Dental Analysis of a Peruvian Highland Population in the Huari-Ancash Region: A Comparative Study

Dental Analysis of a Peruvian Highland Population in the

Huari-Ancash Region: A Comparative Study

By

Ashley J. Remy

A Thesis submitted to the Honors College in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for graduation with University Honors.

Major: Anthropology

Minor: Human Biology

Thesis Advisor: Dr. B. Benefit

New Mexico State University

Las Cruces, New Mexico

May 2013

Approved by:

_____________________________ ______________________________

Dean, Honors College Thesis Adviser

I

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the following organizations and people:

• Core University Resource Research Labs (CURRL) for the opportunity to learn and use

the scanning electron microscope and broadband confocal.

• The NMSU Honors College for sponsorship and support of this research.

• The Huari-Ancash project for their support in allowing this research to take place.

• The valuable and priceless support of my advisors at NMSU, especially to Dr. Brenda

Benefit from the Anthropology Department and Dr. Peter Cook at CURRL.

II

Abstract

The site of Marcajirca, located in the northern highlands of Peru, preserves information about the

lifestyle and mortuary practices of its inhabitants between 1000 and 1600 AD. The purpose of

this study was to assess macroscopic evidence of dental health and microscopic evidence of diet

to determine whether individuals with culturally modified (conical shaped) and unmodified

crania might have belonged to different social groups, eaten different foods, or lived different

lifestyles. Teeth from a total of sixty individuals representing each group were examined in Peru

and high precision molds of their teeth were brought to NMSU for Scanning Electron

Microscope and Broadband Confocal analysis. Macrowear analysis revealed that the population,

including both individuals with and without cranial modification, has a rare pattern of dental

wear known as the reverse monsoon curve, similar to Maori populations. Both sets of individuals

(33% of total sample) show high percentages of cavities, developmental hypoplasias, bone

absorption and abscesses around tooth roots. Preservation of dental enamel microwear on the

surface of many teeth was poor, presumably due to high soil acidity in the Andes. Preliminary

analyses did not find differences in dental macrowear or microwear between those with and

without cranial deformation, suggesting they lived the same lifestyle.

III

Table of Contents

List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………… VIII

Background Information …………………………………………………………………… 1

1- Purpose of Research and Definitions ………………………………………………….. 5

Cranial Modification …………………………………………………………........ 5

Dental Macrowear Analysis ……………………………………………………..... 6

Dental Microwear Analysis ……………………………………………………….. 6

Taphonomical Effects on Bones …………………………………………………… 7

Coca Leaf ………………………………………………………………………….. 8

2- Methods ………………………………………………………………………………... 10

3- Results …………………………………………………………………………………. 16

Problems Encountered …………………………………………………………….. 16

Macrowear Analysis ………………………………………………………………. 21

Microwear Analysis ……………………………………………………………….. 39

Maori Comparison ………………………………………………………………… 48

4- Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………….. 49

Considerations of Methodology ………………………………………………….. 49

Inferences ………………………………………………………………………… 51

What Else Can Be Researched? …………………………………………………… 52

Current Questions …………………………………………………………………. 53

Bibliography ……………………………………………………………………………….. 55

Appendix …………………………………………………………………………………… 57

Tooth Inventory ……………………………………………………………………. 57

Maxillary Measurements ………………………………………………………….. 66

IV

Macrowear Table of Traits ………………………………………………………… 67

Microwear Table of Traits …………………………………………………………. 68

Soil Composition Charts …………………………………………………………… 69

V

List of Figures

Figure 1: Chullpas at the site…………………………………………………………… 3

Figure 2. Impressions made of a sample at site………………………………………… 12

Figure 3. Coca leaf under SEM at 500 magnification …………………………………. 13

Figure 4. Chart 1 of mandible 2180 ……………………………………………………. 18

Figure 5. Chart 2 of mandible 2180 ……………………………………………………. 19

Figure 6. Comparision of real tooth, caste, and mold of Anthro 2- LAB indv………….. 21

Figure 7. Chullpa 7; mandible 2148 ……………………………………………………. 23

Figure 8. Cave 3, mandible 1319 ……………………………………………………….. 24

Figure 9. Chullpa 13, mandible 455 ……………………………………………………. 25

Figure 10. Chullpa 26, mandible 361 …………………………………………………... 26

Figure 11. Modified Indv 4, 497C84 …………………………………………………… 26

Figure 12. Cave 3, mandible 489 ………………………………………………………. 27

Figure 13. Chullpa 7, mandible 218 …………………………………………………… 28

Figure 14. Modified 49CF3D41 ……………………………………………………….. 28

Figure 15. Chullpa 7, mandible 2180 ………………………………………………….. 29

Figure 16. Structure 7, Indv 10 ………………………………………………………… 30


Figure 18. cave 3, mandible 68 …………………………………………………………. 32

Figure 19. Chullpa 8, mandible 528 ……………………………………………………. 33

VI

Figure 20. Chullpa 7, mandible 317 …………………………………………………... 33



Figure 23. Cave 3, mandible 489 ……………………………………………………… 36

Figure 24. cave 3, mandible 8811 ……………………………………………………… 37


Figures 26 and 27. Modified 49C7B4, maxilla RM2, Mesial Lingual ………………… 41

Figures 28 and 29. Modified 49FC3D41, Maxillary RM2, mesial lingual …………….. 42

Figures 30 and 31. Modified 49C19C294, maxilla, RM2, mesial lingual ……………… 43

Figues 32 and 33. Non-modified, Indv 1, maxillary LM1 mesial lingual ………………. 44

Figures 34 and 35. Non-modified, Indv 17, maxilla M2, mesial lingual (sputter) ……… 45

Figures 36 and 37. Non-modified, Indv 16, Maxilla RM2, mesial lingual ……………… 46

Figures 38 and 39. mandible 1992, M2, mesial buccal …………………………………. 47

1

Background Information

The site is located in Marcajirca, Peru in the Huari-Ancash region at an elevation of over

13,500 feet and dating between the 11th

-16th

centuries. The overall region is considered as part

of the Northern Highlands of Peru near the Andes mountain range. The time range discussed

covers the end of the Wari Empire (600-1000CE) and goes through the Late Intermediate Period

(1260-1400CE), leading to the colonial time marking the pre and post-Spanish conquest of the

Latin Americas. The Late Intermediate Period witnessed the decline of the Wari Empire along

with formation of states and growth as the Incas began to persist and rise (Covey, 2008). The

site, also referred to as a huaca, is not entirely mortuary, as evidence of a tower, amphitheatre,

and defensive wall structure laid in ruins among the Chullpa. A characteristic of many sites in

this region is how nucleated they are within communities and their ability of staying protected

(Covey, 2008). Currently the project of Huari-Ancash of the Marcajirca site is beginning its

eleventh year and has mainly focused on bone pathologies and mortuary rituals, including the

relationships of cranial modifications and coca leaf chewing.

