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Madame d’Aulnoy and her Feminist Examination
Of Anne Boleyn in the Seventeenth Century
By: Emily Fowler
“The novel as a genre is superior to history because it contains ‘more practical morality
than history.’”1 This was what Germaine Stael, an eighteenth-century writer, thought about the
different methods of writing history. Novels were used as methods of telling history beginning in
the late seventeenth century, and quickly became a preferable form for women to enter into the
discussion of history. Embroiled with critiques on present day discourse and trends in society,
history was seen as more than mere facts and events. Social stratification, and the role which
individuals should play in society, were hotly contested subjects for debate. In the midst of these
debates over the proper structure for polite society, women were beginning to break free from the
domestic sphere and present their own opinions on the structure of society through authoring
novels and fairy tales.2
One of these female authors was Marie-Catherine Le Jumal de Barneville. Married in
1666, at the age of sixteen to a man three times her age, d’Aulnoy’s marriage seemed destined to
implode. Three years later this implosion occurred, amid a huge scandal after her mother had
attempted to frame her extremely wealthy son-in-law for a crime. The aim was to get rid of him
and gain his fortune. The attempt failed, however, and mother and daughter disappeared
together. In 1685, the next written record of d’Aulnoy’s activities appear, showing her to be
living in a convent outside Paris.3 Around the year 1690 and onward, Barneville began what 1 Faith Beasley, Revising Memory, (London: Rutgers University Press, 1990), 70.2 J. Lough, “France Under Louis XIV”, The New Cambridge Modern History, edited by F.L. Carsten, Cambridge University Press, (2008): 3; Carol J Singley, Susan Elizabeth Sweeney, Anxious Power: Reading, Writing, and Ambivalence in Narrative by Women, (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993), 73; N.H. Keeble, The Cultural Identity of the Seventeenth Century Woman: A Reader, (London: Routledge, 1994), 265.3 Katharina M. Wilson, An Encyclopedia of Continental Women Writers (Taylor & Francis, 1991), 61.
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would become a successful writing career, with the publication of her famous Histoire
d’Hypolite, Comte de Douglas. Taking the pen name Madame d’Aulnoy, she grew in her success
as her career continued. D’Aulnoy established her own literary salon and continued to write
novels, travelogues, and histories, which gained her even more fame. Within all of these works
d’Aulnoy infused her own critique of the aristocratic society in which she lived. The biggest
success for d’Aulnoy came in the form of her fairy tales, such as The White Cat, Graciosa and
Percinet, and The Fair one with Golden Lockes, to name a few. These fairytales also presented a
social critique on the conventions of gender and marriage. Even with her literary success,
d’Aulnoy continued to have a life tinged with scandal. In 1699, her close friend, Madame
Ticquet was tortured and executed for the attempted murder of her husband.4 The personal life of
Madame d’Aulnoy, and that of her friend, speaks to a larger theme within aristocratic society.
This theme was the issue of inequality and dissatisfaction within marriages of the aristocratic
court culture under the Sun King.
The flaws of marriage in the seventeenth century lay in disconnection between affection
and matrimony. Marriage was largely an economic or political decision, casting aside ideas of
companionship or affection. This led to an institution full of impersonal relationships, and often
the burden of affection fell to the wife who had little to no choice in her marriage.5 Madame
d’Aulnoy’s novel, The Novels of Elizabeth, Queen of England, Containing the History of Queen
Ann of Bullen, speaks to this theme of dangerous marriages. D’Aulnoy provides a moral
construct for aristocratic women, as well as a social critique of the institution of marriage. She
does this through her questioning of power and gender roles between a husband and wife, versus
4 Wilson, An Encyclopedia of Continental Women Writers, 62.5 Wendy Gibson, Women in Seventeenth Century France, (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989), 59-60.
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those in true love. D’Aulnoy provides an examination of how deeply embedded the social issues
of gender and marriage were in culture of the Seventeenth Century.
The basis for d’Aulnoy’s critique comes from the feminist perspective of these social
issues: gender and marriage. Carolynn Lougee states that in the seventeenth century, feminism
(as it is understood in the twenty-first century), did not exist. She instead says feminism was
“used to denote nothing other than the positive response to the question whether women should
play a public role in French society.”6 This form of feminism is what Madame d’Aulnoy
represented in her writing. In her view, women were not meant to be the property of their
husbands, or be subjugated by men. Women could play roles in society outside of marriage, and
were not defined by the title of “wife”. She often conveys this message subconsciously, through
producing heroines who were atypical and did not follow the model for fictional women, i.e.
damsels in distress. Though d’Aulnoy’s critique of marriage can be seen throughout her various
works one of the most compelling was The Novels of Elizabeth, Queen of England, Containing
the History of Queen Ann of Bullen, which began to circulate in the 1680’s. D’Aulnoy dubbed
this work a ‘secret history’, a style of writing which blended the fantastical nature of fairy tales
with historical figures and events.7 In her tale, d’Aulnoy tells the infamous story of Anne Boleyn
and her catastrophic marriage to Henry VIII in the sixteenth century. Through adding a twist or
two of her own, d’Aulnoy infuses her social critique of seventeenth century France. This tale of
Anne Boleyn clearly discusses the perils of marrying a tyrannical man, a choice which a woman
would always have to pay for, and Anne paid with her head. D’Aulnoy provides a rich critique of
society, the institution of marriage, and gender constructs in the seventeenth century. The reader
6 Carolyn C. Lougee, Le Paradis de Femmes, (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1976), 7.7 Susan Bordo, The Creation of Anne Boleyn: A New Look at England’s Most Notorious Queen (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2013), 147.
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is given a chance to fathom the deep repercussions of gender inequality which penetrated the
most fundamental level of society: marriage.
The World Surrounding Madame d’Aulnoy
Madame d’Aulnoy’s fairy tales, histories, and novels, such as her history of Anne
Boleyn, were read by French aristocrats who lived within the confines of court life and
aristocratic society. Thus, her readers understood the reasons for d’Aulnoy’s social critique. In
her writing d’Aulnoy sometimes engaged in an even broader political critique of the quest for
absolute power and authority under Louis XIV. Despite deep economic inequalities between the
upper and lower classes, France was at its peak in the seventeenth century—with literature and
art being used to elevate French society even further on an international scale. The court of
Versailles was one of the most splendid in Europe and the regalia of the palace alone represented
the type of nation Louis XIV was proud to lead.8 The upper classes were attracted by the power
and influence present in court society, and flocked to Versailles. Their presence was a reflection
of Louis’ own glory as well as his desire to monitor the actions of nobles who rebelled against
him during his youth in a series of revolts known as the Fronde. The Sun King felt a deep distrust
towards the old nobility, fearing that they would gain power over him and steal the throne.
