Ekonomi Pembiayaan Pendidikan

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CHAPT E R T WE L VE

Personnel Policies and Finance

Issues concerning financial support as it relates to personnel probably have attracted more

attention and taken more of the time of local citizens, board members, and school officials

during recent years than most other problems relating to the schools. This attention was

probably essential under the circumstances, and the issues should not be neglected in the

future, primarily because the kind and quality of educational programs provided in any

well-organized school system or school are largely determined by the qualifications and

contributions of the personnel employed.

Even the best personnel policies, however, will not necessarily result in resolving

some of the basic problems of education in a school system under modern conditions. An

essential, but often neglected, first step is systematic and perceptive planning for the

improvement of all aspects of education. Identification and agreement on appropriate goals,

determination of needs and priorities, development and implementation of relevant

programs and procedures, and other similar steps should provide a sound basis for

developing defensible personnel and salary policies

Although the best plans and policies that can be developed for improving education are

essential, they have little meaning until they are implementedthat is, utilized intelligently

as guides for decisions and actions by everyone concerned or involved. All factors and

conditions in the external, as well as in the internal, environment for education should be

reasonably favorable ifsignificant progress is to be made. These include the attitudes and

expectations of the staff, the community, the board and the administration; the policies

established by law and the state board of education-; the quality of leadership provided; and

many others, including the assurance that sufficient funds will be available to provideadequate and appropriate compensation for all members of the professional, facilitating. and

managerial staff, as well as for facilities, equipment and supplies.

Expenditures for personnel (certificated and noncertifkated) in school systems

constitute from 80 to 85 percent of the funds expended for the current operation of the

schools. Policies relating to the provisions for personnel and the expenditure of these funds

significantly influence the quality of education in a school system. It is important, therefore,

that not only boards of education and school officials but also the citizens in each

community make every effort to ensure that all conditions are favorable and conducive to


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providing a high-quality program of education.

From time to time, various school systems have found themselves confronted with an

especially difficult problem. If financial support has been so limited or if personnel policies

have been so unsatisfactory that the schools have not been doing a good job, many people

become dissatisfied and critical. This tends to make it difficult or impossible to obtain

additional local support. When inadequate funds are responsible for the difficulty, only

exceptionally competent leadership on the part of the board, the citizens of the community,

and the administrative staff, or the provision of additional funds from state sources, can

establish a basis for resolving the dilemma. If, however, the difficulty has arisen primarily

because of unsatisfactory or inadequate personnel policies, it seems apparent that prompt

and effective attention to the improvement of those policies should provide a sound basis for

effecting improvements.

SOME FACTORS THAT AFFECT

PERSONNEL POLICIES AND ADMINISTRATION

Personnel policies are developed and administered in a changing socioeconomic

context. They are influenced by many factors, including new theories and concepts that are

proposed, conclusions based on recent research, new insights and understandings that have

been developed, and the attitudes and expectations of members of the society as well as of

those who are affected by the policies.

Theories Relating to Organization and Management

Theories relating to organization and management have been considerably revised

during recent decades. Attention that was directed primarily to "scientific management" and

"efficiency" some years ago has shifted increasingly during recent years to the consideration

of factors involved in human welfare and relationships within the entire social system.

Selznick, for example, has been concerned primarily with the functions of organizational

goals in assisting the individuals involved to identify their own hopes and aspirations with

the goals of the organization. Argyrols has proposed the following seven processes that are

considered essential if management is to make progress in resolving the fundamental

conflicts that tend to exist between personal hopes and desires and the needs of the

organization:

1. Precise assignment of responsibility;2.Appropriate evaluation and rewards;3.Authority that is binding on all who are in the organization;4.Perpetuation of the organization;


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5.Effective communication;6. Identification with the organization; and7.Pacing the work of the organization.

The basic problem seems to be one of reconciling individual hopes and desires with

organizational needs. McGregor has emphasized the need for acceptance of the principle of

collegial collaboration between "superiors and subordinates"the concept that

subordinates is capable of self-discipline and self-improvement and that integration of

organizational and personal goals is essential if the major goals of the organization are to be

attained.

Fawcett has stated:

Persistent themes permeating the writings of these three men arc (1) the need to establish

clear goals for the organization ... (2) the need to utilize intrinsic motivation for changes in

employee behavior; and (3) the need to work together as colleagues to achieve

co-operatively the goals of the organization. . . . These ideas seem exceptionally well suited

for use by educational governments during the next decade and a half.

Some Important Recent Developments

The socioeconomic setting in which both professional (and certificated) and classified

(non-certificated) personnel in education are operating has changed significantly and

probably will continue to change for a number of reasons. These changes mean that the

relations of management to employed personnel and of employees to management are

viewed from: different perspective, not only by each group but also by the society in which

they function. Although some board members and administrator may attempt to continue

the traditional stance, they can no longer expect to play the autocratic role of "telling the

employees" what they must do a how much they will be paid. Moreover, professional

personnel no longer can afford to pretend that they are concerned only with teaching or Will

improving instruction and need not be concerned with policies or administrative decisions.

The inevitable interrelationships are increasingly brought into sharp focus by the

accumulating experience as well as by the empirical evidence. Some of the major related

developments are discussed briefly in the following paragraphs.

A Collegial Situation. All but a small proportion of teachers and other staff members

are college graduates, and many hold a master's of a doctor's degree. Many of them are

better prepared in their areas of specialization than are the principals or superintendents in

the system in which they work. On the other hand, many know little about problems of

management or aspects of education outside their areas of specialization. Thus, the need has


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developed for involving personnel who have much to learn from working together as peers,

and who (as a result of such collaboration) should be in a position to enhance their

contributions to the educational process. Therefore, all should contribute to the

development of policies and should benefit from the contributions of others regardless of

their official status.

Mobility. Under modern conditions, neither teachers nor members of the

administrative or professional service staff need to be place-bound. Those who have

succeededand sometimes those who have failed can move to another location as readily

as students and their parents. Thus, teachers who find a climate unfavorable for service have

tended to seek one they consider more favorable. On the other hand, investments in

retirement and other benefits may constitute constraining influences.