Bone pathologies were studied on the skeletons from Marcajirca. Such pathologies cover

a range of diseases and osteological characteristics that provide insight about the behavior and

health of the people of Marcajirca. Evidence of tuberculosis, osteoporosis, fractures, and

fusions/warping of bones were especially evident on long bones and vertebrae. Tuberculosis is

found throughout the region and the frequency is not known at this site. Evidence of fractures,

trepanations, and modifications are found on the crania and have been recorded. Two cases of

severe fractures occur on the frontal portion of the skull in the sinus region (which has led to a

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suggestion of violence in the area). Trepanations are defined as intentional holes made during

surgery to help ‘cure’ an individual of cranial trauma, headaches, or mental diseases. Many

individuals (approximately 26 percent in Peruvian highlands; Verano, 1997) were found with

either etched or rounded trepanations on the skull. Seven at the Marcajirca site had multiple

trepanations with evidence of healing of the bone.

The caves, generally dating 1020CE, were among the first things to be excavated since

they consisted of individuals with modified crania (discussed further below in purpose of

research). Majority of individuals were uncovered inside Chullpas, dating more into the Late

Intermediate Period. Chullpas are defined here as above ground tomb structures that became

popular in the Wari empire and led into the Late Intermediate Period. A few typologies exist,

however these structures are always made of stone and are usually one roomed and single

storied. At the site of Marcajirca, the orientations of the entrances of these structures were

random, suggesting the directions were not significant when these structures were built. The

stones reflect local resources; however the materials for pigmentation and the roof were carried

from a few miles away up the mountain. There is no known hierarchy base for the burials in

Chullpas as they were generally filled with many bodies comprising of both skeletal and

mummified remains. The Chullpas excavated at Marcajirca were labeled as Chullpa 7, Chullpa

8, Chullpa 13, Chullpa 14, and Chullpa 26. All represent the same timeframe.

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Figure 1: Chullpas at the site

Structure 10, a residential structure buried a meter deep, reflects the colonial era at about

13th century CE and extends the chronology of the site into the Late Intermediate Period. This

wide range of time is often considered a rare opportunity in archaeology to peek into the

transitions of mortuary practices; these burials have changed through time, possibly as a

consequence of the conquistadores arriving to the area mid 16th

century. As Covey, 2008 states,

“Mortuary treatment in this region ranges from individual in-ground graves to group burials of a

variety of forms. Tombs in rock shelters or cliffs have been identified in some agricultural

elevations, while herding elevations contain above ground mortuary structures and sub-surface

tombs.” With this consideration, the Marcajirca site would reflect a herding population with its

Chullpas, above ground structures, characterizing many of these mortuary practices. More

evidence is found on the site with terraces covering the scenery and an emphasis of using sheep

and goats to graze the lands to aerate the soils. The entire population sample age reflects from

infant to old adult and were found in these Chullpas.

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Dental aspects, the primary focus of this paper, have given many different interpretations

on both macro and micro level. Due to the large focus of the Marcajirca site being based on

bone pathologies, a lack of dental analysis existed. By examining the teeth in this region would

allow for a growing understanding of general health patterns and diets in this region.

Furthermore, a comparison within the sample population excavated at this site between

individuals with cranial modifications and those without could help narrow the theories as to

why cranial modification existed in Latin America (specifically in the highlands of Peru).

The chewing of coca leaf is recognized here as an herbal remedy as well as a way to gain

energy. The remedy itself is used for stomach illnesses and in the past, along with the present

date, the coca leaf is chewed into a wad and then allowed to sit on the side of the cheek, buccal

side of the molars, to slowly access the circulatory system. By this means, the coca helps to calm

the stomach and gastrointestinal system to provide relief from high elevations. In ritual settings,

the coca leaf was used in a different form to relax an individual, possibly to enter a state of

hypnosis or to lull into a peaceful death. See Coca Leaf under purposes.

5

1. Purpose of Research and Definitions

a. Cranial modification

Cranial modifications serve as one of the more interesting topics within the Latin

American region. Often referred to resemble ‘aliens’ or ‘cone-heads’, these physical

modifications were part of the peoples’ lives and culture. However, due to a lack of consensus

as to why these cranial modifications occurred has led to many theories and investigations

leaving many of these inquiries yet to be solved (Verano, 1997; Duncan and Hofling, 2011). Part

of this project was to delve into supporting the idea of a hierarchy that existed among this

population at Marcajirca. According to Verano, 1997, “cranial deformation, both intentional and

unintentional, was by far the most widely distributed from of body modification among

prehistoric Andean populations.” Why would this feature be so desired and done in the region?

The investigation of differences in microwear and macrowear could potentially produce results

distinguishing the two groups of individuals with cranial modification and those without. If there

is a marked difference between the different groups, it would suggest a different diet, as well as

different health was experienced between these groups. This difference would imply these

groups ate different foods and possibly had a different lifestyle which would occur in a stratified

society. However, if there are no marked differences between the groups, it would suggest that

these individuals lived similar lives. This would mean the individuals with cranial modifications

were not special or ‘high society’ if they are eating and living similar to the other individuals of

their society. Due to this, the cranial modification may be more of a cultural decision, such as

beautification purposes.

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b. Dental Macrowear Analysis

Macrowear analysis is defined here as the investigation of dental features observable without

the aid of a microscope that generally observe overall wear of teeth and health problems

including cavities, hypoplasias, caries, and abscesses. The association of these traits to diets,

such as caries being closely related to carbohydrate consumption (Larson, 2002; Asencios, 2008;

Bernell et.al 2007), can further an understanding of what this population may have experienced

and ate. These macro-level observations then can allow for a comparison of general dental

hygiene an individual had in their lifetime as well as if there were periods of malnutrition the

individual may have experienced. This can be generally found by investigating hypoplasias

which show periods of nutritional stresses a person may have experienced in their lifetime. These

periods of malnutrition may also allow the possibility, if seen in many individuals, of inferring if

there were periods of less food access in the region as a result of seasonality (i.e. drought). Other

interesting comparisons can be made by seeing the build-up of calculus, which may lead on to

the development of cavities, caries, and abscesses due to lack of dental hygiene that would get

rid of calculus.

c. Dental Microwear Analysis

Microwear analysis is defined as investigating the observable effects of diet and taphonomy

on teeth that are not visible to the human eye. This can be done in a multiple of ways including

the use of a scanning electron microscope, reflective microscope, broadband Confocal

microscope, and a profiler Confocal microscope. These features help to determine dietary

patterns by allowing the viewing of striations and pitting of teeth caused by the mastication

7

process of different types of food. The effects of taphonomy include, but are not limited to, the

effects of acidic soil, erosion, and possibly animals using the teeth to gnaw on. According to

King et. al (1999), “sedimentary abrasion, weathering, and exposure to an acidic environment are

just a few of the taphonomic agents that have the potential to alter or obliterate existing

microscopic features and they need to be taken into consideration by researchers.” These

taphonomical effects on teeth were taken into caution when the molds were examined by use of

the scanning electron microscope as many times dirt sediments were found on the molds

suggesting the possible results the soils may bring during research.

