
Pozor na nepřímé otázky – slovosled je stejný jako v oznamovací větě (S – V pattern).
He often asks how you live. Často se ptá, jak žiješ.
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She didn’t know where her sister was. Nevěděla, kde je její sestra.
Rozkaz nebo žádost se uvádí v nepřímé řeči slovesy ask, tell, order apod.
Rozkazovací způsob se přitom v nepřímé řeči mění na infinitiv : The teacher said to his students: “Don’t do it.” The teacher told (asked) his students not to do it.
Notice:1) Při změně přímé řeči v nepřímou se mění i osobní zájmena a příslovečná
určení času a místa, např.:
HERE → THERE"I would love to live here." He said he would love to live there.THIS → THAT"I didn’t like this movie." He said he hadn’t liked that movie.NOW → THEN, AT THAT MOMENT"I want to go there now." He said he wanted to go there at that moment."I don't want to do it now." He said he didn't want to do it then.TODAY, THIS MONTH... → THAT DAY, THAT MONTH"I haven‘t seen him today." He said he hadn’t seen him that day."I enjoy the classes this year." He said he enjoyed the classes that year.
AGO → BEFORE
"I sent the email three days ago." He said he had sent the email three days before.YESTERDAY, LAST MONTH → THE DAY BEFORE, THE PREVIOUS..."I called you yesterday." He said he had called me the day before."Last month was very sunny." He said the previous month had been very sunny.TOMORROW, NEXT MONTH → THE FOLLOWING DAY..."I'll buy it tomorrow." He said he would buy it the following day.
"I'll travel there next summer."He said he would travel there the following summer.
Přímá řeč (Direct speech):
Professor Green said: “I was here, in this laboratory, yesterday”.
Nepřímá řeč (Indirect/Reported speech):
Professor Green said that he had been there, in that laboratory, the day before.
2) Must zůstává v souslednosti časů beze změny, vyjadřuje-li trvalou nutnost nebo zákaz (jinak by se u posunu časů používal opis pomocí příslušných tvarů např. slovesa “have to”):
The doctor said that I must not smoke.
3) v nepřímé řeči zůstávají beze změny ve větě vedlejší i minulá modální slovesa (např.: would, should, might/must/can’t/needn’t have + past participle) a předminulý čas.
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For more details see e.g. English Grammar in Use for intermediate students – Raymond Murphy Intermediate Language Practice - Michael Vince First Certificate Language Practice – Michael Vince
Exercises:
1. Choose the correct form of Present Tense. Give the reasons of your choice between the simple and continuous forms.
1. Mary is working/work/ works in the laboratory with nitric acid every day. 2. George is busy now, he test/tests/is testing the content of sugar in the specimen of a newly manufactured fruit jam. 3. Are you regularly using/do you regularly use sweeteners in your morning tea or coffee? 4. Not all liquids boil/are boiling at 100°C. 5. Antioxidants are playing/play an important role in food preservation.
.
2. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense.
1. Look at Anne’s vessel! She ………….. (dye) the solution inside with an intense colourant.. The solution was was white and now it is red.2. I ……. (lose) my goggles. I can’t find them anywhere.
3. And I (lose) my glasses yesterday. 4. ………….anything………. (change) in the laboratory since I last……… (see) you? 5. The experiment with nitrate acid (not finish) yet. I’ll have to work overtime.
3. Simple or Continuous tense?
1. Professor Black studies/had studied/has been studying food additives since he has started/had started/started work at this College in 2007.
2. Earlier, any chemicals added to food either as pesticides in primary production or additives in processing, were considering/were considered suspect.
3. The increasing awareness of problems with food allergy and intolerance was leading/led/has led to the requirement to state the source of certain emulsifiers on food labelling.
4. The amount of water we were adding/we added for half an hour to the mixture was dependent on the pressure of the distillation.
5. They prepared/were preparing synthetic salt and therefore were placing/placed a piece of sodium in a flask with chlorine.
6. Carbon is occuring/occurs in two crystalline forms that differ in their properties.
7. Lecithin, an emulsifier, not suitable for individuals with an allergy to soya, is not being produced/produced in this factory.
8. When was the Institute of Chemical Technology in Prague being established/
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established?
9. I prepared/was preparing the experiment with colouring foodstuffs the whole afternoon yesterday.
10. Next year, Professor White will teach/will have been teaching/will be teaching at our Institute for ten years.
4. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct forms.
