Lornshill Academy

Geography Department

National 5 Revision

Physical Environments

Glaciated Uplands

Processes of Erosion

Physical Weathering (Freeze-Thaw Weathering)

Rainwater enters cracks in rocks and, in winter this water sometimes freezes. When it

freezes and expands, this forces the crack wider. This process is repeated thousands of

times, pieces of rocks break off.

Plucking

Between the glacier and the rock underneath is a thin film of melt water. This water

sometimes freezes so the glacier becomes attached to the rock. Then, when the glacier

moves forward, it pulls away and loose fragments of rock. This powerful process is called

plucking.

Abrasion

This is when a rock is frozen into glacier ice. The glacier moves and the rocks scrape along

the valley floor and erode therefore erode it.

Formation of Features

Corrie

Snow fills hollow and is compressed and turns to ice. The ice move downhill due to gravity.

Abrasion takes place on the corrie floor, plucking at back wall and freeze thaw at back

helps steepen back wall. When the ice melts it leaves behind arm chair shaped hollow called

a corrie. A lip, made from moraine, is left at the front as ice loses power. When water

remains in the corrie it is called a lochan or tarn.

Arête

Where two corries formed back to back or side to side, the rock between them was plucked

away to form a narrow ridge. This steep and narrow knife-like ridge is called an arête.

Pyramidal Peak

Where three or more corries are formed back to back, the rock between them was plucked

and weathered into a sharp point, usually the highest point in the area. This is called a

pyramidal peak.

U-shaped Valley

Before Glaciation a v-shaped valley exists. During the ice age a glacier moves downhill

eroding the sides and bottom of the valley, through plucking and abrasion. Through erosion

this makes the valley sides steeper and the valley deeper. After the ice melts a steep,

deep, flat floored U-Shaped valley remains. The original stream now seems too small for

the valley and is called a misfit stream.

Truncated Spurs

A spur is the bottom part of a ridge which juts out into the main valley. A river winds

around spurs in a v-shaped valley. During the ice-age a glacier moves down the valley. The

sides of the valley are eroded by abrasion and the spurs are worn away. After the ice age

the valley is wider and straighter and the spurs have been cut off leaving shortened or

truncated spurs.

Hanging Valley

A large glacier occupies a main river valley and a smaller glacier occupies the tributary

valley. As the glaciers move they erode the sides and bottom of the valleys, through

plucking and abrasion making the valleys wider, deeper and steeper. When the ice melts the

tributary valley is left suspended above the main u-shaped valley as it was not eroded as

much because the smaller glacier had less power so there was less erosion The tributary

river now has a waterfall

Ribbon Lakes

The material which was pushed in front of the glacier and left as the glacier melted, is

called terminal moraine. This material may be large enough to form a dam at the end of the

U-shaped valley. The stream cannot proceed further and gradually backs up. The valley

was then flooded and the shape of the resulting lake or rock resembled a piece of ribbon

stretching back through the length of the valley.

Land Uses

Hill Sheep Farming

Due to the steepness of the slopes, the cold temperatures and high rainfall, which limit the

growing season and affect soil fertility, the area is mostly unsuited to crop farming since it

would be almost impossible to use machinery such as combine harvesters. The only type of

farming possible is hill sheep farming, with cattle occasionally being raised on lower, less

steep land.

Forestry

Large plantations of coniferous forests are found in this area. This is suited to the steep

slopes, poor soils and inhospitable climate. The trees also protect the slopes from soil

erosion.

Quarrying

The main type of industry is quarrying for granite and slate for roads and roofs. Limestone

is also quarried for use in the steel making elsewhere. The number of quarries operating

has gradually been reduced in recent years

Water Supply

The Lakes are natural reservoirs in an area of high rainfall. It is much more economical to

use these natural reservoirs than to build man-made reservoirs. The Lakes supply up to

30% of the water needs of this part of Great Britain.

Recreation, Leisure and Tourism

The area is very attractive to tourists offering a variety of physical attractions such as the

mountains and lakes for activities such as hill walking, mountain climbing, adventure holidays,

water sports, fishing and general sightseeing.

Land Use Issue and Management

Tourist and Residents

Traffic Congestion

– The tourists cause a lot of traffic congestion on the roads due to a lot of slow moving

cars, buses and caravans.

– Traffic congestion is at its worst in ‘honey pots’ such as Bowness and Keswick. This

frustrates the local people who are trying to get to places quickly.

– The traffic can delay emergency vehicles such as ambulances and fire engines.

– Tourists take up most parking spaces, park where they should not and increase local

air pollution.

Raising houses prices and ‘Ghost Towns’

– Some locals cannot afford to move home. Wealthy tourists are paying over the odds

to buy a holiday home, out pricing the locals.

– Some villages are becoming ‘ghost villages’ as most of the houses are owned by

tourists who do not live there all of the time. Due to this village shops and schools

are closing.

Tourists and Farmers

Damage to farms

– Not all tourists obey the country code leaving field gates open allowing animals to

stray onto roads and be killed or cause accidents

– They drop litter which not only looks unsightly but may be eaten by farm animals,

harming them

– They let their dogs off their leads allowing them to chase animals.

Footpath Erosion

– This happens when a lot of people walk up a hill in the same direction. Overtime the

vegetation gets trampled on and killed leaving a path of bare soil.

– During heavy rain the path will become very muddy and some of it will be washed

away. To avoid the mud people walk on the grass next to it eventually killing it,

making the path bigger and more of an eyesore.

Tourists and Tourists

Recreational Activities

– Honey pots in the Lake District also include Lakes such as Windermere. They offer

many opportunities for recreation and leisure.

– This creates conflicts. The noisy activities, e.g. Motor boats upset the people

wanting peace and quiet e.g. the fishermen and birdwatchers.

Tourists and Conservationists

Damage to the landscape

– Conservationists are concerned about the look if tourist developments such as visitor

centres are built, as they do not blend in with the landscape and spoil the view.

Solutions

National Park Authority

They have tried to ease traffic congestion by;

– Bringing in one-way systems (Ambleside).

– Pedestrianising some streets (Keswick).

– Painting double yellow lines to prevent street parking (Grasmere).

– Providing large car parks on edge of villages (Grasmere).

– Separating local and tourist traffic.

– Taking pressure off ‘honeypots’ by advertising and signposting other attractions in

different areas.

– Encouraging the use of minibuses and bicycles.

They have tried to ease soaring property prices by;

– To reduce soaring property prices and locals being forced out by tourists, the

Authority can insist that new houses are sold/rented cheaply to locals (Rosthwaite

and Bowness).

They have tried to ease conflicts between tourists by;

– They are attempting to educate tourists at information centres about enjoying

themselves without causing conflict.

– Park Rangers are employed to prevent, spot and sort out problems.

– There is zoning of tourist activities (swimming areas ect).

– Speed limits

They have tried to ease conflicts with conservationists by;

– They vet plans for new tourist developments. Plans that may cause conflict are

rejected.

– They insist that new buildings, visitor centres, car parks are screened by deciduous

trees and that local stone is used in construction.

Solutions by National Trust

To ease conflicts the tourists cause to conservationists and farmers;

– They buy land and buildings and manage them. In this way they can ensure that at

least this land is protected.

– They reduce footpath erosion caused by hill walkers by laying blocks of hard wearing

stone ‘stone pitching’ to provide a good walking surface, fence off worse affected

areas to allow them to recover and dig drainage channels to stop water running down

footpaths.

Coastal Landscapes

Processes of Erosion

Hydraulic Action

This is when the power of the waves comes crashing against the cliffs, squeezing the air in

its cracks, which make the cracks wider and longer until pieces of rock break off.

Corrasion

This is when the sand and pebbles are thrown against the cliff, causing pieces of rocks to

fall off.

Solution

This happens as the salt and other chemicals in the sea slowly dissolve the minerals in the

rocks causing them to break up.

Process of Deposition

Longshore drift is the process through which material is moved along a beach. Waves

approach the beach at an angle, waves break and the swash carries material up the beach at

the same angle as the wave. The backwash, and any material carried by it, returns by the

shortest route at right angles to the beach. This creates a zigzag pattern of

transportation.

