EFFECT OF FIELD UTILIZATION FACTOR ON AIR BREAKDOWN LEVEL

UNDER LIGHTNING IMPULSE

NOOR AIN BINTI YUSOFF

A project report submitted in partial

fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the

Master of Electrical Engineering

Faculty of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

JANUARY 2015

vi

ABSTRACT

The goal of this project is to develop a relationship between field utilization factor

(ɳ) and air breakdown level under lightning test. Standard lightning impulse of

1.2/50 is used in this study, along with three difference electrode configurations (rod-

rod electrode, rod-sphere electrode and sphere-sphere electrode) with variable gap

lengths. In addition, the lightning impulse breakdown level considering utilization

factors are studied for the establishment of insulation design criteria of high voltage

power equipment. The utilization factors are represented as the ratio of minimum

electric field (Emin) to maximum electric filed (Emax). COMSOL software is used to

develop electrode model in order to analyses the electric field. It was found that

higher gap lengths provide higher U50 for a given electrode configuration, although

the rise in U50 is more clearly in sphere-sphere electrode configuration. Where,

sphere-sphere electrode configuration require higher U50 to breakdown it is 40% than

rod-sphere electrode configuration (30%) and rod-rod electrode configuration (28%),

respectively. A difference in Emax values where the higher gap length provide lower

Emax for sphere-sphere electrode configuration, while the higher gap length provide

higher Emax for rod-rod and rod-sphere electrode configurations. Considering the

effects of field utilization factor, which was based on difference electrode

configurations, it was found that sphere-sphere electrode more uniformity at gap

length 0.5 cm (0.9968) than rod-rod electrode at gap length 1 cm (0.2057) and rod-

sphere electrode at gap length 1 cm (0.1546). Where the values of each field

utilization factor (ɳ) is 1 in the uniform field and 0<ɳ<1 is in the non-uniform.

Furthermore, it can be concluded that electrode configuration, which includes

electrode geometry and gap length, plays a big role in determining U50 values for air

breakdown level in order affected to uniformity in field utilization factor (ɳ) values.

vii

ABSTRAK

Tujuan projek ini adalah untuk membangunkan satu hubungan diantara faktor

penggunaan bidang (ɳ) dan tahap pecahan udara dibawah ujian kilat. Piawaian

denyutan kilat 1.2/50 telah digunakan dalam kajian ini, beserta dengan tiga susunan

elektrod yang berbeza-beza (rod-rod elektrod, rod-sfera elektrod dan sfera-sfera

elektrod) dengan panjang diantara dua elektrod yang berubah-ubah. Selain itu, ciri-

ciri pecahan denyutan kilat yang dikaji telah mempertimbangkan faktor-foktor

penggunaan bagi penubuhan kriteria reka bentuk penebat peralatan kuasa voltan

tinggi. Faktor-faktor penggunaan yang dimaksudkan adalah nisbah bagi minimum

medan elektrik (Emin) sehingga maksimum medan elektrik (Emax). Perisian COMSOL

digunakan untuk membangunkan model elektrod seterusnya menganalisis medan

elektrik. Ia telah mendapati bahawa panjang diantara dua elektrod yang lebih tinggi

menyediakan U50 yang lebih tinggi untuk konfigurasi elektrod yang diberikan,

walaupun kenaikan U50 adalah lebih jelas dalam konfigurasi elektrod sfera-sfera. Di

mana, konfigurasi elektrod sfera-sfera memerlukan U50 lebih tinggi untuk berlaku

pecahan iaitu 40% daripada konfigurasi rod-sfera elektrod (30%) dan konfigurasi

elektrod rod-rod (28%), masing-masing. Berbeza dengan nilai Emax di mana semakin

luas panjang diantara dua elektrod, semakin rendah nilai Emax bagi konfigurasi

elektrod sfera-sfera, manakala semakin luas panjang diantara dua elektrod, semakin

tinggi nilai Emax bagi konfigurasi elektrod rod-rod dan rod-sfera. Dengan mengambil

kira kesan faktor penggunaan medan (ɳ), yang mana berdasarkan konfigurasi

elektrod yang berbeza, didapati bahawa elektrod sfera-sfera lebih seragam pada

panjang diantara dua elektrod 0.5 cm (0.9968) berbanding elektrod rod-rod dengan

panjang diantara dua elektrod 1 cm (0.2057) dan rod- elektrod sfera dengan panjang

diantara dua elektrod 1 cm (0.1546). Di mana nilai setiap faktor penggunaan medan

(ɳ) adalah 1 dalam medan yang seragam dan 0 <ɳ <1 adalah tidak seragam.Selain itu,