Professional Organizations. The organizations for professional as well as for

noncertificated personnel have increased considerably in numbers and in strength. If local

conditions become very unsatisfactory, the state or national organization may be requested

to assist in bringing about improvements. An employee is no longer an individual who has

to wage a lonely battle for what he considers to be his rights. He can join with others in

seeking justice, defending vested interests, or attempting to bring about changes. His efforts

may be combined with those of others either in waging battles against those involved in

other aspects of education or in planning strategies for the improvement of all aspects of

education. The latter, of course, is' much more constructive.

Bureaucratization. Most school districts in metropolitan areas have been increasing in

population and, in many situations, this increase will continue. Many rural districts are

becoming larger in size and population through reorganization. Largeness tends to result in

bureaucratization involving impersonality and red tape. Policies and regulations developed

in an effort to ensure order and promote efficiency sometimes tend to discourage initiative

and prevent needed adaptations. Personnel, therefore, may either resign themselves to the

routines or struggle to create an organization that will develop policies designed to free them

to make their maximum contributions to the educational program.

Programs Sponsored by State or Federal Governments. Both the state and federal

governments have become increasingly interested in education. Many states are providing

leadership in encouraging research, planning improvements in curriculum and instruction,

and in other ways. Federal funds arc provided for new programs designed to promote stated

or implied national goals. These and other developments arc resulting in many adjustments

in local school systems, and some of them have important implications for personnel.


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Technological Developments. The introduction and use of technology already has

resulted in many changes in business and industry and in some aspects of government. It has

already had considerable impact upon education. Many authorities believe that the most

significant changes in education are still to come and that these will have many important

implications for which there has been comparatively little planning. Some of the

implications that are already apparent include:

1. The possibility of more meaningful individualization of certain aspects of learningadapted to the needs of each student;

2.Changes in many aspects of the traditional role of teachers that will enable them tofunction more nearly on a professional level;

3.The need for more careful planning, utilizing a systems approach to ensure that thetechnological developments are utilized intelligently and effectively to enhance

educational opportunitiesand not merely to increase efficiency of operation:

4.The emergence of many new kinds of roles and types of positions in education and of theapparent need to develop a team approach to deal with many aspects of the program; and

5.The probability that the concept of a single salary schedule will no longer be appropriate.Harris and Boulding, among others, have directed attention to certain pertinent facts

and conclusions:

1. The ratio of the amount required for salaries of personnel to the total budget requirementin education has changed very little during recent years.

2. There seems to be increasing resistance to rising costs, even though the need for moreadequate education should be apparent to everyone.

3.Unless education can find an effective way to utilize some of the technologicaldevelopments in an appropriate manner and to adjust personnel assignments realistically,

we may be headed for serious difficulties that could handicap the development of the

nation.

Koerner believes many legislators, board members, and even educators have been

asking the wrong questions about the use of technology in classrooms and that the basic

questions should be concerned with what we should be doing, but cannot do under present

arrangements, and how technology can help. He stated, "I look forward to the time when the

quality of American education at all levels can catch up with the quantity" and concluded

that technology, when properly developed and utilized, could help to bring that about.

Although there are some indications that the wise use of appropriate technologies should

help to improve education, there are no definite indications that it would result in decreasing
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costs.

Laws and Court Decisions. As pointed out in chapter 1, there have been not only some

important improvements in legislation relating to education in a number of states during

recent years but also some significant state and federal court decisions that have important

implications for the rights of students as well as for those of teachers and other personnel

involved in the educational process. Every child not only has the right to the benefits that

can be provided through access to education "which must be made available to all on equal

terms," but also has the right to be treated and respected as an individual who may not be

subjected to arbitrary and unreasonable controls or restrictions. Moreover, the rights of

teachers and other professional personnel to bargain or negotiate collectively not only for

salaries but for other benefits and privileges have been authorized by law and are well

established in many states. These and other related developments have many implications

not only for personnel policies but also for provisions for the financial support of education.

Evaluation and Accountability. The idea of "evaluating" teachers and others involved

in the educational process is perhaps as old as the idea of providing schools. Unfortunately,

the criteria for evaluation often were not stated and, consequently, at least some of the

evaluations were unfair or subject to misinterpretation. Many people currently believe that

the focus, the context, and the procedures should be changed in an effort to deal effectively

with modern conditions and needs.

The concept of accountability in and for education has been generally accepted during

the past few years as useful and appropriate, primarily because it: (1) directs attention to the

results of the educational process rather than to its components: (2) attempts to fix

responsibility for these results; and (3) is concerned with the consequences of the

resultsthat is, whether the results represent poor, fair, or satisfactory progress.

There are, however, many problems and cautions that should be carefully considered.

Lander has listed several including:

Every writer or speaker should make clear his definition or point of view regardingaccountability;

It is impossible to discuss sensibly the problems of accountability without reference tothe goals of education;

It would appear necessary to relate the new concepts in accountability to existingprocedures and practices; and

There is a real danger that the aims of education will be increasingly restricted to thosewhich can most easily be measured rather than those which arc most important.


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The concept of accountability is not limited to teachers and students, nor to the results

shown by scores on standardized tests. Almost everyone (ranging from legislators who may

support helpful or handicapping laws through board members who establish policies,

administrators, teachers, students, and parents) has an important role to play in facilitating

or retarding progress in improving education and, therefore, has some responsibility for the

outcomes of the accountability process.

POLICIES RELATING TO PERSONNEL AND FINANCE

The development of appropriate personnel policies is of crucial importance in every

state and local school system. In fact, policy planning is a major aspect of comprehensive

long-range planning, which is essential for the continuous improvement of education in any

school system. These plans and policies should include careful consideration of: (1) the

aims (the establishment and maintenance of instructional and instructional-support

programs); (2) the organizational structure (concerned especially with positions generated

by the aims structure); and (3) personnel processes (those designed to attract, develop, and

retain personnel needed to maintain and improve the system generated by the aims

structure). Each of these important personnel processes must, of course, be further

subdivided into sequential tasks that are essential to achieve the purposes and goals of the

system. All of the major policies established through this process have important

implications for the financial support that is essential if the system is to function effectively.

Policies relating to personnel may be stated in law, in state and local board regulations,

and in administrative directives, or they may be unwritten and consequently somewhat

intangible. Both the written and the unwritten policies are important in every community.