Formation of Features

Erosional

Wave cut Notch/Platform

A Wave-cut platform forms when a notch is cut into the base of a cliff by waves. Overtime

the notch gets larger and deeper mainly due to hydraulic action. Eventually the

unsupported rock above will collapse into the sea. The sea will remove this debris, and the

process repeats itself. Eventually a wave-cut platform will be left in front of the cliff.

Headlands & Bays

Headlands and bays form along coasts that are made of alternative bands of hard

(resistant) and soft (less resistant) rocks. The waves erode the softer rocks (clay) more

quickly to form bays and the harder rocks (chalk) are eroded more slowly and left jutting

into the sea to form headlands. Overtime the bays will become more sheltered and sandy

beaches will form.

Caves, Arch, Stack and Stump

Waves crash into headlands eroding weaker parts such as cracks (joints or faults). The

cracks are eroded by 3 different processes corrasion, hydraulic action and solution. The

cracks get larger, deeper and wider, developing into a cave. Overtime, the horizontal

erosion of a cave may cut through the headland to the other side to form an arch. Very

occasionally a blow hole will be created within a cave where vertical erosion has taken place.

Further erosion widens the walls of the arch leaving less support for the roof, leading to its

collapse and to the formation of a stack isolated from the cliff. The stack will be eroded

to form a needle. The needle will be eroded, collapse and become a stump.

Depositional

Beaches

Beaches are made up of soil or rock fragments that have been eroded from cliffs by the

waves. These fragments are then broken into smaller pieces and rounded off. The eroded

material is then deposited where waves have little energy forming a beach. A typical beach

has sorted deposits, the largest deposits are found at the back of the beach and the

smallest next to the sea. The largest beaches are usually found in bays, where the waves

are generally weak.

Sandspit, Sand bar and Tombolo

A spit forms when beach material is transported along the coast by longshore drift* A

ridge of sand builds up and outwards forming a spit. If the spit extends across the mouth

of a bay it can join up with a beach on the other side forming a sand bar. This straightens

the coastline and encloses a lagoon on the landward side of the bar. Along some coastlines a

sand spit may grow outwards into open water and reach an island forming a Tombolo.

Land Uses

Industry

Offshore, sand and gravel is taken from the seabed providing employment. Wytch Farm

Oilfield is located at the South bank of Poole Harbour. It is the biggest offshore oilfield in

West Europe. There are three large ports with substantial international trade and five

smaller harbours for local fishing and recreational craft. Fishing provides employment for the

local people. It also supports a wide range of service industries which maintain vessels and

equipment, providing further jobs. The fishing grounds sustain 600 boats.

Recreation, Leisure and Tourism (ALL AREAS)

The sightseers are attracted by the scenery. There are lots of opportunities for different

activities. Important wildlife refuges are found just behind the coast in the sand dunes

(Studland), lagoons and marshes (The Fleet) which encourages visitors. Rare heathland

plants and rare British Wildlife such as lizards and snakes can be found. The above

encourages large numbers of visitors who spend their money in the local area which creates

jobs, opportunities for hotels, restaurants and shops.

Land Use Issue and Management

Tourist and Residents

Traffic Congestion

– The tourists cause a lot of congestion on the roads. The larger settlements of

Bournemouth, Poole and Swanage all suffer from congestion. The congestion is

caused as 82% of tourists travel by car; they tend to visit at the same time (Bank

Holidays and weekends) and often drive slowly to admire views.

– In addition, they take up most parking spaces, park where they should not and

increase local air pollution.

– The congestion is also caused by narrow streets

Tourists and Tourists

Recreational Activities

– Many tourists are attracted to Poole Harbour. This is a recipe for conflict. The

noisy pursuits, e.g. power boats upset the people wanting peace and quiet, eg. The

fishermen and birdwatchers. Increasingly powerboats are being used in winter, which

is when thousands of birds migrate here.

Tourists and Conservationist

Pollution and damage to the landscape

– Tourist activities in Poole Harbour are polluting the water (oil and litter). Powerboats

are scaring migrating birds in winter.

– At Studland tourists are causing erosion of the sand dunes. People walk through the

dunes, trampling on fragile plants (which bind the sand together) until they die. With

less vegetation the sand dunes themselves become eroded and wildlife disappears as

the habitat changes. Horses also add to the trampling due to a riding centre nearby.

Solutions

County Council

To ease traffic congestion in Bournemouth, Poole and Swanage the following solutions have

been tried:

– One way systems.

– Encouraging other types of transport (by providing bus and cycle lanes).

– Phasing traffic lights.

– Restricting the hours of road works.

To ease traffic congestion in the Village of Corfe Castle;

– A railway line has been opened with steam trains running from Swanage to Norden,

just north of Corfe Castle. People can now visit these places without driving into or

through the Village.

– An extra car park has been developed in the village. This should reduce the street

parking, which should allow traffic to go faster.

– More cycle ways and summer bus routes have been developed, but a proposed by-pass

has been rejected.

To try and solve tourist conflicts in Poole Harbour, Poole Council have introduced:

– Zoning of Poole Harbour (different activities are zoned in different areas so they do

not upset one another).

– Maximum speed limits have been imposed in some parts, which prevents power

boating and waterskiing taking place.

National Trust

They have tried to ease conflicts with conservationists by;

– Lobbying to get certain areas a protected status. RSPB sites have been set up to

protect wildlife and SSSI sites to protect vegetation.

– Educating visitors by taking them on guided tours and providing information on

boards and leaflets.

– Restricting access to sensitive areas.

– Providing wardens to look after the area.

Weather

Synoptic Symbols

Synoptic symbols break the weather down more than the symbols you are familiar with on

TV. One symbol shows the weather, temperature, wind speed, wind direction and cloud

cover.

Isobars

Isobars are lines that join places of equal air pressure. The closer together the isobars

are, the winds are stronger.

Air Masses

Air masses are large bodies of air that can be the size of a continent. Thousands of them

move around our planet every day. Air masses give us our weather.

Where one air mass meets another this is called a front.

The type of weather that an air mass brings is dependant in the air pressure – High

(Anticyclone) or Low pressure (Depression).

Anticyclones

Anticyclones are high pressure an area meaning the air descends towards the earth’s

surface. Winds blow in a clockwise spiral away from a high area with isobars widely spaced,

so wind tends to be very light or calm. They cover large areas, sometime affecting the

whole country and give long periods of fine and settled weather (In certain conditions,

lasting for several weeks.) Fog, mist and poor visibility are often associated with

anticyclonic weather.

‘Freezing fog’ can form in winter creating dangerous driving conditions.

In Winter anticyclones bring:

– Clear skies

– Sunny days

– Cold days

– Very cold nights

– Frost

– Light winds

– No rain or snow

In summer anticyclones bring:

– Clear skies

– Sunny days

– Hot days

– Cool nights

– Light winds

– No rain

Depressions

When THREE air masses meet over Britain we get a depression. They are made up of warm

and cold air masses. A depression is a low pressure area. They bring unsettled, changeable

weather and take between one and three days to cross the country. Wind blows

anticlockwise around a depression. It is usually strong and may even be gale force. The air

masses do not mix immediately. Where they meet is called a front. There are two types of

front a warm front and a cold front.

Stage 5 Stage 4 Stage 3 Stage 2 Stage 1

Tail end of

cold front

Temperature

falls

Showers

Air pressure

rises

FINE WITH

SOME

SHOWERS.

Cold front

Temperature

falls

Clouds thicken

Air pressure

rises

Winds increase

RAIN

In warm sector

Temperature rises

Drizzle and some sunny

intervals

Air pressures falls

Light winds

Feels ‘muggy’

HUMID

At Warm

front

Temperature

rises

Clouds thicken

Steady rain

Pressure falls

Wind get

stronger

RAIN

Before warm

front

Dry and fine

Settled

Clouds coming

from west

FINE

5

4 3 2

1

Human Environments

Population

Population density is the number of people in each square km. It is affected by a combination of

environmental factors, political factors and economic factors

World population distribution

One question you could be asked is to describe the population distribution of the world or of a

specific country. The first one is simple as you use the key and describe the different areas of

the world and use the figures to back up your answer. The second is more complex and you should

follow a check list to answer it.