Striations and pits are the main topics of research with dental microwear analysis. Striations

are here defined as the result of a mastication process, usually shearing on leaves, that brings

about a mark on enamel that is longer than it is wide. Pits are defined as the result of a

mastication process, usually a chomping action due to hard foods, which brings about a mark on

enamel that is as long as it is wide.

d. Taphonomical Effects on Bones

Taphonomy plays a large role in the excavation of human remains. It is the collection of

factors that affect an individual post-mortem. According to Naji, 2012, taphonomy is considered

as the investigation of the evolution of bones in the ground, which differs relation to

archeothanatology that aims to “reconstruct the attitude of ancient populations towards death by

focusing the study of the human skeleton and analyzing the acts linked to the management and

treatment of bones”. Taphonomy begins with the decaying process of the body. The body’s

temperature and volume increases, creating a bloating effect. Necrosis is often observed on the

8

skin as the expansion of the abdomen results in an ‘explosion’ due to the rising pressure of the

body internally. During decay, many factors must be considered during excavation, including the

determination of the initial position of the bones. If the body was laid outside, scavengers, such

as birds and canines can carry bones away and accelerate the decomposition process. Afterwards,

the bones are exposed to the elements if initially laid outside. Such elements including winds,

rain, sun, and soils play a role in the preservation of bones. A high pH, or acidic soil, may play a

large role in decaying and eroding bones away while as a low pH, or alkaline soils, may help

preserve bones better. Sun helps to dry out bones and reduce bacteria living inside the bone

marrow which leads to a better preservation for bones. Swamps and fluctuations of water can

erode bones more quickly and render them useless for research. However, this may not always

be the case for human skeletal remains. Cases such as burials and tomb structures to house the

individuals keep bones in place and reduce the elements of erosion and disturbance. These

elements still play a role in the decay process and will affect each bone, including teeth.

Corrosion of teeth due to the elements and acidity of soils can make the recognition of

microwear, and perhaps macrowear, difficult.

e. Coca leaf

Coca leaf has been a cultural item in Peru for hundreds of years prior to Inca times. The use

of coca leaf is mainly medicinal, although it is also used for ritual purposes (Chaves and

Reinhard, 2003). The chewing of coca leaf is done throughout the day and is done by placing a

wad of dry leaves into the mouth, chewing the leaves into a wad, and leaving the leaves in the

cheek pocket inside the mouth. Minor chewing takes place to keep the juices of the leaves fresh.

9

This sort of chewing would not leave a lot of microwear due to the lack of emphasized

mastication. Furthermore, it has been found that coca leaf phytoliths are not very abrasive.

Because of this, the coca leaf, although very interesting as a cultural dynamic of the population,

became regarded as a less influential item on microwear. Despite this, it would still produce a

wearing effect caused by the heavy chewing and could potentially result in macrowear traits.

10

2. Methods

While participating in the field school located in Marcajirca, Peru, directed by Dr. Bebal

Ibarra, I began my work by taking dental impressions of various individuals excavated at the site.

The dental materials included a Quala brand vinyl Polysoloxane impression and dispenser often

used by dentists. Both mandibles and maxillas with an existing first and/or second molar were

taken aside, recorded accordingly to their site identification number, measured mesio-distally

and lingual-buccally by use of a Diamax calipers, photographed with use of a personal Kodak

digital camera, and cleaned with rubbing alcohol, brushes, and Q-tips. Two mold impressions

were made afterward (the first mold intended to pick up left over dirt) and placed in an

individual clear bag that was labeled with the matching identification number. Approximately

sixty individuals have been recorded in this method.

The first portion of this project was to collect a large and varied sample size that can be

adequate enough to observe general wear patterns through time and between possible class

differences at the Marcajirca site.

In taking the samples, the objective was to fulfill the observation and understanding of wear

patterns of teeth between modified and non-modified skulls. By examining these wear patterns

not only allows inferences about diet, but also overall health. Wear patterns were emphasized on

the second molar, as this molar is predominately in existence throughout an individual’s life and

would reflect the entire mastication process and chewing habits of the individual.

The samples were taken from specific pit structures, a cave, and five Chullpa (Chulpas 7, 8,

13, 14, and 26). At least five different individuals were taken from each structure to allow for

11

consistency and a fair sample size to reflect the population of the site in general. The addition of

nine individuals with cranial modifications increases the variability for analysis and was not

excavated in this season. Instead they were from the lab from a cave excavated from the project’s

previous excavations.

The samples were selected on a basis of quality, meaning how well the wear pattern was able

to be determined, that there was not too many taphonomical/post-mortem effects on the teeth

based on macro observation, and a bias toward selecting molars for the overall sample (although

other teeth such as canines and incisors were sampled for practice purposes). Of these selections,

the teeth were cleaned with a cotton swab mainly with rubbing alcohol to avoid creating

scratches on the teeth and avoid later confusion in reading striations on the teeth. After cleaning

of the teeth with the cotton swabs and cleaning surrounding dirt with soft paint brushes, the

molars were measured by length and width with single measurements by use of calipers. The

measurements were made in the widest portion of the teeth that could be measured (if the tooth

was not isolated, the measurement was given an average). Once measurements were made, a

photograph of the buccal, occlusal, lingual, and mesial side of each sample were taken to create a

database of observable traits in order to confirm pathologies of teeth including dental abscesses

and collection of calculus as well as any gum diseases. In general, the photographs served as a

database to recollect the characteristics of the teeth sampled as well as to show/demonstrate

pathologies of the region. Once photographed, the teeth, if not set in a stable mandible/maxilla,

were set in clay to be prepared for impression with the vinyl soloxene material. The vinyl

soloxene is dispersed to create a dental impression that can be read by a Confocal and Scanning

Electron Microscope (SEM). Two dental impressions may be made of each sample judging by

how much dirt and bubbles are found on the first impression.

12

Figure 2. Impressions made of a sample at site.

Returning to New Mexico State University (NMSU), I begun to work and do research at

the Core University Resource Research Lab (CURRL) with direction under Dr. Peter Cooke and

with advising from Dr. Brenda Benefit. The work at the lab included use of a Scanning Electron

Microscope (SEM) to begin examination of dental microwear. Selections of the impressions

with priority viewing was made through reading an excel spreadsheet made of the entire

collection that listed the sample number, location, and tooth sampled (either maxillary,

mandibular, left, right, and if first, second, or third molar). It was decided maxillary samples

were to receive priority viewing as they included the entire portion of individuals with cranial

modifications.