Because of this distrust, the King favored those with wealth who came court. Whether the
wealthy had noble blood was not an issue, Louis was creating a new aristocratic class. This was
accomplished through the wealthy bourgeoisies advancing through promotions to state positions,
as well as intermarrying with the old nobility. This further solidified the positions of the new
nobility. Meanwhile, the old nobility was essentially kept at court, right under the nose of the
King so he could spy out any nefarious plots that might arise.9
8 Lough, “France Under Louis XIV”, 223.9 Ibid., 225-226, 240.
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As a member of the aristocracy by birth and marriage, d’Aulnoy was aware of the ways
the court society was flawed, and her own critique of court can be seen in her works. D’Aulnoy’s
fairy tale The White Cat, written in 1697, tells the story of a king who does not want to pass on
his crown to his sons. Instead he sets three seemingly ridiculous and impossible tasks in front of
his three sons, and gives them a year to complete each. They must find the most intelligent and
handsome dog, find a piece of fabric which would pass through the eye of a needle, and find the
most beautiful bride.10 This premise for a story alone betrays the influence of the court on
Madame d’Aulnoy. The image of the king who mistrusts those of high influence clearly recalls
the activities of Louis XIV who deeply distrusted the old nobility.
Another way this specific fairy tale reflects the influence that this court had on Madame
d’Aulnoy comes from the heroine, a beautiful princess, with six different kingdoms, who has
been transformed into a white cat. This white cat points to the true pathway to happiness, which
does not lie in searching for glory and power. In The White Cat, the youngest of the three princes
stumbles upon this cat’s royal palace on his journeys and eventually they fall in love, an action
which releases the princess from the enchantment. Changed back into a beautiful princess, she is
taken with the prince as his bride to receive his crown and the kingdom, having completed the
last impossible task, and finding the most beautiful bride. In a final twist to this story, the
beautiful princess turns down the kingdom she earned through her beauty, and in turn gives the
king half of her six kingdoms, saying that she is happy to just have three of them.11 This heroine
turning down the splendor of a seventh kingdom, and giving away half of hers, intentionally
relates to Louis XIV. D’Aulnoy’s political critique is of Louis’ thirst to make France great, and
to revel in the splendor of the age. D’Aulnoy also makes bold critiques such as this in her secret 10 Madame d’Aulnoy, “The White Cat” in The White Cat: and Other French Fairytales, ed Rachel Field (New York: Macmillan, 1967), 2.11 Ibid.
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history of Anne Boleyn. When describing King Henry VIII d’Aulnoy says that: “The King had a
liberal soul, His [mistress] was not covetous, [she] loved splendor and vast expense, nothing was
there seen but Balls, Comedies, Turnaments, and Stately Magnificence.”12 Meanwhile, d’Aulnoy
juxtaposes this image with her description of Ann of Bullen as “tender and courteous.”13
Madame d’Aulnoy translates the theme of courtly splendor and excess in this tale just as she
does in The White Cat. The message d’Aulnoy conveys is one of abstinence from glory and
power. Greatness comes from humility and generosity, as exhibited by the white cat and Ann of
Bullen. At a personal as well as political level, d’Aulnoy understood and had experienced the
abuse of power and male authority. While the tale of The White Cat subliminally makes the
critique of power and excess, many of d’Aulnoy’s tales speak more to the role of power in the
abuse suffered by women within the conventional constraints of marriage.
Wendy Gibson is a scholar in French Studies, and has examined the role of women in
seventeenth-century France. She writes that early seventeenth century marriage had nothing to
do with personal affection, it was an arbitrary arrangement. Gibson states that the view of
marriage as arbitrary resulted in partners who had nothing but resentment towards each other.14
While feminists theorize marriage as an equal partnership for the benefit of both partners, the
reality of marriage was surrounded with inequality.15 Marriage contained many double standards,
such as it being perfectly acceptable for husbands to have a mistress with whom he could be
affectionate towards (which was unheard of in marriage). However, if a woman crossed this
same line, her life could be on the line.16 Women were often left with only female
12 Madame d’Aulnoy, Spencer Hickman, The Novels of Elizabeth, Queen of England, Containing The History of Queen Ann of Bullen, 1670-1681, 8.13 Ibid., 13.14 Wendy Gibson, “The Estate of Matrimony” in Women in the Seventeenth Century, (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1989), 59.15 Ibid.16 Ibid., 62.
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companionship, while their husbands were free to engage in a number of affairs, and were even
encouraged to do so.17 Marriage was perpetuated as being meant for an economic or political
advancement, and it was from this ideal of marriage that patterns of indifference and double
standards occurred. The pattern of marriages in this state of discord led to very unusual
arrangements in the late seventeenth century for married couples. Couples in the upper class
would live apart from each other. This was more of a style than a necessity, as you could only
afford to do so if you had enough wealth. If these aristocratic couples could not live apart from
each other, they would at least practice a form of physical separation. Gibson says that “To place
some physical distance between oneself and one’s partner, by means of separate beds, separate
domiciles or separate life-styles, became indispensable to those who did not wish their mode of
existence to be called old-fashioned and low-class.”18 Eventually if a husband and wife were seen
affectionately together in public it was seen as shameful.19 Love was not a part of the institution
of marriage, love was for those who were equals. In marriage women were not equal, they were
inferiors who deserved to have their physical and economic property controlled and owned by
their husbands. Thus, wives did not deserve love from their husbands.20 These themes of
inequality and maltreatment in marriage are precisely the social precedents Madame d’Aulnoy
sought to critique in her novels and fairytales. In order to do this, she infused her feminist
perspective into her works.
One of the strongest themes which emerges in the writing of Madame d’Aulnoy is her
belief in female equality, as well as her distrust in the institution of marriage and its aristocratic
conventions. A strong voice for female equality was Francois Poullain de la Barre. Barre was
17 Ibid., 65.18 Ibid., 66.19 Ibid., 67.20 Ibid., 69.
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born in 1648 in Paris. In 1667 he discovered Cartesian philosophy. This was a form of thinking
which was clear and intelligible to the hearer, versus a reasoning which one could not achieve
aside from years of study. Barre’s Cartesian perspective made an impact on the feminist thought
that he exhibited, as his treatises on equality are described in a logical setting which the most
common peasant could understand.21 Barre famously wrote these three treatises on female
equality, which were immersed in the debate of women’s role in society. In his treaty on the
equality of the sexes, Barre makes several points which were groundbreaking at the time. In a
society of male dominance where the natural inferiority of women was a commonly-held belief,
Barre argued that women were equal to men in all fields, this included intelligence and
academics. Barre claimed that the only reason women have not been as successful in academics,
is that their opportunities had been removed, and their ability to express their intelligence was
oppressed. As he argued, the lack of opportunity forced women to focus on other attributes, such
as their physical attractiveness and style, as an outlet for the intelligence which men had
suppressed. Through a woman’s physical appearance she could exhibit some form of power.22
However, this power became associated with sin. Carolynn Lougee, a scholar on seventeenth
century salon culture, states that women were negatively seen as having the power of love and
sex. Because of this, feminists were fighting against the idea that women’s character was inferior
to men’s. Barre saw women as equals, whose body and sexuality did not define their soul.23 In
fact Barre used anatomical studies in his treatises to explain that the physical differences between
the sexes were merely for biological purposes, and had no effect on morality or usefulness.24
Barre continually argues this: that women and men have the same aptitudes for everything. The
21 Francoise Poullain de la Barre, The Three Cartesian Feminist Theories, trans Vivien Bosely (London: University of Chicago Press, 1674-1723), 5-7.22 Ibid., 50-60.23 Lougee, Le Paradis des Femmes, 13-14.24 Ibid., 15.