Use compass points to help you ‘In the north.’

Mention where places are in relation to other places on the map ‘to the west of…’

Describe the overall pattern. ‘Most of the villages are in the north.’

Use specific numbers and details including names on the map in your description. ‘The

population density in the north around Inverness is 20 people per km2’

Describe where the information shows similarities and where it shows differences

Another question is to explain the distribution of the population. In order to do this you must

state WHY the area is distributed like this. Use the factors that you previously took notes on to

answer this.

Reasons for differing population distribution

The distribution of people around the world is not evenly. There are crowded parts of the world

and also empty areas. There are many factors, which contribute to an explanation of why this

happens.

Climate

People like to live in areas where there are no extreme temperatures and there is rain all

year round. Climate can limit the number of people that live in an area for example Russia.

The conditions are unpleasant and expensive to live in; the growing season is too short to

grow crops therefore food has to be bought in. It is also very hard to build on soil that is

frozen for over half the year.

People do not want to live where there is no rain either for example the middle of Australia.

Again the living conditions are unpleasant and it’s hard to grow crops because the soil is too

thin and eroded easily by the wind.

Soil

Some river valleys are very crowded like the Nile Valley. The reason being is the soil here

is very fertile so lots of crops can be grown in a small area. Also the valley is very flat so

provides water all year round to people.

Relief

People would rather live in areas that are flat and in the lowlands. Mountain ranges tend to

be sparsely populated like the Himalayas. This is because of the cold temperatures and the

poor soils. The slops also cause a problem because they are difficult to build on.

Resources

Where there are natural resources the population density tends to be higher. Areas like

North-East America have attracted people because of the employment opportunities in the

mining fields. Also scenery attracts tourist, which attract people to the area to work or

even retire like California.

Communications

Areas that are not well connected by roads, railways, airports and ports are less populated

as industry is rarely attracted to the area meaning fewer jobs for the locals. An example

of this area would be Northern Canada.

Technological Development

Countries with advanced technologies and well-educated people can support higher

population densities like Japan.

Economic Activities

Areas where industry is the main activity have higher population densities like Southeast

Australia. Large amounts of people can be employed in a very small area. On the other hand

it takes a large area of land to support people who have large farms like the Great Plains in

USA.

Census

Population data is gathered through a census and developing countries have more difficulties in

carrying out a census than developed countries meaning the data is less reliable. The last UK

census was in 2011.

Why is it important to collect data?

Population numbers – to calculate grants for local authorities to plan e.g. schools and

teacher numbers.

Health – to know the age and socio-economic make-up of the population to allocate health

and social services resources.

Housing – to ascertain the need for new housing.

Employment – to help government and businesses plan jobs and training policies.

Transport – to identify where there is pressure on transport systems and for planning of

roads and public transport.

Ethnic Group – to identify the extent and nature of disadvantage in Britain.

Problems facing developing countries

Difficulties affecting accurate population data collection in Developing Countries might include;

Countries suffering from a continuing war situation such as Afghanistan.

The cost involved in carrying out a census is prohibitive to many Developing Countries – training enumerators, printing and distributing forms etc.

The sheer size of some developing countries e.g. Indonesia with many islands spread over a large area.

Countries with large numbers of migrants e.g. rural-urban migration into massive shanty towns e.g. Dharavi in Mumbai, refugees from Rwanda in Burundi etc.

Poor communication links e.g. mountain regions of Bolivia.

Low levels of literacy and variety of languages spoken within a country e.g. India has 15 official languages.

Population change

As we know the world’s population is changing. The number of people in the worlds is increasing

because there are more people being born (birth rate) than there are dying (death rate).

Population Pyramids

Population pyramids can show the age/sex ratio of a country. You must be able to describe and

explain a population pyramid.

Developing Pyramid

The pyramid for a developing country has a wide base and steep sides leading to a narrow

top.

The base is very wide because it has a very high birth rate due to lack of contraception.

The steep sides show there is a high death rate, as well as the numbers at the top of the

pyramid are low.

Low life expectancy also means that the pyramid has a wide base and mid-section.

Developed Pyramid

The narrow base and bullet shape shows there is a low birth and death rate.

The maximum age is higher because there is better healthcare available, meaning it doesn’t

taper as steeply.

Contraception is also widely available unlike in Sierra Leone, meaning that the birth rate is

controlled keeping the general population at constant level.

People live longer and life expectancy is much greater because of the available healthcare

and better living conditions

Rapid Population Growth (Developing Country)

In developing countries birth rates are much higher than death rates and the population is rising

rapidly. In these countries the population structure is similar to the one shown below.

There are many children because the birth rate is high. Often, one half of the population is under

15 years of age. There are less people in the working age group (15-60) because the death rate

was high and many children did not survive to adulthood. For the same reason, there are very few

old people in the population.

People in developed countries have large families so that:

Children can help on the farm

No pensions or old folks homes so children needed to look after parents in old age

With high numbers of children dying people have more so that some survive to adult-hood

Contraceptives are difficult to get

Traditions and religions do not agree with contraceptives

Solutions

Increase education on Family planning

Laws like Chinas’ One Child Policy

More Education for females

Incentives for smaller families like free healthcare

More opportunities for sterilisation and abortions

Slowly Growing Population

In most Developed Countries, the birth rates and death rates are low and their populations are

rising only slowly, if at all. Their population structures are similar to the one below.

There are few children in the population because the birth rate is low. There are many adults

because in the past the birth rate was higher and many babies were born at that time have

survived into adulthood. There are also many older people because the death rate is so low and

most people live to an old age.

Women having children later due to:

More women working

Women want to buy luxury goods instead

Put off having babies until they can afford equipment

Want big houses

The use of contraceptives not seen as wrong

Contraceptives are available to everyone

Solutions

More Paternity leave

More maternity benefits

Raising retirement age (increasing tax payer and reducing pensions)

Encourage women to work

Providing more childcare

Allowing more immigrants

Encourage people to take out private pensions.

Demographic Transition Model

A demographic transition model shows how changes in birth and death rates can affect population

growth. It also identifies four distinct stages of growth. These stages are linked with economic

growth (a country becoming richer).

Describe and explain DMT

Stage 1

There is a high birth and death rate. The total population growth is low due to the fact

that many children are needed for farming so there is a high birth rate. Many children die

at an early age due to the lack of food and medical treatment. There is no family planning,

so population cannot be controlled. Religious beliefs encourage large families.

Stage 2

The birth rate is greater than the death rate so the total population increases. This is

because the food and medical supplies have increased so more people live longer. Family

planning is not fully introduced therefore only helping a few families control their families.

Stage 3

There is a high increase in the total population because the birth rate is greater than the

death rate so there is a greater increase than in stage 2. This is because more family

planning centres are being constructed. People are surviving longer due to greater medical

knowledge, food and water supplies.

Stage 4

The total population reaches its peak as the birth rate equals the death rate. This is

because there is good reliable health care, food supplies and better resources for

pensioners and old people. Family planning has helped people to reduce the number of

children they have and people are having children at later age once they have a career and

marriage.

Problems governments may face when a country is in stage 5

The problems which a government may face when a country reaches Stage 5 are caused by low

birth rate/declining (and ageing) population. This mean the country will need to maintain an active

population large enough to allow levels of taxation to remain constant or raise retirement age.

The country also needs to ensure there are no future shortages in workforce – need to recruit

immigrant labour/ease access for asylum seekers. This can lead to civil unrest/ethnic tension.

The government need to sustain demand for particular products or services e.g. toys, schools,

maternity hospitals, which if affected could lead to higher levels of unemployment (for example

not as many schools needed so many teachers become unemployed.) An ageing population gives

increased cost of pension provision and unpopular decisions for government about how pensions

should be funded.

