Animal Science

Species Adjective Parturition Young Young Male

Young Female

Mature Male

Mature Female

Castrated Male

Cattle Bovine Calving Calf Bull Heifer Bull Cow SteerSwine Porcine Farrowing Pig Boar Gilt Boar Sow BarrowSheep Ovine Lambing Lamb Ram

LambEwe Lamb

Ram Ewe Wether

Goat Caprine Kidding Kid Buck Kid

Doe Kid

Buck Doe ----

Horses Equine Foaling Foal Colt Filly Stallion Mare Gelding

Dogs Canine Whelping Pup ---- ---- Dog Bitch ----Chickens

Gallinaceous, Avian

---- Chick Cockerel Pullet Cock or Rooster

Hen Capon

Ducks Avian ---- Duckling ---- ---- Drake Duck or Hen

Duck Capon

Turkeys Gallinaceous, Avian

---- Poult ---- ---- Tom Hen Turkey Capon

09/29/12

Introduction to Animal Science

What is Animal Science?-The total store of knowledge relative to the breeding, feeding, care and management, marketing and processing of animals and their products, as gained through research and experience.

-breeding: includes reproduction and genetics, as well as nutritional factors, closely related to feeding. Want to make sure the animal has a genetic propensity to be very efficient-feed: is major cost of producing animals 60-85% -care and management: includes veterinary needs, sanitation, humane aspects -marketing and processing: produce animals to get economic returns

-ultra bearing species- have more than one offspring-some nondesireable animals are produced-commercial cattle breeders not always concerned with genetics-corn = 56 lbs/bushel, $7-8.50 per bushel

-The Science and Business of producing domestic livestock species including: Beef Cattle, Dairy Cattle, Horses, Poultry, Sheep, Goats, Swine. -Foods of animal origin: Meat, Dairy Foods, Eggs-Food industry is one of the largest and most important industries in the world

Animal Science also includes companion animals-their nutrition, care and welfare.

(Dr. Wright on UF admissions board)

-Specialized areas of animal science provide opportunities for graduate study-MS/Ph.D. Degree Programs:

Animal Production, Breeding and Genetics, Reproductive Physiology, Nutrition, Meats

Professional Study-Veterinary Medicine, Medicine, Dentistry, Law, Business Administration Majors for careers in business, industry, government, education, research-Feed and equipment manufactures, Breeding Associations, Pharmaceutical firms, meat processors, food distributors, livestock marketing organizations, extension educators, environmental regulation, and meat inspectionlivestock breeders and feedlot operators, government agencies, research and lab techs, livestock marketing, forecasting, disease control, animal housing, education, advertising, zoos, kennels, animal clinic, horse farms, animal preserves, gamekeepers, veterinary assistants. s

Employers: Self-employed, feed companies, animal health firms, livestock equipment companies, commercial feedlots, breeding firms, stockyard companies, purebred breed associations, poultry processors

Florida Agriculture Overview (may be outdated)Livestock sales = $1.3 billionLeading milk producing state in Southeast13th nationally in cash receipts, 15th nationally in production – 270 million gallons=423mil$13th nationally in egg production16th nationally in broiler production (chickens)

Florida Horse IndustryKnown around the world for breeding and training thoroughbreds-40 North American Champs-17 Breeders cups champions-17 Kentucky Derby, Preakness, and Belmont Stakes winnders-produced 61 millionaires

09/05/12

Genetics and Animal Breeding

Factors affecting supply of food -Land: strive for 1 animal/1 acre, but it depends; competition with housing-Water: rainfall, irrigation -Fertilizer: Deplete soil of nutrients, need to put them back. Collect soil samples to

determine what is lacking. -Irrigation-Yield: increasing amount produced increases supply, geneticists work to increase it-Weather and climate-Incentives

price cycles- every few years market price of animals will go down. Some producers would rather abandon products than sell at low prices.

***major cost of production/raising animals is cost of feed

Factors affecting the demand for food-Population Growth-Income-Food Preferences (Taste)-Nutrient Quality

World Food Shortages-how to get food to the people who really need it

World Nutrition Shortages-some may have food but with lacking nutritional value.

09/10/2012U.S. corn production-most produced in Midwestern states. (Iowa!)-used as feed and in production of many products that we use-gets more expensive, this year drought affects cost-as corn prices increase, the cost of feeding animals increases

Food vs. Feed (grain) Humans or LivestockThe feeding of grain to livestock- use grain to feed to humans or feed to animals that

humans can then consume?

Feed Efficiency Ratios- how efficient is feed and utilization of feed in animals. Not much protein in corn ~10%

-Swine 3½:1 = 3.5 units of corn to put on 1 unit of weight -Poultry 2:1

Average Bird weighs 8-10 lbs after 6-8 weeks, 4-5 lbs after processing. 8 lbs bird needs 16 lbs of feed

-Cattle on grain 7½:1 on roughage 12½:1 ruminants have many stomach compartments to digest roughage that other

animals cannot. Usually only feed breeding herds roughage, unless adverse weather requires feeding them high energy grain.

Microbes in rumen digest cellulose in roughage with cellulose. The cattle do not have this enzyme but the microbes do. Can synthesize amino acids. Animals digest microbes to use their nutrients.

How much do feedlot cattle weigh when taken to market?

-1000 lbs put on by difference in weight times 7.5-place where animals are fed, do not graze in pasture. Bulk of diet is grain. Finish out cattle here before they go to slaughter. -most of cattle producers are cow/calf producers. Use artificial insemination to breed all the females. Raise calf to weaning age and market calves. Calves are purchased at market and brought to feedlots to finish them out. -weaning is complete separation of offspring from parents, mostly from mother.-backgrounding is adjustment period of calves from parents. Some will pay more for this because they’re over stress period. -any time you change the feed of an animal you need to do it gradually to avoid digestive disturbances and illness, adjust them into full grain diet.

