BIOLOGY 252

Human Anatomy & Physiology

Chapter 24

The Digestive System:

Lecture Notes

The Digestive System

• Structure – Gross Anatomy– Histology

• Function– Mechanical– Chemical

Overview of GI tract Functions

• Mouth - bite, chew, moisten, swallow

• Pharynx and esophagus - transport

• Stomach - mechanical disruption; absorption of water & alcohol

• Small intestine - mechanical & chemical digestion & absorption

• Large intestine - absorb electrolytes & vitamins (B & K)

• Rectum and anus - defecation

Functions of the Digestive System

• Ingestion: taking food into the mouth• Secretion: release of water, acid, buffers, and enzymes

into the lumen of the GI tract• Mixing and propulsion: churning and propulsion of food

through the GI tract• Digestion: mechanical and chemical breakdown of food.

The molecules must be small enough to enter cells lining the GI tract

• Absorption: the passage of these small molecules through the epithelial cells lining the lumen of the GI tract and then into the blood and lymph

• Defecation: the elimination of wastes (feces) from the GI tract

Layers of the GI Tract

1. Mucosal layer

2. Submucosal layer

3. Muscularis layer

4. Serosa layer

Mucosa• Epithelium

– stratified squamous (in mouth, esophagus & anus) = tough

– simple columnar in the rest• secretes enzymes and absorbs nutrients• specialized cells (goblet cells) secrete mucous onto cell surfaces• enteroendocrine cells - secrete hormones controlling organ function

• Lamina propria– thin layer of loose connective tissue– contains blood vessels and lymphatic tissue

• Muscularis mucosae - thin layer of smooth muscle– causes folds to form in mucosal layer – increases local movements increasing absorption with exposure to “new”

nutrients

Submucosa

• Loose connective tissue– containing blood vessels, glands and lymphatic tissue

Muscularis

• Skeletal muscle = voluntary control– in mouth, pharynx , upper esophagus and anus– control over swallowing and defecation

• Smooth muscle = involuntary control– inner circular fibers & outer longitudinal fibers– mixes, crushes & propels food along by peristalsis

Serosa

• An example of a serous membrane

• Also known as the visceral peritoneum

• Covers all organs and walls of cavities not open to the outside of the body

• Consists of connective tissue covered with simple squamous epithelium

• Secretes slippery serous fluid which reduces friction between contacting surfaces

Peritoneum

• Peritoneum– visceral layer covers organs– parietal layer lines the walls

of body cavity

• Peritoneal cavity– potential space containing a

bit of serous fluid

• Retroperitoneal – some organs lie on the

posterior abdominal wall and are covered by peritoneum only on their anterior surfaces. Such organs, including the kidneys and pancreas, are said to be retroperitoneal

Parts of the Peritoneum

• Mesentery• Mesocolon• Lesser omentum• Greater omentum• Peritonitis =

inflammation– trauma – rupture of GI tract– appendicitis– perforated ulcer

Salivary Glands

• Parotid below your ear and over the masseter• Submandibular is under lower edge of mandible• Sublingual is deep to the tongue in floor of mouth• All have ducts that empty into the oral cavity

Composition and Functions of Saliva

• Wet food for easier swallowing• Dissolves food for tasting• Bicarbonate ions buffer acidic foods

– Bulemia - vomiting hurts the enamel on your teeth

• Chemical digestion of starch begins with enzyme (salivary amylase)

• Enzyme (lysozyme) - helps destroy bacteria• Protects mouth from infection with its rinsing action

- 1 to 1.5 qts (L)/day

Digestion in the Mouth

• Mechanical digestion (mastication or chewing)• breaks into pieces

• mixes with saliva so it forms a bolus

• Chemical digestion– amylase

• begins starch digestion at pH of 6.5 or 7.0 found in mouth

– lingual lipase• secreted by glands in tongue• begins breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol

Esophagus

• Collapsed muscular tube

• In front of vertebrae• Posterior to trachea• Posterior to the heart • Pierces the diaphragm

at hiatus– hiatal hernia or

diaphragmatic hernia

Histology of the Esophagus

• Mucosa = stratified squamous• Submucosa = large mucous glands• Muscularis = upper 1/3 is skeletal, middle is

mixed, lower 1/3 is smooth– upper & lower esophageal sphincters are prominent

circular muscles

• Adventitia = connective tissue blending with surrounding connective tissue - no peritoneum

Anatomy of Stomach

• Which side is it on? • Size when empty?

– large sausage– stretches due to rugae

• Parts of stomach– Cardia– Fundus - air in x-ray– Body– Pylorus - starts to narrow as approaches pyloric sphincter

• Empties as small squirts of chyme leave the stomach through the pyloric valve

Physiology - Mechanical Digestion

• Gentle mixing waves – every 15 to 25 seconds– mixes bolus with 2 quarts (L)/day of gastric juice to

turn it into chyme (a thin liquid)

• More vigorous waves – travel from body of stomach to pyloric region

• Intense waves near the pylorus – open it and squirt out 1 - 2 teaspoons with each

wave

Physiology - Chemical Digestion

• Protein digestion begins– HCl denatures (unfolds) protein molecules

• Fat digestion continues– gastric lipase splits the triglycerides in milk fat

• HCl kills microbes in food

• Mucous cells protect stomach walls from being digested with 1- 3 mm thick layer of mucous

Absorption of Nutrients by the Stomach

• Water, especially if it is cold

• Electrolytes

• Some drugs, especially aspirin & alcohol

• Fat content in the stomach slows the passage of alcohol to the intestine where absorption is more rapid