Rural

Commercial Arable Farming in UK

It has low lying fertile soils, a warm climate, enough rainfall, good drainage and plenty of sunshine

making it perfect farming conditions for growing crops like wheat, barley, peas and sugar beet.

Arable Farming System

Inputs Processes Outputs

Climate Ploughing Crops

Flat land Sowing Profit

Fertile soils Irrigating

Workforce Spraying

Machinery Harvesting

Capital(money)

Chemicals

Seeds

Transport

Farm buildings

Farming Changes

Changes to farm inputs:

More money spent on chemicals and farm machinery

Less people employed in farming

As the population declines the local services begin to close down for example schools, shops

and health centres. This makes the area even less an attractive place to live.

Pollution is increasing which is a major problem. There is an increase in the air and noise

pollution from machinery and more water pollution from chemical use.

More machinery means farms have become bigger and have larger fields

Hedgerows have been removed meaning animal habitats have gone reducing wildlife

Grants available for farms to restore hedgerows and not use chemicals (become organic

farms)

Some market gardens have changed to Pick Your Own PYO farming which is popular with

customers. This is because the produce is cheaper than the shops and also fresher. For

the farmer this means fewer employees.

Changes to farming outputs.

For many years the EU gave higher prices for some crops which have led to more being

grown but not all being sold. This creates Food Mountains which are surplus.

In the 1960s a common agricultural policy (CAP) was devised. The policy aimed to improve

the living standards of farmers and make EU countries more self sufficient. The first

policy was a system of guaranteed prices.

The EUs policy of guaranteed prices was very successful, in a lot of ways too successful.

Farmers grew too much meaning they could not sell it all. For this reason in 1992 the EU

brought in a new policy of set aside schemes and quotas.

Solutions

The government is trying to stop this by improving living standards in the countryside.

Grants for people taking over a farm from a retired farmer.

Farmers are now paid not to grow crops but to leave the land unfarmed. This is called set

aside land

Farmers are encouraged to use their unfarmed land for other purposes like camp sites. This

is called diversification.

Use farm worker cottages as holiday homes giving extra money to the farmer.

More industries setting up in the countryside which brings more jobs to the area.

Intensive Subsistence Farming in India.

The floodplains and deltas of India have been settled and farmed for a long period of time, where

there is a high population growth meaning severe shortage of land as there is no available land

left. The farms are very small but the richness and fertility of the soil mean they are capable of

more than one crop per year. Farming is intensive with a high input of labour and very little

machinery.

Changes of Rice Farming

The Green Revolution

There have been various attempts by governments of countries with peasant farming to

introduce modern methods and changes to areas which practise this system of farming, for

example the Punjab.

These measures have been described as the GREEN REVOLUTION. (YOU CAN GET 1 MARK

FOR THIS!)

Before

Poor quality seeds

Poor quality plants

Low output from poor harvest

Just enough food for family

Little surplus crops: no money for new seeds

Some seed kept for next year

After

Miracle seeds

Heavy fertilising

Healthy plant growth

Plenty of food for family

Surplus crops sold: money for new seed and fertiliser

Migration to cities due to fewer jobs on the land

Lower prices due to higher output

Higher farmer debt.

Solutions

The Indian government introduced various schemes to improve farming during programmes of 5

and 7 years plus.

This involved a range of measures including:

Land reform schemes whereby small farms resulting from the land inheritance system have

been amalgamated into larger farms.

Schemes encourage farmers to borrow money to improve their farms.

Introduction of miracle (hybrid) seeds in order to increase yields.

Using chemical fertilisers to improve soil fertility.

Increasing mechanisation by using tractors and other farm machinery.

Employing agricultural advisers and setting up various training schemes for farmers.

Spraying insecticides onto crops to prevent crops being eaten and destroyed by insects.

Introducing modern irrigation methods to replace inefficient methods such as inundation

canals.

Raising the level of technology used on farms such as introducing motorised ploughs.

Introducing legislation designed to increase the size of fields and allow the system to use

large machinery and become more efficient.

Benefits of Green Revolution

All of the measures were designed to increase yield and output from the farms. The

changes brought about by the Green Revolution have had some success. For example in

India during the 1970s and 1980s. As a result of the uptake of Green Revolution

techniques, production doubled during these decades.

Greater amount of food has reduced malnutrition and starvation.

Surplus crop may be sold, improving quality of life.

Land reform, helped to speed up the process of mechanisation and modernisation.

Improved infrastructure including increased electrification and better roads improving

access to markets.

Larger, more effective irrigation schemes and drainage systems.

The Green revolution has been successful in some areas where land reform was successful.

Problems of Green Revolution

The changes also brought problems. Use of fertilisers, pesticides and other new techniques

cost farmers a great deal of money. Farmers were encouraged to borrow money from banks

to supplement government loans and grant.

As yields increased prices fell due to increased supply. Many farmers did not earn enough

money to both achieve a reasonable income and able to repay the money the have borrowed.

Increased mechanisation may lead to reduction in farm labour.

Migration of farm workers to urban areas and impact on demography of rural areas.

Consolidation of farms may also lead to larger fields, increased mechanisation and drift to

cities due to lack of work also less chance of providing food for their family.

In areas the success rate has been much lower and in some cases many farmers have

become poorer as a direct result of the Green Revolution.

Urban

Urban Land Use

A city is usually divided into recognisable areas or zones. Each area serves a function or purpose.

The main types of function are shops and offices, industry, housing, and open space. Although

different in some ways, towns and cities all tend to be set out in a similar way.

Central Business District

The Central Business District (CBD) is found in the centre of town. This is where shops, offices,

banks, public buildings, and entertainment may be found. Government buildings are usually found

in the centre of town as well. The CBD is the route centre meaning major roads meet there, this

can cause traffic congestion. It is very crowded and busy. This means there is very little spare

land so this means land here is expensive as it is in demand.

Identifying CBD on an Ordnance Survey Map

– Bus station,

– train station,

– tourist information, museums,

– art galleries

– Many churches

– Narrow unplanned roads

– Many main roads meet here

Inner City/19th Century

The inner city is close to the town centre. It is where most of the old industrial buildings &

factories are found. There was not a lot of transport available when the factories were opened.

This meant that housing was built beside the factories for the workers and their families. Many

of the factories have now closed – many being left abandoned.

Identifying Inner City on an Ordnance Survey Map

– Large buildings

– Canals and railways

– Works, factories, warehouses, breweries

– Near CBD

– Little open space

– Football stadiums

– Churches

– Straight streets

– Grid-iron pattern

– Main roads

Suburbs/20th Century

The suburbs are nearly all housing. Mostly homes that were built in 1920s and 1930s. There is

more open space with many houses having gardens and parks nearby. The newest part of town is

on the edge of the city. This is where the modern housings schemes are found. Most of these

houses have gardens and garages. There are also new shopping centres, small industrial estates

appearing. This is because the land is cheaper than nearer the city. Open space is also a main

feature of the outer suburbs.

Identifying Inner City on an Ordnance Survey Map

– Cul-de-sacs & crescents

– Spaced out housing

– Gardens

– Main roads on edge of area

Identifying Suburbs Industrial Area (industrial estates)

– One or two storey units with few or no chimneys.

– It is located beside main roads.

– It has a planned layout.

– There are plenty of parking spaces and wide roads.

– It is landscaped with grass and trees.

– It is built on cheap land with room to expand.

Identifying the Suburbs Business District

– High order shops such as furniture stores.

– Restaurants and entertainment.

– It is located beside main roads.

– It has plenty of parking spaces and wide roads.

– It is landscaped with grass and trees.

– It is built on cheap land with room to expand.

Case Study Developed City

Edinburgh

Problems in the CBD

CBD Shopping (St James Centre) Vs Out of Town Shopping (The Gyle)

The doughnut effect occurs when the commercial activity of a city becomes contracted around

outskirts out of town shopping centres e.g. The Gyle in Edinburgh have become more common and

shops in CBD have problems competing. Chain stores like Marks and Spencer's have increasingly

located in new shopping centres on the outskirts leading to the closure of high street stores or

their reduction in size. This leaves a hollow or empty area in the middle of the city.