Calves are weaned at what weight?

-it depends, usually 600-700 lbs

What is the final slaughter weight of feedlot cattle?

-Only about 30-40% of the final weight of a feedlot animal is attributed to grain feeding

Example:650 lbs weaned calf goes to feedlot and gains 350 lbs350 lbs x 7.5 = 2,625 lbs of grain consumed

-Feed conversion based on grain feeding is reduced in actuality to:amount of food consumed/slaughter weight of animal2,625/1000 = 2.6:1

how much did animal gain per pound feed?1000 lb/2,625 lb = 0.38 lb beef/ 1 lb grain

Reported in the literature this way:Actual gain was 350 lb. G/F = 350/2,625 = 0.14 lb Beef/lb. grainOr F/G = 2,625/350 = 7.5 lb grain/ lb of beef

How much does an animal eat a day?It depends on the size and the breed of the cattle-On average, 20 lbs of feed a day. Larger animals eat 25-30 lbs a day. -Maintenance diet- want cattle to stay where they are not gain or lose

How to improve the world food situation-Curb population growth-Increase farm prices and profits-Cultivate more land-Increase yields-Improve pastures and ranges-Feed more roughage and less grain-Produce leaner animals-Decrease number of animals-Develop more efficient animals-Control disease and parasites-Improve and increase protein source-Tap sea for more food -Increase fish culture (aquaculture)-Conserve energy-Control pollution-Establish grain reserves-Waste-not, want-not-Increase exchange between countries-Increase research, education, and extension-7-8 calves per cow’s lifetime. Start breeding cow 15 months old. Don’t want to breed them on first cycle to make sure everything in sync for successful pregnancy. -gestation on average 283 days-parasites increase cost associated with feeding because worms are consuming grain.

9/12/2012The Birth of animal science

-Domestication: 1st animal domesticated- dogFunctions of animals

-Food (primarily)-Clothing-Power (clearing of land, not really as used for this anymore)-Recreation (horse racing, dog shows)-Convert inedible feeds into valuable products (sometimes sweeten feed so animals

will consume feed stuff that they don’t usually want to eat, usually use molasses)

-Diversification (different sources of income)-By-products from animals (almost nothing on the animal goes to waste, parts that

can’t be eaten will be reused in some other ways.)-Erosion control/ Soil fertility (animals trodding on soil compacts it won’t erode as

easily. Waste materials that animals produce are put back on the land to fertilize and add nutrients.)

-Broiler birds: baby chick- 6/8 weeks old stay in these houses (10 thousand at least) they go to broiler houses to feed out. Sawdust put on the

ground and birds defecate on the sawdust the whole time, they clean out the houses and use the waste to fertilize fields. Fecal matter contains uric acid with nitrogen in it. Amino acids composed of nitrogen and carbon. Cellulose comes from saw dust.

-Provide Medicinal products (gelatin capsule, fish oil, sutures, insulin from pig pancreas)

-Companion of grain production (when market price of grain are low, market price of animals are high)

Some Factors to Consider in establishing a livestock enterprise3 systems of farming:1-Crop production2-Animal production3-Combination of Crop and Animal productionLeading livestock states:

Midwestern states(Texas, Kansas, Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Missouri, etc.)

Characteristics of a livestock Producer-Must love livestock-must not be afraid to get hands dirty or clothing soiled-willing to work seven days a week around the clock -must have capital or be able to get it-must be a bit of a veterinarian -fair mechanic -stick to it not an inner and outer-keep up with the times-understanding spouse -keep records on animals

09/17/2012

Factors to Consider when selecting a Livestock Enterprise*-Amount of grain and forage crops produced on the farm/ranch or available to the enterprise from outside sources (major cost of animal production)-Regularity and stability of net income required-Amount of labor available-Labor requirements for livestock during the year as compared with the labor requirements of other enterprises, such as crops and outside employment. -Managerial ability and personal preference of the manager/owner

(will be most successful if you choose what you like)-Available markets- markets vary in prices, some better for buying some better for selling. -Capital requirements and rapidity of capital turnover -Profit required-Acreage and facilities available

Factors to Consider in Establishing the Herd-Purebred or Commercial Animals

-Most purebred enterprises produce for other breeders. Always recommend purebred males, usually sell a lot higher than crossbred males.-Commercial produced for consumption so usually sell for less than purebredex: purebred swine $300+ ; commercial swine $160-200

-Selection of the Breed or Cross-Milking ability

-aside from dairy animals, want all animals to have decent milking abilities so they produce enough milk for their offspring until they are weaned. Don’t want as much milk as dairy animal because then you’d have to milk them out. ?-distotion – difficult birthing

-Size of the Herd-Uniformity-Health-Condition-Age and Longevity

Lifespan of beef cow = 8-10 years, will produce 7-8 calves, peaks at 4-5 yearsSwine lifespan 5-6 years

-Adaptation-Price

Genetics and Animal BreedingGregor Mendel – monk/gardener who founded modern genetics. He published a report

covering 8 years of his study that was ignored.-16 years after his death, 3 botanists (Correns, de Vries, and Tschermak) independently duplicated his finings and this led to a review of his work.

The essence of Mendelism is:-Inheritance is by particles/units (genes)

-these genes are present in pairs, one member of each pair having come from each parent, each gene maintains its identity generation after generation

Mendel’s work laid the basis for 2 laws of inheritance1) The Law of Segregation2) The Law of Independent assortment of genes

Genes-Basic hereditary material that determine all the hereditary characteristics of living animals

-carried on chromosomesexamples: Cattle have 30 pair = 60 totalHorses have 32 pair = 64 totalSheep have 27 pair = 54 totalSwine have 20 pair = 40 totalHumans have 23 = 46 totalEtc.