Written policies serve for guidance and are expected to be observed until they are repealed

or revised. The unwritten policies are often the most difficult with which to deal. They are

expressed through the attitude of the people of the community, of the board, and of the

administrative staff toward teachers and other employees. This attitude determines the

climate or conditions under which school personnel have to work. It may indirectly affect,

and in some cases determine, what is included and what is not included in written policy. If

the attitude is favorable to schools and to school personnel, working conditions are likely to

be better and morale much higher than if the attitude is one of distrust, suspicion, and

criticism. In fact, the attitude of the people of a state or community may determine whether

the funds provided for salaries and the salaries paid are adequate or inadequate and even

may have a decided effect on whether these funds are used wisely or unwisely in terms of

the personnel services provided.


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Almost all policies developed in a state or local school system have some

implications for personnel. For example, if a local school boardbecause of inadequate

understanding of modern educational needs or a false concept of economyauthorizes the

construction of inflexible school buildings or provides inappropriate equipment, it may be

unable to attract or hold progressive-minded teachers, even though the personnel policies

may be well formulated. Moreover, the scope of polices relating directly to personnel is

much broader than many boards and administrators have realized. The failure to develop

appropriate policies in any pertinent area eventually may result in difficulties.

Some of the areas in which policies in many school systems are likely to be lacking or

inadequate are: employment, responsibilities, and relationships of instructional assistants,

Para professionals, and interns; the procedures and relationships in grievances and

professional negotiations; and the role of teachers and other staff members in the

development and revision of policies. In many school systems, the board has given

relatively little attention to developing policies for noncertifcated personnel and to the

relations between these policies and those for certificated personnel. Yet these relationships

are likely to be of vital importance in developing the educational program.

Basis for Development of Policies

The procedure used in developing policies relating to personnel may be as significant

as the policies themselves. If the board and superintendent do not respect the members of the

staff enough to seek their cooperation in preparing statements that are vital to morale and to

the satisfactory functioning of the program, the staff will become aware of their point of

view, and this awareness is almost certain to affect their attitude and their work.

The procedures to be used in developing or revising statements of policy relating to

personnel need to be carefully thought through in every school system. These procedures

should be worked out with the cooperation of the staff, and if that is done, the members of

the staff undoubtedly will have an opportunity to participate in developing the policy

statements. The citizens of the community also should be vitally interested in these policies.

Many boards, therefore, have involved lay citizens, along with staff members, in the process

of developing or revising policies to be proposed for adoption. The board must adopt

policies before they can become official, but the proposals should originate, or at least be

worked through, with the staff members and perhaps with leading citizens and should have

their concurrence. This is essential if policies are to be satisfactorily implemented.

Characteristics of Satisfactory Policies

Policies constitute an expression of the values the people of a state or community, the


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members of a board of education, and thesuperintendent attach to school personnel and

their services. They are to some extent an expression of philosophy or point of view and

therefore are significant in determining the potential and the limitations. Most authorities

agree that good personnel policies should:

Make clear that the dignity and worth of individual members of the staff are to berecognized and respected in the operation of the educational program:

Provide for and encourage creativeness and originality on the part of all members of thestaff;

Emphasize the importance of competency and quality in staff selection; Encourage and provide opportunities for continuous improvement on the part of all

members of the staff;

Assure adequate compensation, insofar as practicable, under a plan that will berecognized as fair and equitable by all concerned;

Recognize that the best possible working conditions for all staff members are necessaryto facilitate development of a good program of education;

Be stated in written form sufficiently definite to be meaningful, but not so detailed, orexpressed in such a way, as to restrict desirable initiative, and of course be readily

available for the guidance of all staff members; and

Be developed with the cooperation and participation of all persons who are concernedwith, or will be affected by, their implementation.

Factors Affecting Personnel and Finance Policies

As a result of recent developments, including those discussed in an earlier section,

personnel administration in education has moved from a position of somewhat peripheral,

and largely managerial, concern to one of central concern for the human condition as well as

for organizational goals. Studies by psychologists, sociologists and economists and the

resulting modifications in management theory have contributed significantly to this

development, which has had considerable influence in industry as well as in education.

Several major publications have helped to direct attention to, and provide a better

understanding of, the role of human relations in educational administration. 11 Modern

concern both for employees and for students, therefore, has been directed increasingly to the

maximum development and utilization of the potential of individuals and to efforts to

encourage greater self-direction and responsibility

Nygaard and Roelfs listed the following factors relating to the concern for, and

commitment to, quality in education that have important implications for personnel and


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finance:

Urbanization and the unique problems of financing education in large cities; The growth of teacher union membership and the absence of a unified school employee

organization;

The employment of sanctions and collective bargaining procedures by teacher groups; The demands and consequences of automation as it will affect both teaching and

nonteaching groups;

The public's persistent demand for more and better general, technical and professionaleducation;

The increased concern for education of the dropout, the juvenile delinquent the migratorychild, minority groups, and the exceptional child;

Experimentation with new concepts of staff utilization; National concern for the development in many states of community colleges adult

education programs, and reshaped career and vocational education programs; and

The gradual move toward a longer school year and employment of teachers and otherschool employees on a yearly basis.

Changing Concepts Concerning Education. It no longer is appropriate for teachers to

serve primarily as transmitters of information to students. Instead, they have a much more

important role to assumethat is, to serve as facilitators of learning

to help students learn

how to learn and to guide them in the process. In this role they will need many kinds of

assistancehuman, mechanical, and electronicand the understanding support of

representatives of a system designed to provide the kind and quality of education that will

meet emerging needs.

Some speakers and writers apparently have assumed that teachers may tend to become

modern Luddites who will organize to resist the introduction and utilization of technology

and other recent developments in education. The fact that technology has been used only to

a limited extent thus far probably is due primarily to three factors:

1. Many educators have not had an opportunity to learn how to use technology effectivelyto achieve appropriate educational objectives.

2. Its introduction usually involves extra expense, and funds have been in short supplyunless they have been obtainable from foundations or for federally supported projects.

