Andrew Pettegree-Reformation and the Culture of Persuasion (2005)

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R ef or ma ti on a nd t h e C ul tu re o f P er su as io n

Wh y d i d pe op le ch oo se t he Re fo rma ti o n ? Wh a t wa s i t i n t he

e v an g el i ca l t e ac h in g t h at e x ci t ed , m ov e d o r p e rs u ad e d t h em ? A n dr e w

P et te gr ee h er e t ac kl es t he se q ue st io ns d ir ec tl y b y r e- ex am in in g t her e as o ns t h at m o ve d m i ll i on s t o m a ke t h is d e ci s iv e a n d t r au m at i c b r ea k

w it h a s ha re d Ch ri st ia n p as t. H e c ha rt s t he s ep ar at io n f ro m f am il y,

f ri en ds a nd w or km at es t ha t a dh er en ce t o t he n ew f ai th o ft en e nt ai le d,

a nd t he n ew s ol id ar it ie s t ha t e me rg ed i n t he ir p la ce . H e e xp lo re s t he

d i ff e re n t m e di a o f c o nv e rs i on t h ro u gh w h ic h t h e R e fo r ma t io n m e ss a ge

w as c om mu ni ca te d a nd i mb ib ed – t he r ol e o f d ra ma , s er mo ns , s on g

and the book – and argues that the potency of print can only be

u nd er st oo d a s w or ki ng i n h ar mo ny w it h m or e t ra di ti on al m od es o f

c om mu ni ca ti on . H is f in di ng s o ff er a p er su as iv e n ew a ns we r t o t hec ri ti cal qu est io n of h ow th e Re for ma ti on c ou ld s uc ce ed as a m as s

m ov em en t i n a n a ge b ef or e m as s l it er ac y.

A N DR E W P E T TE G RE E i s P ro fe ss or o f M od er n H is to ry a nd f ou nd in g

D ir ec to r o f t he R ef or ma ti on S tu di es I ns ti tu te a t t he U ni ve rs it y o f S t

An dr ews . H e i s the au th or o f a n um be r of s tu di es of t he E uro pe an

R e fo r ma t io n , s i xt e en th - ce n tu r y E u ro p e a n d t he h i st or y o f t h e p r in t ed

book.





R ef or ma ti on a nd t he C ul tu re

o f P er su as i on

A n dr e w P e tt e gr e e



Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge , UK

First published in print format

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© Andrew Pettegree 2005

2005

Information on this title: www.cambridg e.org /9780521841757

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

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Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of sfor external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does notguarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org

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paperback

paperback

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F or B ru ce , R on a a nd C ha rl ot te





Contents

List of ill ustrations page viii

Preface x

1 Th e d yna mi cs o f c on ve rsi on 1

2 Preachi ng 10

3 Militant i n song 40

4 Reform ers on st age 76

5 The v isual i mage 102

6 I nd us tr y an d int el le ct 1287 P am ph le ts a nd p er su as io n 156

8 Ne w so li da ri ti es 185

9 Th e c ultur e o f b elongin g 211

Bibliography 218

Index 232

vii



Illustrations

1 .1 T he P ro te s ta nt c on ve rs i on p ro c es s page 6

3.1 The progressive sophisti cation of musical typography. 57

F ro m t he Achtliederbuch o f 1 52 4 t o t he F re nc h R ef or me d

P sa lt e r o f 1 56 3

5.1 The scho lar as bespect acled fool Sebastian Brant, 110

Stu l ti fer a N avi s ( 1 49 7 ) . S o lo t hu r n, Z e nt r a lb i b li o t he k :

R a r. 1 6 0

5 .2 T he Di vi ne Mi ll . L ut he r a nd Er as mu s d is tr ib ut e t he ha rv es t 1 13

o f t h e G o s p e l w h i l e t h e p e a s a n t K a r s t h a n s t h r e a t e n s t h e

s c e p t i c a l d i g n i t a r i e s o f t h e c h u r c h . U s e d w i t h p e r m i s s i o n

o f L o i s S c r i b n e r

5.3 Luthe r leading t he f aithful o ut o f darkness . At t he b ack o f 115

t he c av e t he p r in ce s o st e nt a ti ou sl y t ur n t he i r b ac ks , w h il e

L ut he r ’s o pp on en t s, i de nt i fi ed b y t he ir a ni ma l h ea ds , a re

a rr ay e d a bo ve . U se d w it h p er mi ss io n o f L oi s S c ri bn er

5 .4 P ro te st an t b ra ndi ng. Th e p ri nt er ’s de vi ce was th e f am ou s 1 24

s na ke a nd a nc ho r o f t he G e ne va p ri nt e r J ea n C re sp i n,

t h ou gh t h e p ub li ca ti o ns w er e t h e w or k o f a l es s- es ta b li sh e d

p ri nt e r i n N or ma nd y : a p ie c e o f c om me r ci al o pp o rt un is m

e ve n f or t h is g od ly p ur po se

6.1 The livery of the new literature . The characteristic and 137

d i st i n ct i ve t i tl e -p a g e d e si g n s d e ve l op e d i n t h e C r an ac h

w o rk s h op h e l pe d m a ke t h e R e fo r m at i on Flugschriften

i n st a nt l y r e c og n iz a bl e t o t h e ir a u di e nc e

6.2 The printer’s work shop. The famili ar ill ustration from 148

Ammann’s Sta ndebuch ( A) s ho w s t he f in is he d s he et s

b ein g st ac ke d, b ut no t b ei ng h ung up t o dr y. A s t he

m or e r ea li st ic i ll us t ra ti on ( B) o f 1 64 2 s ho ws , t hi s m us t

h av e r eq ui re d a l ot o f s pa ce

6.3 Leve ls of an onymity. Unlike the Cae n and Witten berg book s 150

i ll us tr a te d e ar li er, t h e p ri nt e r o f t hi s d an ge r ou sl y s ed it io us

viii



b oo k a do pt s t he p la in es t s or t o f t yp ef ac es w it h n o i nc ri mi na ti ng

d ec or at i ve i ni ti al s o r i de nt i fy in g p ri nt e r’s d ev ic e

8. 1 The Reforme d m ar tyro logy. Typogr aph ic al uni ty kni ts 204

t og et he r t he m od er n m ar ty rs a nd t he s ai nt s o f t he e ar ly

c hu rc h C ou rt e sy o f R og er G as k el l

List of illustrations ix



Preface

T h i s b o o k w a s c o n c e i v e d i n 1 9 9 1 , w h e n I m a d e m y f i r s t v i s i t t o L u t h e r -

s ta dt -Wi tt en be rg , a s i t w as t he n c al le d. S ta nd in g i n f ro nt o f o ne o f t he

di sp lay c ase s i n t he L ut he rh al le M us eum , I c am e f ac e t o f ac e w it h a

c a sc a de o f Flugschriften. T he v is ua l i mp ac t o f t hi s g re at h ea p of R ef or -

m at io n w ri ti ng s , p il ed u p s ee mi ng l y a t r an do m , w as v er y s tr on g, a nd s et

m e m us i ng o n t he c on t em po ra ry i mp ac t o f s uc h l it er at ur e : t he e xt r ao r-

d i n a r i l y i n n o v a t i v e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e R e f o r m a t i o n m a d e i t s a p p e a l f o r

p ub li c s up po rt , a nd t he m an ne r, p er ha ps v er y d iff er en t, i n w hi ch t hi s

a pp ea l w as r ec ei ve d. I h av e b ee n r um in at in g o n t he se q ue st io ns e ve r

s in c e, e ve n a s o th er w ri ti ng p ro je ct s h av e d ir ec t ed m y i mm e di at e a tt e n-

t io n t o m o r e s p ec if i c t a s k s. T h is b o o k i s a n a t te mp t t o g i v e t h es e

t ho ug h ts s om e s or t o f s ys te ma t ic e xp r es si on . Wi th t h e p as sa ge o f y ea rs

s in c e 1 99 1 I h av e o bv io us l y r e ad a nd l ea rn e d a v er y g re at d ea l, w or k in g

p ri ma ri ly o n t he e xp er ie nc e o f R ef or ma ti on i n f ou r m ai n a re as : G er -

m an y, t he N et h er l an ds , F ra nc e a nd t h e t wo k in gd om s o f B ri t ai n, E ng -

l an d a nd S co tl an d. M uc h o f t h is h as b ee n l ea rn ed t h ro ug h t he g ui da nc e

o f f ri en ds a nd p ro fe ss io na l c ol le ag ue s, a nd i t i s a p le as ur e t o a ck no w-

l ed ge h er e t he h el p a nd in sp ir at ion of sc ho lar s o n b ot h si de s of th e

E ng lis h C han ne l an d t he A tl an ti c O ce an . M an y p eop le h av e gu id ed

m y e xp l or at io n o f t he v ar io us l it e ra ry d is ci p li ne s a nd m ed ia e xp lo r ed i n

t hi s v ol um e . S pe c if ic d eb t s a re a ck n ow le dg e d a t a pp ro p ri at e p la ce s i n

t he t ex t, b ut I s ho ul d a ls o e xp re ss m y g ra ti tu de t o t he t hr ee a no ny mo us

r ea de r s f or C am b ri dg e U ni ve rs it y P re s s, w ho g av e t he f ir s t p ro po sa l f or

t h i s p r o j e c t a r i g o r o u s w o r k o u t . A m o r e g e n e r a l d e b t i s o w e d t o t h e m a n y

s tu de nt s a nd s ch o la rs w ho se w or k I h av e h e ar d a t c on fe re n ce s, p ar t ic u-

l a rl y t h e R e fo r ma t io n C o ll o q ui u m, t h e E u ro p e an R e fo r ma t i on R e se a r ch

G ro up a nd t h e S ix te e nt h C en tu ry S tu di es C on fe r en ce . R ef or ma ti on

s ch ol ar s a re e sp ec ia ll y w el l s er ve d b y o ur c on fe re nc e c ul tu re , b ut t hi s

w o u l d n o t b e s o w i t h o u t t h e h e r o i c e f f o r t s o f t h o s e w h o d e v o t e s o m u c h

t i m e t o o r g a n i z i n g t h e s e m e e t i n g s . T w o f r i e n d s , A l a s t a i r D u k e a n d P e t e r

M a r s h a l l , w e r e k i n d e n o u g h t o r e a d t h e w h o l e t e x t o f t h i s b o o k i n d r a f t ,

x



a nd t h ei r o bs e rv at io ns h el p ed m e g re at l y a s I p re p ar ed t he f in al t e xt f or

p u b l i c a t i o n . I a l s o o w e a s p e c i a l d e b t t o m y w i f e J a n e , w h o s e e x p e r t i s e i n

t he f ie ld s o f m us ic an d e ar ly m od er n d ra ma h ave i mm ea su ra bl y i n-

c r ea se d m y k no wl ed ge i n p r ep ar in g t he c h ap t er s d ev ot e d t o t h es e t op ic s

h e re . M y t wo d au gh t er s M eg an a nd S op h ie a ls o h el pe d m e u nd er s ta nd

t h e p r o c e s s o f l e a r n i n g , n o t l e a s t t h e e n d u r i n g p o w e r o f r o t e l e a r n i n g , t h e

i mp or ta nc e o f m el od y, a nd t h e f an ta st i c p ow er o f t he h um an m em or y.

O ve r t he y ea rs m y g rad ua te s tu de nt s h av e t au gh t m e a n e no rm ou s

a m ou nt abo u t di ver se t op ics , an d al l of t hem w i ll se e a li t tl e b it of

t h em se l ve s r e fl ec te d h e re . I n r e ce nt y ea rs I h av e a ls o b en ef i te d g re at l y

f ro m t he o pp or tu ni ty o f s us ta in ed f ie ld -w or k w it h m em be rs o f t he S t

A nd re ws F re nc h B oo k P ro je ct t ea m, e sp ec ia ll y m y t wo p ri nc ip al c ol -

l e ag u es i n t h at e n te r p ri s e, A l ex a nd e r Wi l ki n so n a n d M a lc o lm Wa l sb y. A

f ir st d ra ft o f t hi s t ex t w as t es t- dr ive n b y m y t hi rd -y ea r R ef or mat io n

Ho no urs co urs e at St Andr ew s, and I am gr at ef ul t o t hem for t hei r

p e rc e pt iv e c om me nt s . F in al ly, o ne c an no t b e f or t we n ty y ea rs , a s I h av e

b e e n , a f r i e n d , a n d l a t t e r l y c o l l e a g u e , o f B r u c e G o r d o n w i t h o u t l e a r n i n g

a n e no rm ou s a mo un t o f R ef or m at io n h i st or y. T he i mp a ct o f h is c on ve r -

s at io n, h is v er sa ti le m in d a nd d ee p l ea rn in g, h av e o ve r t he y ea rs b ee n

m o r e p r o f o u n d t h a n I c a n e a s i l y a c k n o w l e d g e . F o r t h i s r e a s o n I d e d i c a t e

t h is b oo k t o B ru ce , a nd t o h is f am il y, R on a a nd C ha rl ot t e.

Preface xi





1 The dynamics of conversion

W h y d i d p e o p l e c h o o s e t h e R e f o r m a t i o n ? W h a t w a s i t i n t h e e v a n g e l i c a l

t eac hi ng t hat e xc it ed, m ov ed o r p er suad ed t he m ? H ow, a nd b y w ha t

p ro ce ss , d id p eo pl e a rr iv e a t t he n ew u nd er st an di ng s t ha t p ro mp te d a

c h an ge o f a ll eg ia nc e , a nd e mb ed de d t he m i n t he ir n ew f ai th ? T he se a re

q ue st io n s c e nt ra l t o a n u nd er s ta nd in g o f t h e R ef or ma t io n m ov em en t ,

b u t t h e y a r e f a r m o r e o f t e n a p p r o a c h e d o b l i q u e l y t h a n a n s w e r e d d i r e c t l y .

We k no w t ha t L ut he r a nd o th er e va ng el i ca ls p r ea ch e d a p ow er fu l d oc -

t ri ne o f r ed em pt io n a nd s al va ti on ; w e k no w t ha t t he y c on ju re d a s en se

t h a t t h e R e f o r m a t i o n w o u l d a d d r e s s l o n g - s t a n d i n g d i s c o n t e n t s a b o u t t h e

r e la ti on s hi p b et w ee n c le r gy a nd p eo pl e ; a nd w e k no w t ha t l ar ge p ar t s o f

E ur op e w ou ld u lt i ma te ly a cc e pt t he n ew P ro te s ta nt c hu rc he s . B ut p re -

c i s e l y w h a t m o v e d p e o p l e – e i t h e r a s i n d i v i d u a l s , o r a s p a r t o f a c o m m u -

n it y – t o a ba nd on o ne a ll eg ia nc e a nd e mb ra c e a no th e r i s a c om pl e x a nd

d i ff i cu lt qu es tio n .

W ha t w e c an b e c er ta in i s t ha t, i n t he f ir st g en er at io n o f e va ng el ic al

a gi ta ti on , t he d ec is io n t o a dh er e t o t he R ef or ma ti on w as o ft en a v er y

p ai nf ul o ne . I t i nv ol ve d d iff ic ul t c ho ic es a nd l if e- ch a ng in g d ec is i on s. I t

i nv ol ve d e xc ha ng in g t he f am il i ar r ou nd o f t ra di t io na l o bs er va nc e f or a

new order which was untes ted an d largely unkno wn. It involved

a cc ep ti ng t he g oo d f ai th a nd c ha ri sm at ic a ut ho ri ty o f p re ac he rs w ho

h ad o ft en e me rg ed f ro m a c omp ar at ive ly lo wl y p osi ti on in t he l oc al

c l er i ca l h i er a r ch y, i g no r in g t h e c o un t e r- c h ar g es o f t h os e w h o d e no u nc e d

t he m a s f al se p rop he ts . I t i nvo lv ed e mb rac in g no ve lt y i n a n e ra t hat

d esp is ed a nd di st rus te d i nn ov at io n, an d v al ida te d al l c han ge b y i ts

c om pa ti bi li ty w it h t he i nh er it ed w is do m, c us to m a nd t ea ch in g o f t he

a ge s. T hi s w as a p ar ti cu la r p ro bl em o f w hi ch t he r ef or me rs w er e a ll t oo

aware , as we can witnes s in the ir frequ ent att empts to validat e t he

renovati on of religion as a return to the pur e G os pe l p rin ci pl es of

t h e e ar ly c h ur ch : r e st or a ti on n ot i nn ov at io n.1 T he ir s, t he y u rg ed , w as

1 B r uc e G o rd o n, ‘ T he C h an g in g F a ce o f P r ot e st a nt H i st o ry a n d I d en t it y i n t h e S i xt e en t hC en tu ry ’, i n h is P r ot es ta nt H is to ry a nd I de n ti ty i n S ix te e nt h- Ce nt ur y E ur op e ( 2 v ol s. ,A l d e rs h o t , S t A n d r ew s S t u d ie s i n R e f o rm a t io n H i s t or y, 1996) , p p . 1 – 2 3 .

1



t he t ru e c hu rc h, w hi ch t he y h ad r es cu ed f ro m t he p er ve rs io ns o f p ap al

t yr an ny a nd t he a cc re t io n o f f al se t ra di ti on . B ut t hi s w as a j us ti fi c at io n

a rt ic ul at ed b y P ro te st an t t he ol og ia ns a nd h is to ri an s l ar ge ly a ft er t he

e ve nt . I n a ny c as e, n ew a dh er en ts c ou ld h ar dl y a vo id b ei ng s tr uc k b y

t he l ar ge e le me n t o f u nf am il ia ri t y i n t he n ew c hu rc h es – i n t he ir e xp er i -

e nc e o f w or sh ip , t he ir p ub l ic f es ti vi ti e s, a nd t he ir r el at io ns h ip w it h t he

m uch-chang ed clerical order. Change , for all th at it was so wi dely

d i s t r u s t e d , w a s a u n i v e r s a l a n d v e r y o b v i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e P r o t e s t -

a nt r ev ol ut io n : i n d re ss , i n t he w or ki ng r ou nd ( cl ea ns ed o f e xt ra ne ou s

f es t iv al s) , m os t o f a ll i n t he e xp e ri en ce o f r el ig io n .

M a n y w e r e d r a w n t o e m b r a c e t h e n e w v i s i o n o f t h e e v a n g e l i c a l m i n i s -

t er s b y p ar ti cu la r e le me nt s o f a c om pl ex p ro gr am me ; t he ir c ho ic e m ay

s om et im es h av e b ee n w hi ms ic al o r i ll c on si de re d. Ye t u lt im at el y t he

r en ov at io n o f r el ig io n i nv ol ve d t he l os s o f m uc h o f t he o ld s tr uc tu re o f

w or sh ip t ha t h ad g iv en c om fo rt a nd p le as ur e. S om e c ou ld o nl y a cc om -

m od at e t h is t ra ns fo rm at io n b y p ut t in g p sy ch o lo gi ca l d is ta nc e b et w ee n

t he r el igi ou s l ive s t he y h ad l ive d and t hat t he y w er e c hoo si ng . Th ey

t ur ne d o n a sp ec ts o f t hi s n ow r ej ec te d r el ig io us s ys te m w it h a savagery

t ha t w oul d h av e b ee n unt hin ka ble on ly a fe w ye ar s b ef or e.2 Others

s im pl y i nc or po ra te d l ov ed e le me nt s o f t he ir o ld r el ig io us l iv es w it hi n

t h e f a b r i c o f t he n e w, o ft en i nc o ng ru ou sl y a nd t o t he f ru st ra t io n o f t h ei r

n e w p r ea c he r s .3

T hi s r ec o gn it io n, t h at t h e p r oc es s o f c on ve r si on w as a n e xt e nd ed a nd

e vo lv in g p ro ce ss , b ri ng s u s u p a ga in st t he f ir st , a nd v er y s ub st an ti al ,

i nt er pr et at iv e q ue st io n. A re w e r ig ht t o a ss um e t ha t a dh er en ce t o t he

R ef or ma ti on w as a c on sc io us c ho ic e f or m or e t h an a v er y s ma ll n um be r

o f a r t i c u l a t e , e d u c a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s ? A r e w e g u i l t y o f u s i n g a s i n g l e w o r d –

c o n v e r s i o n – t o m a s k a c o m p l e x p r o c e s s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l a d j u s t m e n t t h a t

r eq u ir es f ar m or e c ar e fu l a na ly si s ?

Here it may be helpful to distin guish the experience of the first

g en er at io n f ro m t he e xt en de d p ro ce ss o f r eo ri en ta ti on t ha t f ol lo we d,

o nc e ne w c hu rc he s we re i n e xi st enc e. F or t he f ir st y ear s of t he R ef or -

m at io n w e h av e p le nt if ul e vid en ce t hat t he de ci sio n t o a dh er e t o it i n

v o lv e d c o ns c io u s c h oi c e. T h is e v id e nc e c o me s f r om v e ry m a ny c o nt e m-

p or ar y t es ti m on ie s : t he r ef or me r s t he ms el v es , a ll i mp o rt an t c on ve r ts ;

c or re s po nd e nc e, c hr on ic le s, m ar t yr ol og ie s ; t h e r ec o rd s o f t he s ta t e a u-

t ho ri t ie s s tr ug gl i ng t o c on ta in t he c on se qu en c es o f t he se r e li gi ou s p er -

t ur ba t io ns . T he se d iv er se r e co r ds m ak e c le ar t ha t f or m an y, e ve n f ro m

2 C a r lo s E i r e, T h e Wa r A g ai n st t h e I d ol s (Cambridge, 1986).3 S u sa n C . K a ra n t- N un n , T h e R ef or ma ti on o f R it ua l. A n I nt er pr et at io n o f E ar ly M od e rn

Germany (London, 1997).