1. Fleming ……………….( study ) influenza when he ………………( discover ) penicillin. 2. I ……………(never do ) anything I ……………( feel ) is against my principles.
3. Matter …………..( consist ) of small elements.
4. Watson and Crick …………………..( identify ) the structure of DNA in 1953.
5. These special mixtures ………………..(prepare ) for two hours and they ………..( not be ) ready yet.
5. Fill in the gaps with fitting expressions.
1. By the time I arrived at the laboratory a) …acting on the appropriate ………………………….. nerve receptor
2. When you return from abroad next week, b) … moderate consumption of …………………………………….. cola is completely safe
3. Researchers in Cagliari, Italy, have c) … the experiment will have uncovered scientific evidence that finished ………………………………………. is the result of chemicals.
4. The pills ………………………………. d)… my colleagues had left might cut out chocolate cravings altogether, the researchers said.
5. While excessive consumption of cola e) … a consuming love to can lead to weakness and even muscle paralysis, chocolate …………………………, a Soft Drinks Association spokesperson said.
6. Translate the sentences from exercise 5 above into Czech.
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7. Translate into Czech (taking into account that Czech does not apply the principles of the sequence of tenses used in English). One of our teachers remarked that many people were not aware of the fact that the food industry using the achievements of chemistry that had been reached, in particular, in the preservation of food along with the manufacture of synthetic additives, had made significant progress as early as in the latter part of the 19th century, not speaking of the first half of the 20th century. At the same time, the progress in physics was very fast. Let us mention that when Thomson discovered the electron, he proved that there were particles which were smaller than the smallest atom known. Roentgen found that the X-rays would pass through solid substances. In 1932 Chadwick reported that he had discovered the neutron. The Curies found that pitchblende was several times more active than uranium oxide. Becquerel noticed that salts of uranium possessed the property of emitting rays.
PASSIVE VOICE
The passive voice is widely used in scientific texts due to the fact that what goes first in the English sentence is considered to be the most important. Scientific texts tend to use passive voice structures almost everywhere to make sentences sound more objective and avoid using personal pronouns. In Czech we use passive structures less frequently.
Structure:
subject (which is not the agent)
verb to be in appropriatetense form
3rd form of the content verb
The thesis is/was/has been/will be etc. writtenThe thesis is/was etc. being written
When the continuous form is needed, we insert being (-ing form of the verb to be) between the verb to be and the content verb.
Structure of the passive voice in combination with the infinitive (which is not used in Czech): subject + passive + infinitive
He is said to live here (it is said that he lives here – the subject of the second sentence replaces “it” from the first sentence and the rest is connected in the form of infinitive).
The simple infinitive refers to the same time as that of the preceding verb:This compound is expected not to react.The perfect infinitive refers to a time before that of the preceding verb: This decade is known to have been a decade of many discoveries.
Exercises:
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1. Translate using the passive voice in the appropriate tense.
a/ Tyto látky se zde nevyrábějí.b/ Ten program se právě instaluje.c/ Kdy byla založena tato škola?d/ Takovéto věci nelze tolerovat.e/ Co tam je napsáno?.f/ Byla ta směs dostatečně ochlazena?g/ Druhou šanci už nikdy nedostal.h/ Rozlili kyselinu po celém laboratorním stole.i/ Ví se, že tato sloučenina je prudce jedovatá.j/ Neočekávalo se, že to vybouchne.
2. Transform the following sentences into passive voice.
a/ He has broken another vessel.b/ Unstable conditions influenced our experiment.c/ She has sent us new laboratory records.d/ She should have performed the tests more carefully.e/ The filter has caught poisonous substances.f/ We prepared a new compound yesterday.g/ She deleted all her experimental results by accident.h/ My teacher has explained this to me.i/ Students have spilt a dangerous chemical.j/ She has made a huge mistake in her calculations.
3. Transform the following sentences into the passive + infinitive. ex. It is said he will return soon. – He is said to return soon.
a/ It is believed that this new discovery can save many lives.b/ It is expected that this element can occur in two allotropic modifications.c/ It is known that many elements react this way.d/ It is thought that they have made a real breakthrough in the research of radioactivity.e/ It was supposed that citric acid does not display any harmful effects.f/ It is assumed this company does not use preservatives of any kind.g/ It is reported that all the devices have been calibrated for our experiment.h/ It is estimated that the experiment has failed due to incorrect temperature settings.i/ It was said he had really discovered seven new substances.