The SEM is emphasized as a practical instrument for dental microwear analysis as it

allows for large sized samples to be placed in the machine and viewed under large

magnifications. Magnifications used were 500, 350, 250, 150, 100 and 50 with occasional 800-

950 magnifications to get detailed shots of possible phytoliths and dirt attached to the dental

molds. The vinyl soloxene material does not charge very easily in the SEM and can be viewed

for long periods of time. The views of the samples were focused on the molars on both lingual

and buccal sides mainly on phase II facets. Maps/drawings of the impression were made prior to

13

placement in the SEM to help identify areas were possible microwear was present. Striations are

defined as being longer than wide, and pitting defined as equally long in width and length (as

pictographs can be drawn over these possible microwear structures). After use of the SEM, the

dental images were placed on a Microsoft PowerPoint document and, by use of drawing tools in

the program, possible striations and pitting were marked.

To investigate coca leaf a broadband confocal microscope using laser fluorescence

settings as well as the SEM was used. Some of the dental samples and the coca leaf sample

received the sputter technique to improve imaging and detailing for analysis. Analysis of coca

leaf was done under a broadband confocal microscope in the CURRL in order to investigate cell

and leaf structure. The main purpose of this was to look at phytolith structure and see if

phytoliths would be abrasive enough to leave striations on teeth. To understand abrasive wear

was to see the overall structure of a phytolith. After many readings and imaging, the phytoliths

on coca leaf were found to not be very abrasive.

Figure 3. Coca leaf under SEM at 500 magnification

The dental molds were then casted using an Epotek 301 material with a hardener. Molds

were set in a hood and 15ml of Epotek was used to fill in molds at a time. Many sets of molds

were used to create castes. After casting, the molds were re-examined with the SEM. Under new

perspective the castes demonstrated corrosion and less microwear. After researching further,

14

acidic soil gave an explanation as to why the molds and castes often presented corrosion and

anomalies in wear patterns (See problems encountered below).

With this new presented problem sputter coating of the castes helped to lead and narrow

down where specific microwear could be found. The sputter coat became very helpful as it

limited charging in the SEM. More castes were later made after using a reflective microscope to

pick out molds based on how shiny they were. The shine produced by the molds helped to

separate the individuals whose teeth may have been eroded and those who did not.

Teeth from the lab also helped to further experiment the accuracy of the molds and castes

made. Concerns rose when castes viewed were porous and did not produce the desired results.

This may have been caused by a lack of a vacuum to pull out the bubbles observed during the

casting process. See problems encountered below. Since the original teeth from Peru could not

be obtained, teeth from NMSU Anthropology were used.

This comparison of molds versus caste was done by first taking aside three isolated teeth

from the NMSU Anthropology lab. The teeth were molded in the same way as the samples in

Peru. Afterward, the molds were viewed in the SEM to find striations and pitting patterns. The

molds demonstrated a high accuracy of capturing microwear features from the original teeth,

approximately 90%. After examing the molds on each cuspule, molds were created and these

molds were then viewed in the SEM to determine similarity and accuracy in comparison to the

original teeth. The castes did not reflect as high as an accuracy to the original teeth as the molds,

creating a concern about the use of castes in examing microwear features of a sample population

for research. Again this problem may be due to lack of available equipment to ensure no bubbles

were present in the molding material in the casting process.

15

Dirt pieces were also found attached to the molds. An analysis of the elemental

composition was also measured to see if acidity could be determined. The overall composition

did prove the material to be organic with iron and magnesium imprints.

Macrowear analysis was made by looking at the photographs made of each sample. The

photographs represented the mesial, distal, occlusal, lingual, and buccal sides of the sample. The

following traits were observed: caries, cavities, abcesses, hypoplasias, and general wear patterns.

These traits were selected as since they were observed in previous years of the project at

Marcajirca and would help show general health trends of the population sample. Wear patterns

was selected as one of these traits to see if there was a trend in mastication habits the population

had. This included observing if a monson curve or reverse monson curve occurred in this

population. The build-up of calculus was also recorded since it causes caries, cavities, and

abscesses and would allow me to create a record of health trends. After recording the traits,

comparisons were made of individuals with cranial modifications and of those without.

16

3. Results

a. Problems encountered

In any situation of conducting and tackling a scientific project there will be problems and

unintended circumstances unforeseen that will be encountered. This is no exception to the work

presented here.

One of the first problems encountered was the sample size between individuals with

modified crania and those without along with commonalities of the time each individual

represented. The uncovered individuals represented different time eras and the reflection of diet

may not have been fully accurate. Furthermore, about twenty-five percent of the entire sample

were individuals with modified crania. Of these individuals, dental samples were only found on

the maxilla, no mandibles from individuals with modified crania were found or available at the

site. This in turn reduced the rest of the sample that reflected non-modified crania to those with

maxillas uncovered to also about twenty-five percent. In total, the total count of individuals with

maxillas in the sample were about twenty individuals, not including juvenile individuals, an

additional two individuals.

i. Acidic soils

According to Bromley (1995), elevations and humidity generally induce acidity in soil

composition. As elevation increases, the soil changes pH conformity in comparison to lower

elevations. This may be worth consideration in examing microwear and macrowear.

By examing specs of dirt left on the molds and examing the content of the organic

material, the soil composition was found to be representative of what would be considered

17

acidic. Below are the following graphs (from a Noran System Six 300 Nanotrace software)

showing the count levels of elements found in the organic material. The first chart below is from

mandible 2180 of an individual without cranial modification. The second was form the mold in

order to compare the molding material to the dirt specs found on the mold. The first chart shows

high counts for phosphorus, calcium, and oxygen with traces of carbon, magnesium, and

aluminum. With the exception of aluminum, these elements are not very acidic. However, the

calcium trace may be from the tooth itself that left traces on the mold. To have a fairly acidic soil

composition would require more aluminum, iron, and hydrogen counts and less calcium and

magnesium. With only specs of dirt to analyze, possible soil acidity is very difficult to determine,

if at all.

18

Figure 4. chart 1 of mandible 2180

19

Figure 5. Chart 2 of mandible 2180

20

ii. Casting materials and accuracy thereof

The casting materials first used was an Epotek apoxy resin which did not allow for proper

analysis of the original teeth as could be inferred upon from the molds. This was due to the

porous appearance of the molds possibly in part of a lack of a vacuum to take the bubbles out of

the mold. Later, another resin was used, Epotek 301 with a hardener. These molds did not

produce viable results. They too were porous and very difficult to work with in the SEM. The

castes charged quickly and proper viewing was limited as after the mold was casted it would take

a period of time to gain a refreshed image, which did not further any good results. Sputter coat

was used on a few of the castes, resulting in a less charging effect, however the pores of the

castes still made microwear analysis very difficult to discern.