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ia boleh disimpulkan bahawa konfigurasi elektrod, yang merangkumi geometri

elektrod dan panjang jurang, memainkan peranan yang penting dalam menentukan

nilai-nilai U50 pada tahap pecahan udara seterusnya memberi kesan kepada

keseragaman pada nilai faktor penggunaan medan (ɳ).

ix

LIST OF CONTENT

TITLE i

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v

ABSTRACT vi

LIST OF CONTENT ix

LIST OF TABLE xii

LIST OF FIGURE xiii

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATION xvi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Project Background 1

1.2 Problem Statement 2

1.3 Objective 3

1.4 Scope of Project 3

1.5 Content of Report 3

CHAPTER 2 AIR BREAKDOWN UNDER LIGHTNING

IMPULSE: A REVIEW 5

2.1 Introduction 5

2.2 Lightning Threat 6

2.2.1 Mechanism of Lightning Occurrence 6

2.2.2 Effect of Direct Lightning Strikes 7

2.2.3 Effects of Induced lightning from

Overhead Electric and so on 8

x

2.3 Air Breakdown 8

2.3.1 Breakdown of Gases 9

2.3.2 Non-Sustaining Discharges and

Self-Sustaining Types 10

2.4 50% Breakdown Voltage of Air 12

2.5 Analysis Electric Field from Previous Work 14

2.6 Lightning Impulse Voltage 17

2.6.1 Tolerance 19

2.7 Capacitive Voltage Divider 19

2.8 Electric Field 20

2.8.1 Uniform and Non Uniform Electric

Field 21

2.9 Equipotential Lines 23

2.10 Conclusion 24

CHAPTER 3 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND SIMULATION

TECHNIQUE 25

3.1 Introduction 25

3.2 Testing 25

3.2.1 Lightning Impulse Circuit 26

3.2.2 Block Diagram Lightning Impulse

Circuit 28

3.2.3 Single-stage Impulse Voltage Generator 29

3.2.4 Lightning Impulse Setup on the

Control Desk (HV9103) Procedure 30

3.2.5 Lightning Impulse Waveform 1.2/50 us

Standard by the experimental 32

3.2.6 Up-And-Down Method 35

3.3 Simulation 36

3.3.1 Finite Element Method 36

3.3.2 Create the Model 37

3.3.3 Material properties 39

3.3.4 Boundary Condition 39

3.3.5 Mesh 39

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3.3.6 Solver Setting 41

3.4 Conclusion 41

CHAPTER 4 BREAKDOWN LEVEL OF AIR UNDER

LIGHTNING IMPULSE: EFFECT OF

ELECTRODE CONFIGURATION AND GAP

LENGTHS 43

4.1 Effect of Electrode Configuration 43

4.2 U50 for difference electrode configuration 47

4.3 Electric Potential (kV) for difference

Electrode configuration 45

4.4 Maximum Electric Field (Emax) for

difference Electrode Configuration 47

4.5 Effect of Gap Length 56

4.6 Effect of Gap Length for U50 57

4.7 Effect of Gap Length for Maximum

Electric Field, Emax 58

4.8 Effect of Gap Length for Field Utilization

Factor, ɳ 59

4.9 Relationship between maximum

electric field, Emax (kV/cm) and U50 (kV) 61

4.10 Conclusion 62

CHAPTER 5 GENERAL CONCLUSION AND

RECOMANDATION 64

5.1 Conclusion 64

5.2 Recommendation for Future Work 65

REFERENCE 67

xii

LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Field utilization factor for each electrode configuration