For more practice see:
MURPHY, R. English Grammar in Use, Cambridge University Press, units 41 – 44PETERS, S.; GRAF, T. Cvičebnice anglické gramatiky, Polyglot, unit 13
RELATIVE CLAUSES
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1/ defining relative clauses2/ non-defining relative clauses
1/ Defining relative clauses are an essential part of the message of the sentence (they clearly identify which person or thing we are talking about) and therefore cannot be omitted and are not separated with commas.
2/ Non-defining relative clauses bring additional but non-essential information (facts, opinions), so they are marked with commas and could be easily left out without the main sentence losing its meaning.
Sometimes, the decision if the clause is defining or not is up to the author only, because it is very subjective and depends on what we want to say.
relative pronouns: who for people, which for things and that for both categories. However who is preferred for people and in defining clauses that is usually used for objects. We can drop the relative pronoun if it defines the object of the the clause (this applies to defining clauses only) – e.g. My friend (who) I visited on Saturday has just called me.In non-defining relative clauses “that“ is not used, so we stick to “who“ for people and “which“ for objects and we do not leave the relative pronoun out of the sentence.Possessive whose is used for people and for things.….the student whose diploma thesis……the laboratory whose windows….
relative adverbs: where, when, why describe place, time or reason. They have a close relationship with the pattern : preposition + relative pronoun. Instead of a relative adverb, we can use a preposition + which.That was a year when I graduated. / That was a year in which I graduated.
Notice:which may also be used in non-defining clauses to refer to the whole of the main sentence (this corresponds with the Czech relative pronoun “což”), e.g. He didn´t call me, which was disappointing.
Notice:what cannot be used as a relative pronoun. It is a pronoun that introduces object clauses.He told me what he did. (what = the thing that, everything that, all that…) - object clauseHe told me everything (that) he did. - relative clause
Exercises:
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1. a/ Explain the following words using relative pronouns or adverbs. ex.: knife – a knife is a tool which..... or: a teacher is a person who... dean, inorganic chemistry, optional subject, chemist, library, oxygen, lecture hall thermometer, researcher b/ In pairs, think of any word and describe it to your friend without saying what it is,
your friend will try to guess what your word is, then change roles. For descriptions use again relative clauses (it is a thing that... etc).
2. Join the following pairs of sentences using relative pronouns. Make the underline sentence the relative clause.
a/ Peter speaks German. His wife is from Austria. b/ The teacher is strict. He teaches chemistry. c/ The new dean is very popular. He gets on well with students. d/ It was 2005. I met him for the first time. e/ The summers are hot. I enjoy them.
3. Decide which relative pronoun is correct and where it could be omitted.
a/ The man who/which called is our schoolmate.b/ Have you found the books who/that I lent (to) you?c/ It is the best news that/which came today.d/ It is the best news that/which I have heard so far.e/ I sent her all the notes that/what I had.f/ I sent her that/what I had.g/ I went to a place where/which/that I could work undisturbed .h/ This is the student who/that/whose work has won the first place in our competition.i/ I work for a firm which/that sells chemicals.j/ I couldn´t complete my research, who/that/which was a pity.