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only causes for inequality have come from a lack of education of women (making it appear they
are not as capable as men) and imagined faults on the part of outdated scholars. These
preconceived notions of women’s inability to achieve as much as men had been passed down and
accepted through each generation, more through an ignorance and arrogance which Barre sees as
the worst parts of men.25 Even more surprisingly, Barre continues the argument that in some
ways women are in actuality more advanced than men: they are gentler, more humane, more
discerning, and more eloquent.26 Barre’s treatises reveal the backbone of feminist thought and
culture in the late seventeenth century.
Another important source of feminist thought in the seventeenth century were the Neo-
platonic conceptions of love. Neo-Platonism was the revival of ideas and philosophy which had
been espoused by Plato in ancient times. Neo-Platonism stated that love was “the all-pervading
creative principle of the universe”27 This redefined love with women in the center. Women were
no longer simply objects to be chased, but the very agents of love itself. Lougee says that those
aspects of women which were once considered weak were now considered sweet, and that
physical force and masculinity were seen as signs of being socially inferior, like a peasant.28
Neo-platonic theories of love saw women as ethically superior, being closer to God than men
were.29 Madame d’Aulnoy plays with these new conceptions of femininity and love in her works.
Madame d’Aulnoy uses love as the anchor for happiness in her History of Queen Ann of Bullen.
Ann and Henry Percy fall in love, but are viciously broken apart through the manipulation of
their fathers and the King. Ann is then manipulated into marrying the King. All the while Ann
and Percy never stop loving each other. Even when led to believe that Ann had been unfaithful to
25 Francois Poullain de la Barre, The Three Cartesian Feminist Theories, 50-54, 61.26 Ibid., 57, 64-65.27 Ibid., 34.28 Ibid., 32.29 Ibid., 36-38.
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him Percy “found a greater disposition in himself to love her now than ever.”30 D’Aulnoy uses
the love of Percy and Ann as a unifying force and juxtaposes their true love with the tyrannical
marriage imposed on Ann by Henry VIII. True love is seen as good and whole, while the
marriages that Percy and Ann receive end up in disarray and death.
These topics of Neo-Platonism, feminism, and social restructuring were read and
discussed in Parisian aristocratic circles, where the inequality of the sexes was exceptionally
prevalent in marriage. Women, and occasionally men, would gather in a French salon to discuss
matters of “taste and pleasure.”31 Salons were extensions of what Lougee calls the
“institutionalized court.”32 This meant that aristocratic women, who were not differentiated
through the age of their nobility, gathered to discuss literature, society, and feminist thought.
These salons were deemed as being dominated by women, due to the fact that salons were
always run by a woman.33 Thus salons were where women, and those men whose ideals were
aligned with their own, could freely discuss the feminist plight. Women who were involved in
salons, and the salon culture, were not linked through any one thing, except perhaps wealth. The
salon was a merger of new and old nobility. While wealth was something these women had in
common, the variety of ways that wealth and status were obtained was not as much of an issue.34
Though these salons were an extension of the social elite, and therefore the court, in reality
salons were anti-court. Women of different breeding violated the stringent hierarchies which
were in place in the court life. Despite Louis XIV’s preference for the new nobility over the old,
there were still strict functions that every member of the court played. Salons did not function in
this way. Women in these salons were often a part of polite society, and yet entered into
30 D’Aulnoy, The Novels of Elizabeth Containing the History of Queen Ann of Bullen, 65.31 Lougee, Le Paradis des Femmes, 5.32 Ibid.33 Ibid.34 Lougee, Le Paradis des Femmes, 125.
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discussion over the social stratification of society and how it could be altered. Specifically, those
who attended salons wanted women to have a role in public society, and not be limited to the
confines of the home.35 Lougee describes how feminism and salon culture were tied together, and
how feminist discussions took place in the salon. According to Lougee, salon women referred to
their situation within society, and marriage, as slavery. These women had intentions to rebel
against the slavery of overbearing gender constructs within the institution of marriage, and the
salon is where this rebellion occurred. This salon culture was the primary audience of Madame
d’Aulnoy. She opened and ran a salon while she was writing, and her works were often read in
her salon, even to the sister in law of the King. This feminist culture was what d’Aulnoy was
immersed in, and the critiques common in salons were the ones which she infused in her work.36
Madame d’Aulnoy was surrounded by other women in aristocratic marriages of the style written
by Wendy Gibson. One of the most famous examples of women who not only lived in these
conditions, but wrote about them, comes from the Mancini sisters.
The Mancini sisters were members of the old nobility. Their uncle had been Cardinal
Mazarin, he ruled France until his death in 1661. At the death of the Cardinal, Louis XIV finally
received his right to rule France. The Cardinal was extremely powerful, having retained the
ruling of France for ten years after Louis XIV came of age.37 Not only was he powerful, but he
was also extremely wealthy. At his death his wealth and estate went to his favorite niece
Hortense Mancini, with his title being passed onto a husband he found for her, making them
Monsieur and Madame Mazarin.38 In her memoirs Hortense tells a story of her brutal husband,
35 Ibid., 7. 36 Jacques Barchilon, “Adaptations of Folktales and Motifs in Madame d’Aulnoy’s “Contes”: A Brief Survey of Influence and Diffusion,” Marvels & Tales 23 no. 2 (2009): 355, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41388930.
37 Lough, “France Under Louis XIV”, 1.38 Hortense Mancini and Marie Mancini, “To M.*** [the Memoirs of Hortense Mancini]” in Memoirs, ed. Sarah Nelson, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 27, 36.
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who seems to demand her constant dissatisfaction, and strives for her to be unhappy. He forces
her to continue moving around the country so she is never settled in one place, and fires anyone
she gets close to, male or female.39 Hortense discloses that she escaped from her husband, with
the help of her brother, to Italy. Her destination is Milan, where her sister Marie is married to a
constable.40 Though she has fled the country, Hortense’s husband will not stop trying to force her
back to France. At the same time, it appears the Marie’s husband is restrictive of her too. This
leads to the two women running away together.41 Eventually, Marie heads for Paris and Hortense
seems to settle in the area of Chambery, and is finally at peace.42 The significance of this tale lies
in the authorship, as well as how it relates to Madame d’Aulnoy. There can be no doubt to the
truthfulness of Hortense Mancini’s memoire, as it was witnessed by all those around her who
testified to its events. Hortense and Marie exemplify the trouble of marriage in the late
seventeenth century. The fact that both sisters were trapped in marriages with abusive or
controlling men cannot simply be ignored. However, if one did try to brush their experience of
marriage aside, then the situation of Madame d’Aulnoy can be brought up as well. She too, was
in a marriage which she needed to escape. D’Aulnoy also had a friend, previously mentioned,
who was executed for attempting to murder her husband. The fact that there are several examples
of these unhealthy marriages show that this was not an unheard of occurrence in seventeenth-
century France. These women, and their unhappy marriages were relevant to society. The sisters
chose to critique marriage in the form of a memoire. Madame d’Aulnoy chose to do so through
her novels and fairytales. Though she does not tell us of her specific experiences with marriage
in her works, her feminist perspective appears in her fictional stories. In this way d’Aulnoy’s
39 Ibid., 39-40.40 Ibid., 55-63.41 Ibid., 78. 42 Ibid., 81.
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critique could be subconsciously absorbed by her readers. D’Aulnoy’s retelling of the famous
events surrounding Anne Boleyn creates what Susan Bordo calls, a “dystopian fairytale”.43
Bordo is a scholar who examined the changing conceptions of Anne Boleyn through time. She
discussed how d’Aulnoy added her seventeenth century feminist perspective to the famous story
of Anne Boleyn’s life. Through her twists in the story of Anne Boleyn, D’Aulnoy emphasizes
specific aspects of Anne’s life. This emphasis lends itself to providing a discussion on the moral
and social conventions of power and equality in marriage.