In a comparative analysis of the molds verses castes, it was found the molds did reflect a

higher accuracy of microwear of the real tooth verses the caste. The caste would only capture

large gashes and had a lower frequency of accuracy to the real tooth. Further support is provided

by another study done by Galbany et. al (2006) who stated the use of coltene and 3M low

viscosity body polyvinylsiloxane impression is accurate to about the fourth caste made and

presidents microsystem material is widely used due to its accuracy. The Quala brand used in this

study is of similar viscosity and produced quality images reflecting similar accuracy. This was

observed by comparing images, side by side, taken from the actual tooth, mold, and caste see

how similar the images were to each other. The molds and actual tooth images were almost

identical while the molds did not.

21

b. Dental Macrowear Analysis

Macrowear allows for interpretations of general lifestyles within the population including

health and mastication tendencies. The main macrowear traits observed were cavities, caries,

abscesses, hypoplasias, build-up of calculus, and general wear-patterns. These observations were

based off photographs taken of each sampled individual. The photographs were taken in a

mesial, distal, lingual, and buccal view. The traits were selected to see the prevalence of gum

diseases, as generally made by calculus/plaque build-up on the teeth as well as effects of the

mastication process on wear. If calculus was present on the sample along with other traits leads

to the inference of poor hygiene and possibly less prepared foods. This would be because

Figure 6. Comparision of real

tooth (upper left), caste

(lower left), and mold (lower

right) of Anthro 2- LAB

individual.

22

calculus would build up and create various gum diseases, such as Periodontitis, and lead to

observable characteristics of caries and abscesses. Cavities are a bit different as they are caused

more by bacterial build-up which can increase in severity (into caries) if not treated. Many

causes can create these problems, such as diets with a high carbohydrate and sugar intake.

Hypoplasias also allow a way to see if health problems concerning nutrition were prevalent

throughout periods of an individual’s life. Poor nutrition could be a result of a lack of resources

due to seasonality or even class structure within a society.

Below are the traits with pictures to present the characteristics found within this

population. Majority of the pictures below are from mandibles of individuals without cranial

modification since many of these traits were more prevalent in this group. Individuals with

cranial modification are labeled accordingly to compare when possible.

23

Examples of Hypoplasias

Hypoplasias, defined by lines on teeth, occur due to lack of proper nutrition and life

stresses and can be seen by finding lines on the tooth enamel.

Below are two of the three individuals from the population found with hypoplasia. All

three were found on the mandible of non-modified individuals on the left M3. The percent from

the total population is .055, and in non-modified individuals only the percent is .065.

Figure 7. Chullpa 7; mandible 2148

24

Figure 8. Cave 3, mandible 1319

25

Examples of Cavities

Cavities are caused by the buildup of bacteria caught in the crevices of the mouth.

Processed foods and a diet of high carbohydrates and sugars are among the culprits for cavity

development. In the sampled population 19 total individuals (out of 55) were found with at least

one cavity. The cavities occurred throughout the mouth (mandible and maxilla), especially I1, I2,

P3, M1, M2, and M3. Out of the 19 individuals, 4 had modified crania and 15 were non-

modified. The percents out of the entire sample population (55) for individuals with cavities is

.342, out of the entire modified crania population (9) the percent is .444, and the percent out of

those without modifications (46) .326. As seen here, the percent of cavities is higher in the

individuals with cranial modification, hinting that they may have eaten more processed foods.

Figure 9. Chullpa 13, mandible 455

26


Figure 11. Modified Indv 4, 497C84

27

Examples of Caries

Caries are more extreme in severity in comparison to cavities. They are usually caused by

gum diseases and build-up of calculus and plaque. In the sample population, 13 individuals were

identified with carious lesions giving a percent of .236 out of the entire sample. One of these

individuals was from the modified cranial group and represented .111 percent of the group with a

caries occurring on the incisal region. The 12 non-modified individuals gave a percent of .261 in

their group with caries mainly in the molar region. The percent is higher in the group without

cranial modifications.


28


Figure 14. Modified 49CF3D41

29

Examples of Abscesses

Abscesses are more severe than caries. They generally result from gum diseases. Out of

the sample population, 3 individuals, each non-modified, were identified to have abscesses. The

occurrence found of the abscesses was generally below the incisors, and one below the M1. The

total percent is .055, and out of the group of individuals without cranial modification, .007.


30

Figure 16. Structure 7, Indv 10

31

Wear Patterns

Wear patterns can define numerous things, such as a mastication preference for one side

or how tough foods were to wear on teeth quickly. There are many types of curvatures wear

patterns can create. The two most prevalent in the sample population are known as the Monson

Curve and Reverse Monson Curve.

- Slope in (Monson Curve)


32

Figure 18. cave 3, mandible 68

- Slope out (Reverse Monson Curve)

A reverse monson curve resembles a sloping down wear on the molars. This may more of

an orthodontic trait due to the possibility the maxilla is larger than the mandible.

33



34


35

General Wear of Teeth

The general wear of the teeth were found to be heavy on the molars. This created an

upside-down –shape with little wear on the incisors. Below are two more examples in addition to

the pictures given above showing this phenomena. As Mahoney (2006) stated in his research,

“human bite force increases on the more posterior molars”. As seen, the wear does increase

dramatically in the molar region.


36


37

Abnormal Traits

In addition to the traits described above, a few irregulars were found in the population

and are pictured below.

Figure 24. cave 3, mandible 8811


38

After reviewing the photos of fifty-five individuals, it was found that majority of the

individuals without cranial modifications had a higher frequency of caries, abscesses, and

hypoplasias along with more instances of calculus build-up. The individuals without cranial

modifications tended to have a higher frequency of cavities and less instances of the other

observed traits. Part of this could be due to how the only sample available for individuals with

cranial modification was maxillas; the sample for individuals without cranial modifications was

majority mandibles. However, in the purpose of observing and creating inferences on health,

calculus build-up exists on maxillary teeth at the same rate as on mandibular. If there was a lack

of calculus on maxillary teeth, it can be assumed there may have also been a lack of calculus on

mandibular teeth. Considering this, there is a marked difference between individuals with cranial

modifications and those without.