2 Reformation and the Culture of Persuasion



c om pa r at iv el y h um b le s ta ti on s i n l if e, t he r e li gi o us a lt er at io n w as o ne

p r e g n a n t w i t h c o n s e q u e n c e s . F o r m a n y i n t h e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n t h e c h o i c e

w a s a l o n e l y o n e , m a d e i n d i v i d u a l l y o r w i t h a s m a l l g r o u p o f f e l l o w s w h o

t h us e xc lu de d t he ms e lv es f ro m t he f el lo ws hi p o f s oc ie t ie s n ot y et r ea dy

t o a cc ep t t he e va ng el ic al m es sa ge . F or t he se m en a nd w om en , t o e m-

b r a c e t h e G o s p e l w a s t o c o u r t c a l a m i t y . R e l i g i o u s d i v i s i o n s e n d e d f r i e n d -

s hi p, c au se d d iv is io n b et w ee n n ei gh bo u rs a nd k in , d am ag ed r e la ti on s

w i t h p a r e n t s b e y o n d r e p a i r , s o m e t i m e s e v e n c a u s e d r e j e c t i o n b y a s p o u s e

o r c h il dr e n. S om e p ai d t he u lt im at e p ri ce f or t he ir d ec is io n t o e mb r ac e

t h e n ew t ea ch in g. D ur in g t he c ou rs e o f t he R ef or matio n c e nt u ry s e ve r al

t h o u s a n d s w e r e p u t t o d e a t h f o r t h e c r i m e o f h e r e s y .4 M a ny o t he r s d i ed

as a consequen ce of the religiou s war s that engulfed E urope in t he

s ec on d h al f o f t he c e nt ur y.

L a te r, a s t h e c h u rc h es o f t h e R e fo r ma t io n b e ca m e i n st i tu t io n al i ze d , i t

b e ca me p os si bl e t o a dh e re t o P ro te st an t is m w it h l it tl e r ea l c ho ic e , a nd

w i t h o u t a n y r e a l m e n t a l e n g a g e m e n t . E v e n h e r e , h o w e v e r , t h e r e i s r e a s o n

t o d ou bt w he th er s uc h u tt er p as si vi ty w ou ld h av e b ee n t he n or ma ti ve

e xp er ie nc e. T he p ra ct ic e o f w or sh ip w as n ow s o t ho ro ug hl y d iff er en t

t ha t t he p eo pl es o f t he se n ew c hu rc he s w er e i n v er y r ea l w ay s c ha ng ed .

A nd t hr ou gh a c ou rs e o f y ea rs m an y c am e t o v al ue t he se n ew p ra ct ic es

a n d i n v e s t i n t h e m a r e a l s e n s e o f l o y a l t y a n d a f f e c t i o n . T h i s p r o c e s s , t o o ,

f o r m s p a r t o f o u r s t u d y – i f o n l y b e c a u s e i t i s s o v i t a l t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f h ow P ro te st an t is m c ou ld b ec om e, i n a r ea l s en se , a p op u la r r el i gi on .

W ha t d id p eo pl e c ho os e w h en t h ey a dh er e d t o t h e e va ng e li ca l t e ac h-

i ng ? T hi s i s a q ue st io n w it h w hi ch t he r ef or me rs w er e t he ms el ve s o b-

viousl y gr eatly conce rned, and to which they offered c ontrasting

a ns we r s. To L ut he r a nd o th e rs , a dh er e nc e t o t he G os pe l m es sa ge w as ,

i n t he f ir st i ns ta nc e, a n a cc ep ta nc e o f a c al l t o r ep en ta nc e. T he c hu rc h

m us t b e c le an se d, a nd t hi s w ou ld o nl y b e p os si b le i f C hr i st ia ns e mb r ac ed

t h e o b l i g a t i o n – p e r h a p s e v e n a l a s t o p p o r t u n i t y – t o w i t n e s s t o t h e i r f a i t h

a nd a cc ep t t he a ss ur an ce o f t he ir s al va ti on . I t w as a m es sa ge t ha t w as

f ro m t h e b eg i nn in g f re ig ht ed w it h c om pl e x i mp l ic at io ns . I t a dd re s se d

b ot h t he i nd iv id ua l C hr is ti an , c al le d t o a cc ep t a p er so na l a ss ur an ce

o f s al va ti on , a nd t he c hu rc h c om mu ni ty, d ir ec te d t o r es to re a v is io n

o f a po st ol ic s er vi ce . Wi th in t hi s c om pl ex o f c om pe ti ng m es sa ge s t he

4 Wi l l ia m M o n te r, ‘ H e re s y E x e c u ti o n s i n R e f o rm a t io n E u r o pe , 1 5 2 0 – 15 6 5 ’, i n O l e P e t e rG re ll a nd B ob S cr ib ne r ( e ds .) , To l er a nc e a n d I n to l er a nc e i n t h e E u ro p e an R e fo r ma t io n(Cambridge, 1996), p p . 4 8 – 6 4 . W i l li a m M o n te r, J u d g in g t h e F r en ch R ef o r m a ti o n . H er es yT r ia l s b y S i x t een t h -Cen t u ry P a r lem en ts (C a m b ri d g e , M a s s ., 1999) , p p. 2 8– 54 . B ra d S .Gregory, S a lv a ti o n a t S t ak e . C h ri s ti a n M a rt y rd o m i n E a rl y M o de r n E u ro p e (Cambridge,Mass., 1999).

The dynamics of conversion 3



r ef or me r s e nv is ag e d a r ea l p r oc es s o f c on ve rs i on , a c ho ic e t ha t b ec am e

m o r e s t a r k a n d u r g e n t o n c e i t b e c a m e c l e a r t h a t t h e c a l l f o r r e f o r m w o u l d

l e ad t o d iv id ed , c om pe t in g c hu r ch es . A t t h is p oi nt t he p r oc e ss o f e va n-

g el i ca l a wa ke ni ng b ec am e n ot j us t a n a cc e pt a nc e o f s al va ti o n, b u t a ls o a

choice of loyalties . It was in this cont ext, of church es drift ing into

s e pa ra ti on , t h at t he r ef or m er s b eg an t o a rt ic ul a te i nd iv id ua l r el ig io us

c ho ic e i n t er ms o f c on ve rs io n. E ac h o ff er ed t he i ns pi ra ti on o f h is o wn

c on ve rs io n n ar ra ti ve . L ut he r i n f ac t o ff er ed t wo : t he m om en t w he n,

caugh t in a storm, h e firs t acc ept ed his religious vocation, and the

m om en t w he n h e r eco g ni ze d h is g re at t he o lo gi ca l b re ak t hr ou gh , t he s o

c al le d ‘Turmerlebnis’.5 T he s e r ec o ll ec ti on s a re r el ev an t , n ot b e ca us e w e

w is h t o r ej oi n t he e xt en de d h is to ri ca l d eb at e a bo ut w he re i n h is c ar ee r

L ut he r’ s n ew u nd er s ta nd in g o f j us ti fi c at io n s ho ul d b e p la ce d, b ut b e-

c aus e t he y sh ow t he i mp or tan ce t he r efo rm er s p lac ed o n t he c la ss ic

c on ve rs io n m od el s i n f ra mi ng a d is cu ss io n o f t he ir o wn e xp er ie nc e o f

s pi ri tu al e nl ig ht en me nt . F or L ut he r k ne w t ha t c on ve rs io n w as b ot h a

s u dd e n l i fe - ch a ng i ng m o me n t a n d a m a rv e ll o us e x am p l e o f G o d’ s i n te r -

ve nt ion in the lives of men : thus the Lord had called Paul, Saul the

p er s ec ut or, o n t he r oa d t o D am as cu s ; t hu s h ad A ug us t in e d es cr ib e d h is

o wn l if e- ch an gi ng r ep ud ia ti on o f e ar ly f ri vo li ty. T he s tr en gt h o f t hi s

m od el i s e vi de nt i n t he c ar ef ul , r at he r o bl iq ue a cc ou nt o ff er ed b y J ea n

C al vi n o f h is a dh er en ce t o t he e va ng el ic al m ov em en t, w hi ch s ee ms , i n

t ru th , t o h av e o cc ur re d r at he r g ra du al ly over a per iod of years while

Calvin was living in Pa ris in t he 1530s.6 T h is q u it e u n de r s ta nd a b le

h um an e xp er i en ce o f g ra du al a wa ke n in g t o c om pr om i si ng a nd u lt im -

a t e l y u n o r t h o d o x b e l i e f s w a s c l e a r l y n o t a c c e p t a b l e , r e c a l l e d t w e n t y y e a r s

l at er in t he v er y di ff er ent at mo sp he re of r efo rm ed G ene va. R at he r,

C al vi n c ho se t o r el at e h ow, h av in g b ee n m ir ed i n p ap is t s up er st it io n,

G o d h a d b y a s u d d e n co n v ers i o n (su bi ta co n versi o) r e c a l l e d h i s m i n d t o a

m o re t e ac h a bl e f r am e .7

S uc h f ram ing , w hi le de mo ns tr at in g t he v er y p ow er ful s tr en gt h o f

the conve rsion par adigm, should al so warn us of the pitfalls of too

c re du lo us a u se o f c on te mp or ar y d oc um en ta ti on . F or g en er at io ns o f

P ro te st ant s w ou ld s imi lar ly c om e t o f ram e t he ir o wn e xp er ie nc e o f

s pi r it ua l a wa ke ni n g i n s uc h t er ms . S uc h n ar ra ti ve s i ne vi ta bl y l ay g re at

5 W. D . J . C a rg i ll T h om p so n , ‘ T h e P r o b le m o f L u t h er ’s “ To w er E x pe r ie n ce ” a n d i t s P l ac ei n h is I nt el le ct ua l D ev e lo pm en t’ , i n h is S tu di es i n t he R ef or ma ti on . L ut he r t o H oo k er (London, 1980) , p p. 6 0– 81 .

6 A l i s te r E . M c G ra t h , A L i f e o f J o h n C a l v i n (Oxford, 1990) , p p. 2 1– 50 .7

T h e a u to b io g ra p hi c al r e fl e ct io n s c o me i n t h e p r ef a ce t o h i s C o mm e nt a ry o n t h e P s al m s(1 5 5 7 ). M c G ra t h , Calvin, p p . 6 9 – 7 8 .




s tr es s o n t he m ot iv at in g p ow er o f t h eo lo gy, p ar t ic ul ar ly L ut he r ’s t e ac h-

i n g o f j u st i fi c at i o n, i n b u il d in g s u pp o rt f o r t h e R e fo r m at i on , a n e x pl a na -

t o r y f r a m e w o r k a l s o e a g e r l y e m b r a c e d b y m a n y g e n e r a t i o n s o f h i s t o r i a n s .

It is fair to say that such an approach to writing the histo ry of the

R ef or ma ti on , p la ci ng t he p ri ma ry e mp ha si s o n t he a pp ea l o f L ut he r’s

R e fo r m at i on t e ac h i ng , w a s l a rg e l y u n ch a ll e ng e d u n ti l t h e m i dd l e p a rt o f

t h e l a s t c e n t u r y . T h e b o o m i n s o c i a l h i s t o r y i n t h e t h r e e d e c a d e s f r o m t h e

1 96 0s h as t o s om e e xt en t c al l ed t h is i nt o q ue st io n, t h ou gh m os t r e ce nt

w or k , w hi ch s tr es se s t he s tr e ng t hs o f t he o ld c hu rc h a nd d ow np la ys t h e

i mp or ta nc e o f a nt ic le ri c al f ee li n g a s a m ot iv e f or ce f or c ha ng e , h as g on e

s om e w ay t ow ar ds r es to ri ng t he v al ue o f t he o ld er t ra di ti on . T hi s s yn -

t he si s f ind s e lo qu ent e xp re ss ion i n a f or mul a r ec en tl y p ro pos ed b y

D ia rm ai d M ac Cu ll oc h : ‘ Th e o ld c hu rc h w as i mm en se ly s tr on g, a nd

t h at s tr en gth c ou ld on ly h ave b ee n o ve rc ome b y t he e xp lo siv e p owe r

o f a n i de a’ .8 T h at i d ea w a s j u st i fi c at i o n.

I n t h e i r o w n d a y t h e r e f o r m e r s w e r e v e r y a w a r e t h a t t h e r e f o r m o f t h e

c hu rc h w as a t as k o f g re at c om pl ex it y t ha t r eq ui re d t he a ct iv e e ng ag e-

m e n t o f m a n y c l a s s e s o f p e o p l e . L u t h e r w a s e v e r y b i t a s f i n e a p o l e m i c i s t

a s h e w a s a t h e o l o g i a n . T h e y a l s o h a d a c o m p l e x a n d r e f i n e d s e n s e o f t h e

p ro ce ss o f C hr is ti an c on ve rs io n. O n t he o ne h an d, t he re w as t he d ra -

m at ic m om en t o f a cc ep ta nc e ; t he n a ga in , t he c re at io n o f a C hr ist ian

p e o p l e r e q u i r e d a p r o c e s s o f l o n g , h a r d u n r e l e n t i n g s t r u g g l e . T h e L u t h e r

w ho se e ar ly p ub li sh ed w or ks h ad i nc lu de d a t or re nt o f ap oc aly pt ic

i n v e c t i v e a g a i n s t a c o r r u p t c h u r c h h i e r a r c h y , h a d w i t h i n a v e r y f e w y e a r s

t ur ne d t o t he p ro ce ss o f C hr is ti an e du ca ti on . A p eo pl e h ad t o b e l ed t o

r ig ht u nd er st an di ng a nd r ig ht l iv ing : t o t hi s p ro ce ss h e c ont rib ut ed

s er mo ns , p sa lm s , h is L on g a nd S ho rt C at e ch is ms ( 1 52 9 ), a nd h is t r an s-

l at io n o f t he B ib le . O th er o f h is c ol le ag ue s c on tr ib ut ed c hu rc h o rd er s, o ne

o f t he g re at , a nd t hu s f ar m uc h u nd er s tu di ed , i nn ov at i on s o f P ro te st a nt

c h u r c h l i f e . I t i s t h i s p a r t o f t h e c o n v e r s i o n p r o c e s s , t h e s l o w , p a i n s t a k i n g

c re at io n o f a ct iv e C hr is ti an c it iz en s, t ha t h as e ng ag ed t he a tt en ti on o f

s c h o l a r s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e l a s t t h i r t y y e a r s . T h i s e n g a g e m e n t h a s , i t m u s t

b e s a i d , b e e n v e r y o f t e n f r o m a p e r s p e c t i v e o f p r o f o u n d s c e p t i c i s m . E v e r

s in ce i n 1978 G e r al d S t ra u ss p u bl i sh e d h i s L u th e r ’s H o us e o f L e a rn i ng , a

h ig hl y c ri ti ca l a na ly si s o f t he L ut he ra n a tt em pt t o c re ate a r ef or me d

s oc ie ty, t he t er ms o f d eb at e h av e b ee n r ad ic al ly r ev is ed .9 W he t he r o r

8 D i a rm a i d M a c C ul l o c h. R ef o rm a ti o ns . E u ro p e’ s H o us e D i vi d ed , 1 4 90 – 17 0 0 (London,2003) , p . 1 1 0 .

9 G e r a ld S t r a us s , L ut he r’ s H ou se o f L ea rn in g . I nd oc tr in at io n o f t he Yo un g i n t he G er ma nReformation (B a l ti m o re , M d . , 1978) . T he s ub se qu en t d eb at e o n t hi s q ue st io n i s r ev ie we db y S t r a u s s i n h i s ‘ T h e R e f o r m a t i o n a n d i t s p u b l i c i n a n a g e o f o r t h o d o x y ’ , i n R . P o - C h i aH s i a (e d . ), T h e G e rm a n P e op l e a n d t h e R e fo r ma t io n (Ithaca, N.Y., 1988) , p p . 1 9 4 – 2 14 .




n ot w e a cc e pt S t ra us s’ s l ar ge ly n eg at iv e a pp r ai sa l , t he r e i s n ow a w id e -

s pr e ad a cc e pt an ce o f a c hr on ol og y o f e va ng el ic al r e ne wa l t h at e nc o m-

p a s s e s t h e g e n e r a t i o n s n e c e s s a r y t o e m b e d n e w b e l i e f s a n d n e w r e l i g i o u s

p ra ct ic e. Th e p roc ess o f b uil di ng a n ew c hu rc h r eq ui re d m uc h m or e

t h an c o nv e r si o n. E d uc a ti o n, a s si m i la t io n , f a mi l ia r it y a nd t h e c r e at i on o f

ne w e ne mi es – a n ew di al ec ti c o f b el on gin g an d r eje ct ion – a ll p la ye d

t h e ir p a rt .

Th is pre sen t study se eks to e xp lore the p roce ss of persuasio n b y

r ec o gn iz in g t h is a s a l ay er e d a nd c om pl e x p ro ce ss , p ro c ee di ng i n d iff er -

e nt w ay s, a nd a t d iff er e nt p oi nt s i n t h e p ol it ic al p ro ce ss b y w hi ch s ta t es

o r c it ie s m ad e a c ho ic e o f c on fe s si on al a ll eg ia nc e . I t m ig ht b e h el pf ul t o

o ur d is cu ss io n h er e t o p os tu la te a t ie re d h ie ra rc hy o f c om mi tm en t, a ll

p ar ts o f w hi ch p la ye d a r ol e i n t he p ro ce ss o f c om mi tm en t.

T hi s s ch e ma t ic r e pr es e nt at io n m ay s ha p e o ur d is cu ss io n , t h ou gh i t i s

n ot s ug ge st ed t ha t t hi s r ep r es en ts a n ec es sa ry c hr on ol og y i n t h e p ro c es s

o f c o n v e r s i o n . B u t i t m a y o f f e r s o m e u s e f u l p o i n t e r s t o t h e w a y i n w h i c h

p e op l e r e ac t e d t o t h e n e w e v an g el i ca l t e ac h i ng s , b e fo r e u l ti m at e ly c o m-

m i t t i n g t h e m s e l v e s t o P r o t e s t a n t i s m . O b v i o u s l y , i n o r d e r t o a d h e r e t o t h e

Activism

Understanding

Identification

Awareness

F i gu r e 1 . 1. T h e P r ot e st a nt c o nv e rs i on p r oc e ss .




n ew G os pe l t ea ch ing , on e h ad fi rs t t o b e aw ar e of i t. Th is w oul d no t

n ec ess ar ily l ea d t o c om mi tm ent – f or s om e, k no wl edg e of L ut he r’s

t e ac hi n g l ed u lt im a te ly t o r ej ec t io n a nd a c on fi r me d l oy al ty t o f am il ia r

b e l i e f s . B u t f o r t h o s e w h o w o u l d u l t i m a t e l y j o i n t h e P r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h e s

a wa re ne ss l ed t o s om e f or m o f p er so na l i de nt if ic at io n : a s w it ne ss es t o

C hr is t, o r a s m em be rs o f P ro te st an t c hu rc he s. A m or e c on tr ov er si al

q ue st io n i s w he th er m e mb e rs h ip o f t h e c h ur ch i nv ol ve d a ny r ea l d eg r ee

o f u nd er st an di ng o f t he c or e d oc tr in es o f t he f ai th . I f h is to ri an s h av e

b ee n s ce pt ic al on t hi s q ue st io n, t he n t he y h av e b ee n a bl e t o dr aw o n

m an y g lo om y c on t em po ra ry a ss es sm en ts , o ft e n b y d is en ch an te d e va n-

g el is t s l am en ti ng t ha t t h ei r c easel e ss a ct iv is m h ad m ad e s o l it t le i mp ac t

o n t he i gn or an ce o f t he ir f lo ck .10 U l ti m at e l y, h o we v e r, a n d i n w h at e ve r

w ays, P ro te st ant ism di d su cc ee d i n e ng ag ing t he l oy al ti es o f la rg e

n um be r s o f E ur op e ’s c it iz en s. T hi s i s r ef le c te d i n a t r ad it io n o f a ct i vi sm

t hat r ep re se nt s h er e t he l as t st ag e o f o ur p yr am id o f e ng ag eme nt a nd

c om mi tm en t. T hi s a ct iv is m m ig ht t ak e m an y f or ms : i n t he f ir st g en er -

ation act s of ic onoclas m, in later days a deter minat ion t o defend a

P ro te st a nt c ul tu re a ga in st e ne mi es w it hi n a nd w it ho ut . B ut i t w as v er y

r ea l, e ve n i f t ho se t ha t p ro fe ss ed t hi s l oy al ty m ig ht n ot h av e s at is fi ed

t he m os t d em an di ng c at ec hi st s, o r t he m os t p er si st en tl y i nq ui si ti ve

c o mp i l er s o f t h e G e rm a n v i si t at i o n r e po r t s.

T he i nv es ti ga ti on o f t hi s t ie re d a na to my o f c om mi tm en t p ro ce ed s

t h ro ug h t he e xa mi na ti on i n t ur n o f d iff er e nt m ed ia b y w hi ch t he R ef or -

m at io n m ess ag e wa s c om muni ca te d a nd i mb ib ed. T hi s t oo r ef le ct s

d iff er en t p at te rn s o f i nv e st ig at i on a nd s ch ol ar s hi p i n t h e l as t d ec ad e s.

T he c la ss ic f or m ul at io n o f t he R ef o rm at io n p r oc es s g iv es p ri de o f p la ce

t o t h e p r i n t e d b o o k . E v e r s i n c e E l i z a b e t h E i s e n s t e i n p u b l i s h e d h e r s t u d y

of T he Print ing Pres s as an Age nt of Ch ange, sc ho lar s h ave b ui lt t he ir

i nt e rp r et at io ns o n t wo a pp ar en t ly s ol id p il la rs : t he i de nt i fi ca ti on o f t h e

t e c hn o lo g y o f t h e b o ok w i th a n o p t im i st i c p r og r e ss - or i e nt a te d a g en d a o f

c h a n g e ; and an as so ci at io n o f t he b oo k w it h P ro te st an ti sm , t he ne w

religion.11 P ro te st an ti sm w as t he r eli gi on of t he b oo k ; t he b oo k w as a

P ro testa n t i n s trum en t.