For more practice see:
MURPHY, R. English Grammar in Use, Cambridge University Press, units 91 – 95PETERS, S.; GRAF, T. Cvičebnice anglické gramatiky, Polyglot, unit 23
COMMON AFFIXES
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Common noun suffixes:
-er person who does an activity researcher-or director -ist chemist-er things which do a particular job stirrer-or projector
-er person who does something employer-ee person who recieves or experiences employee the action-ity purity, density-ing testing-ment measurement-ance appearance-ence difference-ation distillation-ion discussion-age passage-hood childhood-ness abstract nouns derived from bitterness adjectives
Common adjective suffixes
-al chemical, physical-ous dangerous-ic toxic, sulphuric-ive relative-y milky-able,-ible means ´can be done´ washable, visible-ful often means ˇfull ofˇ+the meaning careful, useful of the adjective -less means ˇwithoutˇ+ the meaning of the careless, hopeless adjective
Common verb suffixes
-ify to solidify, to purify-ize to specialize-ate to separate, to evaporate
Common prefixes
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Meaning: not or opposite of un- unusual im- impossible in- invisible il- illegal ir- irregular dis- to disappear mis- to misunderstand non- non-metal de- to decompose
Meaning: again or backre- to redestill, to recycle
Meaning: selfauto- automatic
Meaning: betweeninter- international
Meaning: out ofex- to extract
Meaning: bad, badlymal- maladjustment
Meaning: put in, makeen- to encapsulate
Meaning: onemono-
monocultureuni- unicellularMeaning: twobi- bipolar, bivalentdi- divalent
Meaning: threetri- tripod
Meaning: manymulti- multivalent (having a valency of 3 or higher)poly- polyvalent (having more than 1 valency)
Meaning: too muchover- to overestimate
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Meaning: not enoughunder- to underestimate
Meaning: behind, afterpost- postgraduate
Meaning: first, beforepre- to predict
Meaning: halfsemi- semiconductor
Meaning: under, at lower levelsub- subdivided
Meaning: across, change trans- to transform
Meaning: very, above a limithyper- hypersonic (at least 5 times faster than
sound)super- supersonicultra- ultralight
Excercises:
1. Form the words and fill the spaces
The ……………… of water through several filter-beds and the ……………… of traces of chlorine make the water safe for drinking purposes (pass/add).
The ……………… and …………… can be observed in everyday life (evaporate/condense).
The ……………… of a calcium compound increases the ……………… of water (contain/hard).
Archimedes’ principle tells us about the ……………… of water by solid bodies (displace).
The ……………… of rain depends on the ……………… and ……………… of tiny droplets of water in the cloud (form/condense/combine).
2. Fill in the following table and then use the words in short sentences
Verb Adjective Noun (person) Noun (thing/process)
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produceanalysedevelopexploreresearchmanage
ENGLISH SPECIFIC INFINITIVE STRUCTURES
Some infinitive structures that are used in scientific English do not have equivalent Czech counterparts, and therefore need to be translated by using other linguistic tools.
1. To express resulte.g.Hydrogen burns in air to give water vapour.Hydrogen is used in the hydrogenation of liquid fats to formsolid fats.
Translation: “a” (tvoří), “za” (tvorby, vzniku…)
Only a few verbs are used in this form (namely give, form, produce and yield) and they usually follow a verb describing a chemical process or reaction, such as burn, react, combine, unite, dissolve, decompose, boil, polymerize, hydrogenate,
2. To express purposee.g.a) The compound must be heated (in order / so as) to decompose.
(In this sentence the two verbs – heated and decompose are linked to the same subject – compound, so we can simply use the infinitive to express the purpose of the action.)
b) The reaction mixture must be heated for the reaction to occur. (In this sentence we have two subjects – mixture and reaction. Therefore we need to use for to introduce the second subject.)
Translation: “aby”
3. To specify a noun
e.g.: the condition to be controlled
Translation: podmínka, která má být/ bude sledována
4. To provide information about knowledge or findings
verb + object + infinitive
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e.g.: She found the intensity to be greater. (= She found that the intensity was greater.)
We know Roentgen to have discovered the X-rays. (= We know that Roentgen discovered the X rays.)
Translation: Zjistila, že… je Víme, že…. objevil
The same information can be in the passive: subject + passive verb + infinitive
e.g.: The intensity was found to be greater. Roentgen is known to have discovered the X-rays
Translation: Zjistilo se, že … O Roentgenovi je známo, že …..
Exercises:
1.Translate
1. We know carbon to occur in two crystalline forms that differ in their properties.2. To prepare synthetic salt place a piece of sodium in a flask with chlorine.3. The amount of water to be added is dependent on the pressure of the distillation.4. The solution of carbon dioxide in water is found to colour blue litmus red, showing it to be a weak acid.5. The reaction mixture must be brought to a sufficiently high temperature for the reaction to occur.6. The material to be weighed is transported to and from balance room in a desiccator.7. We found the value to depend on many various factors.8. The alloy was found to be composed of silver and gold.
For more practice see:
R. Murphy: Essential Grammar in Use, Units 52, 53 R. Murphy:English Grammar in Use, Units 63, 64M. Vince: Advanced Language Practice, Grammar 6 – reporting verbs
VERB PATTERNS, CLAUSES OF PURPOSE, GERUND, PARTICIPLE
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Verbs + -ingadorecan't standdon't mindenjoyfinishlook forward to
doingswimmingcooking
NotesWe often use the verb go + -ing for sports and activities: I go swimming every day.I go shopping on weekends.