with V=1 kV 15

2.2 Tolerances of lightning impulse 19

3.1 Component description for the experimental setup lightning

Impulse 27

3.2 Standard impulse voltage tolerances (1.2/50 µs) 33

4.1 U50 (kV) for difference electrode configuration 44

4.2 Emax for difference electrode configurations (kV/cm) 51

4.3 Field utilization factor, ɳ for difference electrode 53

4.4 U50 (kV) and field utilization factor, ɳ, for all electrodes 53

4.5 Emax (kV) and field utilization factor, ɳ, for all electrodes 53

4.6 Sphere-sphere electrode configuration 56

4.7 Rod-rod electrode configuration result 56

4.8 Rod-sphere electrode configuration result 57

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 Lightning 6

2.2 Lightning generation mechanism 7

2.3 Effect of direct lightning strikes 7

2.4 A lightning surge is unbound charge flowing into

the ground 8

2.5 Ionisation by electron collision with gas 9

2.6 Secondary ionization due to cathode collision 11

2.7 An avalanche, consisting of fast moving electrons and

slow positive ions 11

2.8 Streamer formation 12

2.9 U50 (kV) for rod-plane electrode 13

2.10 U50 (kV) for sphere-sphere electrode 13

2.11 Lines of electric field with equal magnitudes with

maximum electric field region at the edge of the

electrode for plane-plane configuration (kV/cm) 14

2.12 Lines of electric field with equal magnitudes with

maximum electric field region at the tip of,

(a) rod-plane configuration and (b) sphere gap

configuration (kV/cm) 15

2.13 Maximum electric field (kV/cm) vs. gap distance (cm) 16

2.14 (a) Full lightning impulse voltage, (b) lightning impulse

voltage chopped on the tail, (c) lightning impulse voltage

chopped on the front 18

2.15 Capacitive Divider 20

2.16 Direction of an electric field 21

xiv

2.17 Magnitud and direction same at all point 22

2.18 Different movement of magnitude and direction 23

2.19 Equipotential lines and electric field (E) 24

3.1 Experimental setup for generation of lightning

impulse voltages in HV laboratory 26

3.2 Schematic circuit for generation of lightning impulse

voltages 27

3.3 Block diagram lightning impulse circuit 28

3.4 Single-stage impulse voltage generator circuit 29

3.5 Turn ON at Control Desk procedure 31

3.6 Turn OFF at Control Desk procedure 32

3.7 Front time (T1) for lightning impulse waveform 33

3.8 Tail time (T2) for lightning impulse waveform 34

3.9 Breakdown waveform 34

3.10 Flowchart up-and-down method 35

3.11 General procedures for FEM simulations in COMSOL

Multiphysics 36

3.12 A 2D axis-symmetric model in COMSOL

Multiphysics for rod-sphere electrode configuration 37

3.13 A 2D axis-symmetric model in COMSOL Multiphysics

for rod-rod electrode configuration 38

3.14 A 2D axis-symmetric model in COMSOL Multiphysics

for sphere-sphere electrode configuration 38

3.15 The meshing of model (rod electrode) 40

3.16 The maximum value of electric field in 2D graph 41

4.1 Contour of electric potential for three electrode

configurations at gap length 2 cm, where, (a) rod-rod

electrode, (b) rod-sphere electrode, and (c) sphere-sphere

electrode 46

4.2 Electric potential (kV) graph from point ‘a’ to point

‘b’ for electrode configurations. 47

4.3 Lines of electric field with equal magnitudes with

maximum electric field region at the tip of the

electrode for rod-rod configuration (kV/cm) 48

xv

4.4 Lines of electric field with equal magnitudes with

maximum electric field region at the tip of the

electrode for rod-sphere configuration (kV/cm) 48

4.5 Lines of electric field with equal magnitudes with

maximum electric field region at the edge of the

electrode for sphere-sphere configuration (kV/cm) 49

4.6 Electric field magnitude along the gap of rod-rod

electrode (Refer for the Figure 4.3) 50

4.7 Electric field magnitude along the gap of rod-sphere

electrode (Refer for the Figure 4.3) 50

4.8 Electric field magnitude along the gap of sphere-sphere

electrode (Refer for the Figure 4.5) 51

4.9 U50 (kV) curve in relation to the field utilization

factor, ɳ, for all electrode configuration 54

4.10 Emax (kV/cm) curve in relation to the field utilization

factor, ɳ, for all electrode configuration 55

4.11 Relationship between U50 (kV) versus gap length (cm) 58

4.12 Relationship between maximum electric field,

Emax (kV/cm) versus gap length (cm) 59

4.13 Relationship between gap length (cm) versus field

utilization factor, ɳ 60

4.14 Relationship between maximum electric field,

Emax (kV/cm) versus U50 (kV) 61

xvi

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Emax - Maximum electric field

Emin - Minimum electric field

ɳ - Field utilization factor

U50 - 50% breakdown voltage

LI - Lightning impulse

UTHM - Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

AC - Alternating current

DC - Direct current

HV - High voltage

cm - Centimeter

kV/cm - Kilo volt/centimeter

kV - Kilo volt

` `

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Project Background

The accidents caused by insulating instability have been increasing in high voltage

power equipment. It is important to increase the insulation reliability of a high

voltage power equipment to reduce the damage from electrical hazards such as, spark

over voltage causes by the lightning stroke. As an engineer’s, it is important to built a

perfect and safe condition of high voltage power equipment, (such as overhead line,

substation equipment and various air insulated high voltage equipment) in providing

electricity to the consumers [1]. To develop electrically reliable high voltage power

equipment, the study on the relationship between field utilization factor and air

breakdown level under lightning test is needed. The tests were performed using the

international IEC standards [2].