Who is Anne Boleyn?
Anne Boleyn was born into a well-known and favored family under the Tudor monarchy.
She was trained and refined in the art of being a lady in the courts of Austria and France before
returning to England in 1522, and she quickly joined the household of Katherine of Aragon.
Anne struck up a relationship with Henry Percy, heir to the earldom of Northumberland, around
1523. Apparently, they fell madly in love with one another, and were secretly betrothed to each
other before a few witnesses (despite Percy being betrothed to another woman in 1516). Cardinal
Wolsey put an end to the relationship, and some believe it to have been done on behalf of the
King who was supposedly already feeling affectionate towards Anne. Anne was banished by
royal order to her family’s estate for a year or more. When she returned to court in 1525 Henry’s
attraction for her continued to grow, until in 1526 it seems Henry approached her asking her to
be his mistress.44 At this point Anne’s story deviates from that of a typical courtly romance or
flirtation with a King. Rather than accepting the “honor” of being Henry’s mistress, Anne
refused him. Anne had witnessed her sister, Mary, go through the process of being Henry’s
mistress years before. Mary had been married to William Carey and soon became pregnant.
43 Bordo, The Creation of Anne Boleyn, 147.44 Alison Weir, “Mistress Anne” in The Six Wives of Henry VIII, (New York: Grove Press, 1991), 158.
13
There is speculation that the child was actually Henry’s. As opposed to Mary’s story, Anne
wanted more than to simply be married off and forgotten once Henry grew bored with her.45 She
pleaded with Henry that her virtue meant more to her than anything, and that she would only
give herself to her husband.46 This was quite a dangerous move for Anne, if Henry was offended
she would lose everything. However, Anne was a better player in the game of love than most.
Henry was intrigued by her protestations, to the point where he was infatuated with her. Henry
sent her lavish gifts with the hope to wear Anne down, and she accepted these gifts, soon
learning about Henry’s plans to release himself from his marriage to Katherine. Anne’s new goal
was to replace Katherine. Anne set her eyes on not just becoming Henry’s wife—but becoming
his Queen as well.
Anne played a strategic game in order to keep Henry’s interest. She was aloof, revealing
little of herself and her heart. While at other times Anne poured out her soul to Henry. This game
was specifically designed to keep Henry on his toes, and to keep him enticed with every aspect
of her being.47 The rollercoaster of availability which Anne exhibited kept Henry unable to think
of any other. He had to achieve the impossible and win Anne. This carried on for several years
while Henry pursued an annulment on the grounds that Katherine had been married to his brother
Arthur, and in the Bible it is a sin to marry the wife of your brother. Henry believed this to be the
cause of him having no male heir.48 As this news spread, and as the idea that Anne was Henry’s
mistress grew as well, she became increasingly unpopular. However, this only proved to increase
Henry’s love for her. Anne grew a political faction around her who opposed not only Katherine,
but Henry’s advisor Cardinal Wolsey. As her faction gained power, she was at the peak of her
45 Ibid., 159.46 Ibid., 160.47 Ibid., 161, 211. 48 Ibid., “The ‘great matter’”, 179.
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influence. However, her relationship with Henry soon began to drift, as Anne feared losing him
(and her position) all together, she played her final card, and gave in to Henry’s desire. Anne was
soon pregnant, and not willing to have another bastard son, Henry rushed to marry her privately
in 1533, even though he was still legally bound to Katherine. However, a few months later
Archbishop Cranmer pronounced Henry’s marriage to Katherine to be upon false grounds, and a
month after that he had proclaimed Anne’s marriage to Henry good and true.49 With Anne’s
position now secure, she proceeded with her coronation and gave birth to her daughter Elizabeth.
Despite not having born a son, there was hope for her to still have this heir with future
pregnancies. However, when Anne miscarried a son in 1536 it seems her fall from grace was in
motion. In order to get rid of Anne and marry his new mistress (Jane Seymour), Henry began
plans to accuse Anne of treason. Eventually, Anne was accused of having affairs with five men,
one of whom was her brother. These charges were level with treason, and on May 19 Anne
Boleyn was beheaded, along with the five men accused.50
Anne was the victim of a tyrannical king, who she was unfortunate enough to fall in love
with. The story of Anne’s misfortune presents an obvious example of the perils of marriage,
which would have appealed to d’Aulnoy’s feminist perspective. Through taking a well-known
story with a tragic ending, d’Aulnoy is able to show just how destructive the current state of
marriage in France was. Madame d’Aulnoy infuses her own critique on Anne’s well known tale
by enhancing the roles of certain characters. She also delineates from the historical storyline in
order to make a statement about the difference between true love and the constraints of marriage
in the seventeenth century.
49 Ibid., “Happiest of Women”, 248.50 Retha Warnicke, “Sexual Heresy” in The Rise and Fall of Anne Boleyn, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 191, 232.
15
A Dystopian Tale of Anne Boleyn
The title, The Novels of Elizabeth, Queen of England, Containing the History of Queen
Ann of Bullen, which d’Aulnoy chose for this tale is a diversionary tactic, according to Susan
Bordo. As she states, “it’s really all about Anne.”51 The story opens and concludes within the
court of Elizabeth I, and the reader discovers that the entire novel is set as the story of
Elizabeth’s mother’s life, being told to the Queen. The question then arises, why not merely title
this story as The History of Queen Anne Boleyn? What purpose did the diversionary tactic of this
title serve? One possible explanation of this diversionary tactic, as Bordo says, may involve the
conflicting views of Anne Boleyn. Queen Elizabeth was widely acknowledged for her success as
a monarch, while there was still a lingering controversy over her mother, Anne Boleyn. The
controversy surrounding Anne stemmed from the religious factions which had formed when she
was the mistress, and eventual wife, of Henry VIII. Henry separated England from the Roman
Catholic Church in order to divorce Katherine. Many people, including those outside of England,
viewed Henry’s decision to divorce Katherine as coming from his desire for Anne Boleyn.
Because of this Anne was seen as the catalyst of Henry’s separation from the church.52 Along
with this, Anne was a protestant thinker, who believed in reform within the church. Henry had
allowed her free reign to read books which had been censored in England.53 Bordo states that the
rift among opinion of Anne ran along lines of religion. Protestants adored her, seeing her as a
victim, while Catholics vilified her as a heretic.54 With France as a Catholic nation, it would be
probable for Frenchmen to view Anne in these negative terms. Stronger opposition would have
been present to the telling of a narrative focusing on the woman seen as the usurper of the true
51 Bordo, The Creation of Anne Boleyn, 147.52 Gilbert Burnett, Robert White, The History of the Reformation of the Church of England, (London: T.H. PR1127. E2 1181:12, 1679), 41.53 Weir, The Six wives of Henry VIII, 195.54 Bordo, The Creation of Anne Boleyn, 143.