Verbs + to + infinitiveagreechoosedaredecideexpectforgethelphopelearnmanageneedofferpromiserefuseseemwantwould hatewould likewould lovewould prefer
to doto cometo cook
Notes
Help and dare can be used without to:We helped clean up the kitchen.We didn't dare disagree with him.
We use have to for obligation:I have to wear a uniform.
Used to (or would) expresses past habits:I used to smoke, but I quit last year.
Verbs + sb + to + infinitiveadviseallowaskbegencourageexpecthelpinviteneedorderremindtellwantwarnwould like
mehimthemsomeone
to doto goto come
Notes
Help can be used without to:I helped him do the dishes.
Verbs + sb + infinitive (not to)help her Do
NotesTo is used with make in the passive:
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letmake
us We were made to work hard.
Let cannot be used in the passive. Allowed to is used instead:She was allowed to leave.
Verbs + -ing or to + infinitive (with little or no change in meaning)begincontinuehatelikelovepreferstartintend
doingto do
Verbs + -ing or to + infinitive(with a change in meaning)rememberstoptryregretforget
doingto do
NotesI remember posting the letter.(= I have a memory of the past action.)
I remembered to post the letter.(= I didn't forget to do it.)
I stopped drinking coffee. (= I gave up the habit.)
I stopped to drink a coffee. (= I stopped in order to have a cup of coffee.)
I tried to sleep. (but it was difficult)
I tried counting sheep. (a way of getting to sleep.)
Clauses of Purpose Conjunctions Example Translation
stejný podmět v obou 0 The compound must Sloučenina musí být
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větách in order to (not to)so as to (not to)
be heated 0/in order/so as to decompose.
zahřívána, aby se rozložila.
jiný podmět v obou větách
so that
(in order) for st to do st
The mixture must be heated so that the reaction may/might/can occur.
The mixture must be heated (in order) for the reaction to occur.
Směs musí být zahřívána, aby mohlo dojít k reakci.
Směs musí být zahřívána, aby došlo k reakci.
Gerund (-ing form) What is it? Translation Prepositional phrases
Heating is a important for some substances.(= Zahřívání je důležité pro některé látky.)
- zpodstatnělé sloveso
podstatným jménem nebo infinitivem
by heating (čím): Steam is made by heating water.
in purifying (při čem): Chlorine is used in purifying water.
on (v důsledku čeho): Gases expand on heating.
without (aniž by): Coal gives heat without producing much smoke.
Participle What is it? TranslationThe air was exhausted, the result being/thus creating a vacuum. (Vzduch byl vyčerpán, a tak se vytvořilo vacuum.)
running water (tekoucí voda)dealing with… (zabývající se…)
- přechodník
- příčestí
na začátku věty: skrze spojky “když, protože, jestliže”)
na konci věty: “a, přičemž, a tak”
- přídavným jménem
For more practice see:http://www.learn-english-today.com/wordgames/hotpot-quizzes/verb-patterns1.htmlhttp://www.learn-english-today.com/wordgames/hotpot-quizzes/verb-patterns2.htm
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http://www.helpforenglish.cz/testy/intermediate/c2008110205-Test---Verb-patterns--2.htmlhttp://www.oup.com/elt/global/products/headway/intermediate/a_grammar/unit06/hwy_int_unit06_2/
Exercises:
1. Choose the correct pattern for the word in the brackets
a) John wants (buy) a new catalytic converter.b) Lucy enjoyed (eat) the bio-dinner last night.c) Anne loves (drink) soya milk.d) I planned (try) out my new research.e) Pete had finished (work) on his project.f) He started (clean) the laboratory immediately.g) I will stop (work) in the lab when I am tired.h) I needed (see) my advisor yesterday.i) Joe will start (investigate) the reports this week. j) Harry quit (smoke) for good last January.k) I want (learn) (fly) an airplane.l) John said he enjoys (practice) English. m) Liza planned (discuss) (go) on her vacation in June.n) Joan likes (discuss) her homework with a friend.o) I used to like (study) every day.
2. Practice gerunds using the correct preposition
a) We obtain ice (to cool water). b) Vessels are used (to store liquids). c) Hydrogen is used (to manufacture ammonia). d) This substance burns (when it is heated). e) The substance evaporated (when exposed to air). f) Desiccators are used (to dry).