This project used three pair of electrode configurations such as rod-rod

electrode configuration, rod-sphere electrode configuration and sphere-sphere

electrode configuration. It is used to measure U50 (kV) values for each breakdown

level by using Up-And-Down method under 1.2/50 µs standard lightning impulse.

The standard lightning impulse waveform has been determined and explains at next

chapter.

2

In addition, the lightning impulse breakdown characteristics considering

utilization factors are studied for the establishment of insulation design criteria of

high voltage power equipment. The utilization factors are represented as the ratio of

minimum electric field (Emin) to maximum electric filed (Emax). To develop electrode

model by using COMSOL software in order to analyses the electric field.

1.2 Problem Statement

In electrical power system, high voltage power equipment is mainly subjected with

spark over voltage causes by the lightning stroke. The lightning strikes on the

overhead transmission line. The strikes on the shield wire would transmit the induced

voltage to the ground. The strikes on the lines would cause dual travelling waves in

which the surges will travel to the generator and to the distribution sides. Voltage

induced would cause damage to the component (such as transformer, generator, fuses

and connector). Coordination gap is placed on the line to re-direct the surge to the

ground.

In an electricity network, some of the high voltage application make use of

gas as insulation medium, such as in the gas insulated switchgear (GIS), gas

insulated transmission line (GIL) and gas circuit breaker (GCB). Whereby air

insulated is categories in gas insulated [3]. In the high voltage power equipment

more electrode configuration can use for measurement electric field which is sphere-

sphere, sphere-plate, rod-rod, rod-plate and plate-plate. However, in this project only

use three pairs of electrode configurations there are rod-rod electrode configuration,

rod-sphere electrode configuration and sphere-sphere electrode configuration. For

example by placing different gap length between three pair of electrode

configurations and apply U50 (kV) values may be can get the difference value of

electric field, thus can be compared to either with the short or long distance will be

breakdown. Therefore, to analysis this effect the relationship between utilization

factor and air breakdown level under lightning impulse will be develop.

3

1.3 Objective

The main objectives of this project are:

i. To find the air breakdown voltage level and electric field for different

electrodes configuration using lightning impulse test.

ii. To develop electrode model using COMSOL software in order to analyses the

electric field.

iii. To develop the relationship between field utilization factor and air breakdown

level under lightning impulse.

1.4 Scope of Project

i. Maximum impulse voltage is 140 kV, but for safety reasons, the allowable

limit is 100 kV.

ii. Use air = gas at atmosphere P = 1bar.

iii. Temperature and humidity effect are not considered.

iv. Gap length < 5 cm due to the limitation on the impulse.

v. Simulation work carried out in 2D axisymmetric plane only.

1.5 Content of Report

This thesis divided into five chapters which are including the introduction, air

breakdown under lightning impulse: a review, experimental setup and simulation

technique, effect of electrode configurations and effect of gap length, and general

conclusion and recommendation. This thesis focused for the effect of field utilization

factor on air breakdown level under lightning impulse.

Chapter 2 describes on literature review. This chapter contains theory of

breakdown, research on previous work and a fundamental analysis on electric field.

4

Previous related works in this chapter helps a lot to guide and as reference in this

project.

Chapter 3 emphasizes on the methodology to the whole project consisting

procedure of testing and simulation. In this chapter the apparatus required for

measurement of air breakdown voltage, description of equipment used for air

breakdown test, schematic diagram for air breakdown voltage and experimental

procedure for conducting the air breakdown voltage are discussed.

Chapters 4 consist of result and analysis from test and simulation. In this

chapter discusses about results and discussion part of the thesis and all the results are

furnished in a tabular as well as the graphical from to clarify the objective of the

thesis. It is also covers the difference types of performance characteristics of air

breakdown voltage with difference physical condition.

Chapter 5 will explain about the whole conclusion in this project and also

some important discussion about the future work of the thesis which helps the

advancements in technology.

CHAPTER 2

AIR BREAKDOWN UNDER LIGHTNING IMPULSE: A REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Lightning is a high frequency electrical phenomenon which causes overvoltage on all

conductive items, especially on electrical cabling and equipment. A lightning stroke

can fall near an electrical power line. It is the electromagnetic radiation of the

lightning current that produces a high current and an overvoltage on the electric

power supply network. In the latter two cases, the hazardous current and voltage are

transmitted by the power supply network thus will occur breakdown in equipment

electrical.

The aim of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive review of the studies

related to the research programmes in order to provide a good understanding of air

breakdown under lightning impulse. By refer from variable source such journals,

books, websites and articles, the data and information can be collected.