T hi s i s a n a tt r ac ti ve a nd i nf lu en ti a l v is io n, t h ou gh i t s ho ul d b e r ec o g-

n iz ed t ha t i t i nv ol ve s l ay er s o f a ss um pt io ns t ha t h av e n ot a lw ay s b ee n

a cc ur at el y t est ed. Th at Pr ot est ant is m do min at ed t he w or ld o f t he

p rin te d b oo k i s c er tai nly t rue f or G er ma ny in t he 1 52 0s , b ut i t w oul d

10 C h ri s to p he r H a ig h , ‘ P ur i ta n E v an g el i sm i n t h e R e ig n o f E l iz a b et h I ’, E n g l i s h H i s to r i ca l Review, 92 (1977) , p p. 3 0– 58 .

11 E l i za b e t h E i s e ns t e i n, T he P rin ti ng P re ss a s a n A ge nt o f C ha ng e ( 2 v o ls . , C a mb r id g e,1979).




n ot a lw ay s b e s o. T he b oo k h ad b ee n a n e ff ec ti ve s er va nt o f t ra di ti on al

r e l ig i on b e fo r e t h e e v an g el i c al c o nt r o ve r si e s b r o ke o u t i n G e rm a ny, a n d

i t w ou ld b e a ga in . O nc e C at ho li c a ut h or s f ou nd t h ei r v oi c e, t he p ri nt e d

b oo k w oul d b e a c or ne rs to ne o f t he C at ho lic c ou nt er -a tt ac k ag ai nst

P ro te st ant is m ; i n so me p ar ts o f E ur op e, su ch a s F ra nc e, C at ho li cs

c o mf o rt a bl y o u t- p ub l i sh e d t h e ir e v an g elical o pp on en ts a lm o st f ro m t he

f i rs t d ay s o f t h e R e fo r m at i on m o ve m en t .12

O ur p er ce pt ion of t he b oo k is a lso s hap ed b y c er ta in m uc h de ep er

a ss um pt io ns a bo ut t he r ol e o f p ri nt i n i nt el le ct ua l c ul tu re . I t i s a lw ay s

as su me d, f or i nst anc e, t ha t b oo ks a re p ur ch as ed f or t he w or ds t he y

c on t ai n, b y p eo pl e a nx io us , a nd a bl e, t o u nd e rs ta nd t he ir c on t en ts . P ut

a no th er w ay, i t i s a cc ep te d t ha t a na ly si s o f t he c on te nt s o f b oo ks i s a n

a c c e p t a b l e m e a n s o f a n a l y s i n g t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h o s e f o r w h o m t h e y

w e r e w r i t t e n . T h i s i s a g i g a n t i c , i f p e r f e c t l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , a s s u m p t i o n ,

b u t i t r e a l l y n e e d s t o b e t e s t e d i f w e a r e t o p l a c e t h e b o o k c o r r e c t l y i n t h e

c ul tu re o f p e rs ua si on . P er h ap s u nc o ns ci ou sl y, b y e le va ti ng t h e b oo k i n

t hi s w ay a s a p ri ma ry i ns tr um en t o f c ha ng e, w e a re p ro mo ti ng a v ie w o f

r e ad i ng t h at i s e s se n ti a ll y m o de r n ( a nd a c ad e mi c ). We c o nc e i ve a w o rl d

o f p r iv at e r e ad in g a nd p ri va te , l ar ge ly i nd iv id ua l d ec is io n m ak i ng . B ut

t hi s e ss en ti a ll y m od er ni st ic r ec on st r uc ti on o f t he p ro ce s s o f r el i gi ou s

c ho ic e g oe s v er y m uc h a ga in st t h e g ra in o f s ix te e nt h- c en tu ry s oc ie t y. I n

t he e ar ly m od er n w or ld m os t i nf or ma t io n w as c on ve y ed i n p ub l ic , c om -

m un al s et ti ng s : t he m ar ke t p la ce , t he c hu rc h, a p ro cl am at io n f ro m t he

t ow n h al l s te ps . A nd i t w as c on ve ye d b y w or d of m ou th , s om et im es

s u bs e q ue n tl y r e in f or c e d i n p r in t .

R e l i g i o u s c h o i c e m a y s t i l l b e p e r s o n a l – a s i t o f t e n w a s – w i t h o u t b e i n g

p r i v a t e . D e c i s i o n s w e r e o f t e n a r r i v e d a t i n a c o m m u n a l c o n t e x t . M u c h o f

the cult ure of pers uasion in th e sixt eenth cent ury was base d on an

a ss um p ti on t ha t d ec is io ns w ou l d b e a rr i ve d a t c ol le c ti ve ly. I f t h e R ef o r-

m at io n w er e t o s uc ce ed , t he c ul tu re o f p er su as io n w ou ld h av e t o w or k

w it h t he g ra in o f t h is s oc ie t y. R ef or me r s r ec o gn iz ed a n ec e ss ar y d ou bl e

p r o c e s s o f e n g a g e m e n t : w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l C h r i s t i a n , a n d w i t h a c o l l e c t -

i ve r e li gi o us c on sc io us ne ss t ha t a ls o h ad t o b e n ur tu re d a nd r ei nf o rc ed .

H en ce i n t hi s s tu dy a n a tt em pt i s m ad e t o r el oc at e t he r ol e o f t he b oo k

as part of a broader range of modes of persuasi on that used every

m e di u m o f d i sc o ur s e a n d c o mm u ni c at i on f a mi l i ar t o p r e- i nd u st r ia l s o ci -

e t y . P r e a c h i n g , s i n g i n g a n d d r a m a w o u l d a l l p l a y t h e i r p a r t , a l o n g s i d e t h e

c ar e fu l p r iv at e t ut el a ge o f t h e n ew P ro te st a nt f am il y i n c at ec h is m c la ss

a nd B ib le r ea di ng . B ut , i n t h e f i rs t d ec ad es o f e va ng el i ca l a gi ta ti o n, t ha t

12 A n dr e w P e t t eg r ee a n d M a tt h ew H a ll , ‘ T he R e fo r ma t io n a n d t h e B o ok : A R e co n si d er -ation’, H i s t o r ica l J o u r n al , 47 (2004) , p p . 1 – 2 4 .




l a y v e r y m u c h i n t h e f u t u r e . T h e f i r s t e x p l o s i v e i m p a c t o f t h e c h a l l e n g e t o

t ra di ti on al r el ig io n w as f el t i n p ub li c p la ce s : i n t he m ar ke t p la ce w he re

n ew s w as e xc ha ng ed a nd t h e f ir st p am ph le t s w er e p as se d a ro un d, i n t h e

t ave rn s, a nd, o f c our se , in t he c hur ch es . F or i t w as h er e, t hr oug h t he

t r a d i t i o n a l a n d t i m e - h o n o u r e d p r a c t i c e o f p r e a c h i n g – a l w a y s a n e v e n t o f

s pe ci al s ig ni fi ca nc e i n e ve ry e ra o f c hu rc h h is to ry – t ha t m an y o f E ur -

o p e ’ s C h r i s t i a n p e o p l e w o u l d f i r s t h a v e b e e n a w a r e o f t h e e x p l o s i v e i d e a s

t hat woul d wreak such havoc on the comfo rtable prac tic es of the ir

forebears.




2 Preaching

L u t h e r a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s w o u l d m a k e m u c h p l a y w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e

n ew e va ng el ic al s er mo n. We s ho ul d c er ta in ly n ot u nd er es ti ma te t he

e le me nt o f n ov el ty, an d t he s ur pr ise o f t he ne w. T he p ri es t w ho c om -

m a n d e e r e d t h e p u l p i t – o f t e n h i s o w n p u l p i t – t o l a u n c h a b o l d a t t a c k o n

t im e- h on ou re d p ra ct ic e s a nd t h e d oc t ri ne o f t h e c om mu ni ty h e s er ve d

was bound t o cause a sensat ion. The impac t on h is congreg ation,

m ov ed , e xc it e d, t r ou bl e d o r a pp al le d , w as c l ea rl y p r of ou nd . B ut i t w as

s o p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e t h e s e r m o n w a s s o f u n d a m e n t a l a p a r t o f c h u r c h l i f e .

I t a ls o p la ye d a n i mp or ta nt r ol e i n t he w id er i nf or ma ti on c ul tu re o f p re -

m od er n so ci et y. I n a w or ld w he re m ost in fo rm at ion c on ti nue d t o b e

c o n v e y e d b y w o r d o f m o u t h , f e w c o u l d d o u b t t h a t p r e a c h i n g r e p r e s e n t e d

o ne o f t he p ri ma ry m ea ns o f c om mu ni ca ti on w it h a w i de r p ub li c .

T h i s w a s a w o r l d t h e r e f o r m e r s i n s t i n c t i v e l y u n d e r s t o o d . F e w d o u b t e d

that, if they were to reach their audienc e, it would be through the

m edium of the word : and that meant in the firs t instanc e the word

p re ac h ed , a s m uc h a s t he i r p ub l is he d w or k s. M an y o f t ho se w h o w ou ld

m a k e u p t h e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n h a d m a d e

t he i r r ep ut at i on f ir st a s p re ac h er s ; t h ey o we d b ot h t h ei r l oc al r ep ut at i on

a nd t he o pp o rt un it y t o c on tr ib u te t o t he n ew e va ng e li ca l m ov em e nt t o

t he ir s ki ll i n t he p ul pi t. A ll , w it ho ut e xc ep ti on , r eg ar de d p re ac hi ng a s

f un da me nt a l t o t he ir d ut y a s p as to rs , a nd t o t h ei r e va ng el ic al m is si on .

Th e e vi de nc e, i f an y w er e ne ce ssa ry, li es i n t he ir c ond uc t o f t he ir

p ub li c c ar ee rs . A ll t he m aj or r ef or me rs p re ac he d i nc es sa nt ly ; i n m os t

cases almost to t he last days of th eir life. From early in his car eer in

Wi tt e nb e rg , L ut he r p re ac h ed b ot h t o h is A ug us ti ni an o rd er a nd ( fr om

1 51 4) i n t he t ow n c hur ch , a t or re nt o f se rm ons t hat c am e t o f or m t he

c o r n e r s t o n e o f h i s p a s t o r a l p u b l i c a t i o n s . M a r k E d w a r d s e s t i m a t e s t h a t o f

1 ,8 00 e di ti on s o f L ut he r ’s w or k s p ri nt e d b ef or e 1 52 6, s om e 4 0 p e r c e nt

w er e p ub l is he d s er mo ns .1 Between 1519 and 1522 Ulr ic h Zwingli

1 M a rk U . E d wa r ds J r. , P r i nt i ng , P r op a ga n da a n d M a rt i n L u th e r (B e r k e l e y, C a l i f. , 1994),p . 2 7 .

10



i n Z ur ic h d eli ve re d e xp os it or y s er mon s t ha t c ov er ed t he G os pe l of

M at th ew, t he b oo k of A ct s an d s eve ra l o f t he E pi st le s. Hi s c al l t o b e

P eo pl e’ s P ri es t i n Z ur ic h i n 1 51 8 w as t he p ro of o f a s in gu l ar t al en t, a nd

t h e b as is o f t h e c h ar i sm at ic a ut ho ri t y t ha t s us t ai ne d t h e R ef o rm at io n i n

Z ur ic h t hr ou gh i ts f ir st t um ul tu ou s y ea rs . I n t h e s ec on d g en er at i on , t h e

c om mi t me nt t o p r ea c hi ng w as , i f a ny th in g, e ve n m or e i nt e ns e. B et w ee n

1 53 1 an d 1 53 7 Z wi ng li’s su cc ess or a t Z ur ic h, H ei nr ic h B ul lin ge r,

p r ea ch e d s ix t im e s w ee kl y ; i n t h e c ou rs e o f h is f or t y- fo ur -y ea r m in is tr y

h e i s t h o u g h t t o h a v e p r e a c h e d o v e r 7 , 0 0 0 s e r m o n s , c o v e r i n g e v e r y b o o k

o f t he Ol d and N ew Te st am en ts. H is ze al w as m or e t han m at ch ed b y

t hat of Jean Calvin in Gene va : pre achin g twice on a Sunda y and on

w ee kd ay s, C al vi n p re ac he d a s m an y a s 2 86 s er mo ns a year, a total of

a r ou n d 4 , 00 0 s e rm o ns t h ro u gh h i s w h ol e m i ni s t ry.2

F or al l t hi s o ve rw he lm ing e vid en ce of t he i mp or tan ce at tac he d t o

p r ea ch in g , t h e s er mo n n ev e rt he le ss r e ma in s a p r ob le m at ic g en re . F or

o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h e c o r e o f t h e p r o b l e m l i e s i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

t he w ri tt en r ec or d a nd t he a ur al f or m : t he d is ta nc e t ha t s ee ms t o e xi st

b e t w e e n t h e s e r m o n a s a l i t e r a r y g e n r e a n d t h e p r e a c h e d w o r d . T h i s i s a

p r ob le m t ha t f ac es a ll s tu de n ts o f s er mo n l it er at u re f ro m t he m ed ia ev al

p er io d o nw ar ds . M os t s er mo ns s ur vi ve a s e pi to me ( in a m an us cr ip t o r

p rinte d form) , or as pastora l or p olem ical wr itings that have gone

t h ro ug h a p r of ou nd r es ha pi ng d ur i ng t h e e di to ri a l p ro ce ss . F ro m t he se

e vi de n ti al r em ai ns i t i s e xt r em e ly d iff ic ul t t o r ec on st ru c t t he s er mo n a s

event : s om e s ch ol ar s h av e a rg ue d, i nd ee d, t ha t i t i s e ss en ti al ly i mp os -

sible.3 T ha t m ay s ee m t o b e u nd ul y p es si mi st ic , f or t he re i s a w ea lt h o f

v al ua bl e, i f s ca tt er ed , e vi de nc e f or t he i mp ac t o f s er mo ns d ur in g t he

R ef or m at io n c en tu ry. T hi s e vi de n ce w il l n ee d t o b e c ar e fu ll y s if t ed i f w e

a re t o a dd re ss t he c en tr al q ue st io n t ha t a ni ma te s t hi s p re se nt p ro je ct :

h ow did sixte enth-c entury p eople receiv e the pre ache d message ?

W ha t p ar t di d p re ac hin g p la y i n t he p ro ce ss of Re fo rm at io n – f ir st i n

t h e p r oc e ss o f e va ng e li za ti on , l at e r i n c h ur ch b ui ld in g a nd c at ec h is ma l

i n s tru cti o n ?

To a tt em pt t o a dd re ss t he se q ue st io ns i t i s n ec es sa ry t o c ol le ct e vi -

d e n c e f o r how t h e r e f o r m e r s p r e a c h e d , a s w e l l a s w h a t t h e y s a i d ; a n d h o w

t he ir a ud ie nc es r ea ct ed t o t he ir e xh or ta ti on s. T he se r ea ct io ns w er e i n

t ur n c on di ti on ed b y e xp e ct at io ns o f t he s er mo n a s g en re , r e ac hi n g b ac k

i n t o t h e m e d i a e v a l t r a d i t i o n : a t r a d i t i o n w h i c h w a s a l s o d e e p l y i n f l u e n t i a l

i n s ha pi ng t h e R ef or ma t io n s er mo n. T hi s m ed ia ev a l h er i ta ge w as , a s i n

s o m uc h , b o th r ic h a nd c om pl e x.

2 James Thomas Ford, ‘Preaching in the Reformed Tradition’, in Larissa Taylor (ed.),P r ea c he r s a n d P e o pl e i n t h e R e fo r ma t io n s a n d E a rl y M o de r n P e ri o d (Leiden, 2001) , p . 6 8 .

3 S e e, f o r i n st a nc e , L a ri s sa Ta y lo r i n h e r i n tr o du c ti o n t o P r ea ch er s a n d P eo p le, p . x .

Preaching 11



The sermon tradition

Muc h as the re forme rs might wish to pour scorn on the church the y

s ou gh t t o r ef or m, t he y c ou ld h ar dl y de ny t hat it h ad a lwa ys di re ct ed

c o n s i d e r a b l e e n e r g y t o w a r d s p r e a c h i n g t h e w o r d . L u t h e r a n d h i s f o l l o w -

e rs w ou ld c om e t o b el ie ve t ha t m uc h o f t hi s e ne rg y h ad b ee n d ir ec te d

t o w a r d s t h e p r o m o t i o n o f f a l s e t h e o l o g i c a l p r e c e p t s ; b u t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f

t he p re ac hi ng t radi ti on on t he li fe o f t he c hu rc h a ls o e xe rc is ed a p ro -

f ou nd i nf lu e nc e o n t h ei r o wn r he t or ic al a nd p ro fe ss i on al d ev el op m en t.

I n t he c e nt ur i es b ef or e t he R e fo rm at io n, p re ac h in g w as o ne o f t he m os t

o bv io us , a nd o ft en m os t s pe ct ac ul ar, m ea ns o f e ng ag em en t b et we en

c l er gy a nd p eo pl e. S om e s ch ol ar s w ou ld m ak e m uc h l ar ge r c la im s. F or

C or ri e N or ma n, p r ea ch in g l ay a t t he c en tr e o f I t al ia n c ul tu r e a nd d ev o-

t i o n . F o r D a v i d d ’ A v r a y , t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t w a s i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d i n E u r o -

p ea n c ul tu re t wo c en tu ri es e ve n b ef or e t hi s : a lr ea dy b y t he t hi rt ee nth

c en tu r y ‘ pr ea c hi ng w as b ec om in g a s ys te m o f m as s c om m un ic at io n’ .4

T h is c o mm u ni c at i on p r oc e s s w a s f a r f r om o n e- w ay : m e di a ev al s e rm o ns

call ed for a high le vel of p articip ation on th e par t of large and eager

a ud ie nc es . P eo pl e c am e i n l ar ge n um be r s a nd e xp ec t ed a s ho w : ‘ Pe op l e

a t l ea st i n t he m aj or u rb an a re as , e xp ec te d t ha t t he y a nd t he ir s oc ie ti es

w o u l d b e d a z z l e d , e n te r t a i n e d , i n f o r m e d , e v e n t r a n s f o r m e d , o n a r e g u l a r

b as is b y p r ea ch in g ’.5 I n t hi s, p er hap s t he m os t c rit ic al e le me nt w as

t ra ns fo rm at io n. P eo pl e e xp ec t ed t o b e m ov ed , a nd a ll t he t h ea tr ic a l o r

r he t or ic al e l em en ts o f p re ac h in g – t he c ar ef ul p re pa ra t io n, t he s ol em n

o pe ni ng , t he w ho le c ho re og rap hy o f e mo ti on r eac hi ng a s hat te ri ng

cl imax – we re all means towards this primary goal. To achie ve t his

r eq u ir ed e no rm ou s e ff or t , c ar ef ul t ho ug ht a nd a h ig h l ev el o f s ki ll .

T he re c an b e l it tl e d ou bt t ha t p re ac hi ng c on st it ut ed a p ow er fu l a nd

p r o m i n e n t c o m p o n e n t o f m e d i a e v a l r e l i g i o n . I t i s e q u a l l y c e r t a i n t h a t i t s

i mp ac t w ou ld h av e b ee n v er y u ne ve n. F or m os t p ar i sh io ne r s p re ac hi n g

w as a n o cc as io na l e ve nt , r at he r t ha n p ar t o f t he d ai ly o r w ee kl y n or m o f

r el ig iou s o bs er va nc e. To wn d we ll er s w er e m or e l ik el y t o h ave m or e

f re qu e nt a cc e ss t o s er mo ns , a nd t o t he m os t c e le b ra te d p r ea c he rs . T he

P ro t es ta nt r ef or me r s w er e v er y c on s ci ou s t h at , i f t he y w er e t o t r an sf or m

s oc i et y, t he n t h ey w ou ld a ls o h av e t o t r an sf or m t h e m e di ae va l c ul tu re o f

p re ac h in g. T he re w er e s ub st an t ia l d iff er en ce s b et w ee n t he w ay t ha t t he

r ef or me r s p er c ei ve d t h e r ol e o f p r ea ch in g a nd t he i nh e ri t ed m ed ia ev al

experience.

4 C o r r i e N o r m a n , ‘ T h e S o c i a l H i s t o r y o f P r e a c h i n g : I t a l y ’ , i n T a y l o r , P r ea ch er s a n d P eo p l e ,p p . 1 2 5 – 9 1 . D . L . d ’ A v r a y , M ed i ev a l M a r r i a g e S er m o n s . M a s s C o m m u n i ca t i o n i n a C u l t u r ew i t ho u t P r i n t ( O xf o rd , 2 0 01 ) , p . 1 .