3. Choose the correct form of the verb
a) The students have begun to carry / carry / carrying out the experiment in the lab.b) You have to avoid using / to used / use unknown chemicals and substances.c) He insisted on detailed report / to report / reporting after finishing / to finish / finish the survey.
d) The new programme will help detect / to detect / detecting whether the substance is toxic or not.e) I don´t mind wait / to wait / waiting in the lab until the experiment is finished completely.
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f) The teacher advised the students following / to follow / follow all the laboratory rules really carefully.g) Although I´m good at physics I don´t think I´ll manage pass / passing /to pass the exam.h) John refused break / to break / breaking anything in the lab during the experiment.i) He asked her to let / letting / let him know / to know / knowing about all the changes.j) They hope agree / to agree/ agreeing on ways of reducing the amount of carbon dioxide. 4. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given.
a) I´m sorry but we have decided that we can´t accept your offer. regret I regret ……………………………………………your offer.
b) I tried not to make a mistake during the measuring. avoided I avoided ………………………………………….during the measuring.
c) The students have already stopped the distillation. give The students ..…………………………………….. the distillation.
d) It is forbidden to smoke and eat in the laboratory. allowed Smoking and eating ……………………………………… in the laboratory.
e) They finally made him decide to take part in the new research. persuaded They …………………………………………. in the new research.
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GRAMMAR KEY
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
1. Arrange these words in the right order.
a. You shouldn’t work in the lab at night.b. You should study this chapter more carefully.c. When did the students finish the project?d. Who saw the experiment?e. The students have enjoyed the lectures.f. Carbonic acid decomposes at once.g. Water power can make cheap electricity.h. May students smoke in the lab?
2. Arrange these words in the right order.
a. I quickly read your article in bed last night.b. The students worked till 4 o’clock this afternoon.c. Carbon dioxide and other gases allow the sun’s rays to enter.d. Computer models of climate changes indicate some consequences of a warming Earth.e. Nitrous oxide is released in the burning of coal.f. Only cooking can destroy the micro-organisms completely.
3. Make questions to ask about the underlined statements using who, what or where.
a. Who did you meet last night?b. What has the scientist found?c. Who took the pictures?d. What occurs naturally under certain conditions?e. Who published their new findings?f. What will we have to redistill?g. Where does the condensate flow?h. What does distillation consist in?
4. Read the text, and then write questions for the answers.
The educational programme is divided into Academic Years, each year being divided into two semesters, with the main vacation in July and August. The undergraduate studies take three years
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for the Bachelor Degree and five for the Master Degree. In addition to these, the Institute provides also postgraduate courses for PhD students.
All studies proceed on the basis of a curriculum of studies. At the end of each semester every student must obtain a certain number of credits and pass several examinations.
Students may obtain certain scholarships. These may be granted either automatically for excellent study results or on the basis of excellent research achievements, cultural or sports activities, and also to aid in the cases of serious social problems.
Graduates of the Institute usually find employment in plants and research laboratories of chemical and food industries as well as in various research institutes.
a. What is the educational programme divided into?b. When is the main vacation?c. How long do the undergraduate studies take for the Bachelor Degree?d. What does the Institute also provide?e. Who must obtain a certain number of credits and pass several examinations at the end of
each semester?f. What may certain scholarships be granted for?g. In what kind of industries do graduates of the Institute usually find employment?
VERB TENSES
1. Choose the correct form of Present Tense. Give the reasons of your choice between the simple and continuous forms.
1. works 2. is testing 3. do you…use… 4. boil 5. play
2. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense.
1. has dyed 2. have lost 3. lost 4. Has anything changed ….. I last saw you
5. has not finished
3. Simple or Continuous tense? 1. has been studying started
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2. were considered 3. has led 4. we were adding 5. they were preparing placed 6. occurs 7. is not produced 8. was established 9. was preparing 10. will have been teaching
4. Put the verb in brackets into the correct form.
1. was studying discovered 2. have never done feel 3. consists 4. identified 5. have been preparing have not been
5. Fill in the gaps with fitting expressions.
1d) 2c) 3e) 4 a) 5b)
6. Translate the sentences from exercise 5 above into Czech.
1. Když jsem přišel do laboratoře, moji kolegové už byli pryč. 2. Až se příští týden vrátíš ze zahraničí, experiment už bude ukončen.