6

2.2 Lightning Threat

With the spread of advanced information technology trough out society in recent

years, lightning damage is having an increasing effect on the electronic equipment,

computer system, and networks that play an important role and are indispensible for

comfortable living. Conventional lightning rods guide lightning through lightning

conductions rod, such as a building’s steel framework, so that a large current flows to

the ground. As a result, electromagnetic induction occurs, and a large surge current

flows in the ground, which causes damage to electronic equipment by penetration

from power supplies or communication cable and so on. Figure 2.1 shows example

the picture of the lightning occurred [5].

Figure 2.1: Lightning [4]

2.2.1 Mechanism of Lightning Occurrence

In most cases the mechanism for occurrence of thunder clouds is rising air currents

due to the air being heated near the ground by strong sunlight. The air in this rising

air current is cooled, and the charge is separated when hail is generated, so the

thunder clouds grow large due to the effect of electricity being generated. Figure 2.2

show the lightning generation mechanism.

7

Figure 2.2: Lightning generation mechanism[4]

Normally, a positive charge accumulates in the top of a thunder cloud and a

negative charge accumulates in the bottom, so positively charged static electricity is

induced near the ground surface. In this way, a strong electric field is generated

between the thunder cloud and the earth, and when this exceeds the insulation

capacity of the air, lightning is generated [6].

2.2.2 Effect of Direct Lightning Strikes

When lightning strikes a lightning rod, a large lightning current flows into the

groundthrough the lightning rod conduction wires and the steel framework of the

building. A magnetic field is generated by this excessive electric current, and a surge

voltage is induced in cables and electronic equipment by electromagnetic induction.

Also, an induced voltage is generated in equipment near the grounding cables and in

buried electric lines by the surge current that flows into the earth.

Figure 2.3: Effect of direct lightning strikes [4]

Burn Effect

8

Figure 2.3 shown effects of direct lightning strikes. Lightning current is large

in the range 1 to 200 kA, and the rise time is large (9 to 5kA/µs), so a large surge

voltage is generated that is capable of causing damage to nearby electronic

equipment such as computer system and telephone exchanges [7].

2.2.3 Effects of Induced lightning from Overhead Electric and so on

Induced lightning surges that penetrate from power supply lines and so on. As a

result of the discharge in the lightning and thunder clouds and so on, the balance in

the previously balanced electrostatic charge in overhead electric lines becomes

unbalanced, so surge current flows into equipment from power supply lines and

telephone lines and so on, which have surge current, so damage can result. Figure 2.4

show a lightning surge is unbound charge flowing into the ground [7].

Figure 2.4: A lightning surge is unbound charge flowing into the ground [4]

2.3 Air Breakdown

The breakdown in air (spark breakdown) is the transition of a non-sustaining

discharge into a self-sustaining discharge. The buildup of high current in a

breakdown is due to the ionization in which electrons and ions are created from

neutral atom or molecules, and their migration to the anode and cathode respectively

leads to high currents. Whereby, in a self-sustaining discharge the potential gradient

9

is sufficiently high that free electrons are accelerated hard enough to ionise atoms

they collide with. This means that as the current flows it keeps a population of ion

and free electron present. However if the potential gradient is too low, free electrons

cannot ionise other atoms, and the populations of ions and free electrons is readily

depleted. Then, need some external influence to ionize the gas in order to get current

flow. This is a non-sustaining discharge [8]. Townsend theory and streamer theory

are the present two types of theories which explain the mechanism of breakdown

under different conditions as temperature pressure, nature of electrode surfaces,

electrode field configuration and availability of initial conducting particles. Normally

air medium is widely used as an insulating medium in different electrical power

equipment and overhead lines as its breakdown strength is 30kV/cm [9].

2.3.1 Breakdown of Gases

The gases are act as excellent insulator at normal temperature and pressure. The

current conduction is on the order of 10-10

A/cm2. This currentconduction results

from the ionisation of air by the cosmic radiation and the radioactive substances

present in the atmosphere and the earth.The ionisation process can be explained by

considering the uniform field between electrodes, as shown in Figure 2.5. The space

between the plates is filled by gas atoms or molecules with free space between them.

Figure 2.5: Ionisation by electron collision with gas [10]

10

The process is initiated by the presence of free electrons in the atmosphere,

due to ionisation by cosmic radiation. Such an initial electron is accelerated in the

field away from the negatively charged plate (the negatively charged electron is

repelled by the negative electrode) and it may collide against an atom or molecule of

the gas.If the initial electron attains a high enough speed, it may, during an inelastic

collision, transfer some of its kinetic energy to the gas molecule. If this energy

exceeds the ionisation energy of the gas atom, one or more electrons may leave their

orbits and the atom will lose a negative charge, thus becoming a positive ion. The

free electrons are accelerated towards the positive electrode and may, depending on

the density of the atoms, partake in further collisions. As will be seen later, the

probability of a collision depends on how densely the atoms are packed. This

explanation has been discussed by [11], [12].