Advantage of St James Centre

– Easy Access

– Near railway station (Waverly)

– Close to St Andrew Bus Station

– Trams and Taxis

– Indoor shopping so stay warm and dry.

– Helps local shops in the CBD.

Disadvantage of St James Centre

– Overcrowding at peak times

– No room to expand

– Limited number of parking spaces

– Heavy traffic

– Goods lorries cause congestion

– High land rental

Advantages of The Gyle

– No travel to city

– Less traffic congestion

– Need park and ride

– Close to M9

– Reduces traffic congestion in city.

– New station at Edinburgh Park

– Cheap Land Rental

– Easy to expand

– Pleasant Environment

– Provides jobs away from CBD

Disadvantages of The Gyle

– Uses up the Greenbelt land

– Takes customers away from the CBD so shops there may close down.

Solutions

Providing different environments for shopping (Princes’ Mall and St James Centre).

German Market at Christmas every year which attracts many people to the city centre.

Improved the gardens with more seat to sit in (Princes’ Street Gardens) and Rose Street

(behind Princes’ Street) has been pedestrianised so people can go to shops without fear of

traffic.

Harvey Nichols and John Lewis have located to CBD which attracts more people as these a

high end shops.

Traffic Congestion

Causes of Traffic Congestion

There has been a growing number of cars that are owned which is linked with a high

disposable income.

The increase in the use of lorries as rail freight has declined. Also the sizes of the Lorries

are issues for the tight streets.

The old road pattern, width and surface cause huge problems for traffic.

The number of commuters driving from dormitory settlements and the borders into the

city has increased.

Great increase in the number of service buses in the 1990’s. Also Edinburgh has many

tourist buses which cause problem particularly in the Royal Mile.

Traffic Lights, Pedestrian Crossings and Road Works

Cyclists when a cycle lane is not available.

Solutions

The Edinburgh city by-pass was built along the foot of the Pentlands linking up with the M8,

M9 and the Forth Road Bridge to take the heaviest traffic out of the city centre.

Unfortunately, the volume of traffic has increased so much that there are frequent delays

on the bypass itself.

The use of gap sites, disused railway land and old bus garages as car parks and construction

of multi-storey car parks like St James Centre Car Park.

Introduction of traffic meters and traffic wardens to control kerbside parking

Greenways have been designed within the city. They are bus only lanes which operate all

day.

Improved bus services meaning they carry more passengers and have much faster times

into the CBD.

On Princes Street only buses and taxis are allowed to travel westward, but not eastwards.

Cars travelling east are diverted around Charlotte Square and along Queen Street

Possibility of charging tolls on cars travelling into the city centre has been considered.

Improving rail services in to Edinburgh from Lothian's and Fife.

Introducing a tram service running from the airport to York Place in the city.

‘Park and Ride’ schemes on the edge of the city from Ingliston, Straiton or Hermiston Gate

to the city centre.

One-way streets like McEwan Square and Brandfield Street

Regeneration of the Inner City

Leith

In the past the main function of Leith was a port with many industries particularly associated with

the port. The houses had been built quickly along the industries to provide homes for the

workers.

In the past 10 years large areas of the port and the town itself became derelict. Buildings were

left to fall in disrepair and many houses were substandard. There were limited shopping facilities

and the population was declining and it was the elderly that were left behind.

Regeneration

High rising of flats were built

Some of the old tenement blocks were renovated

Gentrification – people were given grants by the government to move back there and to

smarten up the properties.

The opening up of expensive restaurants across the harbour.

Old stone built whiskey bonds were converted into open plan offices, luxury flats, boutiques

and restaurants.

Three new large hotels were built for example a travel lodge and upper class Malmaison

Hotel

Businesses have relocated from the CBD to new premises on Victoria Quay, for example the

Scottish Executive.

Leith was chosen to be the final anchorage for the Royal Yacht Britannia

A decision was made to build an Ocean Terminal for visiting liners.

Try to improve the road from Leith to centre of Edinburgh landscape for example Leith

Walk has planted trees, flowers and seats

Rural-Urban Fringe

This is the area on the outskirts of the city.

An increasing number of land users see the rural-urban fringe as the ideal location for future

developments. This location is less congested, has easier access, provides cheaper land for

building and it is more attractive than places nearer to the city centre. This is sometimes known

as Urban Sprawl. Development first begins in narrow strips along the main routes in to the city.

This is called Ribbon Development. Over time, the area between the strips fills in.

As a result, farmland is being dug up, woodland has been felled and there are fewer recreational

areas and there has been a loss of wildlife habitats. Traffic levels have increased in these areas

and noise and air pollution has increased. House prices have also increased.

As a result, many people are not happy with these developments. They do not want to see urban

areas spreading out any further. They want to protect the rural environment and retain the

pleasant and attractive countryside that surrounds most towns and cities.

It is hoped that the regeneration of the CBD will halt some of these new developments.

Some other solutions include

Very difficult to obtain planning permission to build.

development of Brownfield sites

inner city renewal

Country Park status

landfill tax increased

Case Study Developing City

Mumbai, India

Changes in the CBD

Transport Facilities

Building transport facilities has become more and more difficult because of the cities site and

situation;

It was originally on several islands so bridges have had to be built.

Bombay Island itself is narrow, so there is little space for roads and railways.

The CBD is at the southern tip of the island so can only be accessed from the North

As a result, very few roads and railways reach the centre although 8 million commuters manage to

head there everyday. This means the roads are congested and buses and trains are over crowded

with people hanging to their sides and roofs. This problem is only getting worse.

Solutions

Mumbai has two main ways for dealing with this problem;

The Urban Transport Project in 2002 that used four ways to solve traffic congestion;

– Improved railways

– Improved roads

– More buses

– Speed up road traffic

In 1979 the building of a new town called New Bombay on the mainland opposite Mumbai.

Housing in Mumbai

Away form the CBD, housing takes up a far greater area than any other land use in Mumbai.

Housing has to cater to everyone’s different tastes and also the incomes of all the people in the

city. So there are million pound apartments for the rich and famous, tenement blocks for the

factory workers, shanty towns for the impoverish and squatter camps for the destitute

immigrants.

Squatter Camps

Squatter areas are places where people settle on land which they do not own or rent. This

is the poorest accommodation in Mumbai. No one owns or rents them. They are makeshift

shelter with no amenities and no services; this means there is a high level of disease. There

are lots of immigrants and it is very unsafe.

Shanty Towns

Shanty towns are large squatter camps with slightly better living conditions. The house

structure and material is better (sometimes brick walls and tin roofs), they also have water

supplies and sometime the local authority provides basic community toilets. The houses are

still very small and very overcrowded. There is also no organised rubbish collection so

refuse is dumped anywhere.

Low Cost Housing

Half the people in Mumbai live in shanty towns and a lot of the others live in low cost

housing. These are single room tenement blacks with electricity but only for a few hours a

day. They also have running water but also for only a few hours a day. The problem with

these housing areas is parts have become ghettoes lived in by single religion groups for

security reasons.

High Cost Housing

Luxury accommodation is in high rise apartment blocks found in CBD and suburbs. Land is

really expensive and gated to prevent crime. Many of the complexes have there own

swimming pools, tennis courts, gyms, even shopping centres, schools and health centres.

Executives of companies, owners of factories and Bollywood stars all live in these areas. In

a way this area because another kind of ghetto.

The solutions to the housing problems

There are several solutions to the problems of Mumbai’s housing. These include;

The people have been evicted and houses bulldozed. This failed because the people just

build elsewhere in the city

People have been relocated to safer areas with basic amenities supplied. But, the people

often resist this move because they will be too far from their work

The authorities can improve the housing, by providing toilets, standpipes, schools,

reinforcing the walls and giving the people legal rights to the land. Some areas, however,

are so overcrowded that it is difficult to improve them.

The residents form co-operative groups and organise improvements themselves.

New Bombay

As Mumbai could not provide for its entire people so the city authority started to build a new

town called New Bombay, as an extension to Mumbai. The hope was it would reduce overcrowding

in Mumbai and have jobs and services for everyone. At present it does not and people still have to

travel into Mumbai everyday, making congestion worse.