3. Some developments for which glowing claims have been made have not beenconvincingly field-tested.

There is no evidence that technology or other similar developments can, or should, replace


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teachers or other instructional personnel. However, these developments will undoubtedly

facilitate, or necessitate, changes in roles and will create a demand for new kinds of

professional and technical service personnel. This, in turn, will have important implications

for programs of preparation, salary policies, and budgets.

Although there is no agreement concerning the new kinds of personnel that will be

needed, there are some indications as to probabilities. Loughery has proposed that in

addition to team-teaching leaders, expert television instructors, and other roles that have

already begun to emerge, school systems will need content-research specialists, new kinds

of media specialists, systems analysts, and educational engineers to work with or assist

instruction teams. Establishing such positions probably will lead to salary differentials and,

as Fawcett has suggested, perhaps to "a salary schedule based on an estimate of the value of

each position to the accomplishment of the goals of the organization."

Collective Negotiation or Bargaining. The demand for negotiations not only on

salaries and salary policies but also on many other policies has spread rapidly during the

past few years. Several states have passed laws on the subject, and proposals for laws are

being considered in others. Not only is there a substantial body of literature on the subject,

but also the American Association of School Administrators has considered the matter of

sufficient importance to issue a special report including some valuable guides and cautions.

The purpose of this brief discussion is to point out some of the implications for the financing

of education. The most important seem to be:

Budgets in most school systems are being and will continue to be more care-fullystudied than ever before, and the pressure on the board to devote a larger proportion to

salaries probably will increase in many cases;

In districts where additional funds can be provided only by vote of the people, sharpconflicts over proposals to increase taxes for schools will continue, and these will tend

to result in antagonisms between some conservative elements and teachers;

In communities where salaries traditionally have been low, demands for salaryimprovements will increase;

Educators and lay citizens have begun to realize that only limited improvements can bemade in salaries and other provisions for supporting schools from local tax sources

without imposing an unreasonable burden on the taxpayers and, in most instances, on

property taxes; and

More attention is being focused on funds obtained from state sources as offering the bust


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possibility for effecting improvements. Increasing attention, therefore, probably will be

devoted to state-wide negotiations and pressures.

Although most authorities seem to agree that more adequate support for education,

including better salaries for personnel, is essential in some school districts, many have

expressed some concerns and cautions. These include:

If significant improvements are to be made, greater unity in the ranks of educators willbe essential. There is danger that progress in improving the support of education will be

retarded by a bitter struggle between rival teacher organizations and between these

groups and administrators and boards of education.

The problem of effecting needed improvements in education will not be solved merelyby increasing salaries of teachers. There are many other needs to be met, and educational

organizations as well as lay citizens need to keep this in mind.

There are limits to increases that may be made in salaries on the basis of employment fornine or ten months. Moreover, this traditional concept is in urgent need of revision if the

educational needs of modern society arc to be met. If provision is made for longer terms,

year-round operations, or appropriate programs during the summer months, more

adequate education can be provided, and higher annual salaries probably will be

recognized as essential.

STATE PROVISIONS RELATING TO SALARIES

As previously pointed out, state laws and regulations may affect rather directly

the salary provisions and other possibilities in the various school districts in the state. If only

limited funds for schools are provided from state sources, the salary levels in each school

system will be determined chiefly by the willingness and the ability of the citizens in the

district to provide funds for schools. In such states, salaries in the leas wealthy districts

generally may be expected to be much lower than those in the wealthiest. However, when an

adequate and realistic state foundation program has been established, all districts, regardless

of their wealth should be in a reasonably satisfactory position (unless restricted by other

state laws) to develop reasonably adequate salary schedules.

Many states, because of concern about this problem, have taken one step or another

relating directly to salaries. Several have established state minimum salary schedules. West

Virginia apparently established the first state minimum salary law in 1882. By 1937, twenty

states had some kind of minimum salary legislation; by 1951 there were thirty-one (or thirty

three including Alaska and Hawaii). Since that time, a few states that previously had

minimum salary schedules have taken steps either to discontinue the state schedules or to


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modify and simplify the schedule. In 197172, twenty-one states reported that minimum

salary or salary allotment schedules were used in apportioning funds for schools. There are

three major types of state minimum salary laws relating to teachers: (1) those that provide a

state minimum salary schedule recognizing both training and experience (2) those that fix

minimum salaries on the basis of two or more flat rates but with no recognition of

experience, and (3) those that fix the minimum salary as a single flat amount.

The interest of states in minimum salary schedules first developed largely because

salaries paid in some districts obviously were totally inadequate. Those who were

concerned with the problem apparently assumed that if a state minimum salary schedule

could be established by law. the problem would be solved. However, it was soon discovered

that many poor districts could not maintain a desirable pupil-teacher ratio or a satisfactory

length of term and afford to pay the minimum salaries required for all teachers. Since state

laws in many cases require a certain minimum length of term, the only alternatives for these

districts were to maintain only the minimum term, increase the number of pupils per teacher,

employ only teachers with minimum training, or levy excessive taxes.

The tendency in most states during recent years seems to be in the direction of

attempting to develop an adequate and realistic plan for financing schools from state and

local revenues. Progress in this direction facilitates provisions for reasonably adequate

salaries, rather than emphasizing minimum salaries as the basic salary policy.

SALARY POLICIES AND SCHEDULES

Policies relating to salaries, the salaries teachers should receive, and plans for paying

these salaries have involved much discussion in practically every community and state since

schools first were established. They still provoke considerable controversy in many areas.

Determination of Salary Policy

Salary policies constitute one important aspect of general personnel policies. There has

been a decided tendency during the past quarter of a century for districts to develop written

statements relating to salary policy. These usually are developed with the cooperation of the

staff or through the joint efforts of representatives from the staff and citizens of the

community. These groups, however, can only recommendsalary policy, and the boards may

or may not approve the recommendations. However, when committees have done a good

job of developing sound policies, the recommendations usually have been approved by the

boards without major alteration.

The purposes of salary policies are to give assurance to the community that sound

procedures will be observed in compensating employees, to give assurance to the staff that


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recognized policies rather than haphazard procedures will be followed, and to provide

guidance to the administrator and his staff in developing satisfactory procedures for

obtaining and retaining the services of competent personnel.

Suggestions for salary policies or schedules have been made in a number of studies.