2.3.2 Non-Sustaining Discharges and Self-Sustaining Types

In order to understand the breakdown phenomenon in gases, the electrical properties

of gases should be studied. The processes by which high currents are produced in

gases are essential. The electrical discharges in gases are of two types:

i. Non-sustaining discharges

ii. Self-sustaining types

For example, as was shown in Figure 2.6, positive ions are formed during the

avalanche process. A single electron, starting at the cathode, produces new electrons

and positive ions while moving over the distance towards the anode. The heavy ions

experience a force due the electric field and are accelerated towards the cathode, as

shown in Figure 2.6. The cathode is a conductor and it can emit electrons when

receiving sufficient external energy, either thermally, through photons or by impact.

Over the distance to the cathode the heavy positive ions build up sufficient kinetic

energy to release more initiating electrons during impact with the cathode. Each

colliding electron releases new electrons. This process as described are self-sustained

gas discharge (townsend discharge).

11

Figure 2.6: Secondary ionization due to cathode collision [10]

Figure 2.7: An avalanche, consisting of fast moving electrons and slow positive ions

[10]

It is clear that the number of electrons and positive ions increase

exponentially with the length of the discharge. Such a discharge is called an

avalanche. A typical avalanche is shown in Figure 2.7. The mass of a hydrogen

positive ion is 1860 that of an electron. It therefore accelerates much slower than the

electron. The fast moving high (high mobility) electrons are at the tip of the

avalanche with the heavy positive ions (low mobility) moving slowly towards the

negative electrode. The discharges as described in this section are non-self-

sustaining, for example they continuously require initiating electrons and as soon as

the initiating electrons cease to appear, the process stop. Such avalanches alone

cannot lead to flashover, but require a positive feed-back process to develop into a

flashover. Townsend showed that secondary processes, such as ion impact at the

cathode or photo-ionisation, provide such feed-back [13].

Distance

Length of discharge

12

Figure 2.8: Streamer formation [10]

The self-sustained gas discharge(streamer discharge)showed that, if the

length of the avalanche becomes large, the negative and positive charges in the

avalanche distort the field to such an extent that new avalanches from ahead of the

original avalanche, eventually bridging the gap. As shown in Figure 2.8, the fields,

caused by the space charge, strengthen the applied field in the regions ahead and

towards the tail of the original streamer. The ionization coefficient α is a function of

the field strength (E) and it is therefore increased in these regions, to such an extent

that new avalanches are triggered by photons that emerge from the original

avalanche. This explanation was stated by [12], [13].

2.4 50% Breakdown Voltage of Air

A study on U50 has been carried out by [14], [15], [16]. The experiments have been

conducted with standard lightning impulse voltage, using the up-and-down method to

determine the 50% breakdown voltage. By using rod-plane electrode configuration,

with difference gap length, the results on the aforementioned tests were obtained (see

Figure 2.9)

13

Figure 2.9: U50 (kV) for rod-plane electrode [16]

Further tests on U50 have been carried out by [17], [18], [19]. Standard lightning

impulse of 1.2/50 is used in this study, along with sphere-sphere electrode

configuration with variable gap length. By applying the up-and-down method to get

50% breakdown value, the results from this study were obtained (see Figure 2.10).

Figure 2.10: U50 (kV) for sphere-sphere electrode [18]

Referring to Figure 2.9 and Figure 2.10, it is clear the U50 values increase

with increase the gap length. In both electrode configurations, the U50 curves increase

linearly with the proportion gap length. Therefore, from this study the result shows a

linear relationship between gap length and breakdown voltage.

U5

0 (

kV

)

14

2.5 Analysis Electric Field from Previous Work

Studies on electric field have been carried out by [20]. This paper describes

sparkover characteristics of CF3I-Co2, gas mixture, with focus on 30%-70% mixture.

Standard lightning impulse of 1.2/50 is used in this study. By using three difference

electrode configurations with variable gap lengths, the results from this study were

obtained (see Figure 2.11 and Figure 2.12).

As a clearly shown in Figure 2.11, the maximum electric field, Emax occurs at

the very edge of the high voltage plane electrode at gap length 3 cm. Figure 2.12

shows that the Emax occurs at the tip of R12 and sphere high voltage electrode at gap

length 4 cm and 1 cm, respectively. Whereby red lines shows the maximum electric

field and the blue lines shows the minimum electric field.