9/24/12

The transmission of characteristics from one generation to the next is performed by the germ cells/reproductive cells.(-each germ cell has half from each parent, carries 30 chromosomes if cattle.)-Germ Cells:1. Sperm - 2. Ovum (egg) – -in the body cells the chromosomes are in pairs-in the sex cells only one chromosome and thus one gene of each pair exist-the sex cells have genes for every characteristic of its species-the half that a germ cell receives is determined by chance

-Upon mating and after deposition of spermatozoa, fertilization occurs-Fertilization climaxes a return of the duplication of chromosomes and gene pairing with each parent contributing one of each-Estro cycle- female will only be receptive to the male for breeding purposes when ideal conditions are there for them to have offspring.

Homozygous – pure, similar or alike gene determinersHeterozygous – unalike-most commercial animals have heterozygous genes, crossbred Mutations – gene changes; usually unfavorable. Most harmful. Caused by x-rays, radium,

ultraviolet light, mustard gas-The polled characteristics of the Hereford and Shorthorn breeds of cattle are two mutations of economic benefit. Removing horns is a bloody mess. Also if a cut of meat is

punctured by horns it loses value. Also horned animals will boss around non-horned, can stop them from eating. poll- no horns. Gene for pollness dominant.

Simple gene inheritance- only * one pair* of genes is responsible for characteristic trait.-color of hair, poll or horn, blood type, lethals

Dominant genes- mask the effects of the other genes prevent expression

Recessive genes- genes which are masked -genes for pollnesss are domiant to genes for horns thus one way to dehorn cattle is genetics

Incomplete Dominance- the action of the genes does not overpower the other, but a mixing of effects occurs.-the production of a joint effort-thus in shorthorn cattle, the roan color is result of incomplete dominance (mix of red and white)

allele- genes located at the same point on each one of a pair of chromosomes. Genotype- the genetic makeup, or constitution of an individualPhenotype- refers to the appearance of an individualGamete- refers to reproductive cells also called germ cells also known individually as Animals = 1. Spermatozoa 2. OvumPlants = 1. Pollen cells 2. Ovules

Colors of durac?

Multiple gene inheritance- hereditary traits that are influenced by many genes through gene interaction. Remember difference between this and simple gene inheritance.-few economically important characteristics are inherited through the action of a single pair of genes but are more generally inherited through multiple gene interactions-important characters influenced by multiple genes- meat production, milk production, eggs and wool production-Growth rate in cattle affected by animals appetitive, feed consumption, feed utilization (amount of food eaten and absorbed into blood stream), feed assimilation (nutrients after absorption), feed conversion (use for muscle, fat, bone)

skeletal system more stable than muscle and fatThis is an indication that growth rate is controlled by many genesGeneticists agree that for most characters 10 or more pairs of genes are involved.

Sex Determination- Sex is determined by the chromosomal makeup of the individual Mammals- Female = x-bearing chromosomes, Male- 50% x, 50%yAvian- Female = 50%x, 50% y, Males- x-bearing chromosomes

Mammals- in formation of germ cells the sex chromosomes separate, each ova carry XChromosomes. Chromosomes in the sperm carry half x and half y.

-genes determine sex of animal, but each offspring carries the material to make them either male or female. Basic rudimentary system to be one or the other then when it’s determined the system goes into place.

Multiple BirthsEwe- 2 usually twin birthsCow- 1Gilt/Sow – 6-8 up (litter bearing specie)If she gives less than 8 then consider culling. Would like to see a lot more than that. Gilt has not had any offspring (Heifer in bovine)

Twins in cattle-Freemartins- twins of opposite sex, sterile Heifer

increased mortality rate of calvesdecreased cow conception rate following twinning

Fraternal Twins- 2 ova fertilized by 2 different sperm. Multiple ovulations. Could be different sex or same sex.

Identical Twins- single fertilized egg divides early in embryology, complete cleavage same sex.

Siamese twins- identical twins NOT entirely separated

Lethals and AbormalitiesLethals- congenital abnormalities, which result in the death of an animal. Occurs at birth or

later in life.Many abnormities occur in animalsMany are hereditaryMany are caused by defective nutritionMany are accidents of development

START OF NEW MATERIAL FOR EXAM 2

Importance of Sire (father of offspring) and Dam (mother of offspring)

-The Sire is more important than the Dam in terms of herd influence, always recommend using a purebred male so the genes he passes on will be homozygous hopefully no recessive so the offspring will get a good genetic pool from the father -The Sire will more genetically influence the offspring than the mother will. If a Sire breeds with many Dams then all the offspring will be influenced by him-More economical to pay for a purebreed bull than cow because you only need one.

-Critical periods in female life cycle: After mating female takes on a more important role of gestation (being pregnant) and parturition (giving birth) then lactation (nursing offspring). Has to be managed properly so she can wean off good weight offspring and maintain her own body condition. -Cow gestation on average 283 days. Want to get one calf out of her every year-Colostrum is the first milk the cow gives after giving birth, it has antibiotics that help calves form immunity before they can develop immunity of their own -Super ovulation- manipulates the female reproductive system so she will ovulate more than she normally would and produce more eggs. Put embryo in a surrogate mother in the same physiological state as mother. -There is a high mortality rate for equine twins, so express one so the other will go to term.

AI= Artificial Insemination Copulation- act of mating -Male can have so many more offspring-Male and female of equal importance in regard to any one offspring -Prepotency- the ability of the animal (either male or female) to stamp its own characteristics on its offspring. Animal homozygous for dominant gene. -Nicking- offspring from certain matings are outstanding and in general better than their parents (or worse). The animals nick well.

Heredity and Environment- any animal is the result of heredity and environment. Heredity = foundation = genes = genetic makeupEnvironment = structure = affect on genes

If animal is heavily parasitized (internal and external) is going to look bad. Worms prevent feed from getting to animal. De-worming these animals is effective to improve their health and increase their value. Can buy mismanaged animals, give them proper management, and then resell for a profit.