By looking at the general wear patterns, the process of mastication was more observable

in the mandibles, as more of their teeth, including incisors, were still in the mandible. The

maxillas still produced results too. The two patterns investigated were the sloping of teeth, if

they sloped inward toward the lingual side, known as a monson curve, or outwards toward the

buccal side, referred to as a reverse monson curve. Again, as the entire sample of the individuals

with cranial modifications were maxillas, it was difficult to infer these patterns. However, the

inverse of the maxillas, meaning how the maxillary teeth were sloped and shaped in a way to

produce a mandibular and similar slope of the teeth, could be inferred on. These would make a

fair guess, but not entirely accurate due to other exposures that the teeth can experience post-

mortem in regards to taphonomy. Despite this, it was found in the sample of individuals without

cranial modifications that about twenty percent of them demonstrated the Reverse Monson

Curve. The rest were simply heavily worn down in the molar region into a Monson Curve.

39

As found in the pictures above, the individual represented by mandible 2180 suffered

from severe health problems that resulted in caries, abscesses, and inflammation within the jaw.

The inflammation is a bit irregular since it is not normally found, nor is it erupting into an

abscess. The picture for mandible 8811 shows a sixth cusp on the first molar. This individual was

the only one found with this trait.

c. Dental Microwear Analysis

The microwear of the molds was accurate in determining dietary features in the maxilla and

mandible. One main observation made was the differences both groups presented, meaning either

the individual demonstrated a microwear patter of mostly striations or mostly of pits. There was

a lack of cases in which an individual without cranial modification demonstrated an even

distribution of striations and pits.

Individuals with cranial modifications had more cases of striations on their teeth or

combination of striations and pitting. This was mainly observed in the mesial side of the tooth

viewed in the SEM. However, it is important to keep in mind that these individuals with cranial

modification were only sampled with maxillary teeth due to the lack of mandibular teeth.

Individuals without cranial modification had a lack of maxillary teeth viewed due to lack of

maxillas available. This brings to point that findings at excavations are indeed unpredictable.

Different magnifications were used throughout the process, ranging from 15 to 550. It was

found that 150 and 250 magnifications produced optimal results, with re-evaluations at 50

magnifications to ensure which area was being viewed. Photos from 9 modified and 5 non-

modified individuals with a sampled maxillary M2 were used in the SEM and focused in the

40

mesial-lingual and mesial-buccal sides. A few mandibular samples from other individuals were

viewed as well, but majority of these were experimental and included castes.

The corrosion on the teeth was most frequent in the individuals with cranial modification.

This may be due to the preservation and taphonomical processes in the duration of the

excavation of these crania. Another possibility of this corrosion is due to taphonomy. Many of

the individuals with cranial modifications were found in caves while majority of the individuals

without cranial modifications were found in Chullpas.

Below, in the following figures are examples of individuals with cranial modifications and

those without on maxillary samples. The photos are marked to show where the striations and pits

are identified with numbers identifying how many in each photo.

41

Figures 26 and 27. Modified 49C7B4, maxilla RM2, Mesial Lingual

42

Figures 28 and 29. Modified 49FC3D41, Maxillary RM2, mesial lingual

43

Figures 30 and 31. Modified 49C19C294, maxilla, RM2, mesial lingual

44

Figues 32 and 33. Non-modified, Indv 1, maxillary LM1 mesial lingual

45

Figures 34 and 35. Non-modified, Indv 17, maxilla M2, mesial lingual (sputter coat)

46

Figures 36 and 37. Non-modified, Indv 16, Maxilla RM2, mesial lingual. It is worth noting here the stria of retzius

were visible in this individual. These show marks of enamel as age developes

47

Examples from mandible:

Figures 38 and 39. mand 1992, M2, mesial buccal

48

d. Maori comparison

The Reverse Monson Curve was found in the Maori Culture in New Zealand, and thought to

have been a fairly unique trait to this region. According to Keiser et. al 2001, this may have been

more of an orthodontic effect stating, “If, for instance, the maxillary arch is wider than the

mandible, then the wear plane will tend to be ad palatum while if the mandible arch is wider, an

accentuated Monson, ad lingum, will result.” The Maori were known to be tall with large faces

that featured a robust mandible despite their teeth being moderate in size (Keiser et. al, 2001). It

is difficult to compare the robusticity of the individuals from Maori to Marcajirca due to the lack

of the entire crania of the same individual being excavated. However, robusticity in the jaw

could create a larger bite force, especially if the maxilla was slightly larger than the mandible to

produce a more buccal wear on mandibular teeth. If this was a cultural trait on either population,

the appearance of the wear may be slightly different in regards to a preference of a side used in

mastication. Although this is sometimes the case in the Marcajirca individuals, it is very difficult

to determine a proper comparison of cultural dynamics of these two populations.

49

4. Conclusion

a. Considerations of Methodology

As in any archaeological excavation, methodology is far from perfect. Conditions at a site

and what is encountered during and after can hardly be planned for. This happened to be the case

in this investigation as problems encountered during researched occurred in sequence, on after

the other. It began with the uncertainty of corrosion and quality of microwear found on the molds

via SEM. Part of this problem was the lack of investigation in the acidity and quality of the soils.

The Chullpas, caves, and pits at the site may have had different compositions, but it is difficult to

tell at this time due to the lack of information. The available information was found on the dirt

pieces adhered to the molds that came from the teeth of the individuals. Although they were

small, the composition of the dirt pieces could be determined; however the sample size was too

small to determine pH of the soil. It is suggested here, in reference to future excavations, that soil

samples be analyzed from various parts of a site. They are essential to research. It is also

important to keep in mind the burial environments may have changed over time (Turner-Walker,

2008) possibly due to seasonality changes or even unnatural causes. Soil testing would allow

investigations of bones and teeth to be referenced in a new dynamic related to taphonomy. Bones

can degrade in specific soils, specifically acidic soils, or as stated (Child, 1995) “The chemical

and physical deterioration of buried bone depends solely upon the chemistry (and biochemistry)

of the surrounding soil environment. Acidic soils will dissolve hydroxyapitite, but the threshold

of acidity required is not clear.” Furthermore, it is stated by Child, 1995, that bones do not

disintegrate easily in neutral/alkaline soils and soils with low phosphate levels tend to

demineralize bones. If soil pH can be tested and known prior to excavations of bones, it would

50

help investigations and create a more accurate expectation of what is found on the bones. After

having had examined the dirt composition from the SEM, there were a few traces of alkali

elements such as Magnesium, that may have led to the bone disintegration found on the enamel.

This would have to be further investigated due to the lack of a good sample size of soil available.

The sample size of the population is small and very little can be done about sample size. You

cannot predict what is found and in what quality it is found in. However, this should not deter

from the quality of the results. According to Covey (2008) the Wari empire was not entirely

uniform in the highlands and according to Isbell and Schreiber (1978) the Wari empire was the

largest site of the Andes in 700CE. A further dental investigation as to how diverse the empire is

throughout the highland region may help elaborate these statements.