3. Výzkumníci v Cagliari v Itálii získali vědecké důkazy že neodolatelnou (mučivou, sžíravou, vášnivou) oblibu čokolády působí chemikálie. 4. Pilulky působící na příslušný nervový receptor by mohly zcela odstranit touhu po čokoládě, jak uvedli výzkumníci. 5. Zatímco nadměrné požívání koly může vést k oslabení a dokonce k ochromení svalů, umírněná konzumace nápojů kola je zcela bezpečná, řekla mluvčí Soft Drinks Association.
7. Translate into Czech (taking into account that Czech does not apply the principles of the sequence of tenses used in English. Jeden z našich učitelů podotkl, že mnoho lidí si není vědomo, že potravinářský průmysl
využívající úspěchů chemie, které byly dosaženy zejména v konzervování potravin spolu s výrobou syntetických přísad, dosáhl významného pokroku již ve druhé polovině 19. století, nemluvě o 1. polovině 20.století. Zároveň byl velmi rychlý pokrok ve fyzice. Zmiňme se, že když Thomson objevil elektron, dokázal, že jsou částice, které jsou menší než nejmenší známý atom. Roentgen zjistil, že paprsky X projdou pevnými látkami. R. 1932 oznámil Chadwick, že objevil neutron. (Manželé)Curieovi zjistili, že smolinec je mnohokrát aktivnější
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než kysličník uranový. Becquerel zjistil, že soli uranu mají schopnost (=vlastnost) vyzařování paprsků.
PASSIVE VOICE
1. Translate using the passive voice in an appropriate tense.
a/ These substances are not produced here.b/ The program is just being installed.c/ When was this school established?d/ Such things cannot be tolerated.e/ What is written there?f/ Has this mixture been cooled sufficiently?g/ He has never been given a second chance/A second chance has never been given to him.h/ An acid has been spilt all over the laboratory table (by them).i/ It is known (that) this compound is highly poisonous./This compound is known to be highly poisonous.j/ It was expected (that) it would explode./It was expected to explode.
2. Transform the following sentences into passive voice.
a/ Another vessel has been broken (by him).b/ Our experiment was influenced by unstable conditions.c/ New laboratory records have been sent to us (by her).d/ The tests should have been performed more carefully (by her).e/ Poisonous substances have been caught by the filter.f/ A new compound was prepared (by us) yesterday.g/ All her experimental results were deleted by accident.h/ This was explained to me (by my teacher) last lesson.i/ A dangerous chemical has been spilt (by students). j/ A huge mistake has been made in her calculations.
3. Transform the following sentences into the passive+infinitive.
Ex. It is said he will return soon. – He is said to return soon.
a/ This new discovery is believed to be able to save many lives.b/ This element is expected to occur in two allotropic modifications.c/ Many elements are known to react this way.d/ They are thought to have made a real breakthrough in the research of radioactivity.e/ Citric acid was supposed not to display any harmful effects.f/ This company is assumed not to use preservatives of any kind.
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g/ All the devices are reported to have been calibrated for our experiment.h/ The experiment is estimated to have failed due to incorrect temperature settings.i/ He was said to have discovered seven new substances.
RELATIVE CLAUSES
1. a/ Explain the following words using relative pronouns or adverbs. ex.: knife – a knife is a tool which..... or: a teacher is a person who... dean, inorganic chemistry, optional subject, chemist, library, oxygen, lecture hall thermometer, researcher
b/ In pairs, think of any word and describe it to your friend without saying what it is, your friend will try to guess what your word is, then change roles. For descriptions use again relative clauses (it is a thing that... etc).
2. Join the following pairs of sentences using relative pronouns. Make the underline sentence the relative clause.
a/ Peter speaks German. His wife is from Austria. Peter, whose wife is from Austria, speaks German.b/ The teacher is strict. He teaches chemistry. The teacher who teaches chemistry is strict. The teacher, who teaches chemistry, is strict.c/ The new dean is very popular. He gets on well with students. The new dean, who gets on well with students, is very popular.d/ It was 2005. I met him for the first time. 2005 was the year in which I first met him.e/ The summers are hot. I enjoy them. The summers, which I enjoy, are hot.