Environmental factors- determine the extent or degree of expression of the genetic makeup-Feeding, Management, Disease-The environment may inhibit the full expression of the genetic potential-For maximum expression of genetic characteristics optimum environmental conditions are needed.

If you buy purebred animals that are not mature the breeders will not guarantee them to be reproductively sound because they don’t know how you’re going to raise them

Systems of Breeding

1. Purebreeding - mating of animals belonging to the same breed. -Purebred animals have common ancestry and distinctive characteristics. Animals are registered by societies. Most of the breeds except equine have in the past accepted the fact that you said they were purebred. Equine required sample from the animal as proof. Producers won’t register animals until they need to be sold. Most purebred herders use some inbreeding if don’t have resources to buy more purebred animals. Takes specific characteristics to be in the pure breeding business, takes more management, time record keeping, keeping up with animals, culling out undesirables—a lot more involved and a lot more rewarding.

2. Inbreeding - the mating of closely related individuals. -Close breeding- sire x daughter, son x dam, brother x sister (siblings) –Line Breeding- half-sibs, cousins, grandsire, granddaughters

3. Outcrossing – the mating of animals of the same breed that show no relationship close up in the pedigree (1st six generations)

4. Crossbreeding – the mating of animals of different breeds. In many instances crossbreeding better performing over purebreeding, crossbreed offspring will reach maturity faster. They have heterosis and will produce larger herds. This might be from not culling out enough of the undesirables from purebred herds.

5. Grading up - the mating of purebred sires to grade or native females (scrub animals) the intent is to make the offspring of animal closer to a purebreed after the 8th generation. A lot of producers do this because they have many undesirable animals because they can’t afford to buy purebred males. See crossbreeding in a lot of commercial herds.

Methods of Selection in Livestock Breeding

-Selection based on type and individuality, animals selected on the ideal or standard of perfection. The ideal animal is in the mind because we are always trying to improve upon the animal and make it more productive and efficient. -Selection based on Pedigree, considers ancestry in selection-Selection based on show ring winnings, selecting winners at livestock shows and fairs-Selection based on production testing; measures individual characteristics-involves both performance and progeny testing-Performance testing concerns itself with the individuals merit and performance, measures of his or her own performance.-progeny testing considers evaluation based on the merit of their offspring.

Systems of Selection- maximizes progress over a period of several years.Tandem- select for one trait at a time, until the desired improvement is reached

Establishing minimum standards for each character and selecting simultaneously but independently for each character. Selection index- combined all traits into one overall value or index.

ReproductionMale Reproductive Organs (Anataomy)Female Reproductive Organs (Anatomy)see handouts

Because female functions in reproduction is much more involved than males, producers need to know or understand more about how these organs function and their anatomy.

The Female-produce the egg (reproductive cell/germ cell comes from the ovary) -develop the new individual in uterus-expel the fully developed young-nourish the young after birth

Ovaries- found in abdominal cavity near the kidneys. They perform two functions: 1-they are the source of the ova or egg, 2-they are concerned in the production of ovarian hormones, estrogen and progesterone. Example of exocrine and endocrine is pancreas. Ovary is an endocrine gland in that LH and FSH affect it and endocrine in that it produces progesterone and estrogen. Ovary also produces testosterone. It is converted to progesterone unless there is some kind of abnormality.

Ectopic pregnancy-fertilized egg didn’t get into female reproductive tract, usually lodges on kidney or stomach. Tuber pregnancy- fertilized egg lodged in fallopian tubeNew born cattle 45-60 lbs, big problem if they try to grow in fallopian tube

InfundibulumPick up Ova, directs Ova into oviduct.

Fallopian Tube, Oviduct, or Uterine TubeOviduct: transport the ova from ovaries to the uterus, transports sperm cells, is the place where fertilization occurs, where early embryonic development occurs. Fuse with egg for fertilization to occur and development begins immediately.

Uterus: hormone that controls muscular contractions is estrogenTransport sperm cells under the influence of hormones and muscular contractions, the home for the fetus during most of the gestation period where fetal development takes places, implantation and establishment of the placenta, parturition=expulsion of fetus.

Gestation= beginning and ending point, beginning with fertilization and ending point is parturition. So it is the time period between fertilization/conception and parturition/birth.

Chickens don’t gestate!! lolololololololololololololololololololololololololololololololol

Cervix- anything below oviduct usually has to do with transporting sperm cells. Main function is acts a barrier during pregnancy so that pathogens can’t gain entrance to the fetus. Dilates (widens beyond normal limits) to allow the fetus to be expelled form the reproductive tract. Made up of angular rings that connect and seal off reproductive tract once mating and breeding has occurred. Boar has post sperm fraction which has a lot of glutanation/back flow 250-300 ml of fluid during ejaculation process. Coagulation of glutatnation seals it off temporarily until cervix comes into play. Laboratory animals get vaginal plug which is coagulated material that has plugged up vagina which comes out eventually and cervix takes over to prevent foreign material from getting into reproductive tract that might be harmful.

Vagina- receptacle for the penis, site for semen deposition, parturition- birth canal

Vulva the most external part of the female reproductive tract, entrance to reproductive tract for semen deposition, exit for urinary products, parturition. Has the tendency to be small in immature females and get larger in mature females (that have had offspring) Look at vulva to determine if female is reproductively sound, to identify abnormalities, really small vulvas indicate reproductive issues. Under influence of estrogen vulva turns red because of excess blood supply going through tissue in lighter pigmented animals, can’t see it in darker pigmented animals. Usually swells when ready for breeding.