16
Catholic Queen of England, Katherine of Aragon. By disguising Anne behind a title focusing on
Elizabeth, d’Aulnoy ensured the circulation of her tale. However, once the reader began this
story, it would appear obvious that this novel was not about Elizabeth at all.
Madame D’Aulnoy’s history of Anne Boleyn focuses on the beautiful and desirable Ann
of Bullen, a name surely chosen to help cast the allure of a fairy tale. Madame d’Aulnoy begins
her narrative with Ann at the French court, where she has learned all about courtly manners and
traditions, and has faithfully served the French Queen. D’Aulnoy right away connects her tale of
Ann of Bullen to the court of the Sun King-- by placing Ann in the society of the French court.
As D’Aulnoy says Ann “eclipsed all beauties”55 and had many suitors in France, but she turned
them all down, not willing to settle. However, when Lord Percy, the Earl of Northumberland
arrives, “Ann Bullen was tender and courteous; her eyes found him worthy of her heart, and he
found no difficulty in gaining her love, after he had assured her of his.”56 Their love was true. It
was this form of love which represented the feminist ideal Lougee discusses. Lougee details the
concept of ‘free love’ that feminists sought in the seventeenth century. This love was the search
for perfect friendship and companionship, despite the common held belief in polite society that
marriage was not for love.57 Also introduced is Henry VIII, who was married to Catherine of
Aragon, but had taken a mistress. This mistress was Elizabeth Blunt, who “made (…)
considerable progress in his majesties affections; (…) ambitious without moderation, she pleased
herself sufficiently in making the King act blindly whatever she desired.”58 Madame d’Aulnoy
creates Blunt as one of the most influential people in the life of Henry VIII, aside from his
advisor Cardinal Wolsey. Wolsey sees Blunt’s “power as so great that he feared he had too much
55 D’Aulnoy, The Novels of Elizabeth, 11.56 Ibid., 13.57 Lougee, Le Paradis des femmes, 25.58 D’Aulnoy, Novels of Elizabeth, Queen of England, Containing the History of Queen Anne of Boleyn, 7.
17
favor’d a passion which might diminish or at least limit his esteem.”59 Because Wolsey chooses
not to befriend Blunt there is a perpetual animosity between them. Eventually Henry catches
sight of Ann at a diplomatic event, and at once falls in love with her (though only privately).
D’Aulnoy places Ann at the center of a feud between Blunt and Wolsey when she is called to the
English court. Ann is being used by Wolsey, to replace Blunt as Henry’s mistress. The Cardinal
does this because he sees her as someone he could “hope to have an entire power over.”60 Blunt
sees this threat to her position and began an affair with Ann’s brother, hoping to discover any
secrets Ann had, which Blunt could use to denounce her too the King. In essence, d’Aulnoy
creates a situation where Cardinal Wolsey wanted to place Ann in the position of Blunt. Because
of this Blunt works against Wolsey, hoping Percy and Ann would marry soon and thwart his
plans. At the same time Henry begins to pursue Ann. Henry wanted to make Ann “in some
measure his creature.”61 This language of “creature” used by d’Aulnoy evokes the level of
dehumanization that occurred in aristocratic marriages. Wives were not equal partners, but
property or slaves. Ann was still in love with Percy, and would not become the “creature” of the
King. She had “both virtue and resolution, [she] was not of the humour to indulge the King’s
passion as he desired.”62 In this tale, d’Aulnoy creates these two different levels of power
struggles.
The first power struggle is the result of Wolsey and his maneuvering to replace Blunt.
D’Aulnoy paints this narrative to discuss corruption and political scheming in the court system.
Wolsey does not seem to care what happens to the women he is manipulating. Rather, he is
positioning these women so that he is best suited to remain in power under Henry VIII. The
59 Ibid., 9.60 Ibid., 16.61 Ibid., 21.62 Ibid.
18
manipulation that Wolsey devises echoes the style of manipulation which Louis XIV employs in
the court of Versailles. Whereas Wolsey is manipulating women in the court, Louis manipulates
his nobility. The new social order of nobility, those wealthy bourgeoisies who gained noble
status, replaced the usefulness of the old nobility. This new nobility is represented by Ann. Ann
is being placed on a new pedestal, the difference here being that Ann did not ask to be placed on
this pedestal. Ann is content, and desires to remain with Percy. The second power struggle is
between Henry and his desire to have Ann as his own, and Ann choosing Percy over him.
Despite Ann’s protestations Henry will not relent in his pursuit of her, seeing her every day.
D’Aulnoy clearly ties a connection between this Henry/Ann relationship and the gender
inequality within the institution of marriage. Women in the seventeenth century were often
viewed as property, or as incapable of making sensible decisions about their own property. This
belief in the lesser abilities of women is reflected in Henry’s complete disregard for Ann and her
choice of love.
Due to Ann and Percy’s unwillingness to part and the steadfastness of their love, a plan
is devised by those who wish to see Ann married to the King. This plan involved the theft of
personal letters, and the forging of a letter discussing the marriage of Ann to the King. Percy and
Ann are both deceived into believing they have been betrayed and forgotten by the other. Percy
“marryed [the Earl of Shrewsbury’s daughter] after he had so long resisted the commands of his
father.”63 Eventually, Wolsey and his deceit is discovered, leading to his trial and his death on the
road to London. The divorce between Henry and Catherine was finalized and Ann agreed to
marry Henry, with Percy even encouraging her to do so. Percy had desired her to become Queen
once the two of them realized the deceit which had separated them. Ann was crowned Queen and
63 Ibid., 62.
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no one was “more worthy of her [fortune] than the beautiful Queen.”64 Blunt became furious at
discovering “her rival elevated to the same degree of honour that she had fixed her hopes
upon.”65 In revenge, Blunt ends up accusing several men of having affairs with the Queen. Even
framing Ann’s brother, and Blunt’s lover, Viscount Rochford. Due to her lack of bringing a male
heir to Henry, and Blunt overhearing a conversation between Percy and Ann (who were still in
love with one another), Ann is executed (along with the men accused with her).66 Madame
d’Aulnoy makes clear the themes of tyrannical marriage and the endings of such unions. Though
most marriages in the seventeenth century did not end in beheading, the tale of Anne Boleyn
could still be used to send an important message to women in seventeenth-century France.
D’Aulnoy conveyed the danger of aristocratic marriages through some critical literary tools. One
of these tool was the length with which she wrote her tales. According to Carol Singley, female
authors typically had tales almost three times longer than the tales of their male counter-parts.
The reason for this is partly due to the level of self-reflexivity which female authors engaged in.67
D’Aulnoy engages in this self-reflexivity in this narrative of Anne Boleyn. She reflects on the
structure of court society, and explores the corruption and manipulation of the elite. D’Aulnoy
also reflects on the social conventions of marriage, and how these conventions led to dismal
endings for the women of the seventeenth century. Each character in this tale of Anne Boleyn
served a specific purpose for Madame d’Aulnoy. The primary characters of Anne, Blunt, and
Percy reveal much about the perspective which d’Aulnoy brought to this historical tale. By
changing the narrative for these characters, and through enhancing parts of their personalities,
d’Aulnoy left an opportunity to examine and understand her feminist perspective.
64 Ibid., 84.65 Ibid., 85.66 Ibid., 129.67 Barchilon, “Adaptations of folktales and Motifs”, 356; Carol J Singley, Anxious Power, 74.