5 N o rm a n, ‘ T he S o ci a l H i st o ry o f P r ea c h in g ’, p . 1 2 5.




M os t s tu di es o f t h e m ed ia ev al p re ac hi ng t ra di t io n s tr es s t wo s al i en t

f ac ts : t hat s er mon s w er e m or e l ik el y t o b e g iv en an d h ear d dur in g t he

p eni te nt ial se aso n of L en t t ha n at a ny o th er t im e o f t he y ear ; an d t ha t

p r ea ch in g w as r eg ar de d a s a s pe ci al s ki ll , p os se s se d m os t p a rt ic ul ar ly b y

m em be r s o f t he m en di ca nt o rd e rs . M an y o f t he m os t f am ou s p re ac he r s

o f t h e d a y w e r e e i t h e r D o m i n i c a n s o r F r a n c i s c a n s , a n d m e m b e r s o f t h e s e

m en di ca nt o rd er s a ls o d om in at ed t he e me rg in g g en re o f t he p ri nt ed

s er mo n e pit om e, f ro m w hi ch w e d raw s o m uc h o f o ur i nf or ma ti on as

t o w ha t w as p re ac h ed i n t he p r e- R ef or ma ti on c hu rc h. I t i s a ls o c us to m -

a r y t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n s e r m o n s d e l i v e r e d a s s p e c i a l e v e n t s , a n d t h o s e

t hat fo rm ed p ar t o f t he r ou ti ne o f wo rs hi p d ur ing t he r eg ula r c hur ch

y ea r. O f t he s pe ci al s er mo ns , i t i s t he r ev iv al is t p re ac hi ng o f t he m os t

f a m o u s I t a l i a n p r e a c h e r s , B e r n a r d i n o o f S i e n a a n d S a v o n a r o l a , t h a t h a v e

c au gh t t h e e ye . W hi le S av on ar ol a’s s er m on s e le ct ri f ie d l at e f if te e nt h-

c e nt u ry F l or e nc e , i t i s p e rh a ps B e rn a rd i no ’s i t in e ra n t m i ni s t ry t h at m o st

e nc ap su l at es t he m ed ia ev al p re ac hi ng t ra di t io n. F r om t h e t im e t ha t h e

i na ug ur at ed h is m is si ona ry m in ist ry at Mi la n i n 1 41 7, B er na rdi no

r ang ed t he l eng th and b re ad th o f t he p eni ns ula , at tr ac ti ng c ro wds ,

c el eb ri ty a nd t he h os ti li ty o f c le ri ca l c ri ti cs i n a lm os t e qu al m ea su re .

B er na rd in o’ s e xp er i en ce w ou ld p r ov e i nd ic at iv e t ha t t h e p ec ul i ar c ap -

a ci ty o f t he s er mo n t o r ou se a nd u ns et tl e w ou ld o ft en p r ov e u nw el c om e

t o e st ab lis he d au th or it ie s. B et we en 1 45 8 and 1 46 3, t he F ran cis ca n

Johannes Brugman, a sort of northern Bernardino, established a wide-

s p re a d p e ri p a te t ic m i ss i on t h ro u gh o ut t h e N e th e rl a nd s : h e v i si t ed s o me

t hi rt y- si x p la ce s a nd t ra ve ll ed o ve r 1 ,2 00 m il es . C le ar ly B ru gm an ’s

p re ac hi ng h ad a h ug e i mp ac t. T he p ro ve rb ia l e xp re ss io n, ‘ pr at en a ls

B ru gm an ’, m ea ni ng t o s pe a k e lo qu en t ly a nd p e rs ua si ve ly, s ti ll c ur r en t

i n co n tempo ra ry Du tc h u sa ge , w as a lr ea dy i n u se b ef or e t he e nd o f t he

f i ft e en t h c e nt u r y.6 B rug man w as g ene ra lly we lc om ed , b ut af te r o ne

p a rt i cu l ar l y l i ve l y p e rf o rm a nc e i n A m st e r da m t h e t o wn c o un c il f o r ba d e

h im t o r et ur n. F or ew ar ne d a nd f or ea rm ed , t he t ow n c ou nc il h ad s en t

a g e n t s t o j o i n t h e c r o w d a n d r e p o r t a n y t h i n g u n t o w a rd , w h i c h i s w h y w e

a re p ar ti cu la rl y w el l i nf or me d o n w ha t o cc ur re d.7 O n t hi s o cc asi on

B ru gm an e nd ed h is s er mo n b y r ai si ng h is c ru ci fi x, a nd a sk in g t ho se i n

t he a ud ie nc e w ho s up po rt ed h im t o r ai se t he ir h an ds ( mo st d id ). T he

A mst er dam t ow n c oun cil h ad p ar tic ul ar r eas on s fo r c onc er n ( th ey

6 A stadsprotocol o f A ms te rd am i n 1 49 2 m en ti on s t he e xp re ss io n : ‘ al c os t g hy p ra te n a lsB r ug m an ’ . A l as t ai r D u ke k i nd l y p r ov i de d m e w i th t h is r e fe r en c e.

7 R . B . E v e n h u i s , O o k d a t w a s A m s t e r d a m ; d e k e r k d e r h e r v o r m i n g i n d e g o u d e e e u w ( 2 v o l s . ,Amsterdam, 1965–7) , v o l. I , p p . 1 7 –1 8 . J e l l e B o s m a, ‘ P re a c hi n g i n t h e L o w C o un t ri e s,1 4 50 – 16 5 0’ , i n Ta y lo r, Preachers and People, pp. 333–6.

Preaching 13



feare d Brugman’s pr omotion of the Observant movemen t might

t hr ea te n t he l oc al r el ig io us h ou se s) , b ut t he ir c ar ef ul m on it or in g o f a

c ha ri sm at i c p re ac h er s et a p re ce d en t t ha t w ou l d a ls o h av e e c ho e s i n t he

R ef o rma ti o n era .

T h e c o n c e r n f o r p u b l i c o r d e r t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h i s i n c i d e n t s e e m s t o

h ave b ee n r el at iv el y un us ua l. T he re i s c on si de rab le e vid enc e t ha t

t h r o u g h t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y l o c a l d e m a n d f o r p r e a c h i n g w a s i n c r e a s i n g .

M an y t o wn s, f ar f ro m d is co ur a gi ng p re ac hi n g, e xp en de d c it y f un ds t o

h ir e p r ea ch e rs t o g iv e s pe ci al s et s o f L en t en s er mo ns , a nd c om p et it io n

f or t he m os t c el eb ra te d p re ac he rs c ou ld b e i nt en se . We k no w f ar l es s

a bo ut p re ac h in g o ut si de t h es e t im es o f s pe ci a l r e li gi o si ty, t ho ug h h er e

t oo t h e e vi de nc e s ug ge st s t h at p r ea ch in g w as o n t he i nc re as e. T he m os t

s i g n i f i c a n t s t r a n d o f e v i d e n c e l i e s i n t h e g r o w t h , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e c i t i e s

o f G er ma ny a nd t he S wi ss C on fe de r at io n, o f e nd ow ed p r ea ch e rs hi p s.

T he se p os it io n s, q ui t e s ep a ra te f ro m a nd s up p le me nt ar y t o t h e n or ma l

s tr uc tu re o f t he p ar is h m in is tr y, w er e e st ab li sh ed i n a l ar ge n um be r o f

c i ti es i n t h e h al f- ce nt u ry b ef or e t he R ef or m at io n. T he f un ds w er e n or -

m al ly p ro vi de d b y t he c it y o r l oc al p ri nc el y r ul er. T he h ol de rs o f t he se

p osi tio ns mi gh t b e e xp ec te d t o p re ac h u p t o o ne h und re d s er mon s a

y e a r : i n t h e s e p l a c e s s e r m o n s c o u l d b e e x p e c t e d t o b e r e g u l a r l y a v a i l a b l e .

E ve n w he r e t h er e w as n o s pe ci fi c p os it io n f ou nd e d t o p r om o te p r ea ch -

i ng , t h e e ff or ts o f p re ac h in g c le r gy w er e s up p or te d b y t he g ro wt h o f t he

n ew p ri nt e d g en re o f m od el s er mo n c ol le c ti o ns . T he se w er e i nt e nd e d,

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m o s t i n t e n s e r e c e n t s t u d y o f t h i s l i t e r a t u r e , ‘ f o r preach-

i ng t o t he l ai t y b y f ai rl y o rd in ar y c le rg y i n f ai rl y o rd in ar y p la ce s’ .8 This

g en re o f l it er at ur e p ro ve d e no rm ou sl y s uc ce s sf ul : t o j ud ge b y s ur vi vi ng

e di ti on s, i t w as o ne o f t he m os t i mp or ta nt c la ss es o f p re -R ef or ma ti on

r el ig io us b oo ks . T he m os t s uc ce ss fu l, a c ol le ct io n o f o ve r 2 00 m od el

s e rm on s f or f ea st d ay s a nd r eg ul ar p r ea ch i ng t hr ou gh o ut t he y ea r, w as

t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e G e r m a n D o m i n i c a n J o h a n n e s H e r o l d . T h i s w e n t

through n o f ew er t ha n e ig ht y- fo ur p ri nt ed e di ti on s b et we en 1 47 0 a nd

1520.9 A l t h o u g h n o o t h e r s i n g l e w o r k s m a t c h e d t h i s f o r e n d u r i n g p o p u -

l ar it y, a n um be r w er e s ig ni fi ca nt b es ts el le rs ; t he s uc ce ss o f t he g en re i s

also indicat ed by th e speed wit h wh ich it moved from st ately folio

e di ti on s t o t h e m or e p r ac t ic ab le a nd p or t ab le o ct av o a nd q ua rt o.

T he se c ol le ct io ns d id n ot c on ta in s er mo ns a s t he y w ou ld h av e b ee n

d e l i v e r e d . T h e y w e r e i n t e n d e d , r a t h e r , t o c o n v e y t h e e s s e n c e o f w h a t w a s

c on si de re d w or th p re ac hi ng i n a v er y u sa bl e f or m. T hi s q ua li fi ca ti on

8 A n ne T . T h ay e r, P e ni t en c e , P r ea c hi n g a n d t h e C o mi n g o f t h e R e fo r ma t io n (A l de r s h o t, S tA n d r ew s S t u d ie s i n R e f o rm a ti o n H i s to r y, 2002) , p . 7 .

9 Ibid., p . 1 7 .




r ai se s a p ro bl em t hat w e w ill m ee t r ep eat ed ly i n de al ing w it h s er mo n

l it er at ur e : t ha t p ub li sh ed s er mo ns g iv e u s l it tl e s en se o f t he s er mo n a s

e v e n t ; t h e y l e a v e l i t t l e e v i d e n c e o f t h e l i f e a n d s p i r i t o n c e i n t h e m . S o m e

e pi to me s w er e q ui te s ho rt . B ut w e k no w t hat m a ny p r ea c h er s p r ea c he d

for as many as four or five hours at a time.10 I n t hi s c ase t he p ri nt ed

e pit om e wo ul d h av e s er ve d a s li tt le m or e t han a p ro mp t o r sh el l f or a

p e r f o r m a n c e t h a t w o u l d h a v e d e r i v e d m u c h o f i t s i m p a c t f r o m r e p e t i t i o n

and sheer endurance (on both sides , when we remem ber that for

s er mo ns t he a ud ie nc e u su al ly s to od t h ro ug h ou t) . To l ea rn m or e a bo ut

t he ma nn er an d s tyl e o f p re ac hi ng t o w hi ch c le rg y w er e i nt en de d t o

aspire we need to turn from the sermon collecti ons to preaching

m a n u a l s , a n o t h e r p o p u l a r a n d d e v e l o p i n g g e n r e i n t h e p e r i o d . N e v e r t h e -

l es s, t he se mo de l c ol le ct io ns o f se rm ons , o f w hi ch se ve ral t hou sa nd

s ur vi ve f ro m t he p re -R e fo rm at io n e r a, w ou ld h av e a n e nd ur i ng i mp ac t ,

n ot l ea st o n t he r ef or me rs t he ms el ve s. T he g en re l iv ed o n i n a n a ct iv e

t radi ti on o f m ode l s er mon s, i nt en de d t o b e p re ac he d b y t ho se w ho

l ac ke d c on fi de nc e or t al ent t o de vi se t he ir o wn. M any o f t he l ead ing

r e fo r me r s m a de c o nt r i bu t io n s t o t h i s l i te r at u re , t h e m o st p r o mi n en t a n d

s uc ce ss fu l e xa mp le s b ei ng L ut he r’s P os ti ls a nd H ei nr ic h B ul li ng er ’s

Hausbuch ( know n in England as the Decades). In so me parts of the

P ro te st a nt t ra di t io n, s uc h a s E ng la nd , s uc h a ut h or i ze d m od el s er m on s

w o u l d b e a n e n d u r i n g p a r t o f t h e l a n d s c a p e o f t h e n e w r e f o r m e d c h u r c h .

W he n c on si de ri ng t he i mp ac t o f p re ac hi ng i n t he p re -R ef or ma ti on

c h u r c h , t w o q u a l i f i c a t i o n s m u s t b e e n t e r e d . F i r s t l y , e v e n a t t h e m u n d a n e

a nd e ve ry da y l ev el r ep re se nt ed b y t he p ub li sh ed s er mo n c ol le ct io ns ,

h e ar i ng s er mo ns w as m os t l ik el y a n o ve r wh e lm i ng ly u rb an e xp er i en ce .

T he s ur vi va l o f t he se c ol le ct io ns t el ls u s l it tl e a bo ut t he p en et ra ti on o f

p r e a c h i n g b e y o n d t h e m a j o r c e n t r e s o f p o p u l a t i o n w h e r e i t w a s e a s i e s t t o

d r aw a n a u di e nc e .

S ec on dl y, p re ac hi ng w as b y a nd l ar ge n ot e mb ed de d i n t he f ab ri c o f

r o u t i n e w o r s h i p . E v e n i n t o w n s w h e r e m a n y s e r m o n s w e r e p r e a c h e d , t h e

s er mo n r em ai n ed l ar g el y s ep a ra te f ro m t he M as s. I nd ee d , i n t ow ns t h at

m ove d t owa rds t he c re at io n of an e nd ow ed p re ac he rsh ip , t he re w as

c on si de r ab le c ap ac i ty f or t e ns i on a nd r iv al ry b e tw ee n t ow n p r ea ch e rs ,

w i t h t h e i r s p e c i a l r o l e a n d o b l i g a t i o n s , a n d t h e p a r i s h p r i e s t s c o n d u c t i n g

t h ei r r ou ti ne r ou nd o f M as se s. A lo n gs id e t he s e w or ka da y o bs er va nc e s,

t he s er mo n s er vi ce h ad a r hy th m a nd t ra di ti on t ha t w as l ar ge ly i ts o wn ,

10 I n t he c as e o f o ne I ta li an O bs e rv an t f ri ar w ho r ou ti ne ly r ec or ds t he a ve ra ge l en gt h o f h i s s e r m o n s , t h e y a v e r a g e f o u r a n d a h a l f h o u r s . N o r m a n , ‘ S o c i a l H i s t o r y o f P r e a c h i n g ’ ,p . 1 4 1.

Preaching 15



a l b e i t s o m e w a y s h o r t o f a s e p a r a t e r i t e . I n t h e y e a r s b e f o r e t h e R e f o r m a -

t io n t he s er mo n n ev er l os t i ts s en se o f b ei ng a s pe ci al e ve nt .

W h a t c a n o n e s a y a b o u t t h e c o n t e n t o f p r e - R e f o r m a t i o n s e r m o n s ? A l l

t he e vi de nc e p oi nt s t o t h e o ve r wh e lm in g c on c en tr at io n o n t h e d oc t ri ne

o f p en it en ce . Th e s ki lf ul p re ac he r h ad f ir st t o m ov e h is a ud ie nc e t o a

c on sc io us ne ss o f s in , a nd t he n t o p r es en t a p at h t o r ed em pt io n . To t h is

e nd t he p re ac he r w oul d e xp ec t t o dr aw b ot h o n a r ep er toi re o f sh ar ed

s c r ip t ur a l k n ow l ed g e , a nd o n t h e h e ar e r s’ e v e ry da y e x p er i en c e a n d c o n-

c er ns . I n t hi s r es pe ct t he s er mo n w as e xp ec te d t o d o m or e t ha n i mp ac t

o n t he c on gr eg at io n’s s en se o f t he ir e xp ec ta ti on s i n t he n ex t l if e : a t i ts

b es t t he s er m on c ou ld h av e a t ra ns fo r mi ng e ff ec t o n s oc ie ty, b y c al li ng

m e n a n d w o m e n t o l e a d a b e t t e r l i f e .

W i t h i n t h i s g e n e r a l c o n t e x t t h e r e w a s r o o m f o r a d e g r e e o f v a r i a t i o n , o r

e ve n r eg io na l di ff er en ce s a cr oss t he c hur ch es o f Eu rop e. A d et ai le d

e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e m o d e l s e r m o n c o l l e c t i o n s s u g g e s t s t h a t , w h i l e a l l l a i d

e mp ha si s o n t h e i mp or ta nc e o f c on tr it i on , t h er e w as c on si de r ab le v ar i -

a t i o n i n i d e n t i f y i n g t h e p l a c e i n t h e p e n i t e n t i a l p r o c e s s w h e r e f o r g i v e n e s s

w o u l d t a k e p l a c e . F o r s o m e p r e a c h e r s c o n f e s s i o n w a s t h e c o r n e r s t o n e o f

t he p e ni te nt i al p ro c es s. O th er s o ff er ed m or e s pi ri tu al h el p v ia c le ri ca l

m i ni s tr a ti o ns , a n d u nd e rs t o od f o rg i ve n e ss to r eq ui re a c om bi n at io n o f

p e rs o na l c o nt r i ti o n a n d p r ie s t ly a b so l ut i on .11 M an y p re ac he rs d id n ot

s pa re t he ir l is te ne rs f ro m g ra ph ic e nu nc ia ti on s o f t he c on se qu en ce s

s ho ul d t he y i gn or e t he ir s tr ic tu re s. S ev er al s ch ol ar s h av e a rg ue d t ha t

p re ac he rs i n t he G er ma n l an ds p re se nt ed a p ar ti cu la rl y b le ak v ie w o f

t he c ons eq ue nc es of p er si st enc e i n s in ; b ut suc h ‘ pul pi t t er ror is m’

w o u l d h a v e h a d t o b e f i e r y i n d e e d t o m a t c h t h e i m p a c t o f t h e F l o r e n t i n e

Sav onarola, th e most famou s of all pre-R eformati on preache rs.

F or Sa vo na ro la t he c ons eq ue nc es o f si n w er e d ir ec t, t er rif yi ng an d

i m m i n en t:

O I t a l y , O p r i n c e s o f I t a l y , O p r e l a t e s o f t h e c h u r c h , t h e w r a t h o f G o d i s o v e r y o u ,

a nd y ou wi ll n ot ha ve an y cu re u nle ss y ou m en d y our wa y . . . O n obl eme n, O

p o w e r f u l o n e s , O c o m m o n p e o p l e . . . D o p e n a n ce w h i l e t h e s w o r d i s n o t o u t o f

i ts s he at h, a nd w hi le i t i s n ot s ta in ed w it h b lo od !12

It is hard t o judg e wh ethe r it woul d have been the more pr ote an,

e ve ry da y p re ac hi ng r ep re se nt ed i n t he s er mo n c ol le ct io ns , o r t he c e-

l eb ri ty t he at ri ca ls o f S av on ar ol a, t ha t h ad t he m os t e nd ur in g i mp ac t.

11 Thayer, Penitence.12 G ir ol am o S av on ar ol a, ‘ On t he R en ov at io n o f t he c hu rc h’ , i n J oh n O li n ( ed .) , The

C a th o li c R e fo r ma t io n : S a vo n ar o la t o I g na t iu s L o yo l a (New York, 1992) , p p. 1 4– 15 . O nS a v o n ar o l a s e e e s p e c ia l l y D o n a ld We i n s te i n , S a vo n a r o la a n d F l o r en ce (P r i n c et o n , N . J .,1970).




C er ta in ly, S av on ar ol a’s r ep ut at io n c on ti nu ed t o c as t a l on g s ha do w

i n t o t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . L u t h e r h a d a m o r e t h a n g r u d g i n g a d m i r a t i o n

f or t h e g re at F lo re nt in e , a nd S av on ar ol a’s s er m on s w er e r e pr in te d a nd

r ead b y Pr ot est ant s un ti l la te i n t he s ix te ent h c ent ur y. Ag ai nst t hi s,

e di ti on s o f t he m ed ia ev al r ev iv al i st B er na r di no o f S ie n a w er e d wa rf ed

b y t he p op ul ar it y o f m or e h um bl e p ra ct it io ne r s l ik e H er ol d, f or a ll t h at

t he l at te r i s s ca rc el y k no wn t od ay. A nd t he e xa mp le o f S av on ar ol a w as

f a r f r om s t ra i g ht f or w a rd . W h il e c h u rc h me n c o ul d t a ke i n sp i r at i o n f r om

h i s a p oc a ly p ti c al f e rv o ur a n d u n co m p ro m is i ng a s ce t ic i s m, m a gi s tr a t es

would draw from the F lorent ine exp erience a se nse of the obvi ous

d a n g e r s t h a t f l o w e d w h e n a p o p u l a r p r e a c h e r w i t h a c c e s s t o a p r o m i n e n t

p ub li c p lat fo rm m ov ed fr om g en er al ize d s tr ic tu re s on i mmo ra lit y

t o sp ecific criticisms of the ruling p owers. I n th is res pect, t oo , t he

F l or e nt i ne s t ir s w o ul d p r ov i de a c a ut i on ar y e x am p le .

The Refor mation, as we shall see, would ultimat ely trans form

t he o ff ic e o f p re ac hi ng ; t he r ef or me rs n ev er th el es s d re w f ro m t he p re -

R e fo r m at i on h e ri t ag e i m po r ta n t l e ss o ns w h ic h t h e y w o u l d a p pl y t o t h ei r

o wn m in is tr y. T he se w er e, n ot l ea st , a s en se o f t he s er mo n a s p er fo rm -

a n c e ; a b e l i e f t h a t p r e a c h i n g c o u l d t r a n s f o r m t h e l i v e s o f t h o s e w h o s t o o d

b efore them ; and a bel ief that t he spir it of Go d was embodi ed in t he

p re ac he r, a nd t ha t t he p re ac he r’s r he to ri ca l s ki ll w or ke d w it h d iv in e

g r a c e . A l l o f t h i s r e m a i n e d v i t a l t o t h e p r e a c h e r ’ s a r t , a s t h e R e f o r m a t i o n

m ov ed t he s er mo n t o t he h ea rt o f w or sh ip .