Estrus- (heat) period of sexual activity, period of time when female is now receptive to male for breeding, female will stand to be mounted. Hard to move a female once she is in heat. During feeding time put pressure on their back . Estrous cycle- like human menstrual cycle. Average 21 days in animals, varies just like in humans. Sheep have shorter, about 16 days. If animal averages 21 days and cycle is shorter she may not be reproductively sound. Cyclic chain of events that occur from estrus to estrus.Ovulation- ovary releases eggSuperovulationFertilization- other place in notes

The Male Anatomy and Reproductive TractTestis: produces spermatozoa and androgens (male sex hormone=testosterone)Scrotum: supports the testicles, controls the temperature of testicles and provides protection of the testicles. Imp’t to control temperature of testicles to stop interruptions in sperm production, muscles in scrotum contract and dilate to control temperature to get them closer or farther away from abdominal cavity which is very warm. High temperature can render males sterile. Spermatic cord: supports and helps control temperature of testiclesEpipdidymis: sperm cells leave testicle to go here and stored until ejaculation. concentration, storage, maturation, and transportation of spermatozoa. Vans Deferens: transport of spermatozoa. Similar to oviduct in female.

Ligate (tie off) or surgically remove portions of it for vasectomy. Can reverse ligating. If it adheres to itself can open up.Urethra: transports semen, exit site for urinary productsSeminal Vesicles (vesicular glands): contributes fluid, energy substrate and pH buffers to the semen. Fluids come through duct to clean it out of anything that might be detrimental to semen, pre-sperm fluidsProstrate Gland: contributes fluid and inorganic ions to semen (Na, Cl, Mg)Sigmoid Flexure: part of the penis that straightens causing an erection because blood is pumped into the chambers of the penis. See mostly in larger animals not as pronounced in smaller animals. Retractor Muscle: after copulation this muscle contracts the sigmoid flexure which retracts the penis into the protective sheath Penis: carry sperm cells into female

START OF NEW MATERIAL FOR EXAM 3

Gestation Periods: Sheep 148 days, Horses 336 days, Cattle 283 days, Pigs 114 days

AI- Artificial Insemination- the deposition of spermatozoa in the female genitalia other than by natural means. -Collect semen and can use it fresh or freeze it and use insemination rod to inseminate females. -Sometimes decreases conception rate with unskilled technicians. Advantages: 1-increases the use of outstanding sires2-alleviates bother of keeping a sire, you don’t have to feed them or worry about safety. (Better management practice is to separate sire.) 3-may lessen sire cost, sperm cells cheaper than bull4-helps control diseases5-decreases delays through using sterile sires or a sire that won’t breedDisadvantages:1-requires skilled technicians2-requires heath detection or synchronization so everyone in heat the same time and can be inseminated all at the same time 3-may restrict sire market4-requires restraining facilities and other facilities and equipment

Hormonal Control of HeatProgestin’s/Progesterone give for 14-20 days, when withdrawn makes them feel like they are pregnant, heat occurs in 2-8 days. Trying to refine this and make heat occur in shorter period of time.Prostaglandins- hormone produced by uterus serves to cause the corpus luteum to be removed so progesterone will stop being made so animal will cycle again. Steroid hormones can be in feed protein hormones, protein hormones can’t because they lose biological activity.

Superovulation- FSH- follicle stimulating hormone, natural hormone circulating in animal produced by pituitary gland. Functions to cause follicles to grow in ovary and develop and mature. LH- Luteinizing hormone causes ovulation, from the pituitary gland (AKA Master Gland of body) Endocrine system- transports hormones/ chemical messengers by way of blood streamMost females can not carry more than one ovulating egg to term, if you leave them in the female you will lose all offspring because of uterine capacity and refractory index. To utilize superovulation need to do embryo transport, retrieve fertilized eggs and put in surrogate mothers. PMSG followed by HCG ovulation several days later PMSG- Pregnant Mare Serum Gonadotropin HCG- Human Chorionic Gonadotropin fuses with Elaterids (?) house waste products until embryo embeds into uterine wall

Cow has potential to produce 2500 offspring, yet only get 7-8. Take advantage of the other germ cells with AI.

The Digestive Tract-A passage from the mouth to the anus through which feed passes following consumption. -Pig same as human. -Most of digestion takes place in small intestines. A little bit in mouth and stomach-Glandular stomach in bird serves same function as stomach in other animals, but gizzard serves as teeth since birds don’t have any to reduce particle size. Muscular organ that fill with abrasive material to help also. -Cow has stomach compartments-Horse has extremely pronounced cecum which holds a lot of food stuff and serves same function as rumen in ruminants.

Digestion tract contains:Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Simple in pig and horseRuminants- cow, sheep-rumen or paunch-reticulum or honeycomb or waterbug-omasum or manyplies-abomasum or true stomachmicrobes assist in digestion to grow and reproduce for themselves

Small intestine-duodenum-jejenum-ileumCecumLarge IntestineAnusAssociated glands and organs-salivary glands-amylase-liver-secretes bileGallbladderpancreas-trypsin

Farm Animals are classified according to their digestive tractTwo TypesRumiants- cow, sheep-ruminate or chew cud-compartmental stomach- 4 different stomachs or compartments-Microorganisms are found in cecum, aid in digestion of high fibrous feed-can digest high fiber feed, animal itself can not digest the feed but the microbes do, the feed has cellulose and lignin which only microbes can digest using cellulase -fed rations higher in fiber

Rumination- re-gurgitate, re-masticate, re-salivate, re-swallow Rumens are foragers, grazers they don’t chew just swallow in the early mornings then when it gets hot they find shade and go through rumination process

Non-Ruminants- hog, horse-single compartment stomach-digest fiber poorly-horse may utilized hi-fiber feeds because of microorganism in cecum-do not chew cud-in cecum in equine there are also microorganisms to aid in digestion. Because of the anatomical location of the cecum in the digestive system the benefit from the microbes in the cecum in terms of equine is not as beneficial as it is for ruminants. Cecum sits between large and small intestines, so microbes limited because feed passes unidirectionaly and most of nutrient absorption has already occurred in small intestines.