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Anne
Throughout The Novels of Elizabeth, Queen of England, Containing the History of Queen
Ann of Bullen Madame d’Aulnoy paints Anne Boleyn as the victim of a tyrant, a virtuous woman
who did not deserve her fate. Within this narrative of Anne, the literary style so well-known of
d’Aulnoy continues to shine through. Ann of Bullen is the atypical heroine d’Aulnoy loves to
write about. D’Aulnoy describes her as clever and strong. Ann makes her own decisions and
stands by her convictions. In more traditional fairy tales, women were often written as passive
characters who needed to be rescued, or modest women with little to no personality aside from
that of a docile housewife.68 Carol Singley writes that men were typically written in active roles,
and women were written in passive roles. Female writers broke these stereotypes, and this can be
evidenced in more of d’Aulnoy’s work.
The White Cat is once again, a great example of d’Aulnoy’s style. The white cat is active
in helping the prince complete each of the three tasks. Even when the prince frees her from her
curse, the cat is still the agent of action because she is the one who tells him how. Beyond this,
the White cat is successful in having many kingdoms, and governs them in humility and grace. In
the case of Ann of Bullen, d’Aulnoy gives her action through her withstanding of Henry’s
pursuit and her deep mistrust for Wolsey. While Henry pursues Ann, she remains devoted and
constant to her true love. While some critics may try to explain this as Ann’s passivity, it is truly
the opposite. The will power and steadfastness to hold to her convictions, prove Ann’s action of
spirit as she subverts the normal heroine model. Another way Ann is an active heroine, is
through her relationship with Wolsey. When the manipulative dealings of Wolsey begins to
come to light d’Aulnoy says that “Ann Bullen was too much incensed against him not to second
68 Bordo, The Creation of Anne Boleyn, 147; Singley, Anxious Power, 75, 83.
21
the multitude.”69 Ann played her part in seeing Wolsey pay for his meddling in her relationship
with Percy. It was, after all, Wolsey’s plan which deceived the two of them and caused them to
believe the others unfaithfulness. There are still other ways in which Ann is the atypical heroine.
For starters, Ann did not accept the suitors who came to court her in France.70 By not accepting
the several different men who had come to call, Ann was stating that she would decide who and
when she would marry. It would be a mistake to assume that this is irrelevant only because Ann
did end up choosing Lord Percy. In order to be radical d’Aulnoy did not have to write a character
that never married, she simply had to write a character who made her own decisions and was not
driven to make choices based on the pressures of others.
This was a theme that came up in other works by d’Aulnoy as well. In her tale The Fair
one with Golden Locks D’Aulnoy tells a tale of a princess who refuses to marry. She is
constantly declining offers of marriage and continues to refuse even when her kingdom is under
attack. She ends up falling in love with a man who comes and completes three impossible tasks
she sets before him. Because he was completing these tasks in order to bring her to his king to
marry, he will not indulge in his love for her. The man delivers her to the king whom she has
agreed to marry. However, she still never stops loving this man, and after the king dies she takes
him for her husband.71 Through seeing this repetition of theme, a sense of what d’Aulnoy values
comes out. She clearly is not opposed to marriage, since it is a major theme in all of her work.
What she does tend to criticize is a forced marriage, or marriages where the man has an obscene
amount of power over his wife. In the novel about Ann of Bullen, Henry is seen as overbearing
in his relentless pursuit of her. This pursuit is not the flattering kind most often seen in a
69 D’Aulnoy, The Novels of Elizabeth, 74.70 Ibid., 13.71 D’Aulnoy, The Tales of the Fairies in Three Parts, compleat: extracted from the second edition in English of the diverting works of the Countess d’Anois, London, 1715 (New York: Garland Pub, 1977), 391-405.
22
romantic story. It is not filled with a dozen roses being sent to the girl who slowly but surely falls
for a man, who turns out to be the prince of her dreams. This pursuit of Henry’s is marked in a
harshness of not respecting her desires, and by consistently overreacting when she politely and
respectfully declines his advances.72 In fact when Ann tells Henry that she loves Percy, he replies
stating that “You know that he is my subject, and I can remove him from you.”73Susan Bordo
states that this type of narrative is typical of d’Aulnoy, and that her theme of a strong women
strongly incorporates this idea of a tyrannical and wicked man.74 Ann of Bullen is portrayed by
d’Aulnoy as a virtuous woman who is being mercilessly pursued by the King. She only gives
into his advances and marries him once the true love of her life supposedly betrays her.75
Through painting Anne Boleyn in this virtuous way, d’Aulnoy’s perspective on the institution of
marriage is more poignant. Had she kept Anne painted in the controversial light she was often
seen in, then the message of tyrannical aristocratic marriages would have been lost in a debate
over the morality of women. This is not d’Aulnoy’s point. Madame d’Aulnoy was a feminist
who believed, as Francois Poullain de la Barre did, that women’s morality was no lower than
men’s. In order to bring this point home, she could not portray her heroine as anything other than
a woman of high moral fiber who even still is treated maliciously in marriage. D’Aulnoy makes
a big statement with this character. Ann of Bullen was a virtuous, beautiful, and honorable
woman, who fulfilled her wifely duties. She remained constant and faithful to the men in her life.
Even though she remained in love with Percy, she remained virtuous in this love, never crossing
the line and betraying Henry. Yet, this young woman was betrayed and accused of horrendous
acts. Because of the construction of her marriage, Ann of Bullen succumbed to a tragic fate
72 Ibid., 22, 30, 42, 50.73 Ibid., 32.74 Bordo, The Creation of Anne Boleyn, 147.75 d’Aulnoy, The Novels of Elizabeth, 22, 84.
23
which she did not deserve. Ann represents the many aristocratic women, such as Madame
d’Aulnoy, Madame Ticquet, and the Mancini sisters, who were subjected to marriages with
tyrannical men.
Another literary tool which d’Aulnoy uses in this novel is disempowerment. Female
writers would purposely place themselves in a more submissive role while they were saying what
they felt was important. This in turn made the male reader more open-minded towards what was
being presented to him, because his position in society or in the home was not being threatened.
This disempowerment validated the positions of female writers in the seventeenth century.76
However, d’Aulnoy does not typically directly place herself in this directly submissive role.
Rather than stating her specific disempowerment, she makes sure to not turn all of the men in her
stories into monsters. While one of her strongest themes is that of a clever girl being oppressed
by a tyrannical and wicked king, there are often male heroes infused in her stories as well- even
if they aren’t the main focus. Proving she is reluctant to completely remove the social constructs
which she lives with, from her work.77 In d’Aulnoy’s tale of Ann Bullen, she accomplishes this
level of submissiveness in the role of Henry Percy.
Henry Percy
The love interest of Ann Bullen, in d’Aulnoy’s tale, is Henry Percy. As the heir to a large
and important earldom, Percy is almost immediately the typical male lead. Percy is the cultured,
well off, and charming suitor of Ann. In short, he is the man many little girls would idealize as
76 Shannon Miller, Engendering The Fall: John Milton and Seventeenth Century Women Writers, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 81; Keeble, The Cultural Identity of the Seventeenth Century Woman: A Reader, 264.77 Singley, Anxious Power, 85-86.