Reformers in the pulpit

B y h i s o w n a c c o u n t L u t h e r w a s i n i t i a l l y a r e l u c t a n t p r e a c h e r . S p e a k i n g i n

l a t e r l i f e t o f a m i l y a n d f r i e n d s , h e r e c a l l e d t h a t w h e n f i r s t a p p r o a c h e d b y

h is s up er io r, J oh an ne s S ta up it z, t o t ak e u p t he o ff ic e o f p re ac he r i n h is

o wn A ug us ti ni an m on as te ry, h e r ec oi le d i n h or ro r. H e c ou ld h ar dl y

s us ta in s uc h a n o ff ic e, h e p ro te st e d, w h en h is o wn s pi ri tu al d ou bt s w er e

not yet res olved. But Staupitz was not to be denie d, and so began a

c ar ee r i n t he p ul pi t t ha t la st ed unt il t he l ast m on th s of h is li fe . F ro m

1 5 1 4 L u t h e r w a s c a l l e d a l s o t o p r e a c h i n t h e t o w n c h u r c h , a n d i t w a s n o

d o u b t t h i s d o u b l e o f f i c e , m i n i s t e r i n g t o b o t h h i s c l e r i c a l b r e t h r e n a n d t h e

c i t y p o p u l a t i o n , t h a t h e l p e d p r e p a r e L u t h e r f o r h i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y s u c c e s s

a s b ot h a l ea rn ed w ri te r a nd a p op ul ar p ol em ic is t.

I n t he f ir st y ea rs o f t he R ef or ma ti on L ut he r’s s ki ll s a s a p re ac he r a nd

d is pu ta nt w ou ld h el p s us ta in h is c ha ll en ge t o a ut ho ri ty i n a n um be r o f

h i g h l y c h a r g e d a n d d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n s : a t t h e m e e t i n g o f t h e A u g u s t i n i a n

ch apt er at Heidelberg in 1518, at Leipzig in 1519, on the way t o t he

D ie t o f Wo rm s t he f ol lo wi ng w in te r. B ut i t w as t o t he c on gr eg at io n a t

Preaching 17



Wi tt enb er g t hat h e p re ac he d t he va st b ul k o f t he 2 ,0 00 s er mon s t ha t

s ur vi ve ( pe rh ap s a t hi rd o f al l h e p re ac he d) . I n Wi tt enb er g, a ft er t he

i ns ti tu ti on o f a r ef or me d c hu rc h o rd er, t he t hr ee s er vi ce s o n a S un da y

w er e a ll b ui lt a ro un d a s er mo n ; t he re w er e a ls o w ee kd ay s er vi ce s w it h

s e r m o n s o n t h e c a t e c h i s m a n d t h e G o s p e l . F r o m 1 5 2 2 L u t h e r s h a r e d t h e

m ai n p ar t o f t hi s b ur de n w it h J oh an ne s B ug en ha ge n, w ho s uc ce ed ed

h i m i n t h e o f f i c e o f t o w n p r e a c h e r , b u t t h o s e w h o c a m e t o W i t t e n b e r g t o

hear the master were seldom dis appoint ed. In most year s Luth er

p re ac he d at le ast o nc e a w ee k, a nd so me ti me s m uc h mo re . I n 1 52 8,

d es pi t e c ou nt le ss o th er a ct iv it ie s, h e p r ea ch e d o ve r 2 00 t im e s.

L u t h e r ’ s p r e a c h i n g a c t i v i t y h a s l e f t a n e x t e n s i v e w r i t t e n r e c o r d . N e v e r -

t h e l e s s , t o h e a r L u t h e r ’ s v o i c e i n t h e p u l p i t t h i s h a s t o b e u s e d w i t h s o m e

c a r e . L u t h e r , l i k e m o s t o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , d i d n o t p r e a c h f r o m a t e x t .

B y a l l a c c o u n t s h e p r e p a r e d h i s s e r m o n s w i t h g r e a t c a r e , b u t c a r r i e d w i t h

h i m i n t o t h e p u l p i t o n l y t h e b a r e s t w r i t t e n o u t l i n e . T h i s Konzept h a s o n l y

ve ry r ar el y s ur vi ve d ; w he re it do es i t o ff er s l it tl e m or e t han a s er ie s o f

h e a d i n g s . T h e t e x t s t h a t h a v e c o m e d o w n t o u s a r e b a s e d m o s t o f t e n o n

n ot es m ad e b y s tu de nt d is ci p le s s it ti ng i n t h e c on gr eg at i on ( no te s t he y

o f t e n t o o k i n L a t i n , t h o u g h L u t h e r ’ s s e r m o n s w e r e o b v i o u s l y d e l i v e r e d i n

Ge rman). The vas t majority of t he ser mons edited in th e standard

e di ti o ns o f L ut he r ’s w ri ti ng s – t we n ty -t wo v ol um e s i n t he We im ar e di -

tion – are base d on recensi ons of t hese contemp orary rec ords. It is

q ue st io na bl e j us t h ow m uc h o f L ut h er ’s p ul p it s ty l e w ou ld s ur vi ve s uc h

a p ro c es s, t ho ug h s om et im e s L ut h er w ou ld b e m or e i nv ol ve d , p ar t ic u-

l ar ly i f h e i nt en de d t o a da pt a s er mo n f or p ub l ic at io n. E no ug h m at e ri al

w it h h is p er so na l i nv ol ve me nt h as s ur vi ve d f or u s t o b e a bl e t o c ap tu re

s o me t h in g o f L u th e r’ s a u th e nt i c p u lp i t m a nn e r, p a rt i cu l ar l y i f w e a l lo w

t he p ub li sh ed s er mo ns t o b e a ug me nt ed b y L ut he r’s l at er r em ar ks o n

t he p ri nt er ’s a rt i n h is Ta bl e Ta lk a nd c or re sp on de nc e a nd a dv ic e t o

friends.

C e n t r a l b o t h t o L u t h e r ’ s c o n c e p t o f t h e p r e a c h e r ’ s a r t a n d h i s e x t r a o r -

d i n a r y s k i l l w a s c a r e f u l p r e p a r a t i o n , a b o v e a l l t h r o u g h r e a d i n g t h e S c r i p -

t ur es . ‘ So me p re ac he rs ’, h e w ro te i n 1 54 2, ‘ ar e l az y a nd n o g oo d. T he y

d o n o t p r a y , t h e y d o n o t s t u d y , t h e y d o n o t r e a d ; t h e y d o n o t s e a r c h t h e

S cr ip tur e . . . I n t rut h, yo u c anno t r ea d t oo m uc h Sc rip tur e, a nd w hat

y ou r ea d y ou c an no t r ea d t oo c ar ef ul ly ’. L ut he r’s s er mo ns w er e b ui lt

r ou nd a c ar ef ul e xp os it io n o f t he S cr ip tu re t ex t. H e f ol lo we d t he t ex t

f r o m f i r s t t o l a s t , u s u a l l y i n a c o n t i n u o u s s e q u e n c e o f s e r m o n s t h a t d e a l t

o ve r a l on ge r p er io d w it h a w ho le b oo k o r G os pe l. T hi s m et ho d w ou ld

b e c o m e t h e l e i t m o t i f o f t h e g r e a t r e f o r m e r s , m a n y o f w h o m h a v e l e f t , a s a

p r i n c i p a l l e g a c y o f t h e i r w r i t i n g s , g r e a t s e r i e s o f s u c h e x p o s i t o r y s e r m o n s .

I t w as n ot n ec e ss ar y, w it h in s uc h a s tr uc t ur e , t o g iv e e qu al a tt en t io n t o a ll




p ar ts o f t he t ex t. L ut he r, i n p ar ti cu la r, i s d is ti ng ui sh ed b y a r el en tl es s

a t t e n t i o n t o t h e c e n t r a l m e s s a g e , t h e h e a r t o r k e r n e l o f t h e t e x t , t o w h i c h

h e wo ul d r et ur n ag ai n an d a gai n. To L ut he r t hi s m et hod o f p re ac h-

i ng b ec am e a l iv in g v in di ca ti on o f t he c en tr al p ri nc ip le o f t he G os pe l

m o ve m e nt , t h e r e t ur n t o S c ri p t ur e , Rei n E van g el i u m.

I n h is l at er r ef le ct io ns o n p re ac hi ng Lu th er wo ul d s co rn w ha t h e

r ega rd ed as t he o ra to ric al t ric ks o f t he p re -Re fo rm at io n c hu rc h. He

s po ke s ca th in gl y o f t he r he to ri ca l r ep er to ir e o f t ho se w ho p re ac he d t o

i mp re ss t he g re at : a lli te rat iv e p hr as es, p la ys on w or ds , b ala nc e a nd

p ol is h. H e w as p ar ti cu la rl y m er ci le s s i n d en ou nc i ng t ho se w ho l oo ke d

f or p op ul ar i ty t hr ou gh a w il d t he at ri ca l it y o f d el iv e ry : a p r ea ch e r s ho ul d

s tr iv e r at he r f or s im pl ic it y a nd c la ri ty. A bo ve a ll h e m us t r e al iz e t h at h e

s p o k e w i t h G o d ’ s v o i c e . T h e f e a r o f t h e y o u n g p r i e s t , o v e r w h e l m e d w i t h

t h e r e sp o ns i b il i ty o f r e p re s e nt i ng t h e A l mi g ht y t h ro u gh h i s w o rd s , n e ve r

e n ti r el y l e ft L u th e r.

I t w a s n o t t h e n L u t h e r ’ s p u l p i t m a n n e r t h a t m o s t o b v i o u s l y i m p r e s s e d

c on te mp o ra ri e s ( t ho ug h h is c el eb ri t y n o d ou bt g av e h is a pp ea ra nc e s i n

t he p ulp it an unm is tak ab le au ra ). Lu th er c onq ue re d h is a udi en ce

t h ro ug h t he c ar e fu l, s ys te ma t ic e xp lo ra t io n o f S cr ip t ur e i n t er ms f in el y

t un ed t o t h ei r l iv e s a nd u nd er s ta nd in g. L ut he r’ s s er mo ns a re i nt e rc ut

w it h i ma gi ne d d ial og ue , o ft en w it h b ot h p ar tie s r ep re se nt ed in t he

f ir st p er so n. H er e, f or i ns ta nc e, i s L ut he r o n m ar ri ag e, i ma gi ni ng t he

h or r if i ed o bj ec ti o ns o f a r el uc t an t i nn er v oi ce , N at ur al R ea so n :

Ta ke s a l oo k a t m ar ri ed l if e, s he t ur ns u p h er n os e a nd s ay s, ‘ Al as , m us t I r oc k

t he b ab y, w as h i ts d ia pe rs , m ak e i ts b ed , s me ll i ts s te nc h, s ta y u p n ig ht s w it h i t,

t a k e c a r e o f i t w h e n i t c r i e s , h e a l i t s r a s h e s a n d s o r e s , a n d o n t o p o f t h a t c a r e f o r

m y w if e, p ro vi de f or h er, l ab ou r a t m y t ra de , t ak e c ar e o f t hi s a nd t ak e c ar e o f

t ha t, do th is a nd do th at, e ndu re t hi s an d e nd ure th at , an d w ha te ver el se o f

b it te rn es s a nd d ru dg er y m ar ri ed l if e i nv ol ve ? W ha t, s ho ul d I m ak e s uc h a

p r is o ne r o f m y se l f ? ’

. . . A nd w ha t d oe s C hr is ti an f ai th s ay t o t hi s ? I t o pe ns i ts e ye s, l oo ks u po n a ll

i n si g ni f ic a nt , d i st a st e fu l a n d d e sp i se d d u ti e s i n t h e S p ir i t, a n d i s a w ar e t hat they

a re a ll a do rn ed w it h d iv in e a pp ro va l a s w it h t he c os tl ie st g ol d a nd j ew el s.13

T h i s s e a r c h f o r t h e c o m m o n v o i c e w a s e n t i r e l y i n t e n d e d : L u t h e r a d v o -

c at ed s imp li ci ty in p re ac hin g w it h al l t he au th or it y o f a m an w ho h ad

d eb at e d w it h t he b es t t ec hn i ca l m in ds o n e q ua l t e rm s. ‘ He w h o t e ac h esm o st s i mp l y, c h il d is h l y, p o pu l ar l y, t h at ’s t h e b e st p r e ac h e r. ’

13 M a r ti n L u t h er, T he E st at e o f M ar ri ag e ( 15 22 ). C it ed i n S us an C . K ar an t- Nu nn a ndM e rr y E . Wi e sn e r- H an k s ( e ds . ), L u th e r o n Wo me n. A S ou rc e bo ok (Cambridge, 2003),p . 1 0 7 .

Preaching 19



C om p li c at e d t h ou g ht s a n d i s su e s w e s h ou l d d i sc u ss i n p r iv a te w i th o t he r c l ev e r

p eo pl e. I d on ’t t hi nk o f D r P om er an iu s [ Bu ge nh ag en ], J on as , o r P hi li p i n m y

s e rm o n. T h ey k n ow m or e ab ou t i t th an I d o. S o I d on ’t pr ea ch to the m. I j us t

p r ea c h t o H a ns i e o r B et s y.14

N e ve r th e le s s , f o r a l l t h is s e ar c h f o r s i mp l i ci t y, L u th e r ’s s e rm o ns w e re

n ot w it ho ut t he ir e vi de nt s ty li st ic t ra it s. We h av e o bs er ve d t wo i n t he

e xam pl e a bo ve : t he c op iou s h eap ing up o f l ink ed e xa mp le s, and t he

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a n t i t h e s i s t h r o u g h i m a g i n e d d i a l o g u e . I n b o t h s t r u c t u r e

a nd e xp os it io n, L ut he r m ad e c on ti nu ou s u se o f p ai re d o pp o si te s : L aw /

G os pe l , s in /g ra ce , G od /S at a n. T hi s w en t t o t he v er y h ea rt o f h is b e li e f,

a n e xp re ss io n o f h is d ia le ct i c c on vi ct io n o f t he a po ca ly pt ic s tr ug gl e t ha t

f ue l le d h is a ss au lt o n t he p ap ac y a nd c on ti nu e d t o s ha pe h is l if e. S om e -

t im es t h e t en si o ns o f t he u nr el e nt in g o bl ig at i on s t o a ct a s G od ’s i ns tr u -

m e nt s pi ll e d o ve r i n a t or re nt o f p e ss i mi st ic i nv ec t iv e : f or L ut h er, f or a ll

t ha t h e d ev o te d e nd le ss c ar e t o e ng ag i ng h is a ud ie nc e , c er t ai nl y d id n ot

s par e t he m. I n 1 53 0 t he u nr eg en er at e n at ur e o f Wit te nb er g so ci et y

b ro ug ht h im t o c ri si s, a nd a d ir e w ar ni ng :

I a m s or ry I e ve r f re ed y ou f ro m t he t yr an ts a nd p ap is t. Yo u u ng ra te fu l b ea st s,

y ou a re n ot w or th y o f t he G os pe l. If y ou d on ’t i mp ro ve , I w il l s to p p re ac hi ng

r a th e r t h an c a st p e ar l s b e fo r e s w in e .

15

His lament was one that woul d b eco me a fami liar refrai n f or the

R e f o r m a t i o n p r e a c h e r : e v e n i n p l a c e s e x p o s e d t o t h e t r u e G o s p e l , p e o p l e

c o n t i n u e d t o l i v e a l i f e o f d i s s i p a t i o n . I n W i t t e n b e r g , L u t h e r c h a r g e d , t h e

R ef or ma ti on h ad b ro ug ht n o r us h o f g en er os i ty o f s pi ri t.

I n t im es p as t p eo pl e g av e f or t em pl es a nd a lt ar s, n ow e ve ry bo dy s cr ap es e ve ry -

t hi ng t og et he r f or h im se lf . T he re i s n ot hi ng g oi ng o n b ut s cr ap in g a nd s cr at ch -

i n g . B u t i n t w o y e a r s t h e T u r k w i l l b e a t y o u r d o o r . J u s t d o n ’ t t h i n k y o u a r e s a f e .

If you were piou s y ou wou ld accept the Wo rd , t ru st G od , do go od to y ou r

n e ig h bo u r, a n d t a ke h e ed t o y o ur c a ll i ng .16

L ut he r s us pe nd ed h is p re ac hi ng f or n in e m on th s b ef or e h is s pi ri ts

r ev ive d. B ut t he t ens ion s e xp os ed i n t his i nt er lu de – t he p re ac he r a s

p as to r, t he p as to r a s p ro ph et – w ou ld b ec om e f am il ia r t o a ll t ho se w ho

l a bo u r ed a s p r ea c he r s i n t h e R e fo r m at i on p e r io d .

F or U lr ic h Z wi ng li , p re ac hi ng w as t he c or ne rs to ne , n ot o nl y o f h is

work as t he reforme rs of Zurich, but of h is wh ole care er. Zwingli’s

14 F r e d W. M e u s er, L u t he r t h e P r ea c he r (Minneapolis, Minn., 1983) , p . 5 3 .15 Ibid., p . 2 9 .16 Ibid., p p. 2 9– 30 . F or L ut he r’s p re oc cu pa ti on w it h t he T ur ki sh t hr ea t, s e e G or do n R up p,

‘ Lu th er a ga in st “ Th e Tu rk , t he P op e a nd t he D ev il ” ’ , i n P et er N ew ma n B ro ok s ( e d. ),S ev en -hea d ed L u t h er (Oxford, 1983) , p p . 2 5 5 – 73 .




a pp oi nt me nt i n 1 51 8 a s P eop le ’s P ri es t i n t he G re at M in st er w as a n

o ut st and in g p ro mo ti on fo r a m an w ho se e xt end ed appre nt ic es hi p a t

G la ru s a nd E i ns ie de ln h ad n ot b e en f re e o f c on t ro ve rs y.17 T h e c a no n s

w ho s wa ye d t he a pp oi nt me nt n o d ou bt c ho se h im b ec au se o f h is o ut -

spoken views on t he incen diary issue of merc enar y servic e (he had

s up p or t ed t he Z ur ic h p os it i on ). I t w as a h ig hl y s en si ti ve a pp oi nt m en t,

a nd e ve n b ef or e t ak in g o ff ic e Z wi ng li h ad t o e xp la in t o t he c an on s h is

c on ce pt o f t he p re ac hi ng f un ct io n. O nc e i ns ta ll ed , Z wi ng li a do pt ed a

p r ac t ic e c lo se t o t ha t o f L ut he r, o f s er ia l e xp os it io n, b e gi nn in g w it h t h e

G o sp e l o f M a tt h e w. O n ly g r ad u al l y d i d Z w in g li m o ve t o w ar d s t h e h a rs h

d en un ci at io n o f c le ri ca l a bu se s t ha t u nd er pi nn ed h is c al l f or r oo t a nd

bra n ch ref o rm.

N o t e x t s u r v i v e s f o r a n y s e r m o n p r e a c h e d b y Z w i n g l i b e f o r e 1 5 2 2 . B u t

w e k n o w f r o m l a t e r a c c o u n t s t h a t t h e P e o p l e ’ s P r i e s t s w i f t l y e x t e n d e d t h e

r a n g e o f h i s t a r g e t s t o e n c o m p a s s m a n y o f t h e p r a c t i c e s a n d m u c h o f t h e

p er so nn el of t he o ld c hu rc h : mo nk s, t it hi ng , t he c ul t o f sa in ts. I n t hi s

campaign for renewal and reform the pulp it was Zwingli’s major

w ea po n. E ac h s ta ge i n t he g at he ri ng c on fl ic t i n Z ur ic h, t he s ym bo li c

b re ak ing o f t he Le nt en f as t, t he su bse que nt c on fr on tat io n w it h t he

b is ho p, w as f ra me d b y Z wi ng li ’s a dv oc ac y i n t he p ul pi t. A s ig ni fi ca nt

m om en t w as r ea ch ed i n N ov em be r 1 52 2, w he n Z wi ng li w as f or ma ll y

r e le as ed f ro m a ll t he n or ma l d ut ie s o f h is o ff ic e ( su ch a s h ea ri ng c on fe s-

s i o n a n d s a y i n g M a s s ) a n d a l l o w e d t o d e v o t e h i m s e l f w h o l l y t o p r e a c h i n g

– a sure sign that his supporters were gaining ground among the city

c ou nc il . F r om t hi s p oi nt t he p re ss ur e f or d ec is iv e a ct io n b e ca me u nr e -

l en ti ng . W he n i n 1 52 3 t he c ounc il s um mo ne d de le gat es f or t he f ir st

p u b l i c m e e t i n g i n t e n d e d t o r e s o l v e t h e c o n f l i c t s r a i s e d b y t h e e v a n g e l i c a l

c r it ic is m , t he y c it ed a s t he ir p r im ar y m ot iv at i on t he e vi de nt d is se ns io n

a mo ng t he p re ac he rs . I f t hi s w as so , i t w as di sse nsi on t he y h ad d on e

m uc h t o f om en t.