The suggestions set forth in the following paragraph, as adapted from those proposed for

teachers by the Winnetka Citizens Advisory Committee twenty years ago, are more

advanced in some respects than those adopted recently in many other school systems.

The salary plan should:

1. Meet reasonable competition for good beginning teachers without attempting to offerthe highest starting salary;

2. Assure dignified living standards for maturing personnel;3. Assure relief from hardship for heads of households;4. Contribute an uplifting influence to the dignity and prestige of teaching in the United

States;

5. Help to attract and hold teachers and principals of the highest quality;6. Stimulate increased graduate study through the master's degree;7. Encourage study, research, and travel beyond the master's degree;8. Provide adequate and dignified maximum salaries for teachers for whom teaching is

only a part of their career;

9. Provide markedly distinguished salaries for teachers who, in the tradition of thecommunity, make substantial and measurable contributions to education in the district

and in the United States;

10.Provide a relatively long period for salary improvement before reaching maxima, butwith safeguards against automatic advancement if a teacher's work is unsatisfactory;

11.Provide annual increments of sufficient amount to be "felt";12.Contrary to long-established tradition, provide an opportunity for teachers to achieve

professional distinction and corresponding salary recognition without leaving teaching

for administrative or supervisory personnel;

13.Recognize any special economic factors in the community; and14.Serve the long term needs of the district, the board of education, and the faculty, and not

be merely a temporizing, stopgap measure.

The Winnetka Committee also recommended policies that would provide adequate

leave for study, conferences, and travel and generous fringe benefits for all personnel. The

importance of adequate provision for in-service education was likewise indicated as


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necessary board policy in addition to the salary policies proposed.

Salary Levels

Education and other governmental services are in a much different position than those

in business and industry. If salaries of public employees are increased, the cost must be met

through the proceeds of taxes levied on and paid by the citizens. Almost everyone watches

taxes carefully. Many assume that the more money they must use to pay taxes, the less they

have for private use. However, as pointed out in chapter 4, certain governmental secures,

and especially education, may contribute to the productivity and to the tax paying ability of

the peoplea fact not commonly recognized. If salaries paid by business and industry are

raised, the increases must come either from increased production per man-hour or from

profits or be passed on to the consumer in price increases. There is very little the consumer

can do directly about price increases for products he wants. Yet from one point of view,

these increases may be similar to indirect taxes. The consumer has to pay these costs if he

purchases the goods, but he, along with others, may have the means rather directly at hand to

keep down or limit tax levies and price increases for public services.

For some reason, many citizens fail to realize that in a capitalistic society, the values

people hold are reflected in part by the prices they are willing to pay for products and

services. Thus, the salaries paid teachers and other educational personnel in the various

states and communities are always partly a reflection of economic conditions and partly an

indication of the importance attached by the citizens to education and teaching.

The question the American people are attempting to resolve in this respect is: How

much should teachers and other school employees be paid in order to attract to education

sufficient people with adequate competence and qualifications to provide the kind of schools

and education needed in this country? It is apparent that this question has not been

satisfactorily resolved. Salaries of teachers in particular traditionally have tended to lag

behind those of equally well-prepared people in business and industry \s one result,

insufficient numbers of highly competent people have been attracted to education, the

schools have not accomplished as much as the people seem to expect, and many people have

been critical. Criticisms of salary policies and other matters will be beneficial if they result

in a re-orientation of the thinking of the people and the development of better perspectives

regarding the significance and role of public education but will be harmful if they result in

decreased support and lowered morale

Salary levels for teachers and other school employees have varied considerably, both

among and within states. The average salary of teachers in states such as California and New


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York has been considerably higher than the average in states such as Arkansas, South

Dakota, and Mississippi. This marked difference has helped to make it possible for many of

the states paying among the highest salaries (usually among the most wealthy states) to

attract large numbers of teachers from those paving the lowest salaries (usually among the

least wealthy states). Similar conditions prevail, of course, within states in which there are

wide ranges in average salaries paid teachers in the various districts

The widest range in salaries tends to be found in the states with little state support and

a large number of small districts. A somewhat smaller range is found in states with properly

organized districts and a reasonably adequate state plan for financial support.

The arrangements made for salaries also differ considerably among district. For many

years, salaries in most districts were negotiated with individual employees. Districts

commonly paid men more than women' high school teachers more than elementary

teachers, and some individuals in each group more than others. Such hit-and-miss

provisions led to dissatisfactions. As districts increased in size, the need for a better plan

was recognized by all concerned. Within the last half-century, most school districts have

developed teachers' salary plans or schedules based chiefly on training and experience.

Many of the larger districts also have developed schedules for compensation of

noncertificated employees, but smaller districts have lagged in this respect. Some districts

have schedules for all members of the administrative and supervisory staff, but many do not.

In many districts the salary of the superintendent is negotiated with the board, except that

districts generally try to keep somewhat in line with salaries paid in other districts

comparable in size and wealth.

Some Trends in Developing Schedules

A salary schedule is simply a plan for compensating individual members of any group

of employees, such as principals, teachers, secretaries, or custodians. This plan may be good

or bad, satisfactory or unsatisfactory, in whole or in part. Givens noted some years ago that:

"Salary schedules for teachers are social inventions that have been developed by insight and

ingenuity to meet the problems of personnel administration in the schools."

As previously indicated, there has been a distinct movement toward the development

of salary schedules for all groups of school employees. Some additional trends are discussed

briefly below.

For some years, there has been a marked trend toward the establishment ofsingle-salary schedules for teachers. In the single-salary schedule, the plan for paying

salaries is based on the training and experience of the persons employed. However, there


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now seems to be some tendency for this policy to be modified.

For certain types of employees, there recently has been a good deal of considerationof job evaluation as one basis for salary schedules and placement on schedules. This has

been particularly evident in the development of schedules for noncertificated employees

and to some extent has been considered in connection with schedules for administrative,

supervisory, and certain other types of positions. It seems likely to receive much further

consideration as new types of positions develop in education. In industry there have been

many studies involving job evaluation. According to Davis,

Job evaluation is an accepted management practice which sets each job value into

proper relation with each other, primarily for wage purposes. It provides what is

usually called an internal alignment of jobs. This alignment is established by a

scientific procedure which is sometimes considered to be so "objective" that most

human relation conflicts over wages are removed.