24
the perfect Prince Charming. While Percy and Ann have to fight for their relationship once
Henry comes into the picture, Percy remains the gallant suitor throughout the narrative.
D’Aulnoy incorporates Percy in the entirety of the story, painting him as the man who is
enamored with Anne and won’t give up on his chances with her, until he finds a forged note,
telling of Anne’s marriage to Henry.78 This leads to Percy being convinced that he should
“engage himself before the intrigue of the King and Ann Bullen was made publick.”79 Ann was
so sure of Percy and his love for her that she was greatly “surprised when she heard of Percy’s
marriage, although she had murmured at his silence, she did not fear his fidelity.”80 While Percy
is clearly destined to be a hero in this story, d’Aulnoy does the unexpected and removes him
from that role. The story builds in a way where you begin to suspect that somehow he will rescue
Ann and they can be happy together, but in the end the exact opposite happens. Ann and Percy
realize that they were tricked, and yet Percy implores Anne to “Marry [the King] if he can make
you Queen, you shall have in me a most unfortunate subject, who will retain for you sentiments
of respect and adoration to the last minute of his life.”81 The audience understands that Percy is
virtually stepping aside, because there is no alternative. However, it is clear that Percy will fight
for her if need be. This can be witnessed in Percy approaching Ann about the affair Henry has
with Jane Seymour, telling her that she deserves better than Henry, that “he betrays [her].”82 The
arc of the narrative seems to be pointing to an ending where Percy and Ann escape their loveless
marriages and can be together. However, d’Aulnoy dispels this tale when Percy is taken ill and
dies just a few days after Ann.83 While the romance of this narrative is maintained with Percy
being seemingly unable to live without Ann, his role as a knight in shining armor is severely 78 d’Aulnoy, The novels of Elizabeth, Queen of England, Containing the History of Queen Ann of Bullen, 57.79 Ibid., 62.80 Ibid., 63.81 Ibid., 68.82 Ibid., 96.83 Ibid., 131.
25
diminished. By making him infirm, and unable to save Ann, d’Aulnoy removes his role as a
hero. She places her own feminist spin on this tale by allowing the hero to be a heroine, Ann.
However, even she is executed. This leaves virtually no happy ending, except for the tyrannical
King who gets his heir through his third wife.84
Madame d’Aulnoy creates a main character for her novel, from a relatively simple person
in Anne Boleyn’s historical life. Percy was a suitor who Anne fell in love with, prior to her love
for Henry. Historically, Percy was out of Anne’s life before she became involved with Henry.
There must have been a reason for Madame d’Aulnoy to create this non-hero. The purpose for
Percy comes in his relationship with Ann. Their relationship of true, sacrificial love, juxtaposes
that of Henry and Ann. Whereas Henry essentially harasses Ann into marrying him, Percy
defends her honor, and yet stands aside when he sees it is better for her if he does so. Through
this, Madame d’Aulnoy is able to send a message about love. The concepts of love which
d’Aulnoy espouses in this tale are not involved in the marriage of the seventeenth century. This
love has nothing to do with political or economic gain. D’Aulnoy paints those reasons for love as
being the road to destruction, not happiness. Clearly, d’Aulnoy states that a marriage without
love is one which will never satisfy those involved. Through putting aside the pretense of love in
marriage, perhaps then the institution itself can be mended.
Elizabeth Blount
Another way d’Aulnoy adapts the story of Anne Boleyn is in the creation of Blunt, the
woman responsible for the downfall of Ann. She is modeled after one of Henry’s old mistresses
Elizabeth Blount, who in reality, was nowhere near court when Anne came into the royal scene.
However, in this tale she is the current mistress of Henry, who has the power of the kingdom in
84 Ibid., 132.
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her hands through the power she wields over Henry.85 Blunt is the antagonist in this story, and
moved by jealousy of Ann’s promotion to Queen over her, she stages rumors and letters full of
misinformation to arouse the jealousies of Henry. She successfully sees the beheading of Ann,
appearing “with the same splendor as if it had been a gallant festival.”86 She also witnesses the
execution of her ex-lover Viscount Rochford as he meets the same fate as his sister. Witnessing
the consequences of her actions left Blunt “beholding [Ann’s] head severed from her body with
horror” and hearing the sighs of Viscount Rochford “pierced her heart.”87 Blunt pays for her
actions by living with “the Kings constant inconstancy (…) and hated by all the world.”88
As an author, d’Aulnoy must have had a purpose for creating such an important character
from a woman, who in reality, was never involved with Anne. Elizabeth Blount was historically
a woman whom Henry had an affair with, and who bore him is first son. Henry Fitzroy, however,
was illegitimate and unable to inherit the throne. Elizabeth was married to Lord Tailboys, and
seemingly lived a happy life.89 One possibility for incorporating this woman as Blunt, is the
feminist themes that run through this tale. It is possible that Madame d’Aulnoy wanted to create
two strong female actors who would represent the female identity. What she succeeds in doing
here is showing that women can be strong in multiple ways. The strength that Blunt exudes
comes from power. She thrives on power, and when that power is threatened she becomes a
villain, seeking to see the downfall of her enemy. While this may not seem to be the way a
feminist would want her female characters to appear, this theme has been seen in the work of
d’Aulnoy in other places. One of these places is in her fairytale Graciosa and Percinet where the
antagonist is a witch who persecutes Graciosa throughout the story, until finally Graciosa has
85 Ibid., 7.86 Ibid., 125.87 Ibid., 128-129.88 Ibid., 132.89 Weir, The Six Wives of Henry VIII, 123.
27
had enough and flees with her fairy prince Percinet.90 The fact that d’Aulnoy used this theme of a
female antagonist must suggest something about her overall message as an author. I would
suggest that this message is one of advocating for a different vision of women in storytelling. By
putting two strong women against each other it becomes harder to tie down one theme about
women that can be seen. This may be purposeful. In showing that women can be well rounded,
strong women, as well as have a dark side, d’Aulnoy makes a stand against putting women in a
box. You can also say there is an underlying moral for women to stand together against the
tyranny of men, rather than fight each other. In the case of Ann and Blunt, if Blunt had found a
way to give up her love for power and step aside, or better yet, to work with Ann in smartly
persuading Henry to stay committed to Blunt and leave Ann alone, the story could have been
different. In a similar way if women could stand together in the seventeenth century against
abusive or cruel husbands, then perhaps they could overcome the greater tyranny placed upon
their lives.
Concluding Thoughts
Stephanie-Felicite de Genlis was a feminist in the nineteenth century, and she looked
back at the time of Madame d’Aulnoy, calling it the “golden pinnacle of female literary
tradition.”91 Faith Beasley, a scholar on women’s writing in the seventeenth century, discusses
the rise of female authors under the reign of Louis XIV. Beasley states that in the seventeenth
century women were particularly valued for their skill at narratives.92 Women dove into the
discussion of history, and staked a claim on the genre by combining history with narrative, to
create a new breed of writing. Women wrote secret histories, using the combination of historical
90 Aulnoy, Madame d’, “Graciosa and Percinet” in The White Cat and Other French Fairy Tales, ed. Rachel Field, (New York: Macmillan, 1967). 91 Beasley, Revising Memory, 2.92 Ibid., 3.
28
people and events with fictional allure, to create a more enticing field of works.93 This was just
one of the specialties of Madame d’Aulnoy. In her secret histories, d’Aulnoy could infuse her
own social critique into events of the past, in order to comment on the events of the present.