Anatomy of the Pancreas

• 5“ (13 cm) long by 1" (2.54 cm) thick

• Head close to curve in C-shaped duodenum

• Main duct joins common bile duct from liver

• Opens 4 in. (10 cm) below pyloric sphincter

Histology of the Pancreas

• Acini - dark clusters – 99% of gland– produce pancreatic juice

• Islets of Langerhans– 1% of gland– pale staining cells– produce hormones

Composition and Functions of Pancreatic Juice

• 1 & 1/2 Quarts (L)/day at pH of 7.1 to 8.2

• Contains water, enzymes & sodium

bicarbonate

• Digestive enzymes– pancreatic amylase/starch, pancreatic lipase/fats,

proteases/proteins– Ribonuclease - to digest nucleic acids

Anatomy of the Liver and Gallbladder

• Liver– weighs 3 lbs.

(1.3 kg)– below diaphragm – right lobe larger– gallbladder on right

lobe – size causes right

kidney to be lower than left

• Gallbladder– fundus, body & neck

Bile Production

• One quart of bile/day is secreted by the liver– Yellow - green in color & pH 7.6 to 8.6

• Components– water & cholesterol– bile salts = Na & K salts of bile acids

Liver Functions

• Turn proteins into glucose

• Turn triglycerides into glucose

• Turn excess glucose into glycogen & store in the liver

• Turn glycogen back into glucose as needed

Liver Functions - Protein Metabolism

• Deamination = removes the amine group (NH2) from amino acids so what is left can be used as an energy source

• Converts resulting toxic ammonia (NH3) into urea for excretion by the kidney

• Synthesizes plasma proteins utilized in the clotting mechanism and the immune system

• Converts one amino acid into another

Anatomy of the Small Intestine

• 20 feet long (6m) - 1 inch (2.5cm) in diameter

• Large surface area for majority of absorption

• 3 parts– Duodenum - 10 in (25 cm)

– Jejunum - 8 ft (2.4 m)

– Ileum - 12 ft (3.6 m)

• ends at ileocecal valve

Histology of Small Intestine

Histology of the Small Intestine

• Structures that increase surface area– plica circularis

• permanent ½ inch (1 cm) tall folds that contain part of submucosal layer

– villi• 1 millimeter tall• Contains vascular capillaries and lacteals(lymphatic

capillaries)

– microvilli• cell surface feature known as brush border

Functions of Microvilli

• Digestion and Absorption

• Digestive enzymes found at cell surface on microvilli

• Digestion occurs at cell surfaces

• Significant cell division within intestinal glands produces new cells that move up

• Once out of the way - rupturing and releasing their digestive enzymes & proteins

Mechanical Digestion in Small Intestine

• Weak peristalsis in comparison to the stomach - chyme remains for 3 to 5 hours

• Segmentation - local mixing of chyme with intestinal juices - sloshing back & forth

Digestion of Carbohydrates

• Mouth - salivary amylase

• Esophagus & stomach - nothing happens

• Duodenum - pancreatic amylase

• Brush border enzymes (maltase, sucrase & lactase) act on disaccharides– produces monosaccharides - fructose,

glucose & galactose– lactose intolerance (no enzyme; bacteria

ferment sugar) - gas & diarrhea

Digestion of Proteins

• Stomach– HCl denatures or unfolds proteins– pepsin turns proteins into peptides

• Pancreas– digestive enzymes - split peptide bonds

between different amino acids– brush border enzymes - aminopeptidase or

dipeptidase - split off amino acid at amino end of molecule or split dipeptide

Digestion of Lipids

• Mouth - lingual lipase

• Small intestine– emulsification by bile– pancreatic lipase - splits into both short

chain and long chain fatty acids & monoglyceride

– no enzymes in brush border

Fig. 24.25a

Where will the absorbed nutrients go?

Absorption of Water

• 9 liters of fluid released into GI tract each day

• Small intestine reabsorbs 8 liters

• Large intestine reabsorbs 90% of that last liter

• Absorption is by osmosis through cell walls into vascular capillaries inside villi

Anatomy of Large Intestine

• 5 feet (1.5 m) long by 2.5 inches (6.25 cm) in diameter

• Ascending & descending colon are retroperitoneal

• Cecum & appendix

• Rectum = last 8 inches (20 cm) of GI tract anterior to the sacrum & coccyx

• Anal canal = last 1 inch (2.5 cm) of GI tract– internal sphincter - smooth muscle & involuntary – external sphincter - skeletal muscle & voluntary control

Mechanical Digestion in Large Intestine

• Smooth muscle = mechanical digestion• Peristaltic waves (3 to 12 contractions/minute)

– haustral churning - relaxed pouches are filled from below by muscular contractions (elevator)

– gastroilial reflex = when stomach is full, gastrin hormone relaxes ileocecal sphincter so small intestine will empty and make room

– gastrocolic reflex = when stomach fills, a strong peristaltic wave moves contents of transverse colon into rectum

Chemical Digestion in Large Intestine

• No enzymes are secreted only mucous

• Bacteria ferment– undigested carbohydrates into carbon

dioxide & methane gas– undigested proteins into simpler

substances (indoles) - odor– turns bilirubin into simpler substances that

produce color

Absorption & Feces Formation in the Large Intestine

• Some electrolytes - Na+ and Cl-

• After 3 to 10 hours, 90% of H20 has been removed from chyme

• Feces are semisolid by time reaches transverse colon

• Feces = dead epithelial cells, undigested food such as cellulose, bacteria (live & dead)