A large portion of methodology practices is to create a way to translate results in a universal

manner that allows for replication. Most of this depends on availability of resources and access

to lab equipment. This project used a scanning electron microscope, yet the new direction of

dental analysis is examining texture by means of a confocal profiler. A Confocal profiler is

currently not an easily accessible machine. Due to this, it is suggested here that results to include

an analysis of a universal basis, such as specific measurements, magnifications, and facets. This

may not solve the issue of resources, but would narrow results to areas that can be cross

referenced.

On the macrowear level a suggestion for definitions to be made for bioarchaeologists would

be helpful. Many of the definitions found and used here were from dental journals. These

definitions may be limiting to bioarchaeologists as many times taphonomy plays a large role in

preservation of teeth. It would be useful to create a definition of traits found on the macro level

51

that refers to taphonomical effects in order to avoid possible confusion of what was pre and post

mortem.

b. Inferences

After going through the many traits found within the population on a micro and macro level,

it may be said that individuals with cranial modifications had a different diet consisting of more

processed foods. On a macro level, a large difference between the groups, modified verses non-

modified, were found. In general, there was a lack of poor health characteristics in individuals

with cranial modification. The only trait that occurred, and was more frequent than individuals

without cranial modifications, was cavities. Cavities occur due to a buildup of bacteria and are

not as severe as caries or abscesses. They are caused by softer foods and sugars, many times

considered a luxury food item. The individuals without cranial modifications suffered the more

extreme versions of caries, abscesses, and a higher frequency of calculus build-up. Caries are

more common in diets of high carbohydrates based on cultured plants, and less common in diets

that are rich in meat (Bernall et. al, 2007). This again points to the inference of an elite class in

the population represented by individuals with cranial modifications. The high occurrence of

hypoplasias and calculus in the individuals without cranial modification also suggests a poorer

quality of diet and less proper hygiene which would create these dental problems the individuals

experienced pre-mortem.

The differences in frequencies of the striations verses pits found on the molds differed on a

micro level. More striations, or combinations of striations and pits, were found on the maxillary

M2 of individuals with cranial modification. Individuals without cranial modification had a

52

higher frequency of pits on their, ranging from small to large pits. A higher frequency of

striations generally means a diet with softer foods that require a sliding mastication process.

Such foods could be leaves and meat which generally can relate to an elite diet (Klaus and Tam,

2010; Ascencios, 2008). This makes sense in considering the use of coca leaf. Coca leaf is seen

as a ritual and respectful commodity, although it is chewed to help fight altitude sickness. If

considered special, it may have been reserved for the individuals with more authority. A diet that

results in more pits generally would reflect harder or less processed foods and would thus belong

to a lesser class. In conclusion, it is very possible this population demonstrated a social status by

use of cranial modification.

c. What Else Can Be Researched?

At this point in the study, a lot of work has still to be done with regard to cross cultural

comparisons in the Latin American region. What may be a direction is to gather more maxillas

and mandibles to increase the sample population. Other sites along the highlands of Peru can

expand this sample greatly and further comparisons of tribes can be made in the future. Another

direction would be to mold teeth of individuals from the lowland and coastal sites of Peru. This

would allow a significant comparison of environmental and regional differences in the sub-

populations of the Peru country.

On the macro level, many abscesses and evidence of cavities are present throughout the

population sample. Nutritional stresses are also evident in few through hypoplasias found on

incisors. Wearing of the teeth was among the more interesting aspects. The wearing of the

molars was heavier than on the incisors, forming what is known as a reversed Monson curve.

53

This curve, upon simple observation looks as if the mandible forms an upside-down U-shape and

a buccal slope on the teeth. The cause of this is poorly understood and more research as to what

parts of the process during mastication could create a more diagnostic definition of it.

On a micro level, the molds and castes showed hints of striations and pitting, with a variance

between individuals with modified crania and those without modifications. The diet consists of

carbohydrates, mainly revolving around potatoes (remnants found at the site as well as potatoes

still growing), fish, and rice along with habitual coca leaf chewing. The amounts available year

round could allow why combinations of striations and pitting occurs more in individuals with

cranial modification verses those without. Also if there were cultural practices, such as rope

pulling, done with the use of teeth as part of a reason as why there are such differences in

microwear traits.

It may also be interesting to see the differences based on sex in order to recognize if males

and females were treated differently by means of foods available to them. If females were given

slightly harder and less process foods; had a higher frequency of hypoplasias, cavities, and caries

or vice versa if such marked differences do exist.

d. Current Questions

Many questions still remain about this population. One of the first ones is how related is this

population to other highland populations in dietary aspects? How similar/dissimilar are the

coastal groups? How related to groups outside of the entire region?

How much does taphonomy play a role in teeth?

54

What other populations represent a reverse monson curve?

How similar is coca leaf chewing to tobacco chewing and can this information be used to

help determine wear patterns of past populations?

What other factors could result in a reverse-monson curve other than orthodontic?

55

Bibliography

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North-Central Highlands, Peru. (Project Review) Centre de research d’ Archéologie

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Archaeological Project.

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Holocene Hunter-Gatherers From Central and North Patagonia (South America): An Approach

from Dental Evidence. Journal of Physical Anthropology. 133:1047-1059

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(Unpublished Dissertation, no institution marked).

Child, A.M. (1995). Microbial Taphonomy of Archaeological Bone. Studies in Conservation.

40:19-30.

Chaves, S.A. and Reinhard, K.J. (2003) Paleopharmacology and Pollen: Theory, Method, and

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Duncan, W.N. and Hofling, C.A. (2011). Why the Head? Cranial Modification as Protection and

Ensoulment Among the Maya. Ancient Mesoamerica. 22:199-210.

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252.

Isbell, W.H. and Schrieber, K.J. (1978). Was Huari a State? American Antiquity. 43:372-389.

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Klaus, H.D. and Tam, M.E. (2010). Oral Health and the Postcontact Adaptive Transistion: A Contextual

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Larsen, C.S. (2002). Bioarchaeology: The Lives and Lifestyles of Past People. Journal of Archaeological

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Mahoney, P. (2006). Brief Communication: Intertooth and Intrafacet Dental Microwear Variation in an

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Prehistory. 11:237-268.

57

APPENDIX

Tooth Inventory

On the following pages is the entire sampled population used for this research. The abbreviations

are listed below. The decimal, .5, represents an indeterminate side.