From Figure 2.11 and Figure 2.12, the maximum electric field is focused on a

small surface at high voltage electrode. This is the most likely location where the

pre-discharges will occur, followed by air breakdown. This study shows that, a small

surface on the electrode lead to the occurrence of maximum electric field values.

This results is the same as reported by [15], [18], [21].

Figure 2.11: Lines of electric field with equal magnitudes with maximum electric

field region at the edge of the electrode for plane-plane configuration (kV/cm) [20]

15

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.12: Lines of electric field with equal magnitudes with maximum electric

field region at the tip of, (a) rod-plane configuration and (b) sphere gap configuration

(kV/cm) [20]

Table 2.1: Field utilization factor for each electrode configuration with V=1 kV [20]

The electric field utilization factor (ɳ) is presented a ratio of mean electric

field and maximum electric field as a calculated result about the electric field

strength and distribution. The factor (ɳ) is independent of the voltage and is

16

determind by the shape and the arrangement of electrode. So, the electric field

utilization factor of the similar electrode arrangements should be almost same. The

value of each factor (ɳ) is 1 in the uniform field and 0 < ɳ< 1in the non-uniform field

[22]. Referring to the table 2.1, the results of field utilization factor for each electrode

configuration with V= 1 kV has been carried out by [20]. It is found that higher gap

length provides higher U50 and Emax for a given electrode configuration, although the

rise in U50 is more obvious in sphere-sphere configuration, due to more uniform

field.

Further tests on electric field have been carried out by [17]. This paper

describes measurement of air breakdown voltage and electric field using standard

sphere gap. The experiment is conducted at the normal temperature and pressure.

Finite element method is used for finding the electric field between standard sphere

electrodes. The electric field distribution for sphere gap arrangements is also

calculated with the help of COMSOL. By using sphere gap electrode with standard

diameter of 25 cm and variable gap length, the results from this study were obtained

(see Figure 2.13). Figure 2.13 shows that the maximum electric field decreases with

the increase in the gap distance. In the beginning there is sharp drop in the maximum

electric field but it gradually saturates with increase in the gap distance. It found that,

from this study that higher gap distance provides higher Emax for a sphere-sphere

electrode configuration. This result is the same as described by [18].

Figure 2.13: Maximum electric field (kV/cm) vs. gap distance (cm) [17]

17

2.6 Lightning Impulse Voltage

As mentioned that lightning impulse also known as the fast-front overvoltages

(FFO).This is due to very fast rise-time occurring on the waveform shape. The

electrical strength of high voltage apparatus against external overvoltage that can

appear in power supply system due to lightning strokes is tested with lightning

impulse voltage. One differentiates thereby between full and chopped lightning

impulse voltage [2]. A standard full lightning impulse voltage rises to its peak value

in less than a few microseconds and falls, appreciably slower, ultimately back to zero

(Figure 2.14a). The rising part of the impulse voltage is referred to as the front, the

maximum as the peak and the decreasing part as the tail. Chopping of a lightning

impulse voltage in the test field is done by a chopping gap, whereby one

differentiates between chopping on the tail (Figure 2.14b), at the peak and on the

front (Figure 2.14c). The standard chopped lightning impulse voltage has a time to

chopping between 2 µs (chopping at the peak) and 5 µs (chopping on the tail) (Figure

2.14b). The voltage collapse on the tail shall take place appreciably faster than the

voltage rise on the front. Due to such rapid voltage collapse, the test object is

subjected to an enormously high stress. Special requirements may be placed on the

form of chopped impulse voltages for individual high voltage apparatus. Lightning

impulse voltage chopped on the front have times to chopping between 2 µs and low

down to 0.5 µs. At short times to chopping, the waveform at the front between 0.3 on

the peak voltage and the chopping instant is nearly. If variations from linearity are

found within ±5 % of the front time[23].

(a)

kV

18

(b)

(c)

Figure 2.14: (a) Full lightning impulse voltage, (b) lightning impulse voltage

chopped on the tail, (c) lightning impulse voltage chopped on the front [2]

The various lightning impulse voltage are identified in the test specifications

by the following time parameters [2]:

i. Front time T1 and To half value T2 for full lightning impulse voltages

ii. Lightning impulse voltage chopped on the front between 0.5 µs to 2 µs

iii. Lightning impulse voltage chopped on the tail between 2 µs to 5 µs

For charactherising a full impulse voltage, numerical values of front times

and times to half value in microseconds are introduced as symbols. The standard

1.2/50 lightning impulse voltage has accordingly a front time T1 = 1.2 µs and a tail

time T2 = 50 µs.