Z w i n g l i ’ s c a r e e r a s a p r e a c h e r w a s c o m p a r a t i v e l y s h o r t . T h e s p e c t a c u -

l ar d ef ea t o f Z ur ic h f or ce s a s t he b at tl e o f K ap pe l i n 1 53 1 e xp os ed t he

d a n g e r s o f h i s r e l e n t l e s s p u r s u i t o f r e f o r m . E v e n t h o s e w h o h a d n o t p a l e d

a t t he f ul l i mp l ic at io ns o f h is v is io ns o f a p ur if ie d c hu r ch w it h in Z ur ic h

w er e n ow e xp os ed t o t he c on se qu en ce s o f h is r ec kl es s d es ir e t o e xt en d

t h e R e fo r ma t io n t h r ou g h ou t t h e C o nf e de r a ti o n. T h at t h e Z u ri c h R e fo r -

m at io n s ur vi ve d o we d m uc h t o t h e d et e rm in ed , u nd er s ta te d l ea de rs hi p

o f H e in r ic h B u ll i ng e r, Z w in g li ’s f r ie n d a nd s u cc e s so r. B u ll i ng e r ’s f o nd

a d m i r a t i o n a n d u n f l i n c h i n g d e f e n c e o f h i s p r e d e c e s s o r d i d n o t d i s g u i s e a

17G . R . P o t t e r , Zwingli (Cambridge, 1976) , p p . 2 2 – 4 6 . B r u c e G o r d o n , T h e S w i s s R ef o r m a -tion (Manchester, 2002) , p p. 4 6– 51 .

Preaching 21



h u g e t e m p e r a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e . B u l l i n g e r w a s p r e p a r e d t o w o r k w i t h t h e

bruised and h umi li at ed c it y fa th er s t o r est or e t rus t in t he p ro je ct o f

reform.18

P re ac hi ng , i ne vi ta bl y, p la ye d a l ar ge p ar t i n t hi s p ro ce ss . B ul li ng er

s h a r e d w i t h Z w i n g l i a c l e a r s e n s e o f t h e c e n t r a l i t y o f t h e p r e a c h i n g o f f i c e :

t he m ini st er h ad a c le ar ob li gat io n t o p re ac h t he G os pe l t o a n e ar th ly

c om m un it y c on si s ti ng o f b ot h t h e e le ct a nd t he d am ne d. T he m in is te r,

d is ti ng ui sh ed b y h is c al li ng , a nd m ar ke d b y o rd in at io n, e mp lo ye d h is

training in bibl ical exegesis to r ouse the inner Wor d pres ent in the

c om m un it y. T he c h an gi ng t im es , h ow e ve r, c al l ed f or s om e d iff er en c es

o f e mp ha si s. T he t as k o f c on so li da ti on a nd r eb ui ld in g i mp li ed a m or e

s e tt le d r e la t io ns hi p b et w ee n m in is t er a nd c on gr e ga t io n. O n t he s id e o f

t he m in is te r B ul li ng er a nd h is c ol le ag ue s l ai d g re at er s tr es s o n f or ma l

t r a i n i n g a n d o r d i n a t i o n ; o n t h e p a r t o f t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n t h e n e e d w a s f o r

p at ie nc e r at he r t ha n a r el e nt le ss c al l t o a rm s :

T h e s e r m o n o u g h t t o b e h e l d w i t h g r e a t w a r m t h a n d f e r v e n t l o v e f o r t h e l i s t e n e r s ,

f or t he ir i mp ro ve me nt a nd e di fi ca ti on i n G od a s t ak es p la ce a mo ng t he p io us .

T hu s t he s he ep o f C hr is t h ea r t he v oi ce o f t he ir L or d, t he t ru e s he ph er d. T he y

f o ll o w i t b e ca u se t h ey r e co g ni z e i t . T h ro u gh c o ar s e o n sl a ug h ts t h e g e nt le h e ar t s

w il l o nl y b ec om e e mb it te re d a nd r av ag ed . T hen o ur s er mo ns o nl y g iv e r is e t o

i r r i ta b l e , h o s t i l e , r e b el l i o us a n d h a r mfu l p e o pl e .19

O f a ll t he g re at r ef or me rs , C al vi n w as p er ha ps t he l ea st p re pa re d, b y

t e mp er am en t a nd t ra in in g, t o u nd er t ak e t h e p r ea ch in g o ff ic e. Wr e st e d

f r o m a l i f e o f s c h o l a r s h i p t o a s s i s t t h e p r o c e s s o f R e f o r m a t i o n i n G e n e v a ,

C a l v i n i n i t i a l l y s t r u g g l e d t o m a k e s e n s e o f t h e d e m a n d s o f h i s o f f i c e , a n d

t he p ec ul i ar c on st r ai n ts o f t h e s er pe n ti ne l oc al p ol it ic s. T hr e e y ea rs o f

e n fo r ce d e x i le i n S t r as b ou r g p r ov i de d t h e b e la t e d i n -s e rv i c e t r ai n in g t h e

y o u n g s c h o l a r h a d p r e v i o u s l y l a c k e d . H e r e t u r n e d t o G e n e v a i n 1 5 4 1 f a rb et t er e qu ip pe d f or t he h ea vy b ur de n s o f a p re ac h in g m in is t ry.

F or t he n ex t t we nt y y ea rs C al vi n s us ta in ed a p re ac hi ng r eg im e t ha t

w o u l d h a v e bee n r e m a r k a b l e e v e n i n a m a n i n r o b u s t g o o d h e a l t h ( w h i c h

h e w a s n o t ) .20 H e p r e ac he d t wi c e e ve r y S u nd ay, a nd o n e ve r y w e ek da y i n

18 Gordon, S w i ss R ef o rm a t io n, p p. 1 35 –4 9, 1 73 –8 7. O n B ul li ng er s ee a ls o n ow B ru ceG o rd o n a n d E m id i o C a mp i ( e d s. ) , A r c hi t ec t o f R e fo r ma t io n . A n I n tr o du c ti o n t o H e in r ic hB u l l in g er, 1 5 0 4 – 15 7 5 ( G r an d R a pi d s, M i ch . , 2004) a nd E mi di o C am pi ( e d. ), HeinrichB u ll i ng e r u n d S e in e Z e it , Zwingliana, 3 1 (2004).

19 Wo l fg a ng C a pi t o q u ot e d i n B r uc e G o rd o n, ‘ P re a ch i ng a n d t h e R e fo r m o f t h e C l er g y i nt h e S w is s R e fo r ma t io n ’, i n A n dr e w P e tt e gr e e ( e d. ) , T h e R e fo r ma t io n o f t h e P a ri s he s . T h e

Ministry and the Reformation in Town and Country (Manchester, 1993) , p . 7 8 .20 T. H . L . P ar ke r, C a l v in ’ s P r ea chi n g (Edinburgh, 1992) . C ha rl es L . C oo ke , ‘ Ca lv in ’s

I ll ne s se s a nd t he ir R el at io n t o C hr is ti an Vo ca ti on ’, i n T imo th y G eo rg e ( ed .) , JohnC al vi n a nd t he c h ur ch . A P ri sm o f R ef or m (L o ui s v i ll e , K y. , 1 9 9 0 ), p p . 5 9 – 7 0 .




a l te r na t e w e ek s . T h is w a s i n a d di t io n t o h i s s c ho l ar l y l e ct u re s , d e li v er e d

i n t he A ud it or iu m n ex t d oo r t o h is c hu rc h. L ik e o th er p re ac he rs o f t he

R e fo r m at i on , C a lv i n f o ll o we d a p r in c i pl e o f s e qu e nt i a l e x eg e si s , m o vi n g

s te ad il y t hr ou gh b oo k s o f t h e O ld a nd N ew Te st am en ts .

C al vi n w as , b y a ll a cc ou nt s, a r e ma r ka bl e p re ac h er. H is c om ma nd o f

t he Sc rip tures and a p rodigious m emory com bined with his early

t rai ni ng i n t he l aw a nd c la ss ic s t o p ro du ce a m as te rp ie ce o f c on ci se

a n d l u c i d e x p o s i t i o n . W e k n o w a g r e a t d e a l m o r e a b o u t C a l v i n ’ s p r e a c h -

i n g t h a n i s t h e c a s e w i t h m o s t s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y f i g u r e s , b e c a u s e i n 1 5 4 9

a group of a d mi re rs d ec id ed t ha t h is s er m on s s ho ul d b e s ys t em at ic al l y

recorded.21 A ski lled stenograp her was employed to take do wn t he

s e r m o n s a s t h e y w e r e d e l i v e r e d . H u g e v o l u m e s o f t h e s e s e r m o n s , w r i t t e n

u p i n f ai r c op ie s, w er e t he n d ep os it ed i n t he t ow n a rc hi ve s, w he re t he y

r e ma in e d u nt i l d is p os ed o f i n t h e n in et ee nt h c en tu ry. O nl y a r e la ti ve l y

s ma ll p r op or ti on s ur vi ve , b ut e no ug h t o a ll ow u s a f as ci n at in g v ie w o f a

m as te r p re ac h er a t t he h ei gh t o f h is p ow er s.22

Calvin was never wholly c omfor ta ble with the rec ording of his

s er mo ns. I n h is ow n m ind t he re w as a c le ar di st inc ti on b et we en t he

s c h o l a r l y l e c t u r e s , w h i c h h e w i l l i n g l y e d i t e d f o r p u b l i c a t i o n , a n d s e r m o n s

p re ac he d f or a p ar ti cu la r l oc al a ud ie nc e. I t i s f ar f ro m a cc id en ta l t ha t

even while Calvin was a massively pop ular author – some times his

p ub li sh ed o ut pu t w ou ld a pp ro ac h h al f a m il li on w or ds i n a y ea r – f ew

o f h is s er mo ns w er e a ut ho ri ze d fo r p ub li cat io n in h is l ife tim e. I n h is

s er mo ns C al vi n h ad i n m in d v er y m uc h t h e n ee ds o f h is l oc al a ud ie nc e ,

t he m ix ed c on gr eg at io n o f n at iv e G en ev an s a nd f el lo w F re nc h e xi le s

s t a n d i n g p a t i e n t l y b e f o r e h i m . H e w a s n o t a f r a i d t o a l l u d e t o l o c a l i s s u e s

o r t o t a k e s i d e s i n c o n t r o v e r s i a l q u e s t i o n s . F o r t h e m a g i s t r a t e s , a r r a y e d i n

t h e f r o n t r o w s , C a l v i n ’ s s e r m o n s h a d a n u n c o m f o r t a b l e u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y .

Wi ll ia m N ap h y, e xp l or in g t he r ec or ds o f t he G e ne va n c it y a rc hi v es , h as

f o un d s e ve r al i n st a nc e s w h er e , a s t h e c o ng r eg a t io n s p il l e d b a c k o n to t h e

s t r e e t s , d i f f e r e n t f a c t i o n s c a m e t o b l o w s , a s s o m e t o o k o f f e n c e a t C a l v i n ’ s

21T he c op yi st w as p ai d b y t he B ou rs e f ra nca is e, t he f un d e st ab li sh ed t o c ar e f or t hei mm i gr a nt p o or. J e an n in e E . O l so n , C al v in a n d S o ci a l We l fa r e. D e ac o ns a n d t h e B o ur s e

francaise (S e l i n s g ro v e , P a . , 1989) , p . 3 4 .22 T h e f u l l s t o r y o f t h e d i s p o s a l o f C a l v i n ’ s s e r m o n s i n 1 8 0 5 i s t o l d b y B e r n a r d G a g n e b i n ,

‘ L’ h is t oi r e d e s m a nu s cr ip t s d e s s e rm o ns d e C a lv i n’ , i n J e an C a lv i n, S e rm o ns s u r l e L i vr ed’Esaı e , c h ap i tr e s 1 3 –2 9 (S u p pl e m e nt a C a l v in i a n a, v o l . I I , N e u k ir c h en , 1961) , p p. x iv – x xv ii i. T he c or pu s o f s ur vi vi ng w or ks h as , h ow ev er, b ee n m at er ia ll y i nc re a se d b y t her ec en t d is co ve ry i n L on do n o f t hr ee v ol um es o f t he s er mo ns o n I sa ia h, p re ac he db et we en 1 55 7 a nd 1 55 9. M ax E ng am ma re , ‘ Ca lv in I nc o gn it o i n L on do n : T he R ed is -c ov er y i n L on do n o f S er mo ns o n I sa ia h’ , P r o ceed i n g s o f t h e H u g u en o t S o ci et y o f L o n d o n , 26(1996) , p p . 4 5 3 – 6 2.

Preaching 23



w or ds a nd o th e rs r ev el le d i n t he ir d is co mf i tu re .23 B ut no o ne w as t ru ly

s p a r e d . T h i s i s C a l v i n i n 1 5 5 1 , r e f l e c t i n g ( w i t h s h a d e s o f L u t h e r ) o n t h e

l ac k o f i mp ac t m ad e b y a d ec ad e o f G os pe l p re ac hi ng :

W h e n a c i t y b e c o m e s r e n o w n e d f o r h a v i n g r e c e i v e d t h e W o r d o f G o d , t h e w o r l dw il l r ec ko n t ha t t he c it y o ug ht t o b e, a s a r es ul t, s o m uc h b et te r g ov er ne d, t ha t

s u c h o r d e r w i l l p r e v a i l a s t o a c c o r d r i g h t a n d j u s t i c e t o o n e a n d a l l . T h e r e f o r e , i f

t hi ng s t ur n o ut t o b e n o b et te r t ha n a ny wh er e e ls e, o r w or se t ha n t hi s, a s i f t he

t r u t h o f G o d w e r e n o t t o b e f o u n d t h e r e a t a l l , w h a t i s o n e t o s a y ? W i l l t h e y n o t

a p p e a r t o b e t h e w o r s t p e o p l e i n t h e w o r l d ? L i s t e n t o t h e p a p i s t t a l k i n g ! ‘ O h t h e

G en ev an s ! T he y c la im t o b e b et te r t ha n e ve ry bo dy e ls e, b ec au se t he y w an t t o

r e f o r m t h e w h o l e w o r l d ; a n y o n e w o u l d t h i n k t h e y a r e a n g e l s t h e m s e l v e s . B u t j u s t

l oo k a t t he w ay t he y a ct ua ll y b eh av e ! I f y ou g o t o G en ev a y ou w il l f in d j us t a s

m an y tr icks a nd p etty f rau ds a s e ve r in the ir s ho ps . You w il l b e r ob be d a ndf l ee c ed , n o t o nl y i n b u si n es s d e al i ng s b u t i n e v er y th i ng e l se a s w e ll ’ .

H o w s a d i t i s t h a t n o w a d a y s t h e r e i s a m o n g u s m o r e u n b e l i e f a n d i m p i e t y t h a n

h as e ve r b ee n s ee n b ef or e, a nd t ha t t hi s i s s o p la in t o b e o bs er ve d. I n t ru th t he

L o r d m a k e s h i s G r a c e a v a i l a b l e t o u s i n a s m u c h a b u n d a n c e a s o n e c o u l d a s k , b u t

w e t ra mp le i t u nd er fo ot . We h av e s uc h m al ic io us i mp ie ty i n u s t ha t i t l oo ks a s

t h ou g h w e h a ve d e ci d ed d e li b er a te l y a n d o n p u rp o se t o d e sp i se G o d. E v er y wh e re

a r ou n d, t he r e i s n o th i ng t o b e s e en b u t b l a sp h em i es , s c an d al s a n d r u i n ; t h e w or l d

i s s o d is or de rl y t ha t t he i mp ie ty I c an s ee i n G en ev a t od ay i s of s u c h e n o rmi t y

t ha t i t i s l ik e s ee in g d ow n a c ha sm i nt o t he v er y m ou th o f H el l.24

T h e y e a r 1 5 5 1 w a s a p e r i o d o f c r i s i s f o r C a l v i n ’ s r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e C i t y

C o un c il , a n d t h is s e rm o n m a y r e fl e c t a n u n us u al l y p e s si m is t ic m o me n t.

E ve n so , it i s a n u nf am il iar p er sp ec ti ve o n t he c it y Jo hn K nox w ou ld

f a m o u s l y e x p e r i e n c e w i t h i n a f e w y e a r s a s t h e ‘ t h e m o s t p e r f e c t s c h o o l o f

C h r i s t t h a t e v e r w a s i n t h e e a r t h s i n c e t h e d a y s o f t h e a p o s t l e s ’ . P e r h a p s ,

t ho ug h, w e a re m isl ed i f w e i mag ine t hat s ix te ent h- ce nt ur y p eo pl es

w oul d sh ar e a m od er n se nsi bil it y o r i ndi gna ti on at suc h o ut sp ok enc ri ti ci sm . We c er ta in ly e rr i f w e i nt er pr et s uc h s ta te me nt s a s a p ie ce o f

c o o l h i s t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n t o t h i s

p oi nt . F or a ll L ut h er ’s c on te mp t f or r he t or ic o r f la mb oy an t t he at r ic al s,

p eo pl e s ti ll e xp ec te d t he R ef or ma ti on p re ac he r t o s ta nd i n t he e st ab -

l i s h e d p r o p h e t i c t r a d i t i o n : t h e y l o o k e d f o r s h a d e s o f J e r e m i a h o r J o h n t h e

B ap t is t, i f n ot o f S av on ar ol a.

I n C al vi n’s c as e w e k no w t ha t h is r ep ut at io n a s a p re ac he r s pr ea d f ar

b ey on d t he b or de rs o f G en ev a. T he C at ho li c h is to ri an F lo ri mo nd d e

23 Wi l l ia m G . N a p h y, C a l v i n a n d t h e C o n s o l i d a t i o n o f t h e G en ev a n R ef o r m a t i o n (Manchester,1994) , p p . 1 5 9 , 1 6 1 .

24 C a lv i n’s s e rm o ns o n M i c a h, c i te d i n A l as t ai r D u k e, G i ll ia n L e w i s a n d A n d re w P e tt e gr e e,C a l v in i s m i n E u r o pe. D o cu m en t s (Manchester, 1992) , p p . 3 0 – 4 .




R a e m o n d o f f e r s a r e v e a l i n g a n e c d o t e o f a S a v o y a r d n o b l e m a n , r e t u r n i n g

f ro m t he w ar s, w ho d ec id ed t o m ak e a d et ou r t hr ou gh G en ev a t o h ea r

t he c el eb ra te d p re ac he r. A rr iv in g i n c hu rc h h e s et tl ed t o o bs er ve t he

s er mo n, o nl y t o f in d, t o h is a st on is hm en t, h is o wn w if e a nd d au gh te r

s it ti ng e ls ew he re i n t he c on gr eg at io n. S ur pr is e t ur ne d t o h or ro r a s h is

w i f e , s p y i n g h i m a s t h e y l e f t t h e c h u r c h , r a n t o C a l v i n f o r p r o t e c t i o n . ‘ O h

s i r s a v e m e ’ , s h e e x c l a i m e d , ‘ I t i s M o n s i e u r m y p a p i s t h u s b a n d w h o h a s

c o m e t o g e t m e ! ’ I t w a s l ef t t o C al vi n t o s ub du e t he h ub bu b a nd f in d a

s a ti sf a cto ry res o l uti o n .25

F lo ri mo nd d e Rae mo nd t ell s t he st or y t o wa rn a ga inst t he fl ig ht y

s u s c e p t i b i l i t y o f t h o s e t o o e a s i l y s e d u c e d b y t h e s i r e n c a l l o f t h e r e f o r m e d

p re ac he rs . T he h um an t ra ge dy i s v er y r ea l, b ut f or u s, b ro ug ht u p o n a

v is io n o f C al vi n a s a n e mo ti on al ly d es ic c at e d m od el o f f or b id di ng a us -

t e r i t y , i t i s t h i s v i s i o n o f h i m a s a c e l e b r i t y p r e a c h e r a n d t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n

t ha t i s m os t r ev el at or y. I n f ac t, b en ea th t he g ra ti ng ( an d a lw ay s s om e-

w ha t f or ce d) h um il it y o f C al vi n’s e pi st ol ar y s ty le , h e h ad a v er y c le ar

v ie w o f h is s el f- wo rt h, a nd a n e nh an ce d g if t f or t he d ra ma ti c m om en t.

S um mo ne d b ac k t o G en ev a i n 1 54 1, t hr ee y ea rs a ft er h is a cr im on io us

d ep ar t ur e , C al vi n r e tu rn e d t o t h e p ul p it w it h n o a ll us io n t o p as t e ve nt s.

H e m er ely t ur ne d t o t he ne xt ve rs e in t he i nt er ru pted s eq ue nc e a s i f

n ot h in g u nt ow ar d h ad o cc ur re d s in ce h is l as t s er mo n.26 N o th i n g c o ul d

m o re c o mp l e te l y h a ve c a pt u r ed C a lv i n’s s e ns e o f t h e p r ea c he r ’s o ff i ce .

Preachers and people

I n t h e y e a r s t h a t f o l l o w e d , t h e p r e a c h i n g o f t h e g r e a t r e f o r m e r s w o u l d b e

a b ea co n a nd a n i ns pi ra ti on , a s w el l a s a m od el o f t he n ew e va ng el ic al

m et ho d o f s ys te ma ti c e xp os it io n. F ro m t he m om en t t ha t L ut he r p ub -

l i s h e d h i s S e r m o n o n I n d u l g e n c e s i n G e r m a n i n 1 5 1 8 , e v a n g e l i c a l s e r m o n s

w er e m ad e a va il ab le i n n um er ous p rin te d e di ti ons ; t he y w oul d b e a

s ta pl e o f R ef or ma ti on p ri nt in g t hr ou gh ou t t he c en tu ry a nd b ey on d.

N ev er t he le ss t h e e va ng e li ca l m ov em en t c ou ld n ot h av e p re va il e d h ad i t

r el ie d o n t he e xc lu si ve e ff or ts o f a t in y g ro up o f l ea di ng r ef or me rs . T he

R ef or m at io n b e ca me a m ov e me nt o nl y b e ca us e t h e i ni ti at i ve o f Wi tt e n-

b erg and Zurich was emulat ed in dozen s of pulpit s across centr al

Europe.