Madame d’Aulnoy wrote this secret history of Anne Boleyn, creating a warning for women in
the seventeenth century. D’Aulnoy created a moral construct for women who lived under
tyrannous husbands. D’Aulnoy also used this tale to critique the social conventions of the French
Court under the Sun King. Madame d’Aulnoy critiqued the abuse of power in politics, and
translated that critique towards the institution of marriage. D’Aulnoy saw the connection
between ruler and subjects, and husband and wife. The feminist thought which pervaded that
culture around d’Aulnoy emanated out of the salon culture of aristocratic women. These salons
were areas of discussion and philosophical debate over the role of women in society. The women
who attended these salons had many perspectives on the institution of marriage, and the cruelty
which was often allowed, and even promoted between spouses. Through The Novels of
Elizabeth, Queen of England, Containing the History of Queen Ann of Bullen Madame d’Aulnoy
brought up ideals of feminism and also subtle rebellion, with which women who were reading
this tale could gain hope. Through examining this specific piece of literature produced by
Madame d’Aulnoy, the depth of importance surrounding the question of marriage can be felt.
This question about the inequality of power in marriage reverberates through the writings of
Madame d’Aulnoy. By questioning the balance of power between men and women, d’Aulnoy
effectively translates issues of gender and marriage through her works to her reader.
93 Ibid., 7.
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Bibliography
Primary Sources
1) Aulnoy, Madame d’, Spencer Hickman. The Novels of Elizabeth Queen of England Containing the History of Queen Ann of Bullen. PR1127. E2 Reel 9, 1680-1681.Seventeenth century biography of Anne Boleyn. d’Aulnoy blends the genres of fairy tale and history telling. In this era, history as a subject was only beginning to be a form of tale telling. d’Aulnoy greatly contributed to this style of writing through her “secret histories” of which this work is a part of.
2) Aulnoy, Madame d’. The White Cat: and Other French Fairytales. Edited by Rachel Field. New York: Macmillan, 1967.This fairy tale by Madame d’Aulnoy lends context of the writing style and literary tools engaged in the authorship of d’Aulnoy. By examining this tale a greater view of d’Aulnoy’s feminist style becomes more prevalent.
3) Aulnoy, Madame d’. The Tales of the Fairies in Three Parts, compleat: extracted from the second edition in English of the diverting works of the Countess d’Anois, London, 1715. New York: Garland Pub, 1977.This tale of d’Aulnoy’s bring forward evidence of her literary style and examples of her feminist perspective in this counter Griselda narrative. This tale contains clear feminist themes for the time of authorship, and lends context to what may have been brewing under the surface of female society in the seventeenth century.
4) Banks, John. Vertue Betray’d: acted at his Royal Highness, The Duke’s Theatre. London, PR1127. E2 Reel 51. 1682.This play about Anne Boleyn is one of the groundbreaking works which began to see Anne as a main character in her own story rather than a side character. This work lends context to what the literary culture may have been thinking about Anne at the time, and why her story may have been more attractive in this period.
5) Burnet, Gilbert, Robert White. The History of the Reformation of the Church of England. London: T.H. PR1127. E2 1181:12. 1679.This work is a description of the reformation in England during the reign of Henry VIII. This source brings a description of Anne Boleyn and her faction’s involvement in the reformation under the King. Analyzing this work will help contextualize the connection between Anne Boleyn and Protestantism.
6) Mancini, Hortense and Marie Mancini. “To M.*** [the Memoirs of Hortense Mancini]” in Memoirs. Edited by Sarah Nelson. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.
7) Poullain de la Barre, Francoise. Three Cartesian Feminist Treaties. Trans. Vivien Bosely. London: University of Chicago Press. 1647-1723.
Secondary Sources
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Books
1) Beasley, Faith. Revising Memory. London: Rutgers University Press, 1990.2) Bordo, Susan. The Creation of Anne Boleyn: A New Look at England’s Most Notorious
Queen. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2013.This book is a description of the evolution of thought surrounding Anne Boleyn. Susan Bordo discusses how different forms of media had engaged in the debate around Anne Boleyn, and what the significance behind that debate entails.
3) Gibson, Wendy. Women in Seventeenth Century France. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989.
4) Greco, Gina L. The Good Wife’s Guide = Le Menagier de Paris: a medieval household book. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2009.
5) Keeble, N.H. The Cultural Identity of the seventeenth Century Woman: A Reader. London: Routledge, 1994.This work is the beginning of an analysis on how female writers approached authorship in the seventeenth century. The levels of subversive conformity as well as the justifications for being a female author are explored through the examination of prevalent authors at this time.
6) Lougee Chapell, Carolyn. Le Paradis de Femmes: Women, Salons, and Social Stratification in Seventeenth Century France. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1976.
7) Miller, Shannon. Engendering the Fall: John Milton and Seventeenth-Century Women Writers. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008.
8) Singley, Carol J, Susan Elizabeth Sweeney. Anxious Power: Reading, Writing, and Ambivalence in Narrative by Women. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993.This author analyzes the underlying literacy and social ambiguities taking place in female authorship. The Chapter on Madame d’Aulnoy focuses on how she uses literary devices to reflect her own social ambivalences.
9) Warnicke, Retha. The Rise and Fall of Anne Boleyn: Family Politics at the court of Henry VIII. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989.An analysis of Anne Boleyn’s life and how the underlying social fabrics of England contributed to her rise and fall. A chapter on sexual heresy surrounding the trial and execution of Anne Boleyn. This chapter brings to light elements of witchcraft related accusations made against the Queen.
10) Weir, Alison. The Six Wives of Henry VIII. New York: Grove Press, 1991.A historical chronology and analysis of events taking place in the Marriages of Henry VIII. Chapter 8 discusses the political factions involved in the divorce of Henry and Katherine of Aragon, and opens the discussion for religious conflict between the Vatican and England, as well as the role of Anne Boleyn and her faction in this separation.
11) Wilson, Katharina M. An Encyclopedia of Continental Women Writers, vol. 1. New York: Routledge, 1991.
Journal Articles
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1) Barchilon, Jacques. “Adaptations of Folktales and Motifs in Madame d’Aulnoy’s “Contes”: A Brief Survey of Influence and Diffusion.” Marvels & Tales 23 no. 2 (2009): 353-364. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41388930. This article is a discussion of the literary devices employed by Madame d’Aulnoy. It serves to bring a deeper level of analysis to the discussion of Madame d’Aulnoy and her groundbreaking style of fairytale writing.
2) Lough, J. “France Under Louis XIV” in The New Cambridge Modern History, edited by F.L. Carsten, 222-247. Cambridge University Press, 2008.This source will explore what the political climate was while Madame d’Aulnoy was writing. As well as bring to light any undertones that Madame d’Aulnoy would have been wanting to address in her works.
3) Waddington, Raymond B. “Marriage in Early Modern Europe.” The Sixteenth Century Journal 34 no. 2 (2003): 315-318. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20061411. This source will give greater discussion to Anne Boleyn and how she acted within and outside of contemporary understandings of marriage in her time. This could also lend to the discussion of how her story, and the marriage constructs of her time, would shape the way Madame d’Aulnoy felt about Anne, and why she chose to write about her.
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