kV

kV

t

t

19

2.6.1 Tolerance

While generating impulse voltages, deviations from the impulse parameter of the test

standards laid down for high voltage apparatus are permissible. The tolerances for

lightning impulse voltages amount shown in table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Tolerances of lightning impulse [2]

Lightning Impulse Front Time (T1) Tail Time (T2)

Tolerances ±30% ±20%

Standard Time (µs) 1.2 50

Voltage 0.90Vpeak 0.5Vpeak

The reason for the large amount of tolerances on the time parameters lies in

the varying degrees of interaction of the test objects with the generator circuit, due to

which the waveform and thus, the time parameter of the generated lightning impulse

voltage are affected to a greater or smaller extent. The elements of the lightning

impulse voltage generator with which the waveform is obtained need not be changed

each time the load presented by the test object is marginally altered. No tolerances

are fixed for the time to chopping Tc[24].

2.7 Capacitive Voltage Divider

A capacitive voltage divider consists two capacitor in series. It is commonly used to

create a reference voltage, or to get a low voltage signal proportional to the voltage

to be measured, and may also be used as a signal attenuator at low frequencies. For

direct current and relatively low frequencies, a capacitive divider may be sufficiently

accurate if made only of capacitors, where frequency response over a wide range is

required, (such as in an oscilloscope probe), the voltage divider may have capacitive

elements added to allow compensation for load capacitance. In electric power

transmission, a capacitive voltage divider is used for measurement of high voltage.

20

Figure 2.15: Capacitive Divider

Capacitive divider formula:

Figure 2.15 shows the capacitive divider that is connected in series. Whereby

the capacitor with the smaller capacitance will have the greater voltage, and

conversely, the capacitor with the smaller greater capacitance will have the smaller

voltage [25]

2.8 Electric Field

An electric field is generated by electrically charged and time-varying magnetic field.

The electric field describes force experienced by a motionless positively charged to

negatively charge. The electric field direction is always direct away from positive

source charges and toward negative source charges such as figure 2.16. Surrounding

any object with charge, or collection of objects with charge, is an electric field. Any

charge placed in an electric field will experience an electrical force.

Vi

C1

C2

Osc

Vout

21

(a).Positive Charge (b) Negative Charge

(c).Positive and Negative Charge (d) Positive and PositivCharge

Figure 2.16: Direction of an electric field[22]

Some fieldsare uniform (parallel, equally spaced fields lines) such as the field on the

left formed by a sheet of negative charge. Nonuniform fields are stronger where the

field lines are closer together, such as the field on the right produced by a sphere of

negative charge [26].

2.8.1 Uniform and Non Uniform Electric Field

The explanations of uniform and non uniform electric field are:

i. Uniform electric field

22

Figure 2.17: Magnitud and direction same at all point[26]

A uniform electric field is one whose magnitude and direction is same at all

points in space and it will exert same force of a charge regardless of the position of

charge in space such as figure 2.17. It is represented by parallel and evenly spaced

lines. For example we find uniform electric field between parallel plates of a

capacitor. The equipotential surfaces(dotted lines) drawn normal to the field lines are

also equidistance from each other.

ii. Non uniform electric field

A non uniform electric field is one which is not uniform, it has either

different magnitudes or different directions or both different in a given region of

space such as figure 2.18. For example the field due to a point charge, shown by

radial lines. It depends inversely as square of distance from the point charge . The

equipotential surfaces are also at unequal distances (closely spaced near the charge

and farther separating as we move away from the charge) [27].

23

Figure 2.18: Different movement of magnitude and direction[27]

2.9 Equipotential Lines

Figure 2.19 show the equipotential lines and electric field lines. The electric field

lines will always 90 degree to the equipotential lines. The horizontal and parallel

lines are the field lines. The electric field is essentially uniform in between the plates

[28].

24

Figure 2.19: Equipotential lines and electric field (E) [28]

2.10 Conclusion

In this chapter, a review on the air breakdown under lightning impulse has been

presented.From the reading of previous work, explanation is the lightning threat and

air breakdown in gases, from the study can determine the factors causing air

breakdown in gases. Besides, it can know the characteristics of the damage occurred

in the gas as Townsend and Streamer. Besides, by refer from variable sources such

journals, books, websites and articles, the data and information can be collected. The

research and deep study all related journal, book, manual guide, blog and another

reference helped a lot in understanding this project and also as a guide along this

project.

In addition, the study on lightning impulse voltage has been carried out,

explaining that the waveforms according to IEC international standard for the 1.2 /

50 lightning impulse waveform. Study on standard lightning impulse waveform is

important to know correct circuit used during the test run. Study on electric field is

also important to know the characteristics that exist on electric field.

Equipotential Lines

Electric Field

Lines

E

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