I n t hi s r es pe ct i t i s h ig hl y s ig ni fi ca nt t ha t L ut he r’s m ov em en t f ir st

b e g a n t o m a k e i t s e l f f e l t i n m a n y t o w n s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1 5 2 1 – 2 , w h e n

25 F l or im o nd d e R a em o nd , Histoire. T ra ns la te d e xt ra ct i n D uk e, L ew is a nd P et te g re e,C a l v in i s m i n E u r o pe. D o cu m en t s, p p . 3 7 – 8 .

26 Parker, C a l v i n ’ s P r ea chi n g , p . 6 0 .

Preaching 25



L u t h e r w a s s e q u e s t e r e d f r o m p u b l i c v i e w i n t h e p r o t e c t i v e c u s t o d y o f t h e

Wa rt b ur g , a ft er h is c on de mn at io n a t t he D ie t o f Wo rm s. I n t he a nx io us

m on th s w he n h is fa te w as un kno wn , t he c aus e w as su st ai ne d a lm ost

e nt ir el y b y b ra ve m en w ho c ar ri ed t he c au se f or r ef or m i nt o t he ir o wn

pulpits.

T h e i m p a c t o f t h i s p r e a c h i n g w a s p r o f o u n d a n d d e m o n s t r a b l e . W i t h i n

a m at te r o f y ea rs o r e ve n m on th s t he p re ac he rs h ad g at he re d a p op ul ar

f ol lo wi ng p re pa re d t o p re ss a n a ge nd a o f r ef or m o n a n o ft en r el uc ta nt

c i ty c ou nc il . T he p re ci se n at ur e o f t h e r ef or m a ge nd a p r oc la im ed f ro m

t he se p ul pi ts r em ai ns , h ow ev er, m or e e lu si ve , t o t he e xt en t t ha t i nt er -

p re tat io n o f t hi s c ruc ial mo me nt of t he Re fo rm at io n b re ak th rou gh

r em ai n s h ig hl y c on te st e d. S om e y ea rs a go t h e G er ma n c h ur ch h is to ri an

B e rn d M o el l e r a r gu e d t h at t h e R e fo r ma t i on a c hi e ve d i t s u n pr e c ed e nt e d

i mp ac t b e ca us e t he f ir st g en e ra ti on o f p re ac h er s r e ca pi tu la te d f or t h ei r

a ud ie nc es a d is c ip li ne d a nd c oh e re nt v ie w o f L ut he r ’s n ew d oc tr in e o f

s a lv a ti o n. E x am i ni n g p r in t e d s e rm o n c o ll e ct i o ns , M o el l e r f o un d i n p a r -

ticular a c om mo n e mp ha sis on t he c or e do ct ri ne of j us ti fi cat io n b y

faith.27

O th er c om me nt at or s h av e b e en l e ss c on vi n ce d. C on ce nt ra ti ng o n a

m or e s pe ci fi c g eo gr ap hi c al a re a, t h e t ow ns a nd v il la ge s a ro un d Wi tt en -

berg in Saxony, Susan Karan t-Nunn found a far less cohe rent and

h o m og e ne o us p a tt e r n. To h e r t h e w i de v a ri e t y o f t e ac h i ng s p r o po u nd e d

b y L ut h er ’s f ir s t c l er ic al f ol l ow er s e vo ke d t h e t ra di ti on o f Wildwuchs, or

w il d e va ng el ic al g ro wt h , p os tu la te d b y t h e e ar li er w or k o f F r an z L au .28

R e c e n t s c h o l a r s h i p , w h i l e n o t d e n y i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f L u t h e r ’ s w r i t i n g s ,

h as t en de d t o s up p or t t he m ai n l in es o f K ar an t- Nu nn ’s a rg um en t. I t i s

j us tl y o bs er ve d t ha t M oe ll er, b y d ra wi ng h is e vi de nc e f ro m p ub li sh ed

( a n d l a r g e l y L a t i n a t e ) s e r m o n c o l l e c t i o n s , i n e v i t a b l y c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t h e

m os t e du ca t ed p ri e st s f ro m a mo ng t he f ir st g en er at i on o f e va ng el ic al s

( t ho ug h o f c ou rs e, s in ce t h es e m en w er e b y a nd l ar ge s pe a ki ng f ro m t he

m ai n c i ty p ul pi ts , t he ir i nf lu en c e w ou l d h av e b ee n d is pr op o rt io na te l y

g re at er ). A nd e ve n i f t he se m en ( at l ea st i n t he s ub se qu en t p ub li sh ed

ve rsi ons) did lay stress on Luther’s cor e doctrin e of salvati on, is

t hi s n ec es sa ri ly w ha t t he ir a ud ie nc es h ea rd ? R ep or ti ng o n t he p ub li c

a gi ta ti on t ha t a cc om pa ni ed t he s en sa ti on o f L ut he r’s p ro gr es s a cr os s

27 B e rn d M o el l er, ‘ Wa s w u rd e i n d e r F r uh z ei t d e s R e fo r ma t io n i n d e n d e ut s ch e n S t adteng e p r e d i g t ?’ , A r ch i v f u r R ef o rm a t io n s g es ch i cht e, 7 5 ( 19 84 ), p p. 1 76 –9 3. N ow i n E ng li sht ra ns la ti on : ‘ Wh at w as P re ac he d i n G er ma n To wn s i n t he E ar ly R ef or ma ti on ? ’ , i nC . S c ot t D i xo n ( e d. ) , T h e G er m an R ef o rm a t i on (Oxford, 1999) , p p. 3 6– 52 .

28 S us an K ar an t- Nu nn , ‘ Wh at w as P re ac he d i n G er ma n C it ie s i n t he E ar ly Ye ar s o f t h e R e fo r ma t io n ? Wildwuchs v er su s L ut he ra n U ni ty ’, i n P hi li p N . B eb b a nd S he rr inMarshall, T h e P r o c e s s o f C h a n g e i n E a r l y M o d e r n E u r o p e (A t h e n s , O h i o , 1988) , p p. 8 1– 96 .




G e r m a n y t o t h e D i e t o f W o r m s , t h e I m p e r i a l L e g a t e A l e a n d e r m a d e l i t t l e

a tt em pt t o h id e f ro m C ha rl es V t he h ig h d eg re e o f e nt hu si as m e vi nc ed

for the new ce le brity. B ut the issue t hat had m ost seized the public

i ma gi na ti on , a si de f ro m t he d ra ma o f L ut he r’s f at e, w as h is e vo ca ti on

o f t h e S cr ip t ur e p ri nc i pl e : Rei n E van gel i u m, t he ‘ Pu re G os pe l’ , w as t he

s l og a n o n e v er y on e ’s l i ps .

T hi s i s p ow er fu l a nd i mp or ta nt e vi de nc e, f or i t s ee ms t h at t ho se w ho

p r om o te d L ut he r’ s m es sa ge w er e a ls o a wa r e o f t he c ha rg e d a nd d iv er se

impl ications of t he evangelical ap prop riati on of the call for ‘Pure

G os pe l’ . F or t hi s w as a t o ne a nd t he s am e t im e a n u ne xc ep ti on al s ta te -

m en t o f a g en er al iz ed d es ir e f or C hr is ti an r eg en er at io n a nd a p ar ti sa n

s lo ga n : i mp os si bl e t o g ai ns ay i f t he f ir st , h ig h ly i nf la mm at or y w he n t h e

s e c o n d . T h e p o t e n t a m b i g u i t y o f t h e p h r a s e w a s w h a t g a v e i t i t s e x t r a o r -

d in ar y p ow e r, a p ow e r r ut hl e ss ly e xp lo i te d b y t he c i ty m ag is tr a te s w he n

t he y m ove d, u sua lly af te r a p ass ag e o f y ea rs , t o i ns ti tut io na li ze t he

Refor mation. The decisive moment of defe at and repu diatio n for

t he C at ho li c c le rg y w as o ft en c ou ch ed i n t er ms o f a n o rd er t ha t h en ce -

f or th o nl y P ur e G os pe l w as t o b e p re ac he d. T he t hr ea db ar e e vo ca ti on

o f a n on -p ar ti sa n p ur po se w as f in al ly a ba nd on ed w he n t he se o rd er s

w er e f ol lo we d b y a bo li ti on o f t he M as s a nd e xp ul si on o f t he r em ai ni ng

a dh er e nt s o f t h e o ld f ai th .

T h e p r o t e a n v e r s a t i l i t y o f t h e c a l l f o r t h e ‘ P u r e G o s p e l ’ w a s a l a r g e p a r t

o f i t s a p p e a l . E v a n g e l i c a l p r e a c h e r s c o u l d b u i l d a r o u n d t h e i r p l e a s f o r a n

i de al iz ed vi si on o f C hr ist ia n p ur it y a de nunc ia ti on o f c or ru pt l oc al

c le rg y, a nd t he c on de mn at io n o f a ny n um be r o f d ep l or ed p ra ct ic e s a nd

f i na n ci a l e x ac t io n s. I n m a ny p a rt s o f G e rm a ny , a s t h e ir a u di t or s r e v el l ed

i n t he al mo st d ai ly s ens at io ns s ur ro un di ng L ut he r’s st rug gl es , t hi s

p r ov ed a n i nt ox i ca ti ng b r ew. B ut f or L ut h er ’s m ov em e nt t h er e w as a ls o

a p ri ce t o b e p ai d. F or, i n T ho ma s B ra dy ’s m as te rf ul s um ma ti on , t he

r e fo rm e rs c ou ld n ot a lw ay s c on tr ol t he i nt e rp r et at io ns p la ce d o n t he ir

w o rd s . T h e e v an g el i c al l e ad e rs :

g a in e d h e ar i ng s l a rg e ly b e ca u se t h ey o ff e re d a n sw e rs t o l o ng - po s ed q u es t io n s,

a nd t he y s ow ed s ee d o n l on g- pr ep ar ed s oi l. E ve n w he n s uc h a ns we rs a nd s uc h

s ee d w er e n ot , f ro m t he p re ac he rs ’ p er sp ec ti ve , c en tr al t o t he ir G os pe l, t he y

h op ed t ha t b y a dd re ss in g s uc h q ue st io ns – u su ry, t it he s, c le ri ca l i mm un it ie s,

c l e r i c a l i n d i s c i p l i n e – t h e y w o u l d w i n a h e a r i n g f o r p u r e d o c t r i n e . L u t h e r s h o w e d

t h e w a y b y t r y i n g t o t o u c h e v e r y s e n s i t i v e n e r v e o f h i s d a y , a t t h e p r i c e o f s o w i n g

u n cl a ri t y a b ou t h i s m e ss a ge , t h ou g h n o t a b o u t h i s p e rs o n. Som e o f h is p ar ti sa ns

c am e t o s ee t he w or ld t hr ou gh h is m es sa ge ; o th er s d id n ot .29

29 Thomas Brady, T u r n i n g S w i s s : C i t i es a n d E m p i r e, 1 4 5 0 – 1 5 5 0 (Cambridge, 1985) , p . 1 5 3 .

Preaching 27



Th is i s w ell p ut . F or t he ur ba n r efo rm er s t he f rui ts o f vi ct or y w er e

a l w a y s t a i n t e d b y t h e n e e d t o r e i n i n t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h o s e r o u s e d b y

t he ir e vo ca ti on o f a w or ld r ef or me d a nd r en ew ed . N ec es sa ry t ho ug h

t ho se s up p or te rs w er e t o t he ir i ni t ia l t ri um ph , t h ei r e xp ec t at io ns c ou ld

b e a l on g- te rm c au se o f v ol at il it y a nd p ol it ic al i ns ta bi li ty. I n t hi s n ew

w or l d t he p re ac h er s w ou ld s tr u gg le t o r e- o ri en ta te t he e xp e ct at io ns o f

t he i r c on gr eg at i on s t o t h e t wi n i mp e ra ti ve s o f t r ue d oc t ri ne a nd w or ld ly

o b e d i e n c e . B u t t h i s i s t o l e a p a h e a d . F o r t h e m o m e n t w e n e e d t o r e - e n t e r

t he w or ld o f t ho se w ho s ou gh t t o b ri ng L ut he r’s m es sa ge t o l if e i n t he ir

o w n co m m un i ti es.

T h e e v a n g e l i c a l m e s s a g e m a d e i t s f i r s t i n r o a d s , n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , i n t h e

t ow ns a nd v il la ge s a ro un d Wi tt en b er g. I n Z wi ck au , L ut he r’ s c au se w as

t ak en up , am ong o th er s, b y J oh an n E gr anus , p re ac he r i n S t M ar y’s

c h u r c h u n t i l 1 5 2 1 , w h e n h e m o v e d o n t o J o a c h i m s t a l . O n e o f h i s a u d i t -

o rs , S te ph en R ot h, t oo k i nt er mi tt en t n ot es o n h is s er mo ns , p re ac he d

b et w ee n 1 51 9 a nd 1 52 2, i n b ot h p la ce s . To j ud ge b y t he se n ot e s E gr an us

o ff er ed a p ot p our ri o f c ur re nt i ssu es an d t he ol og ic al p re ce pt s. He

c r i t i c i z e d t h e P o p e a n d t h e c u l t o f s a i n t s ; h e a f f i r m e d t h e v a l i d i t y o f o n l y

t wo s ac ra me nt s , a nd d ec la re d t h at o nl y C hr is t w as m an ’s t ru e i nt e rc e s-

s or. N on e o f t h is w ou ld h av e d is tu r be d L ut h er, t ho ug h E gr an us n ev er

p r o cl a im e d a p e r so n al a l le g ia n ce t o t h e Wi t te n b er g r e fo r me r s .

‘ W e s h o u l d n o t ’ , h e s u g g e s t e d i n a s e r m o n o f 1 5 2 2 , ‘ b e d i v i d e d i n t o s e c t s s o t h a t

w e s a y , “ I a m a M a r t i n i a n , I a m a n E c k i t e , I a m a n E m s e r i t e , I a m a P h i l i p p i s t , I

a m a C a r l s t a d t e r , I a m a L e i p z i g e r , I a m a p a p i s t ” , a n d w h a t e v e r m o r e s e c t s t h e r e

m ay b e. I w il l f ol lo w S ai nt P au l a nd s ay t ha t I a m o f J es us C hr is t. I p r ea c h t h e

G o s p e l . . . I n s u m I a m a f o l l o w e r o f t h e G o s p e l a n d a C h r i s t i a n ’ .30

L ut he r w oul d h ave b ee n l es s t rou bl ed b y t his r ep udi at io n of p ar ty

a ll e gi an ce t h an b y t he f ac t t ha t T ho m as M un t ze r w a s n u mb e r ed a m on gE gr an us ’s c ol le ag u es a t Z wi ck au . M unt ze r w as a r ob ust and r ou si ng

p r e ac h e r. H i s a t ta c ks o n t h e m e n di c an t s f o un d c o ns i de r ab l e r e so n an c e,

n o t l e a s t b e c a u s e h e w a s p r e p a r e d t o s i n g l e o u t p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l s f o r

c ri ti ci sm . I nt er es ti ng ly, i t w as n ot t he u pr oa r t ha t f ol lo we d M untzer’s

s e r m o n s t h a t c o n c e r n e d t h e c i t y c o u n c i l . O n l y w h e n M u n t ze r t u rn e d h i s

f i r e o n h i s f e l l o w m i n i s t e r E g r a n u s d i d t h e c o u n c i l t u r n a g a i n s t h i m , a n d

r es o lv e t o s ee k a r e pl ac em en t .

E ve nt s i n Z wi ck au i ll us tr at e o ne i mp or ta nt m od el o f R ef or ma ti onp re ac hi ng : a n e st ab li sh ed a nd p ro mi ne nt m em be r o f t he l oc al c le rg y

p ro c la im in g a ll e gi an ce t o t h e G o sp el t ea ch i ng a nd a tt em pt i ng t o c ar ry

h is c on gr e ga ti o n w it h h im . T hi s m od el , f ol lo w in g t he p re ce p t o f L ut h er

30 K a ra n t- N un n , ‘ Wh a t w a s P r ea c h ed ? ’ , p . 8 4 .




h i m s e l f a n d Z w i n g l i i n Z u r i c h , b r o u g h t t h e R e f o r m a t i o n s o m e o f i t s m o s t

v al ua bl e a nd i nf lu en ti al a dh er en ts . E ls ew he re , h ow ev er, r ef or me d

p re ac hi ng c am e t o G er ma n a nd S wi ss c it ie s b y a m or e c om pl ic at ed

p r oc e ss . S om et im e s t he G o sp e l w ou ld b e p ro cl ai m ed b y a d ar in g n ew -

c o me r, d e fy i ng t h e e s ta b l is h ed c h ur c h h i e ra r ch y b y a p p ea l in g d i re c t ly t o

t he l ait y. E lse wh er e t he i ni tia ti ve f or an a pp oi nt me nt c am e fr om t he

c on gr e ga t io n i ts el f . I n Wo rm s i n 1 52 4 t he p ar is h o f S t M ic ha e l d ep os ed

i t s p a r i s h p r i e s t a n d a p p o i n t e d a f o r m e r m o n k w h o h a d t a k e n a w i f e . T h e

i ns pi ra ti on f or t he ir a ct io ns c am e f ro m t he p ar is h p ri es t o f S t M ag nu s,

w ho h ad t au gh t f or t he l as t t wo y ea rs t ha t e ve ry C hr is ti an c om mu ni ty

h a d t h e p o w e r t o e l e c t i t s o w n m i n i s t e r . I n t h i s e a r l y m o m e n t o f e v a n g e l -

ical fervo ur such teachi ng could cr eate a powerful bond b etw een

p r e a c h e r a n d p e o p l e . I n s e v e r a l p l a c e s c o n g r e g a t i o n s f o u g h t a n e x t e n d e d

b at tl e w it h a s ce pt ic al c it y c ou nc il f or t he r ig ht t o h ea r a n e va ng el ic al

m ini st er. I n Ha mb ur g g ro up s of e ng ag ed c it iz ens i n t he c it y’s f ou r

p ar is h es f ir st a rt ic ul at e d t h e w is h t o a pp oi nt a n e va ng el i ca l m in is t er i n

1 52 3, b ut t hr ee y ea rs w ou ld e la ps e b ef or e t he c ou nc il e ve nt ua ll y g av e

w a y . S u c h a p r o t r a c t e d s t r u g g l e i t s e l f p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n s h a p i n g

t h e R e fo r ma t io n m o ve m e nt , a s t h e f r us t r at e d p a ri s h io n er s w e re o b l ig e d

t o a rt i cu la te w it h e ve r g re at e r f or ce a nd c l ar it y t he ir r ea so ns f or j ud gi ng

t h ei r e xi st i ng c le rg y i na de q ua te . I n t h is s it ua ti o n c on fl ic t i ts el f p la ye d a

p e d a g o g i c r o l e , g u i d e d n o d o u b t b y a d v i c e r e c e i v e d b y l e a d e r s o f t h e n e w

m ov em e nt b o th w it h in a nd b ey o nd t he c it y g at es .

T h e c o m p l e x d y n a m i c a t w o r k i n t h e f i r s t R e f o r m a t i o n m o v e m e n t c a n

b e e ff e ct i ve l y i l lu s tr ated by the case of one of the leading cities of the

E m pi re, S tra sbo u rg .31 I n S tr as b ou rg , t he R ef or ma ti on w as i ni ti at e d b y

M at th ia s Z el l, p re ac he r i n t he C ha pe l o f S t L au re nc e. I n 1 52 1 h e w as

m o v e d f i r s t t o d e f e n d L u t h e r a g a i n s t h i s e n e m i e s , a n d t h e n t o a n n o u n c e

t hat h e h ims el f wo ul d p re ac h t he p ur e G os pe l ac co rd in g t o t he ne w

m et h od . T hi s w as g re et e d w it h p ub l ic e nt h us ia sm . A ft e r Z el l a tt e mp t ed

t o m ov e h is s er mo ns t o t he m ai n c at he dr al p ul pi t, o nl y t o f in d i t l oc ke d

a ga in st h im , l oc al c ar pe nt er s c on st ru ct ed a p or ta bl e p ul pi t t ha t w as

t ak en i nt o t he b od y o f t h e c at he d ra l f or e ac h s er mo n, a nd t h en c ar e fu ll y

s t or e d b y s u pp o r ti v e c i ti z en s .

P u b l i c s u p p o r t m a d e i t i m p o s s i b l e t o s i l e n c e Z e l l e v e n w h e n h e t u r n e d

h is f ir e o n t he b is ho p. Th e ye ar 1 52 3 b ro ug ht a ne w se ns at io n w he n a

l e a d i n g m e m b e r o f t h e c a t h e d r a l h i e r a r c h y , W o l f g a n g C a p i t o , t o o k t o t h e

p u l p i t t o a f f i r m t h e n e w m o v e m e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o a c o n t e m p o r a r y c h r o n -

i cl er, ‘ th e p eo pl e c ro wd ed r ou nd w it h w on de r, t ha t a p ro vo st s ho ul d

31 M ir i am U s he r C h ri s ma n , S tr as bo ur g a nd t he R ef or m. A S tu dy i n t he P ro ce ss o f C ha ng e( N ew H a ve n , C o nn . , 1967) , p p . 8 1 – 1 3 0.