ABBREVIATIONS

RU Right Upper

RL Right Lower

LU Left Upper

LL Left Lower

Indv Individual

Lvl Level

J Juvenille

I Incisor

C Canine

P Premolar

M Molar

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

Maxillary Measurements

Type Identification Side

M1

length M1 width M2 length M2 width

Modified 49-C19-B2-1028 L 10.8 11 - -

Modified(J) 49F-C7B-1-2 R - - 10.2 10.6

Modified 49F-C3-D4-1 L - - 9.4 10.4

Modified 49-C7B-4 L - - 11.2 12.2

Modified 49-C3-F3-1043 R - - 10.6 11.8

Modified 49F-C3-D-1 R - - 9.7 10.4

Modified 49-C7B-1 R - - 10.1 12.1

Modified (J) 49-C7B-1-2 L - - 10.2 10.4

Modified 49-C19-A2-1 R - - 9.6 11.3

Modified (J) 49-C19-C2-94 R - - 9.5 11.3

Modified 49-C7B-4 R - - 10.7 12.2

reg Chullpa 26 R 8.9 9.9 - -

reg indv 16, stc 10, 1504 L - - 9.7 10.7

reg stc F, 1249/1251/1252 R 11.1 11.7 - -

reg (J) no # ? - - 13.3 11.6

reg Chullpa 26 R 9.1 10.9 - -

reg Chullpa 26 L 11.1 10.2 - -

reg Indv 1, sector 7 R -

11 13.5

reg Indv 1, sector 7 L 11.6 13.2 - -

reg C3-62 ? - - 10.2 11.6

reg Indv 16, stc 10, 1525 R - - 9.5 10.5

reg Chullpa 26 L 8.7 10.2 - -

reg Indv 17, Stc 10, 1987 R - - 9.7 11.6

reg Chullpa 8, C3-35 ? 10 10.4 - -

reg Indv 17, stc 10, 1989 L - - 10 11.2

AVGS Modified

10.12 11.27

Modified- juvi

10.3 11.486

non mod (reg)

10.48 11.52

67

Macrowear

Features

Observed caries location abscess location cavity location hypoplasia location calculus location

Slope

out wear

(Reverse

Monson)

Molars;

M1,

M2, and

mainly

M3.

One P3

In

modifie

d, found

on incisors

and

canine

only

below

incisors

and M1

I1, I2,

P3, M1,

M2, M3

M3 generally

througho

ut indv

TOTAL

INDVS (out

of 55) 13 3 19 3 15 11

Percent

Total (out of

55) 0.236 0.056 0.352 0.055 0.278 0.2

Total in

Non-

modified

Indvs (out of

46) 12 3 15 3 15 11

Percent total

in non-

modified 0.261 0.007 0.326 0.065 0.326 0.239

Total in

Modified

Indvs (out of

9) 1 0 4 0 0 0

Percent total

in modified 0.11 0 0.444 0 0 0

notes- modified were only maxillary, all sloping inwards. The compliment of this would be a mandible that slopes out.

in this regards, it may be possible to infer all mandibles for modified individuals were sloped outward

68

Microwear

magnification striations pits

total

pics pits/striations

Modified 150 435 139 26 0.319

250 313 68 29 0.217

Non-mod 150 102 65 10 0.637

250 70 63 15 0.9

notes

non-mods show more combination of pits

and striations, while modified show more

striations in general

size of pits varied

69

Soil Analysis from Molds (with compositional counts):

70

71

Fri Nov 30 11:06:39 2012

Filter Fit Chi-squared value: 1.754

Correction Method: Proza (Phi-Rho-Z)

Acc.Voltage: 15.0 kV Take Off Angle: 44.4 deg

Element Element Atom % Atom % Compnd Compnd

Wt.% Error Formula Wt.%

C 22.06 35.19 +/- 0.97 C 22.06

O 34.51 41.32 +/- 0.51 O 34.51

Mg 0.69 0.54 +/- 0.07 Mg 0.69

Al 0.14 0.10 +/- 0.04 Al 0.14

Si 2.59 1.77 +/- 0.05 Si 2.59

P 13.97 8.64 +/- 0.09 P 13.97

Ca --- --- --- ---

Ca 26.04 12.44 +/- 0.12 Ca 26.04

---------- ---------- ----------

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

72

Image Name: man 2180(1)

Accelerating Voltage: 15.0 kV

Magnification: 422

73

Fri Nov 30 11:11:36 2012






C 52.58 66.67 +/- 0.93 C 52.58

Image Name: man 2180(1)

Accelerating Voltage: 15.0 kV

Magnification: 422

74

O 24.59 23.41 +/- 0.30 O 24.59

Mg 0.36 0.22 +/- 0.02 Mg 0.36

Al 0.12 0.07 +/- 0.02 Al 0.12

Si 1.83 0.99 +/- 0.02 Si 1.83

P 7.55 3.71 +/- 0.04 P 7.55

Ca --- --- --- ---

Ca 12.97 4.93 +/- 0.05 Ca 12.97

---------- ---------- ----------

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

75

76

Fri Nov 30 11:15:06 2012






C 45.87 58.45 +/- 0.95 C 45.87

O 29.69 28.39 +/- 0.31 O 29.69

Al 0.20 0.11 +/- 0.02 Al 0.20

Si 23.22 12.65 +/- 0.09 Si 23.22

Ca 1.02 0.39 +/- 0.02 Ca 1.02

Ca --- --- --- ---

---------- ---------- ----------

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

77

78

Fri Nov 30 11:20:37 2012






C 27.20 41.44 +/- 0.89 C 27.20

O 32.96 37.69 +/- 0.44 O 32.96

Na 0.35 0.28 +/- 0.05 Na 0.35

Mg 0.53 0.40 +/- 0.03 Mg 0.53

Al 0.26 0.18 +/- 0.03 Al 0.26

Si 3.62 2.36 +/- 0.05 Si 3.62

P 12.20 7.20 +/- 0.08 P 12.20

Ca --- --- --- ---

Ca 22.88 10.45 +/- 0.10 Ca 22.88

---------- ---------- ----------

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

79

80

Fri Nov 30 11:42:56 2012






C 51.84 63.55 +/- 0.90 C 51.84

O 28.53 26.25 +/- 0.33 O 28.53

Al 0.84 0.46 +/- 0.03 Al 0.84

Si 18.08 9.48 +/- 0.06 Si 18.08

Ca 0.71 0.26 +/- 0.02 Ca 0.71

Ca --- --- --- ---

---------- ---------- ----------

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

81

82

Fri Nov 30 11:48:58 2012






C 38.30 49.97 +/- 0.98 C 38.30

O 39.57 38.76 +/- 0.38 O 39.57

Mg 0.12 0.08 +/- 0.02 Mg 0.12

Al 3.56 2.07 +/- 0.03 Al 3.56

Si 14.74 8.23 +/- 0.05 Si 14.74

P 0.24 0.12 +/- 0.02 P 0.24

Ca --- --- --- ---

Ca 1.20 0.47 +/- 0.02 Ca 1.20

In --- --- --- ---

In 2.27 0.31 +/- 0.03 In 2.27

---------- ---------- ----------

Total 100.00 100.00 100.00

Documents

Dental Analysis of a Peruvian Highland Population in the Huari-Ancash Region: A Comparative Study