Cost and standard of living factors have been emphasized increasingly during thelast couple of decades. It is generally accepted that school employees must be able to

maintain an adequate standard of living if they are to work effectively. It is evident,

however, that the objective of salaries that will enable all employees to maintain an

adequate standard of living has not been attained.

For a number of years, minimum salaries provided in schedules were increased morerapidly than maximum salaries. However, there is some indication that maximum salaries

are tending to be increased as much as, or at a somewhat higher rate than, minimum salaries,

thus tending to restore the balance that was upset by special cost-of-living and other

adjustments resulting from postwar and other economic developments.

In a number of school systems, an effort has been made to provide maximumsalaries, especially in the higher ranks, that are at least twice as high as those established as

minimums. Only a few systems have been able to attain this goal.

The fact that proper preparation is essential for satisfactory teaching in modernsociety has come to be recognized increasingly. As a means of encouraging professional

personnel to complete their college training before accepting full-time positions and also as

a means of providing an incentive for teachers who have not completed their college degrees

to do so, the differential in salaries for the two groups has gradually been increased in a

number of school systems. Many systems also recognize that there are places and needs for

experienced teachers who have completed preparation beyond the master's degree;

consequently, there has been a tendency to add another column to the schedule. There has


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also been some tendency for the increments based on experience to be increased.

Within the past few years, numerous districts have adopted an index salary

schedule. Some states that have established salary schedules are also considering this plan.

Instead of stating a dollar amount for each rank and step in the schedule, only a base amount

is stated in dollarsfor example, eight thousand dollars for a beginning teacher who is a

college graduate. An index number (such as 1.1) is then assigned for teachers who hold a

master's degree, and the salary can readily be determined in relationship to the basic

amount, whatever it may be. Similarly, salary amounts for each step of experience can be

determined by applying an appropriate index number.

There has been some tendency to consider factors other than training and experiencefor teachers as well as for other groups of employees. For instance, some systems have

adopted, or are experimenting with, a plan for relating salaries, to some extent, to the level

of responsibility for certain kinds of positions. Others are attempting to evaluate and

recognize merit and to provide special increments for merit. Still others have made some

provision for dependency allowances, and so on.

The length of service during the year for various school employees has beenincreased in many systems. Sometimes this has been accomplished by increasing the length

of the term and many times by providing for needed educational and other services during

the summer. Schedules in many systems thus provide for adjustments for length of service

beyond the traditional school year.

PROCEDURES IN DEVELOPING SCHEDULES

Since the acceptance of any salary policy or plan depends largely upon the satisfaction

or agreement of those who are involved and concerned, the procedures used in preparing the

proposal are of considerable importance. When any changes are proposed, decisions must

be made as to who initiates the process, who carries out the study, and who prepares he

report. The initiative in bringing up the issue may rest with the teachers, with the board

members, with the superintendent, or even, perhaps, with representative citizens of the

community. Three general kinds of patterns are recognized in developing proposals for

salary schedule improvement. These are (1) the administration-board-sponsored plan. (2)

the teacher-sponsored plan, and (3) the cooperatively sponsored plan.

Most plans were administration-sponsored until comparatively recent years. In

administration-sponsored plans, several procedures have been followed. In many districts,

during earlier years, the board authorized work on the schedule, and the superintendent and

perhaps members of his staff did the work and submitted the plan for approval by the board.


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In more recent years, many boards of education have appointed a citizens advisory

committee or a staff committee to conduct the study and propose changes. Sometimes the

board has engaged the services of a consultant or a group of consultants to conduct the study

and propose improvements.

Teacher participation in initiating improvements and drafting salary schedules has

increased greatly during the past few years. In teacher-sponsored plans, the local association

or union usually organizes a salary committee, and this committee gathers the data, makes a

study, and develops a proposal for revising the schedule. After the proposal has been

approved by the teachers' group, it is presented to the board for action.

In cooperatively sponsored plans, teachers and representatives from the administration

usually meet together to consider the problem and to plan the study. The committee that

actually makes the study usually includes representatives from the teachers' groups, the

administration, and perhaps the board and, in many cases, includes representative lay

citizens. As pointed out by Reller some years ago:

The trend of wider participation is . . . supported by the view that in a democratic society the

various parties involved in a matter should participate in working out basic policy decisions.

This point of view requires that teachers, secretaries, and other personnel groups, as well as

administrators and citizens, be represented in the development of schedules.

There are many indications that the questions concerning procedures to be used in

developing salary schedules and salary provisions for the budget, whether for teachers or for

other school groups, are among the most troublesome and controversial being faced in many

school districts It is no longer acceptable for the board and the superintendent to make

decisions regarding salary policy or salaries without consulting teachers This procedure is

no more satisfactory to noncertificated personnel than to those who are certificated.

However, it may be equally unsatisfactory, as far as board members and perhaps the

administration and citizens of the community are concerned, for teachers or noncertificated

employees to develop their own salary proposals and demand that they be approved as

submitted.

OTHER ECONOMIC BENEFITS

Although salaries are important in establishing the basic economic position of each group of

employees, other benefits should have as careful consideration as salary policy. A policy

that attempts to provide reasonably adequate salaries without considering other economic

benefits or working conditions is not as satisfactory as a similar policy that place

considerable emphasis on the other benefits.


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For this reason, most groups devote considerable attention to this problem. For

example the Winnetka Citizens Advisory Committee carefully considered what it called

"supplemental employee benefits" and recommended a supplementary retirement plan,

provisions for group life insurance, a comprehensive medical expense insurance program,

and disability insurance. The report stated:

With the establishment of these new employee benefit plans the Winnetka school system

will have policies comparable to modern industrial practice and well in advance of current

educational practice. They should be of material aid in attracting and holding the quality of

personnel we need

Although all states now have retirement plans, either for teachers or including teachers

and other employees, some of these are not realistic or adequate in the light of recent

developments. Some still limit the salaries that may be used in computing retirement

benefits, others fail to provide for survivors, and some are not on a sound actuarial basis.

Development of adequate retirement provisions, perhaps supplemented by state provisions

including or comparable to those for Social Security (see chap. 17), seems to be essential for

every state.