Development

Any improvement that is made in the standard of living of people is called development. Some

countries have developed more than others so have a higher standard of living. These are

Developed countries. Those that have not developed as much as called Developing countries.

Measuring Development

It is very difficult to work out one person’s standard of living. To try and measure precisely the

standard of living of all the people in a country is impossible. The best that can be done is to

select a few indicators of development and measure them. Three types of development indicators

are studied here.

Economic Indicators of Development

These have been the most commonly used indicators. They measure the wealth and

industrialisation of a country. They include:

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per person

– The GDP is the value of all the goods produced and services provided in a country in

one year. This is divided by the number of people living in the country to indicate the

wealth of the average person.

Gross National Product (GNP) per person

– The gross national product is similar to the GDP, but it also included services earned

abroad.

Energy used per person

– The amount of energy that is used in a country can also indicate economic

development. Countries with a lot of industries producing much wealth will also use a

lot of energy.

People employed in Agriculture

– A country with a high proportion of its people in agriculture will have little industry

to produce wealth. In addition, farms are likely to be small and unprofitable. So, a

high percentage of people in agriculture are a good indicator of a less developed

country and vice versa.

Problems with Economic Indicators

Although a country may produce a lot of wealth, it may not be spread out amongst its entire

people. A small number may be extremely wealthy while the vast majority remain poor. The

amount of wealth does not give enough information on people’s quality of life. For example how

wealthy they are and how well educated.

The amount of income and wealth does not even show how well off people are. This needs to be

compared with prices to find out what people can buy with that amount of money.

Social Indicators of Development

Social indicators show how a country uses its wealth to improve the quality of life of its people.

Those measure health include:

– Population per doctor per 1000

– Infant mortality (the no. of children who die before they are 1 year old) per 1000

– Life expectancy at birth in years

Those that measure diet include:

– Calories per person per day

– Protein per person per day

Those that measure education include:

– Percentage of children attending secondary school

– Percentage of Adult literacy

Problems with Social Indicators

They also use averages, so they do not tell us the differences within a country. For example, the

average number of calories per person might be 2500 per day but half of the people might only

receive 2000 calories and be severely undernourished, while the other half has 3000 calories and

be well-fed.

One indicator on its own does not give enough information on quality of life. Although people may

be well-fed, we do not know how healthy or well educated they are.

Reasons for difference in development levels

Global variations in Development

There are many reasons for the huge variations in standards of living around the world. The

factors involved can be divided into physical and human.

Physical factors.

Climate:

– Very Cold

difficult to build roads and railways

remote and unlikely to attract much industry

Also too cold to farm

Expensive to live because high heating bills, food is expensive

Houses difficult to build because of permafrost

– Very Dry

Not enough rain to grow crops (a risk of crop failure & famine)

Remote and unlikely to attract industry

Soil made poorer by wind erosion

Relief:

– Very Steep

Also difficult to build roads and railways, so remote and unlikely to attract

much industry

Poor farming because of steep land, inability to use machinery and thin soils.

Resources

– Lack of minerals

No valuable minerals (e.g. diamonds, gold) to sell to other countries

No fuels (e.g. coal, oil) to encourage industry to set up.

Environment

– Unattractive Scenery

Not attractive to summer tourists (e.g. no sandy beaches, hot, sunny climate)

or winter tourists (e.g. no cold, snowy, steep slopes.

– Much disease

A country is unable to develop if many of its people suffer from disease and

are unable to work properly.

Natural Disasters

– Floods, drought, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, hurricanes

Areas prone to natural disasters have harvests ruined, factories and homes

destroyed, roads and railways unusable.

Cost millions of pounds and may cause famine and unemployment and may take

years for the area to recover.

Human Factors

Some countries find it difficult to develop because of their physical environment, but there are

many states that have overcome the problems of a harsh environment and enjoy a high standard

of living. Such countries include Japan, Finland, Switzerland, Canada and Australia. There must

therefore, be other factors – human factors – that help to explain differences in development

levels around the world. Some of the important human factors follow.

Population Growth

– Population is rising 16 times faster in Developing countries compared to Developed.

This gives poorer countries two sets of problems. In the countryside, farms become

smaller, as there are more people needing land. So the farmers produce less food for

their families to eat and have an increased risk of going hungry.

– In the cities, the city authorities cannot provide enough houses, schools, hospital

beds and jobs for the increasing population. So many people live in makeshift houses

(shanty towns), are unemployed and have little chance of getting to a hospital if they

are ill.

– Because the birth rate is still high, there are many young children in developing

countries. This large number of children places an additional strain on the country.

The children do not produce wealth, but they need to be kept healthy, well-fed,

educated and properly clothed.

Industrialisation

– Factories and offices produce profits that increase a country’s wealth. They also

employ many people, providing them with a regular wage. Without industry, a country

finds it very difficult to develop.

– In addition, although there is little industry, the population in developing world cities

is rising rapidly. Factories and offices are less likely to set up in developing countries

because there are few people there who are rich enough to buy their products. The

roads & railways are also poorer and there are fewer banks to borrow money from.

With fewer universities, there are not many people with the necessary skills (e.g. IT)

to work in a modern office. Although some industries are found in poorer countries,

they’re often foreign owned so the profits don’t stay in that country to increase its

wealth.

Global Issues

Health

Developing Case Study – Malaria

Distribution of Malaria

Malaria is distributed between the tropics of cancer and Capricorn, running along the equator,

mainly in Developing countries. Including Central America, Brazil, Colombia, Central Africa – south

of the Sahara and north of South Africa, - India, Pakistan and South East Asia.

Causes of Malaria

Physical Factors

Malaria occurs where the anopheles mosquito lives.

They live in warm and hot areas, where temperatures are above 16oC.

They need still water surfaces as breeding areas, but these areas do not need to be large.

As a result, all warm, rainy areas with still or slowly-moving water are suitable environments

for the anopheles mosquitoes.

Vegetation nearby to provide shade for the mosquito to hide during the day and digest the

blood meal from the night before.

Human Factors

Where people have built dams and made irrigation channels

People migrate much more now and this makes it easier for the disease to spread.

Poor Sanitation and poor housing.

Symptoms of Malaria

After a few days, the infected person suffers headaches and stomach pains, followed by fevers

of high temperature and shivering fits. The fevers can occur many times, frequently resulting in

the death of the victim. These symptoms can result in kidney failure.

Malaria is a particularly big killer of children, who have not had time to build up any immunity from

the disease. If Malaria does not kill the victim, it can cause kidney failure. It leaves the person

weak, anaemic (lacking iron) and prone to other diseases.

Effects of Malaria on the population and country

The wealth of a person and country suffering from Malaria can be severely affected.

If a person is unable to work they will not be paid and will find it difficult to look after

themselves and family leading to famine.

If farms and factories have fewer workers the amount they produce will fall and they will have

less to sell. The less money a country has the less it has to invest in schools, hospitals etc. A poor

country will find it even harder to develop.

Tourists will not be attracted to the area due to the risk of catching malaria. Industry will also

not be attracted to the area as there will be low productivity and profits.

Strategies to control Malaria

Malaria can be controlled by using many different strategies including;

– Drain all breading areas.

– The use of insecticides such as DDT

– Releasing water from dams to drown larvae

– Using mustard seeds onto stagnant surfaces to drag the larvae down and suffocate

larvae.

– Introduce small fish like muddy loach into padi fields to eat larvae

– Plant eucalyptus trees to soak up excess water.

– Use nets to prevent people from bites during the night.

– Drugs to control the disease like Quinine, cholorquin or the new drug funded by the

Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.

Effectiveness of strategies

Drugs are too expensive and the parasite has become resistant to them.

Insecticides are also expensive and pollute the environment.

Draining all breeding areas is impractical.

Bed nets are cheap and quite effective.

The new treatments have been developed which seem to be more effective such as

artemesinin/ACT.