Ruminants-ruminants are important because of their ability to convert fibrous material to meat, milk, and wool without competing with humans for food. We don’t graze or eat hay.-this ability of cattle, sheep, and goats is possible because of their complex digestive system and the symbiotic relationship with the microorganisms in the rumen. -if you change feed rapidly see disturbance in animal because of microbes, can cause bloat which is gas in animals. -ruminant stomachs have four compartments- rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasums. -The rumen is a large fermentation vat in which bacteria and protozoa break down roughage to obtain nutrients for their own use.-The microorganism digest cellulose, can synthesize all amino acids from any nitrogen source and can synthesize the B-complex vitamins. This is important economically because a pound of protein costs more than a pound of carbs. Microbes get digested so essential amino acids are releases for ruminant to have access to.

When the microorganism reach the small intestine they are digested to provide these nutrients to the host animal (Cattle, sheep, and goat)

The rumen is located on the left side of the animal and may have a capacity of 40 gallons in mature cattle

The reticulum is a small pouch at the front of the rumen that assists with the mixing action of the rumen. Often called the honeycomb because of the configuration of the inner lining.

The omasum has many folds, and is called the manyplies. This small round organ is hard to touch and is located on the right side of the animal. The major function of the omasum is not known but there is some grinding action and water absorption at this site.

The abomasums or true stomach, corresponds to the monoglastric stomach, and is similar in features and functions.

Ruminants eat forage rapidly and basically without mastication and later, while resting, regurgitate a bolus of feed known as the cud.

The cud is remasticated (chewed) and swallowed. This process is called rumination.

As feeds are fermented in the rumen, large amount of gas (methane and carbon dioxide) are produced. The animal normally can eliminate the gas by controlled belching, also called eructation. Excess gas causes bloating.

Most digested carbohydrates are converted in the rumen or acetic, propionic and butyric acids (volatile fatty acids). These small compounds are absorbed through the rumen wall. 2 carbon compounds or 3 carbon chains can be readily converted to glucose. Acetic is harder to convert.

The main functions of microorganisms in the rumen are:1-Convert large amounts of starch and cellulose to volatile fatty acids as sources of energy. Bypass?2-Convert both preformed protein and nonprotein nitrogen to microbial protein which serves as a source of protein containing all the essential amino acids for the host.Grains don’t hang around in rumen because they will bypass rumen activity 3-synthesize vitamin K and all of the B vitamins, most water soluble. Two classes of vitamins- fat soluble and water voluble, B are water soluble.-Fat soluble vitamins are stored in the fat, once given a source the animal will store the vitamins and you don’t need to be too concerned with giving the animals these.

FeedstuffsSubstitution of feed stuffs can be advantageous as price of feed changes. Thus, feeds of similar nutritive properties can be grouped: Cereal grains: corn, barley, wheat, oats, soy gram grain Animal protein: tankage (collection of anything that won’t be used for human consumption), meat meal, fishmeal, marine by products, milk by products, bone scrap, feather meal (-Price of corn has increased)Plant Protein: Soybean meal, Cottonseed meal, (Soy and Cotton most common, Soy most easily digested because cotton is more fibrous making it better for ruminates, cottonseed actually bad for swine) Linseed meal, Peanut mealRoughage: Hay (cut dried, 10% moisture or less), Silage (cut green, usually 3:1 ratio because of its high moisture content), Forage (harvested by the animal themselves) green bale can spontaneously combust.

Amount of hay need for wintering 27 cows for 4 months or 120 daysUnless you plant a cool season grass it will stop growing from around November to April. Ex rye grass is cool season grass

Bonds in fiber of cellulose are called beta 1-4 bonds that microbes break apart

Grass goes into dormancy during winter months.

FACT 1 cows eat 20 lbs feed/1 day-27 cows would eat 540 lbs/1 dayThe amount of hay eaten in one day by 27 cows (540lbs) times the number of days to be fed (120) would give you the total amount of hay in pounds needed for 120 days which 64,800 pounds of hay-Converting 64,800 pounds of hay to bales of hay

FACT 2 a bale of hay equals 60 lbsDividing 64,800 lbs of hay by 60 lbs is 1080 bales of hay for the 120 days. If a bale weighs 50 lbs you need 1,296 bales

-Round bale hay feeder, you put bale inside to prevent wasting it, can improvise also to prevent waste. Do this to prevent animals from intimidating others from getting to the food. -Put breeding herds on maintenance diet, don’t want them to grow just make it through the winter.

FACT 3 to determine how many 60 lb bales to feed per day Divide the number of 27 cows will eat in one day be the weight of the bale, this will give youthe number of bales will eat per day, feed 1 bale per 3 cows, feed 9 bales per day for 27 cows.

FACT 3A to determine how many 50 lbs bales to feed per dayDivide 27 cows this will give you the number of bales 27 cows will eat per day, 10.08 bales per day. Need to distribute hay around, not just in one spot. Assume 1 bale cost a dollar 1080 bales at 60 lbs cost $1,0801296 bales at 50 lbs cost 1,296

Enzymes-organic catalysts-protein in nature

-They bring about changes in other organic compounds without being broken down themselves-Each of the enzymes of digestion acts on only one group of nutrients (proteins, starches, fats)6 groups of nutrients – water, protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, starches, fats (lipids) PVCMSF-heating enzymes destroys them, denature proteins -freezing enzymes causes cease in activity but do not destroy-some enzymes act best in neutral solution, some in acid solution, some act best in a slightly alkaline solution-they are in warm digestive tract of animals, 100 or 101 degrees F doesn’t destroy enzymes. -in the digestion of food by enzyme action, the complex molecules of protein, starch, and fat are split into simpler compounds, which are soluble and can be absorbed. Digestion begins with Mastication- chewing or grinding of food in bird’s gizzard

If body temp rises two high can result in sterility, concerned about fever

Breaking down food, break down carbohydrates into glucose units which are smaller units of carbon chains, which have 6 carbons per chain. We can use 6 carbon chain as energy for our body. Without energy you die.