The provisions of workmen's compensation laws are applicable to teachers and other

school employees in most states. Although these seem to have been working out reasonably

satisfactorily, improvements are needed in many states, and existing provisions probably

should be supplemented by plans for group life, accident, and even liability insurance.

Practically all the larger school systems have reasonably adequate provisions for

certain kinds of leaves of absence. In some cases, these provisions are state-wide. Usually,

sick leave may be taken without loss of compensation, up to a designated number of days

per year, cumulative up to several months over a period of years. Many small school

systems, however, have no provisions along this line or have inadequate provisions. For

example, in some cases, teachers who have to be absent must pay the salaries of substitutes.

Provisions for sabbatical leave are found in some of the larger school systems but in

practically none of the smaller systems. Perhaps some state-wide leave and sabbatical plan

would help to resolve this problem.

Assurance of reasonable security in employment has significant economic

implications. Some states have gone so far in providing tenure for teachers that discharge of

incompetent teachers seems usually difficult and expensive. Others still do not have

satisfactory provisions for tenure or continuity of service, especially for smaller districts.

Reasonable assurance that employees who are rendering effective service are not subject to


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loss of position at the whim of a board or a superintendent should be expected in all states.

SOME PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

Although researchers have tried to establish objective criteria for salary schedules for more

than half a century, it is generally conceded that these standards have not yet been

determined. The size of our country and the social and cultural backgrounds represented

make these criteria a complex task.

As implied by this statement, there are many unresolved problems and issues relating

to personnel and finance. A few of the more controversial are discussed in the following

pages.

What "Collective Bargaining" or "Negotiation" Procedures Are Appropriate for Use in

Determining Salaries for Teachers?

Some teachers and teacher organizations apparently believe that the only way they can

obtain adequate salaries is to establish their own committee, make their own studies, and

reach their own conclusions. When the studies have been completed and the teachers have

agreed upon what they think would be desirable, they insist on having an opportunity to

present their demands at a meeting of the board. If the board approves the proposal, the

group is satisfied until the next year, when the same procedure may be followed except the

demands may be considerably increased. However, if the board should refuse to accept the

proposal, the teachers are likely to call a strike or take their case to the public and try to show

that the board is unreasonable.

As a result of teacher-board controversies or strikes, many people may get the

impression that there is something wrong with the school system. Some may consider the

teachers unreasonable; others may blame the board or superintendent. The community thus

may tend to become divided. However, some people believe this procedure tends to

stimulate the public to become better informed about the schools and thus ultimately may

bring about more adequate salaries than would otherwise be obtained.

In some cases, this procedure seems to have been carried to an extreme. When the

board has indicated that some increases might be made but that the resources will not permit

all the increases proposed, the teachers' committee has insisted that there be no

compromises. Teachers in some communities have insisted that they do not want common

ground with either the superintendent or the board and that the only way they can make

progress is to keep the superintendent and board on the defensive.

There are other communities in which superintendent, board, and teachers seem to be

making a sincere attempt to work together. Teachers recognize that the board has serious


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problems in attempting to assure adequate support for the schools without excessive tax

levies, and the board grants that teachers' salaries have not been adequate. The board, the

teachers, and the superintendent discuss their common problems periodically and attempt to

develop procedures that will make it possible to arrive at satisfactory solutions.

Under what conditions are teachers justified in taking a "collective bargaining" or

"negotiation" attitude with reference to salaries? What about other employees? Should

teachers and other employees take the position that there is common ground and that they

should seek to discover it, or should they take an "adversary" position? Why? Under what

conditions, if any, should teachers call a strike?

How Should Salaries of Administrative and Supervisory Staff Members Be Determined?

In some school systems, the position is taken that administrators and supervisors are

paid for their administrative competence and leadership qualities and that these have no

relationship to the preparation and experience of teachers. However, authorities point out

that principals and others are leaders of teachers as well as administrators. Many hold that

there should be some defensible relationship between salaries of teachers and those of

administrators and supervisors. On the assumption that some relationship should exist,

attempts have been made to devise a formula that can be used in developing a schedule for

salaries of administrators and supervisors. Should the salaries of administrators and

supervisors be based on a ratio to teachers' salaries and automatically increased as teachers'

salaries are increased? Could administrators represent the board of education in collective

bargaining with teachers if their salaries were tied to the teacher salary schedule? Should

school administrators represent the board in the collective bargaining process?

In more than two-thirds of the larger school systems, the salary schedules for

administrative and supervisory personnel have been related rather directly to the salary

schedules for teachers. More than one-half of these were based on an index or ratio adjusted

to the schedule for teachers.

For some time, many school systems that have provided summer or extended-year

programs for some students and teachers have recognized that a time factor should be

utilized in determining the additional compensation for teachers who serve beyond the

regular school term. Thus, one-ninth would be added to the salary of a teacher who served

for a month beyond the regular term of nine months. This factor is also utilized for

administrators and supervisors who serve beyond the customary term.

The other factor commonly utilized in the index is a responsibility ratio that can be

utilized for all professional personnel who have assignments requiring special competencies


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and extra responsibilities. For example, if the responsibility ratio for a regular teacher is 1.0,

the ratio for the head of a teaching team might be 1.15, that for a principal of a large school

might be 1.75 to 2.00. Such ratios need to be developed on the basis of detailed studies and

analyses made with the concurrence of the entire professional staff.

Should salaries of principals, supervisors, and other professional employees bear some

agreed-upon ratio to salaries that would be paid those persons if they were serving as

teachers? If so, what formula should be used?

What, if Any, Provision Should Be Made for "Merit in Salary Schedules?

Many lay citizens insist that salaries of teachers should be related in some way to

competency. When salary increases are proposed, these citizens frequently state that they

would be willing to sec much higher salaries paid for the most competent teachers but that

increasing salaries for all teachers would be equivalent to wasting a lot of money. They

insist that industry has had merit pay plans for a number of years and has used them

successfully, and that these plans could readily be adapted for use by the schools.