Developed Case Study – Heart Disease

Distribution of Heart Disease

Heart disease is more commonly found in the northern hemisphere, in Developed countries. These

would include countries like the United Kingdom, USA, Russia and Germany.

Causes of Heart Disease

The causes of Heart Disease include

lack of exercise which leads to an increase pressure on your heart

stress which causes you blood pressure to rise

hereditary – can be passed from parents

eating foods high in fat which can cause high cholesterol.

smoking increases your heart rate and blood pressure, so more oxygen is needed for the

heart to work properly. But smokers lose oxygen while smoking, putting the heart under

strain.

Strategies to Control Heart Disease

Opening up new gyms, exercise classes and leisure centres

Try to relax and possibly take up a relaxing hobby to reduce stress

Medical check ups to check for high blood pressure and cholesterol

New advancements like by-pass surgery and pacemakers

Trying to increase consumption of fruit and vegetables and reduce fatty foods like take

aways

Stop smoking using nicotine patches, electric cigarettes and smoking bans

Effectiveness of Strategies

Death-rate from heart disease in the UK, amongst 16-64 year olds, has dropped by 42% in

the last 10 years. Some countries, such as Australia, Canada and Sweden, have done even

better than this.

It has dropped because of better prevention and better treatment.

Charities such as the British Heart Foundation help to fund research into the causes and

treatment of heart disease.

Evidence that better diet is working as there has been a decrease in consumption of butter

and full fat milk and people are eating more fruit

Evidence that people are still not taking enough exercise

Numbers of people smoking has now decreased

No evidence that stress levels are decreasing

People appear to be getting more regular check-ups.

Worldwide Case Study – AIDs

Distribution of AIDs

AIDs is mainly found in Developing countries but there are lower amounts in Developed countries.

Biggest problem in southern Africa, Central Africa also a significant problem; Eastern Europe,

Russia and also in south-east Asia

Causes of Malaria

The main ways in which people contract HIV/AIDS are:

sharing dirty needles

unprotected sex with infected person

babies drinking breast milk of infected mother

infected blood transfusions.

Strategies to Control AIDs

There is no cure for AIDS but there are solutions to help reduce the impact of the disease.

introduction of health education programmes

compulsory testing of people

increase the availability of ARV drugs to treat the disease

distribution of free condoms

use of radio and TV to get the message over due to lack of literacy skills.

Environmental Hazards

Earthquakes and Volcanoes

Plate Boundaries

Constructive Plate

– This is where there are two plates moving away from each other causing new oceanic

crust to be formed.

Destructive Plate

– This is where the plates move towards each other.

– The top layer of the mantle and the crust get dragged down beneath the continental

plate. The plate moves downwards very slowly at a rate of a few centimetres per year

Collision Plate

– This is where two plates are moving together. The land is therefore buckled and

pushed upwards forming high fold mountains.

Sliding Plate

– This is where two plates slide past each other. The plates rub against each other

and, when the tension builds up, the pressure is released by an earthquake. Some of

these result in volcanic activity, but is less common.

Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes

Nearly all earthquakes/volcanic eruptions take place at or near plate boundaries. Here the earth

is unstable. This is where crustal movement takes place. Volcanoes are found at constructive

(where plates move apart) and destructive (where one plate is forced down below another) plate

boundaries. This includes around The Pacific Ring of Fire around the Pacific Ocean. Magma is

released to the surface at both of these boundaries. Earthquakes happen when pressure builds up

between the plates. When the pressure becomes too high the plates suddenly slip causing an

earthquake. This releases the pressure. This movement sends shockwaves through the rocks.

Volcano Case Study- Mount St Helens

Cause of Eruption

It lies near a destructive plate boundary. Here the Juan De Fuca Plate is being forced beneath

the North American Plate into the mantle. As the Juan De Fuca plate descends it melts. As it

melts, molten rock rises into the crust. On the 18th May 1980 the magma found its way into the

magma chamber of Mt St Helens. The pressure became too much causing the volcano to erupt.

Impacts on landscape and people

400 million tonnes of ash rose 20km into the air. Some rose so high, it never came down

There was a tremendous blast from the eruption, which could be heard 300km away.

A mudflow of rock, melted ice and ash hurtled down the mountain side at 250km/h. The

heat from the eruption had melted ice and snow on the mountain, releasing millions of litres

of water.

The eruption of ash blew away the top of the mountain. In seconds it changed from a

mountain of 2950 m high to 2560 m high. At the top, a crater 500 m deep was formed.

The blast killed every form of plant and animal life for a distance of 25 km north of the

volcano. Even fully grown fir trees were flattened, up to 30 km away. About 7000 animals

died including elks and bears.

The mudflow choked rivers with sediment, killing all fish and water life and completely

filling in Spirit Lake. About 12 million salmon died. The mud emptied itself into the sea at

Portland, clogging up the harbour

May 18, 1980 was a Sunday, so no-one was working in the forests that cover the slopes of

Mt St Helens.

Local people had been evacuated from their homes and tourists were prevented from

getting close. In spite of all this, the eruption still killed 57 people and 198 had to be

rescued.

Damage ran into billions of pounds.

People were swept away by the mudflows. The mudflows destroyed bridges, houses and

logging camps.

Most people were killed by poisonous gases that accompanied the blast.

The blast flattened buildings and trees, crushing people to death. It knocked out

telephones and electricity supplies.

Up to 15cm of ash fell like rain and caused traffic chaos and flights to be cancelled.

The ash turned day into night

The ash caused serious damage to car engines and farm machinery. It covered crops

preventing them from growing. The cost to farmers was more than £100 million.

Aid

Before the eruption

The state authorities evacuated people from the exclusion zone, which saved many lives.

A few residents, scientists, reporters and cameramen refused to leave.

Unfortunately the authorities were given inaccurate advice from the scientists, so there

were still people living and holidaying in the area which was devastated by the eruption.

Short Term Aid

Short term aid was essential as:

– 198 stranded people were rescued and the fallen ash was removed. The authorities

were able to mobilise many people and equipment quickly to help in these operations.

– The above gave employment to many of the 200,000 people temporary put out of

work by the eruption.

– Over 1 million tons of ash was removed from roads, buildings and airports. In one

town, Yakima, the removal of ash alone took ten weeks and cost over £1 million.

Long Term Aid

Long term aid was essential as:

– It was concerned with returning the area to what it was like before the eruption and

this took several years.

– Millions of trees replanted

– Compensation given to farmers

– Channel dredged to allow ships to pass

– New tourist facilities built Major

– repairs undertaken and new highway built Money given to rebuild

– Money given to redevelop the salmon hatcheries

Predicting Eruptions

Scientists help to predict volcanic eruptions by using the following equipment:

Seismographs can detect small earthquakes which can indicate the movement of magma towards

the surface.

Tilt meters can measure the subtle swelling of a volcano.

Correlation spectrometers can measure amounts of sulphur dioxide - a telltale gas that is

released in increasing quantities before an eruption.

Radar satellites that continually orbit the earth can detect as little as a one-millimetre

increase in swelling on the flanks (side) of a volcano.

Mt St Helens had given clear warnings that it might erupt explosively. From March onwards

there were minor earthquakes and small eruptions of ash and steam. These gradually

became more severe.

As a result, the authorities worked out an exclusion zone based on a previous eruption and

evacuated residents, tourists and forestry workers. Emergency services, including

helicopters and aeroplanes were placed on high alert. Many lives were saved due to these

actions.

However scientists could not give a precise date for the eruption. Even the day before the

eruption, scientists were stating that the eruption might still be a few weeks away. Nor did

the experts predict that the blast from the eruption would be from the north side. Due to

this they miscalculated the exclusion zone and as a result out of the 61 people killed, 90%

lost their lives outside this zone.

Earthquake Case Studies – Haiti and Kobe

Causes of Earthquake

Nearly all earthquakes take place at or near plate boundaries. Here the earth is unstable. From

time to time pressure builds up between the plates. When the pressure becomes too high the

plates suddenly slip causing an earthquake. This releases the pressure. This movement sends

shockwaves through the rocks. The most damage occurs at the epicentre.