Enzymes recognized with feed digestion:Salivary amylase- starch---maltoseRennin- secreted in stomach; curdles milk (found a lot in infants)Pepsin- protein -----proteoses (IPBP- Intermediate Protein break down product), polypeptides and peptidesGastric lipase – fat --- Fatty Acid + Glycerol

START OF NEW MATERIAL FOR EXAM 4

End Products of Digestion

ProteinAmino AcidsStarchGlucoseSucroseGlucose and Fructose(fructose converted to glucose upon absorption)LactoseGlucose and Galactose(galactose converted to glucose upon absorption)Celluloseorganic acids and salts of organic acidsFatsfatty acids and glycerolMineralsany soluble formVitaminsany soluble form

Glucose is the form of sugar we use to get energy from. Goes though metabolic processes to get utilized as energy source. 2.5x more energy from fats than starchesBeta oxidation

Digestive JuicesFluid materials secreted into the digestive tract by glands or tissues along the digestive tract.

Those digestive juices considered:1. Saliva (Amylase-acts on starch, maltase-acts on maltose)2. Gastric juice (rennin-curdle milk, pepsin-acts on protein, lipase-acts on fat, HCL-

swell up nutrients so enzymes can get to and break apart bonds)3. Bile (secreted be liver, stored in gallbladder, fat by emulsification processFatty

Acids + glycerol)4. Pancreatic juice (close proximately to duodenum, trypsin-catalytic enzyme that

activates other enzymes in small intestines to break down various proteins to end products, amylase-starch, lipase-fats)

5. Intestinal juice, sometimes all nutrients don’t get absorbed, (peptidase, maltase, sucrase, lactase) all produced by brush border cells in intestines. Disaccharidases acts on disaccharides

End products of maltose digestion is glucose and glucose.

Nutrient Digestion, Absorption, and Transport

Food must undergo extensive changes before it can be absorbed from the digestive tracts, these changes are separate and known together as digestion.

Digestion includes all of the changes which food undergoes in the digestive tract to prepare it for absorption and use in the body.

In this process food is broken down into simple chemical compoundsThese are mostly soluble in water and readily absorbedWater, glucose, common salt require no change prior to absorption.

FULL DEFINITION OF DIGESTION INCLUDES MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL PROCESSES:In digestion food is broken into smaller particles. Mechanically- mastication or chewing, and churning action of stomach. Chemically- enzymes of the digestive juices.

Nutrient absorption-The movement of the end products of digestion from the digestive tract into the blood and/or lymph system -Absorption is accomplished by the process of osmosis through the semi-permeable membranes, which line much of the digestive tract.-In non-ruminants most nutrient absorption takes place in the small and large intestines.-The villi of the small intestines facilities absorption at this location. Absorption takes pace also in the rumen in ruminants.

**********The small intestines is the major site of absorption for nutrients.**************Need ample supply of water to prevent problems with excretion.

THE END PRODUCT OF digestion are absorbed into the blood streams except fat digestion and fat soluble vitamins that are absorbed into lymph system.

Movement of nutrients from the point of absorption (mostly small intestines) to the point of utilization.Blood transport nutrients to the cells to keep them alive, healthy, nourished, replenished. Metabolism occurs at the cellular level.

-Lymph serve as the final link between the blood capillaries and the individual cells-Nutrients transported in water soluble form-Nutrients absorbed from lymph into the individual cell by osmosis

Function of Feed

MGLRWWF

1-Maintenance- Maintain animal in present body conditionMature animals must have

1. heat to maintain body temperature 2. sufficient energy for the internal work of the body and the minimum movement of

the animal3. nutrients to repair body tissue (protein, vitamins, minerals)

Resting animals laying down require some nutrients. The least amount of which is referred to as maintenance. Animals require more feed when standing and even more if they move around. Eat and lay down- finishing units. About half of feed consumed is used for maintenance.

2-Growth

-Conditioning young growing animals require ample protein, minerals, and vitamins are essential as well as more CHO (?) and FATS.-Usually the more feed a growing animal consumes, the more economical will be its gain-Get every possible ounce of feed “under the hides” for economical feeding.Feed above maintenance requirements.

3-Reproduction-the basis for profit has to be regular and normal reproduction, 20-50% of all matings are infertile-25% of dairy cows culled due to reproductive inefficiencyUS Calf Crop is 88%. 5% of EWES are sterile-50% of all mares bred actually foal. 15% of all sows bred fail to farrow.-Inadequate nutrition is major cause- there are other causes

Lastly 1/3 of pregnancy- most fetal growthCritical Period- need ample protein, mineral, and vitaminsIf not fetal growth occurs at the expense of the mother tissues

Overfeeding/Underfeeding is undesirable

4-LactationSome or similar to reproductionCritical period- need ample nutrients to produce milk to nourish offspring Or dairy cow need to get more milk for human consumption

5-Work-Requirements similar to finishing -Both require high energy feeds

HORSES-RUN/RACE OXEN-work power Other animals

NUTRIENTS- CHO and FATAdditional grain, minerals (NaCl), perspiration goes upOther nutrients, vitamins, minerals, are about the same as maintenance diet

6- Wool/Mohair -High protein products, therefore there is a decrease in protein and increase in wool/mohair production. Quality and quantity of wool fibers may decrease if animals are unhealthy.

7- Finishing-Where we feed out most of our livestock to slaughter weight on grain. Used to call it fattening but that was an undesirable word. -Specialized area of livestock production where producers finish animals out for slaughter -cattle go to feedlots in Midwestern states.