Many teachers and administrators' have tended to oppose merit pay. They call

attention to the fact that merit-pay plans are used only for certain types of positions in

industry and that seniority is the major factor in determining salary for many other types of

positions. They point out that most salary schedules in education are based on training and

experience and that the training factor supplemented by experience is superior to the

seniority factor alone. They call attention; moreover, to the difficulty of establishing any

effective plan for determining merit in teaching and point to the danger that subjective

factors will enter into a merit rating plan. Davis stated:

A merit wage system is primarily a procedure for one person to make subjective

judgment about another, which means that it is fraught with human relations problems and

is one of the most difficult of all personnel practices to administer. Its human problems

cluster around the merit-increase philosophy, the rating process, and the use of rating data

for merit increases.

A University of California study led to the following conclusions:

1.Industry, business and government do not pay employees on a merit program base to theextent which is sometimes assumed or to the extent claimed by some proponents of

merit-pay programs for teachers.

2.The purposes and nature of the work situation in business and teaching have little incommon.

3.Large gaps in thinking must be bridged before common ground is found for those who


24/26

arc in one way or another interested or involved in the merit-pay question.

4.If the purpose of merit-pay is to raise the level of teaching performance. serious questionscan be raised as to whether it alone holds much promise; if the purpose of merit-pay

programs is to reward outstanding teachers, then consideration should be given to various

possible ways of offering rewards.

The report made several suggestions for school districts considering the merit-pay

question, including:

1.Establish the purposes of the proposed program and secure the acceptance of thesepurposes by the parties affected.

2.Establish a committee representative of the various interested parties to study thequestion and then to develop proposals for the district in question.

3.Provide essential resources for the committee to make the necessary studies.4.Consider the relationships of any proposal to the basic teacher-salary question in the

district.

5.Provide for a widespread review of various aspects of the proposal as they are developed.6.Regard any program adopted as highly tentative and provide for its review in the light of

results.

7.Consider and develop any program as but one element in an expanded program ofimproving conditions within the school system recognizing that many factors affect

teaching performance.

In the light of all the discussions and developments connected with merit rating,

should school systems attempt to incorporate the concept in their salary schedules? If the

attempt is made, what are some of the difficulties? What steps can be taken toward resolving

the problem of merit rating?

Should Adjustments in Salaries Be Made on the Basis of a Cost of Living Index?

A few school systems have related salaries to the Consumer's Price Index. The idea has

been proposed in a number of school systems and even has been considered by some states

as a basis for determining the amount of the apportionment for salaries or even for the state

aid program

Some of the arguments in favor of using a cost-of-living index to adjust salary amounts

in a schedule are:

1.Many discussions and controversies regarding salary adjustments could be avoided.2.The use of an index would provide for an automatic plan for adjustments and would

eliminate subjective factors.


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3.Salaries would automatically increase or decrease as the cost of living increased ordecreased.

Some of the points brought out in opposition to the use of theConsumer's Price Index

and, perhaps by implication, to the use of any index are as follows:

1. The Consumer's Price Index does not necessarily mean that the cost of living is higher inone community than in another but merely shows the extent to which the cost of living

has increased in each city for which an index is given.

2. The consumer's Price Index does not reflect adequately the cost of living for aprofessional person because it is based largely on the need of wage earners and clerical

workers.

3. Salaries for teachers and other school employees in many school systems have notcaught up with increases in salaries paid many other kinds of workers; and,

consequently, if any cost-of-living index were tied topresent salaries, it would merely

result in an adjustment upward or downward of salaries that are already inadequate

and would not provide for desirable improvements. Many teachers believe that

before there is any attempt to use a cost-of-living index to adjust salaries, there should

be more realistic and comprehensive studies of standards of living and of budget

requirements for various standards of living. Perhaps another step should be to devise a

cost-of-living index for professional people and to use this index instead of the

Consumer's Price Index for determining adjustments in salaries of teachers.

How could a satisfactory cost-of-living index for teachers be determined? Would this

be suitable for other school employees? Should corrections be made for increases in

productivity? If so, how? What, if any, procedures can be suggested for moving away from

the annual or periodic salary negotiations now found in many communities?

Are State Negotiations for Salary Schedules for Teachers Desirable?

As one result of increased teacher militancy, the traditional decision making power in

education may be redistributed in some important respects. In what respects, if any, would

this be desirable? Why?

Under present conditions, teachers and other educational personnel in each school

district in all the states but Hawaii "bargain" or "negotiate" with the local school board for

increases in salaries and for other rights and benefits. An increase in one district may

contribute to pressures in other districts for similar increases, some of which probably

cannot be granted without changes in state laws or funding. Nyquist has concluded that "this

new militancy will eventually result in statewide negotiations rather than district-by-district


26/26

activity." What would be the advantages and disadvantages of state-wide negotiations for

teachers and other employees? Should this procedure be utilized in other states? Why or

why not?

How Can Adequate Salaries for Noncertificated Personnel Be Assured?

Most of the attention in the laws and in the literature seems to have been given to the

problem of assuring adequate salary schedules and salaries for teachers and other members

of the instructional staff. In many cases, there is no legal requirement that salary schedules

be established for non-certificated personnel. Many believe that the relation between

salaries of teachers and those of other school employees should be governed by the laws of

supply and demand. Thus, if secretaries are in short supply, a school system should expect

to pay as much or more for a competent secretary as for a competent teacher. Others oppose

this point of view and insist that the nature of the work and the preparation required by

various kinds of employees should be the major factors in determining salary policy.

As a practical matter, most school systems will have to pay secretaries, custodians, and

other personnel roughly the "going" wage in the community for such personnel. Some are

required to do so by civil service provisions. If the salaries authorized are too low, the

schools cannot employ or retain competent people. Moreover, some of the employees in

many communities belong to unions, and there would be difficulties with the unions if salaries

were too low.

Since principals, teachers, and noncertificated employees must work in close

cooperation in many aspects of the school program, many believe that special steps should

be taken in every school system to assure that each group understands the basis for, and

supports the general idea behind, the salary schedules for other groups. For that reason,

provisions are made in many salary studies for representatives from noncertificated

employees to serve on teachers' salary schedule committees and for teachers to serve on

committees to study schedules for other groups.

What procedures should be used by a school system in developing a satisfactory salary

schedule for noncertificated employees? What are some of the factors to be considered?

Should the same policies and principles be used in adjusting these schedules as in adjusting

schedules for teachers?

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