Predicting Earthquakes

Earthquakes are one of the most difficult natural disasters to predict but progress has been

made in recent years. Seismologists use the following to help them predict an earthquake:

Concentrating their attention on known active (moving) fault lines that have moved several

times in recent years. The scientists look at the intervals in which the earthquakes have

occurred and roughly work out when one may happen.

Laser equipment to detect if the land has moved.

Sound equipment to detect tremors.

Why are some earthquakes of similar strength more deadly than others?

The death toll of an earthquake is affected by:

How developed a country is: developed (rich) or developing (poor)

Developed countries have the money to design buildings that can withstand earthquakes.

The people are often more prepared for earthquakes. Emergency services are quicker to

respond.

The time of day the earthquake hits. More people are killed during the day.

The population density of an area. More people are killed in an area that has a high

population density.

The ground that a town or city is built upon. Rock absorbs shockwaves better than soil.

The remoteness of a town or city that is hit. This effects how quickly the emergency

services respond.

Developed Case Study Kobe, Japan (1995)

Cause of earthquake

Three crustal plates meet near to the coast of Japan. Close to Kobe, the denser oceanic

Philippines Plate is being subducted beneath the lighter continental Eurasian Plate at a rate of

about 10 centimetres per year. The Japanese island arc has been formed from the molten magma

released by the melting Philippines Plate. Earthquakes are very common here and happen because

of the friction resulting from the two plates colliding along this destructive margin.

Impact on Landscape and people

Over 5000 people died and the earthquake created an estimate £100 billion of damage.

Many of the older, wooden houses completely collapsed.

Fire, triggered by broken gas pipes and sparks from severed electrical cables, caused a

huge amount of damage, destroying at least 7,500 wooden homes.

Office blocks built in the 1960's of steel and concrete frequently collapsed in the middle

so that a whole floor was crushed but the rooms above and below remained intact.

Modern buildings, designed to be earthquake proof, did quite well on the whole and suffered

little damage, although some were left standing at an angle when the ground beneath them

liquefied.

Most people were not covered by insurance due to the difficulties of insuring such an

earthquake prone area.

Almost 300,000 people were made homeless by the earthquake and had to be given

emergency shelter.

Several sections of motorway, many of which were built above the ground on tall concrete

stilts, collapsed or toppled sideways. This resulted in the Hanshin Expressway being

completely closed.

Railway lines were buckled and many stations damaged. A 130 kilometre section of the

'bullet train' rail network had to be closed.

At the port, cranes tilted or fell and 120 (out of 150) quays where ships were moored were

destroyed.

Port buildings and their contents were badly damaged in many places.

Short Term Aid

.People were put into schools, town halls, open parks, etc. and were forced to live, in some

cases for long periods, in overcrowded, unsanitary conditions.

Food, blankets, medical supplies and clean water were, for the first few days, in short

supply.

The scale of the problem made it difficult for the authorities to cope but they refused to

accept help from other countries.

Rescuing people from the damaged buildings

Long Term Aid

water, electricity, gas, telephone services were fully working by July 1995

The railways were back in service by August 1995

A year after the earthquake, 80% of the port was working but the Hanshin Expressway

was still closed.

By January 1999, 134,000 housing units had been constructed but some people still had

to live in temporary accommodation.

New laws were passed to make buildings and transport structures even more earthquake

proof.

More instruments were installed in the area to monitor earthquake movements.

Developing Case Study Haiti (2010)

Cause of earthquake

The quake occurred in the vicinity of the northern boundary where the Caribbean tectonic plate

shifts eastwards by about 20mm per year in relation to the North American plate.

Impact on Landscape and People

Approximately 230,000 people died as a result of the eruption

250,000 residences and 30,000 commercial buildings had collapsed or were severely damaged.

Landmark buildings were significantly damaged or destroyed, including the Presidential Palace, the National Assembly building, the Port-au-Prince Cathedral, and the main jail.

Infrastructure necessary to respond to the disaster was severely damaged or destroyed. This included air, sea, and land transport facilities; and communication systems

More than 1,300 schools and 50 health care facilities were destroyed

Water was contaminated with sewage

Cholera was a major disease that spread throughout the homeless and injured

Short Term Aid

Rescuing people from the rubble

Treating injuries on surviving people.

Setting up camps for the homeless

Trying to provide clean water to control the diseases

Provisions including food and blankets were sent from other countries.

Long Term Aid

Clearing the roads of debris and rubble to get them rebuilt so areas were not cut off.

However 6 months after the quake, 98% of the rubble remained un cleared, some still

blocking vital access roads.

Rebuilding the area so people can move out of the camps but this is still on going. The

number of people in relief camps of tents and tarps since the quake was 1.6million, and

almost no transitional housing had been built

Reconnecting communication lines

The EU gave $330 million and the World Bank waived the countries debt repayments for 5

years.

The Senegalese offered land in Senegal to any Haitians who wanted it!

Most of the camps had no electricity, running water, or sewage disposal, and the tents were

beginning to fall apart.

Between 23 major charities, $1.1 billion had been collected for Haiti for relief efforts, but

only two percent of the money had been released

One year after the earthquake 1 million people remained displaced

The Dominican Republic which neighbours Haiti offered support and accepted some

refugees.

Medicines San frontiers, a charity, tried to help casualties whilst the USA took charge of

trying to coordinate Aid distribution.

Tropical Storms

Case Study Hurricane Katrina

Location of a Tropical Storm

Tropical storms are severe depressions (low pressure system) in which wind speeds reach between

60km/hr and 200 km/hr. When tropical storms reach 120 km/hr they are called hurricanes.

There are local names for hurricanes in different parts of the world:

America = hurricanes

Indian Ocean & Australia = cyclones

South East Asia = typhoons

Tropical storms are found over oceans within 30 degrees of the equator where sea temperature is

over 27 degrees. They start on the eastern side of oceans and move westwards, before drying

out over land.

Cause of Tropical Storms

For a tropical storm to form the following conditions are required:

Warm seas which have a surface temperature of 27°C or more,

Warm water to a depth of at least 60 metres.

Damp moist air with a relative humidity of 60% or more.

Low air pressure, with the air beginning to rise.

Hurricane Katrina

Hurricane Katrina was one of the strongest storms to hit the coast of the United States in the

last 100 years. With strong winds of 125 mph (a strong category 3 hurricane on the Saffir-

Simpson scale), Katrina caused widespread devastation along the central Gulf Coast states of the

US. Cities such as New Orleans, Louisiana, Mobile, Alabama, and Gulfport, Mississippi felt the

brunt of Katrina's force. Katrina attaining 'major hurricane' status on the afternoon of the 26th.

Katrina hit the Gulf Coast on the morning of the 29th of August.

Impact on Landscape and People

Death toll was approximately 1835

New Orleans was flooded this caused water to become contaminated.

Many people left stranded on top of houses waiting to be rescued

Levees broke due to damage

Many people were made homeless

Power lines, bridges and roads were damaged

Huge numbers of people were stuck in traffic jams due to evacuation orders

Short Term Aid

Shelter for homeless (1), food and water (1), medical aid for injured (1), voluntary workers

Shelter for the homeless as many were staying in the Superdome

Food as the area was running out very quickly

Fresh water due to the water becoming contaminated

Medical aid for the people who were injured

Evacuation for people in New Orleans

Draining the city of the water

Long Term Aid

Rebuilding the levees to avoid similar floods happening again

Improved flood prevention measures put in place

Rebuilding homes but some people have never returned to their homes.

Building up New Orleans tourist industry again therefore creating jobs and money.

Predicating Hurricanes

Hurricane speed and direction are difficult to predict. Forecasters often issue hurricane

warnings for a large area. Forecasters use the following to help them predict and issue warnings:

Weather stations on land and at sea.

Radiosonde balloons which are sent into the hurricane.

Radar is used to find out where rain is falling and its intensity.

Satellites which take photographs of the hurricane to track it.

Specially designed aircraft which fly into the hurricanes and take measurements.

Computers in the National Hurricane Centre in Miami, USA process all this data and predict

the hurricanes speed and strength over 24/48 hours.