-calves get weaned out of herd where they were receiving maintenance diets and then they go to feedlots to be finished. Sometimes go through back grounding to get used to not having mothers.-pigs weaned from sows then put into nursery and go through phases before finished out, called finishing units -start them out gradually until their diet is fully grain-don’t want swine to exercise, start to limit protein in non-ruminants. -hogs finish at 220 lbs according to USDA but buyers want 250-260 lbs -cattle finsh 1000-1200 lbs-wean swine a lot of earlier, so don’t background the same. Wean as soon as they start eating – early weaning process can be as early as between day 7 and 15-creep feeding- provide a place for young animals to eat that breeding herd don’t have access to. As soon as the baby pigs eat enough of the creep feed begin to ween. -poultry- baby chicks put on high protein diet then drop by 18 or 16 percent when they approach finishing. Go to broiler house for 6-8 weeks, 10-50 thousand birds per house.

Functions of feed nutrients1. Serve as a structural material for building and maintaining the body structure-Nutrients are required for the development of the animal body, maintenance of the body to repair muscles, skin, organ tissue, hair, etc.-Nutrients needed: protein, minerals, fat, and water.

2. Serve as a source of energy for heat production, work, and/or fat deposition. -Animals must be supplied with energy to keep body warm, for the body to work, animal store fat as a reserve supply of energy.-Nutrients needed: carbohydrates, fats, and protein.

3. For regulation of body processes or in the formation of body produced regulators. -Regulators are involved in the control of various functions, processes, and activities in the animal’s body.-Nutrients needed: Vitamin (enzymes, hormones) Minerals, Amino Acids and Fatty Acids (steroids hormones).

4. The accessory function- milk and egg production, wool production

Some of the same nutrients founding milk and eggs are also utilized in their production

Nutrients needed: vitamin, minerals, protein, fat

Evaluating Feedstuffs Methods1. Physical evaluation - (eye, smell, taste)2. Cost per unit of nutrients (CP-crude protein, TDN-total digested nutrients)3. Chemical Analysis (Proximate Analysis-take feed into lab and look at chemicals

inside to determine how much protein, fat, etc are inside)4. Digestion trials (metabolism) (digestibility)5. Measuring energy value of feedstuffs

a. TDN – (Sum of DP, fiber, NFE, and Fat multiplied by 2.25)[%TDN= DCP + DCF + DNFE + (DEE multiplied by 2.25) x 100]/feed consumed DEE= Digestible ether extract NFE= Nitrogen free extractDP= Digestible proteinb. Calorie System- bomb calorimeter (GE, DE, ME, NE)

6. Feeding Trials

Feeding Standards-are tables showing the amounts of one or more nutrients needed by different species of animals for different purposes such as growth, finishing, and lactation.-Serves as guides in balancing rations

Balancing Rations- a ration which provides an animal the proper, proportions and amounts of all required nutrients for 24 hours.

Methods of Balancing Rations1.square method or Pearson Square Method2. trial and error method3. net energy method, need tables for energy values4. Computer Method- list available feed ingredients and cost of each, record feed quality, establish ration specifications, give restrictions, stipulate food additives, obtain tailor made program, formulate as necessary.

Commercial Feeds- not farm mixed or preparedFeed prepared by commercial feed manufacturers who specialize in business

SEE PHONE PICTURESLast exam 12/5/12 cumulative

1 ton = 2000 lbs even100% dehy- no moistureTDN-sum of energy value of feedstuff

Ruminants- concerned with energy measured in TDN and calorie DE- Digestible energyME- Metabolically energy NE- Net energyNEm- maintenance, NEg- gain, NEl-lactation

Van susse – acid detergent fiber. He analyzed cell wall by ADL for ruminants. Crude fiber- important to know for monogastric animals to know how much there is of other things Lignin- basically indigestible, the more lignin the less other useful materialsEther extract- fat component Ash- collective group of minerals. Doesn’t tell us anything about specific minerals.

-put in muffler furnace and burn it, what is left are minerals. Silage- complete corn chopped up and put into silosGerm- reproductive part of corn Grain-

Signs of good health1. Contentment2. Alertness3. Eating with relish, good appetite, cudding by ruminants. These are the first

things to change when animals get sick. 4. Sleek coat and pliable, elastic skin5. Bright eyes and pink eye membranes6. Normal Feces and Urine7. Normal temperature, pulse rate, and breathing rate

Feed animals at the same time every day, feed the same food and make changes gradually.Feedng methods-1-Hand feeding- limit amount of feed given to each animal or collectively2-Self feeding- put feed in self feeder and they can eat as much as they want whenever3-Creep feeding- designed to put good nutrition feeding that only young animals can get to,

not adults

Use Old Exams for study guides Production Systems for Beef Cattle and Swine

3 types of cattle- dairy, beef, and dual purpose. Within these types we have breeds that fit into these types. Dairy types provide a lot of milk, Beef types provide a lot of meat, Dual purpose type belong to individual families to use for milk and eventually slaughter for meat. Dairy cattle breeds: Jersey, Holstein, GernsteinBeef cattle breeds: Cracker, Brahma, Dual purpose: shorthorn

Dairy cows weaned at birth, not allowed to nurse. Sometimes have a lot of orphaned calvesBecause most bull calves are undesirable. You can purchase these orphaned bull calves and raise them for a profit. Keep them clean from infection and you can be successful, female producers tend to do better with these things.

Poultry Industry

-Broilers- meat birds-Layers-furnish eggs-Industry is vertically integrated by one company that produces everything needed to produce birds. They contract with producers interested in raising birds who will furnish housing and manage, company furnishes everything else.

-Hatch out millions of birds a day and bring to contracted producers -after 6-8 weeks ready to go to market then taken to company to slaughter and process