3. Decide which relative pronoun is correct and where it could be omitted.
a/ The man who called is our schoolmate.b/ Have you found the books (that) I lent (to) you?c/ It is the best news that/which came today.d/ It is the best news (that/which) I have heard so far.e/ I sent her all the notes (that) I had.f/ I sent her what I had.g/ I went to the place where I could work undisturbed.h/ This is the student whose work has won the first place in our competition.i/ I work for a firm which/that sells chemicals.j/ I couldn´t complete my research, which was a pity.
COMMON AFFIXES
1. Form the words and fill the spaces
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The passage of water through several filter-beds and the addition of traces of chlorine make the water safe for drinking purposes (pass/add).
The evaporation and condensation can be observed in everyday life (evaporate/condense).
The content of a calcium compound increases the hardness of water (contain/hard).
Archimedes’ principle tells us about the displacement of water by solid bodies (displace).
The formation of rain depends on the condensation and combination of tiny droplets of water in the cloud (form/condense/combine).
2. Fill in the following table and then use the words in short sentences
Verb Adjective Noun (person) Noun (thing/process)produce producing/produced producer productanalyse analytical analyst analysisdevelop developing/developed developer developmentexplore exploring/explored explorer explorationresearch researching researcher researchmanage managerial manager management
ENGLISH SPECIFIC INFINITIVE STRUCTURES
1. Translate
1. Víme, že uhlík se vyskytuje ve dvou krystalických podobách, které se liší svými vlastnostmi. 2. Abyste připravili umělou sůl, umístěte kousek sodíku do banky s chlórem.3. Množství vody, která se má přidat, záleží na tlaku destilace.4. Zjistíme, že roztok oxidu uhličitého ve vodě barví modrý lakmusový papírek na červeno, tím ukazuje, že jde o slabou kyselinu.5. Aby reakce nastala, reakční směs se musí přivést na dostatečně vysokou teplotu.6. Materiál ke zvážení se přepravuje do a z váhovny v sušičce.7. Zjistíme, že hodnota závisí na mnoha různých faktorech.8. Zjistilo se, že slitina se skládá ze stříbra a zlata.
VERB PATTERNS, CLAUSES OF PURPOSE, GERUND, PARTICIPLE
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1. Choose the correct pattern for the word in the brackets
John wants to buy a new catalytic converter.Lucy enjoyed eating the bio-dinner last night.Anne loves to drink/drinking soya milk.I planned to try out my new research.Pete had finished working on his project.He started to clean/cleaning the laboratory immediately.I will stop working in the lab when I am tired.I needed to see my advisor yesterday.Joe will start to investigate/investigating the reports this week. Harry quit smoking for good last January.I want to learn to fly an airplane.John said he enjoys practicing English. Sinead planned to discuss going on her vacation in June.Joan likes to discuss/discussing her homework with a friend.I used to like to study/studying every day.
2. Practice gerunds using the correct preposition
We obtain ice by cooling water.Vessels are used for storing liquids. Hydrogen is used in manufacturing ammonia. This substance burns on heating. The substance evaporated on having been exposed to air. Desiccators are used for drying.
3. Choose the correct form of the verb
a) The students have begun to carry / carry / carrying out the experiment in the lab.b) You have to avoid using / to used / use unknown chemicals and substances.c) He insisted on detailed report / to report / reporting after finishing / to finish / finish the survey.d) The new programme will help detect / to detect / detecting whether the substance is toxic or not.e) I don´t mind wait / to wait / waiting in the lab until the experiment is finished completely.f) The teacher advised the students following / to follow / follow all the laboratory rules really carefully.g) Although I´m good at physics I don´t think I´ll manage pass / passing /to pass the exam.h) John refused break / to break / breaking anything in the lab during the experiment.
i) He asked her to let / letting / let him know / to know / knowing about all the changes.j) They hope agree / to agree/ agreeing on ways of reducing the amount of carbon dioxide.
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4. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given.
a) I´m sorry but we have decided that we can´t accept your offer. regret I regret not to accept your offer.
b) I tried not to make a mistake during the measuring. avoided I avoided making a mistake during the measuring.
c) The students have already stopped carrying out the distillation. give The students have already given up carrying out the distillation.
d) Smoking and eating is not allowed in the laboratory. forbidden It is forbidden to smoke and eat in the laboratory.
e) They finally made him decide to take part in the new research. persuaded They persuaded him to take part in the new research.
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