Preaching 29



p r e a c h a n d c o n c e r n h i m s e l f w i t h s u c h t r i f l e s ’ . C a p i t o ’ s c o n v e r s i o n w a s a

m aj or s ur pr is e, b ut i t w as t he a ut ho ri ti es ’ a tt em pt t o d is ci pl i ne a m uc h

h um bl er f ig ur e, t he m ar ri ed p ri es t A nt on F ir m, t ha t p ro vo ke d t he d e-

c is iv e c on fr on ta ti on . A p et it io n r eq ue st in g t he c ou nc il t o p ro vi de t he

p ar is h c hu rc he s w it h e va ng e li ca l p re ac he r s w as f ol lo w ed b y a n o rc he s-

t ra te d a tt ac k o n t h e D om i ni ca n m on as te r y, a nd t h en a s e co nd p e ti ti on

m ak in g t hr ee m ai n d em an ds : t he a bo li ti on o f t he M as s, t he c lo su re o f

t he r el ig io us h ou se s, a nd t he r em ov al o f i do ls f ro m t he c hu rc he s. T he

c ou nc il f ou nd i ts el f o bl ig ed t o g iv e w ay ; a n e di ct o f E as te r 1 52 5 a gr ee d

t ha t t h e M as s s ho ul d b e a bo li s he d.

S inc e t he la y p et it ion o f 1 52 5 p ro ve d d ec isi ve i n t he c ase of S tr as-

b o u r g , i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o c o m p a r e i t s d e m a n d s w i t h t h e v i e w s a r t i c u l a t e d

b y t h e p r e a c h e r s i n t h e p r e c e d i n g f o u r y e a r s . O f t h e s e w e a r e r e a s o n a b l y

w el l i nf or me d, s in ce n ot ar ie s a ss ig ne d b y t he c at he dr al h ad a tt en de d

e v an g el i ca l s e rm o ns t o m o ni t or t h e v i ew s e x pr e s se d . A c co r di n g t o t h es e

a nd o th er a cc ou nt s , Z el l h ad p re ac h ed a ga in st t h e M as s, d en ie d P ur ga -

t o r y , a n d c e n s u r e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f t i t h i n g . C a s p a r H e d i o h a d e c h o e d t h e

c r i t i c i s m o f t i t h i n g , w h i l e M a r t i n B u c e r c o n t r i b u t e d a b l i s t e r i n g a t t a c k o n

t he l oc al c ul t o f S t A ur el ie . C ap it o w as m or e c on ci l ia to ry, a nd c al le d f or

m u tu a l u nd e rs t an d in g b e t we e n t h e c o nt e nd i ng p a rt i e s. W h at i s i n te r e st -

i n g i s t h a t t h e l a y p e t i t i o n e r s s h o u l d h a v e d i s t i l l e d f r o m t h e s e d i v e r s e a n d

w id e- ra ng in g c ri ti ci sm s a p oi nt ed a ge nd a t ha t f oc us ed c le ar ly o n t he

e ss en ti al s o f a l oc al p ro gr am me o f r ef or m. H er e o ne c an o nl y g ue ss a t

t he i nf or ma l p ro c es s o f n eg ot ia ti o n a nd r ec e ns io n f ro m w h ic h e me r ge d

s o c oh e re nt a m an if es t o.

F or t h e e va ng el ic al c le rg y, t hi s l ay p ar ti ci p at io n d id n ot c om e w it ho ut

a p r ic e . C o ng r e ga t io n s e n er g iz e d b y e v an g el i ca l p r ea c hi n g h a d a l so b e en

e mp ow er ed . T he y f el t, n ot s ur pr is in gl y, g re at ly s tr en gt he ne d i n t he ir

f ut ur e r el at io ns w it h a c le rg y t ha t t he y h ad fo ugh t so h ar d t o i ns ta ll .

Shorn of the sac rame ntal powe rs that had bolst ered even th e most

i na de qu at e o f t he p re -R ef or ma ti on c le rg y, t he n ew m in is te ri al c ad re

f ac e d a d em an di ng a ud ie nc e f ul l y c on sc io us o f t h ei r r ol e i n s ha pi ng t he

ne w c hurch. For th e p reac her in the p ulpit this cre ated an uneasy

d y na m ic t h at t h e R e fo r ma t io n n e ve r e n ti r el y r e so l ve d .

Taming the prophet

I n t he fi rs t ye ar s of t he Re fo rm at io n, p re ac hi ng o ft en p ro vi de d t he

de cis iv e i mp et us fo r l ay ac ti vi sm . S ome ti me s, a s i n t he St ras bo ur g

e xa mp le , a n o rd er ly p et it io n s uc ce ed ed i n e ns ur in g t he a br og at io n o f

t he M as s, o r t he r em ov al o f i ma ge s f ro m t he c hu rc he s. B ut s om et im es ,

w h e r e t h e a u t h o r i t i e s p r o v e d h e s i t a n t o r r e c a l c i t r a n t , t h e i r h a n d m i g h t b e




f or ce d b y u na ut ho ri ze d a ct i on . A tt ac k s o n c h ur ch b ui ld in gs t o r em ov e

t h e d is ap p ro ve d s ta t ue s a nd p ic t ur e s w er e a f ea tu re o f e ac h s ta ge o f t h e

R ef or m at io n m ov em en t, a nd o ft e n s uc h i co no cl as ti c a tt ac k s f ol lo we d

d i r e c t l y a f t e r i d o l s h a d b e e n d e n o u n c e d f r o m t h e p u l p i t . I n t h e w i n t e r o f

1 5 2 1 W i t t e n b e r g e x p e r i e n c e d a w a v e o f a t t a c k s o n c h u r c h p r o p e r t y a f t e r

L u t h e r ’ s c o l l e a g u e K a r l s t a d t h a d s p o k e n o u t a g a i n s t t h e i m a g e s – L u t h e r

w a s f o r c e d t o m a k e a r a p i d r e t u r n f r o m t h e W a r t b u r g t o q u e l l t h e u p r o a r .

T he se e ar ly s ti rs s et a p at te rn t ha t w ou ld b e r ep li ca te d a ga in a nd a ga in

w h e n m e m b e r s o f t h e n e w e v a n g e l i c a l c h u r c h e s w i s h e d t o f o r c e t h e i s s u e

i n t h e f a c e o f p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n . I n b o t h F r a n c e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e

R e l i g i o u s W a r s , a n d i n S c o t l a n d , c r i t i c a l i n c i d e n t s o c c u r r e d d i r e c t l y a f t e r

p ul pi t de nunc iat io ns of i do la tr y. Wh en J oh n Kn ox p re ac he d i n t he

p arish church of Holy Trinit y in St Andre ws in June 1559, wit h t he

S c ot t is h R e fo r m at i on d e li c a te l y p o is e d a nd o p po s it i o n f o rc e s m a rs h al -

l i n g a g a i n s t h i m , h e c h o s e a s h i s t e x t t h e G o s p e l s t o r y o f t h e c l e a n s i n g o f

t he Te mp le . T he c on cl us io n o f t he s er vi ce l ed d ir ec tl y t o f or ci bl e a nd

v io le n t r em ov al o f a ll t he i ma ge s f ro m t he b ur gh ’s p ar i sh a nd c at h ed ra l

ch urche s – th e reforme rs had seize d a dec is ive , and it woul d pro ve

i rr e ve rs ib le , i ni ti at i ve . A s im il ar m om en t o f p ol i ti ca l c at ha rs is f ol lo we d

t he ar ri val o f Pi er re Vi re t i n t he so ut he rn F re nc h c it ie s of Nım es a nd

M o nt p e ll i er i n 1 5 62 . S o m et i me s , i n r e tr o sp e c t, t h e r e fo r m ed l e ad e rs h ip

w o ul d a t te m p t t o d i st a nc e t h e ms e lv e s f r om d i re c t r e s po n si b il i t y f o r s u ch

a ct io ns , b ut t he a ut ho ri t ie s w er e n ot d ec ei ve d . F ew r ea ll y b el ie v ed t h at

b it t er a nd i nc en di ar y d en un ci at i on s o f i do ls c ou ld b e b al an ce d b y p io us

w ar ni ng s t o w ai t o n t he m ag is t ra te .

I c on oc la sm r ep re se nt e d t he m os t s pe ct ac ul ar c ol li si on b et w ee n t h e

c om pe ti ng i mp er at iv es o f r ef or ma ti on : t he r en ov at io n o f t he c hu rc h

and the preservat ion of soci al ord er. But it was not the first or only

o c ca s io n o n w h ic h t h e p a ss i on s r a is e d b y R e fo r m at i on p r ea c h in g w o ul d

t r ou b l e t h e n e w P r ot e st a nt s o ci e ti e s .

L u th e r s h ar e d a b so l ut e ly t h e b e li e f, p r om i ne n t a l so a m on g t h e c h ar i s -

m at ic p re ac he rs o f t he p re vio us g en er at ion , t hat w he n t he p re ac he r

m o u n t e d t h e p u l p i t G o d s p o k e t h r o u g h h i m . I t w a s t o h i m , a n d t o m a n y

t h a t f o l l o w e d i n t h e n e w P r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h e s , a n a w e s o m e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

T he E ng li sh P ro te st an t d iv in e R ic ha rd G re en ha m e xp er ie nc ed ‘ ve ry

shar p and t remb li ng fears in the flesh’ before preac hing, whic h he

attribut ed to t he malevolent ener gy expended by Sat an to stop his

mouth.32 I t c e r t a i n l y c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n u n f a m i l i a r i t y , s i n c e G r e e n h a m

p reache d eve ry day but one in the week and twic e on a Sunda y. The

32 K en ne th L . P ar ke r a nd E ri c J . C ar ls on , P r a ct i ca l D i v in i t y : T he Wo rk s a nd L if e o f R ev d R i ch a r d G r een h a m (A l d e r s h o t , S t A n d r e w s S t u d i e s i n R e f o r m a t i o n H i s t o r y , 1998) , p . 6 2 .

Preaching 31



s e ns e o f t h e r es po ns ib il i ty t h at c am e w it h c ha ri sm at ic a ut h or i ty w as o ne

t ha t u ni te d m an y p r ea ch e rs t h ro ug h t he R ef or ma ti on c en tu ry : t he m or e

s o a s i t w as s o o bv io us t ha t t h is r es p on si bi l it y c ou l d b e a bu se d.

F ro m t he f ir st d ay s o f t he e va ng el ic al m ov em en t L ut he r h ad f el t h is

m is si on t ro ub le d , e ve n i mp er il le d , b y t he r ec kl es s e nt h us ia sm o f t h os e

w h o t oo k o n t he b ur de n o f p ro p he c y w it h ou t q ua li f ic at io n o r c al li ng . I n

W i t t e n b e r g h i s p e r s o n a l a u t h o r i t y w a s s u f f i c i e n t t o r e i n i n K a r l s t a d t , a n d

t o q ue ll t he Z w ic ka u p r op he ts , b ut o th er s p ro ve d b e yo nd e ve n L ut he r ’s

p ow er s t o r es tr ai n. T he b it te r q ua rr el w it h T ho ma s M un tz er, a n e ar ly

e n t h u s i a s t w h o s e r a d i c a l e s c h a t o l o g i c a l f e r v o u r h a d l e d h i m t o e m b r a c e a

m ys ti ca l d oc ti ne o f r ed em pt i on t h ro ug h s uff er in g, i s a c as e i n p oi nt . F or

Mun tz er t oo , p re ac hi ng w as a m ea ns t o c al l t he p eo pl e t o r ep en ta nc e :

I f o ur wr etch ed, c rud e Ch ri sti an pe op le i s to b e s av ed . . . t he f ir st, an d a ll -

i m p o r t a n t s t e p i s t o l i s t e n t o a n e a r n e s t p r e a c h e r w h o , l i k e J o h n t h e b a p t i s e r , w i l l

c ry o ut p it eo us ly a nd d ol ef ul ly i n t he w as te p la ce s o f t he m ad , r ag in g h ea rt s o f

m e n , s o t h a t th ro ug h G od ’s w or k t he y m ay f in d t he w ay t o b ec om e r ec ep ti ve t o

G o d ’s w o r d.33

A lt h ou gh M un tz er ’s s oc ia l G os pe l f ou nd i ts b lo od y n em es is i n t he

P ea sa nt s’ Wa r, h is r ad ic al i nt er pr et at io n o f L ut he r’s c al l f or s pi ri tu al

r en e wa l h ad b r ou gh t t he e va ng el i ca l e nt er pr is e c lo se t o s hi p wr ec k . T hem ov em en t w ou ld f ac e m an y s uc h c h al l en ge s d ur in g t he y ea rs o f c hu rc h

b u i l d i n g . T h i s w a s h a r d l y a s u r p r i s e . T h e R e f o r m a t i o n h a d g a i n e d m u c h

o f i t s e a r l y f o l l o w i n g b y h a r n e s s i n g a v i s c e r a l s e n s e o f t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s o f

t he p re -R e fo rm at io n c l er gy. L ut he r’ s r es po ns e w as t o s tr ip t h e c l er gy o f

t h e ir v i ta l i n te r c es s or y p o w er, p o st u l at i ng i n st e ad a d i re c t, u nm e d ia t ed

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e C h r i s t i a n a n d h i s r e d e e m e r : a c o m p l e x o f i d e a s

s om et im es e nc ap su la te d i n t he c lu ms y f or mu la , ‘ th e p ri es th oo d o f a ll

b el i ev er s’ . B u t t h is w as a p ot en t p hr a se , w it h e mo ti o na l r es on an ce t ha tw en t b ey on d t he l im it ed t he ol og ic al i mp li ca ti on s t ha t L ut he r h ad i n

m in d. H is r at he r i de al iz ed v is io n o f a n e mp ow er ed l ai ty s to pp ed w el l

s ho rt o f t he g if t o f s pi ri tu al i nt er p re t at io n. I n h is v ie w, o nl y a l if et im e o f

c ont in uo us s tu dy e qu ip pe d on e f or t he aw es om e r es po ns ib il it y o f

preaching.

Th e p oi nt at w hi ch t he Re fo rm at io n e vol ve d f ro m a mo ve me nt o f

p ro te st t o b ui ld in g a n ew c hu rc h t he re fo re r eq ui re d a d iff ic ul t p ro ce ss

o f a dj us tm e nt . E ac h c hu rc h f ac ed a n e ar ly c h al l en ge f ro m e nt hu s ia st sw h o c ha fe d a t t he l im it at io ns o f i ns ti tu t io na l r e fo rm , a nd w ho s co rn e d

t h e d e a d l e t t e r o f S c r i p t u r e i f i t w e r e n o t r e v i v i f i e d b y i n s p i r e d p r o p h e t i c

33 To m S co tt , T ho ma s M u n tz er. T he ol og y a nd R ev ol ut io n i n t he G er ma n R ef or ma ti on(Basingstoke, 1989) , p . 6 3 .




i n te r p re t at i on . I n Z u ri c h d i sa p p oi n te d e a rl y s u pp o r te r s o f Z w in g li f o un d

r e fu ge i n a lt er na t iv e c om mu ni ti es l ed b y m en o f l it t le f or m al t h eo lo gi c al

e du ca t io n : a c om mo n c ha ra ct e ri st ic o f t he e ar ly A na ba pt is t m ov em en t .

A na bap ti sm f ou nd i ts g ri m ap ot he os is in t he f ia sc o o f M un st e r, p r o -

c la im ed t he N ew J er us al em i n 1 53 4 a mi ds t w il d e nt hu si as m f ro m i ts

r ad ic a li ze d p op ul at io n. F or P ro te st an ts a nd C at h ol ic s a li ke t hi s w as a

g ri m w ar ni ng o f t he c on se qu en ce s o f un re st rai ne d p ro ph ec y. A l ess

s pe ct a cu la r b ut s tu bb o rn ly e nd ur i ng p ro bl em w as t ha t p os e d b y m i ni s-

t e r s , o f t e n f o r m e r p r i e s t s , w h o a d h e r e d t o t h e n e w m o v e m e n t , b u t l a c k e d

e it he r t he t he ol og ic al d is ci pl in e o r t he l ea rn in g t o s er ve i t. I n t he n ew

L ut h er a n c hu rc he s o f t he G er ma n p ri nc e ly s ta te s t he m os t o bv io u s c as e

w as o f f or m er p ar is h p ri es t s w ho t ra ns fe rr e d t o t h e n ew c h ur ch w it ho ut

a n y c l e a r c o n c e p t o f h o w t h e i r n e w d u t i e s d i f f e r e d f r o m t h o s e o f t h e o l d

M ass p rie st s t he y h ad b ee n. B ut e ve n i n t he se con d g ene rat io n, t he

C al vi ni st m ov e me nt s i n F ra nc e a nd t he N et he r la nd s w er e a ff li ct ed b y

m an y r ec ru it s o f q ue st io na bl e a bi li ty. I n F ra nc e, t he p ac e o f g ro wt h o f

t h e H u g u e n o t m o v e m e n t b e t w e e n 1 5 6 0 a n d 1 5 6 3 ( f r o m a m e r e h a n d f u l

t o o ve r o ne t ho us an d c hu rc he s) m ea nt t ha t i t w as s im pl y i mp os si bl e t o

k ee p c l os e c on tr o l o ve r t ho se w h o p ro po se d t he m se lv es f or m in is te ri a l

o ff ic e. T he F re nc h n at io na l s yn od s i ss ue d r eg ul ar l is ts o f e xp el le d o r

d is qu al i fi ed m i ni st e rs , w ar ni ng c hu rc he s t o b ew ar e l es t t he y a tt em p t t o

i nt r ud e t he m se lv es e ls ew h er e. S om e o f t he se d es c ri pt io ns r ea d l ik e a n

e c c le s ia s t ic a l w a nt e d p o st e r :

O n e C h a rl i r o r Ch ar l e s, w h o s ay s o f h im se l f t h at h e w a s a C o u ns el lo r o f

G re no bl e . . . a m an o f m ea n s ta tu re , h is b ea rd w ax in g g re y, d ep os ed f ro m t he

m in is tr y o f U ze rc he b y t he b re th re n o f L im og es f or l yi ng , c he at in g, f or ge ri es ,

r og ui sh t ri ck s, d ru nk en ne ss , u nc ha st e k is si ng s, a nd a t P am ie r f or d an ci ng a nd

c o nt u ma c y a g ai n st t h e c h ur c h. T h is f e ll ow i n tr u de s h i ms e lf i n to a l l p l ac e s w h er e

h e c an g et a dm it ta nc e t o p re ac h.

S im on d u P le ss is , g oi ng b y t he n am es o f M r P et er G ru ei ll , L a M ul le , N ev il l,

G r an d -c h am p o, L a J a un i er e, f or me rl y a F ra nc is ca n f ri ar, d ep os ed a t O rb ec b y

t h e c l a s s i s o f E u r e u x , b e c a u s e w i t h o u t a n y c a l l o r o r d i n a t i o n h e h a d u s u r p e d t h e

m i ni s tr y o f t he G os p el , q u it t in g a n d r e ta ki n g a t p l ea s ur e h i s f r ia r ’s w ee d s.

Jean Clopet, alias Chald, a wretch full of heresies, a champion for the Mass

a ss er ti ng i ts g oo dn es s, i n t wo p oi nt s o nl y e xc ep te d, v iz . p ra ye rs u nt o t he s ai nt s

a nd t he d ea d. M ai nt ai ni ng t ha t t he g oo d a nd b ad h av e e qu al p ri vi le ge t o c om -

m un ica te i n th e bod y of Ch ri st . . . an d th at Ca lvi n di d ve ry i ll i n wr itin g o f

predestination. He is a m an o f m ea n s tat ur e, o f y el lowi sh b ea rd a nd s pe aks

s o me wh a t t h i ck .34

34T he S ix th N at io na l S yn od , Ve rt eu il , 1 S ep te mb er 1 56 7. C it ed D uk e, L ew is a ndPettegree, C a l vi n i sm i n E u r o pe. D o cu m en t s, p . 9 8 .

Preaching 33



T he c hu rc h es ’ r es po ns e w as t o i ns ti tu t e a r eg im e o f t ra in in g, i f n ec es -

s a r y i n - s e r v i c e , t o e n s u r e t h a t t h o s e c h a r g e d w i t h t h e c u r e o f s o u l s c o u l d

s u st a in t h ei r r e sp o ns i bi l it i es w i th d i gn i ty. A n e a rl y a nd i n fl u en t ia l m o de l

o f t ra in in g w as t he Z ur ic h Prophezei . I ni ti at ed b y Z ur ic h i n 1 52 5, t he

Prophezei w as a r eg ula r g at he rin g of t he c it y c le rgy, al so at te nd ed b y

se nior student s of the Latin scho ol, at which Bible t ext s would be

s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e x a m i n e d , b o t h i n t h e o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e s a n d t h e v e r n a c u -

l ar. T he Prophezei w as p ar t o f a w ho le sa le r e- or ga ni za ti on o f t he c it y’s

e d u c a t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n , a n d t h i s w a s a g e n e r a l f e a t u r e o f t h e n e w P r o t e s t -

a n t p o l i t i e s , e c h o e d i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e G e n e v a n A c a d e m y , t h e n e w

P ro te st an t u ni ve rs it ie s i n G er ma ny, a nd n ew P ro te st an t c ol le ge s i n

C am br id ge . T he c or ne rs to ne o f a ll t he se ac ad em ic e nt er pr ise s w as

k no w le dg e o f S cr ip t ur e , c on ve y ed b y s ys t em at ic l ec t ur es , a nd u nd er -

p in ne d b y t ec hn ic al t ra in in g i n t he s ch ol ar ly l an gu ag es . I n t he s ec on d

g en er at io n t he n ew c hu rc he s a ls o b eg an t o p la ce f ar m or e e mp ha si s o n

t he f or m al p r oc e ss o f o rd in at io n, t h ou gh t hi s w as n or m al ly p er fo rm e d

b y t he c hu rc h t o w hi ch a m in is te r w as c al le d, a ft er e xa mi na ti on o f h is

g if ts , r at he r t ha n a s p ar t o f a t er mi na l e xa mi na ti on i n t he e du ca ti on al

institutions.

G e n e v a w a s u n u s u a l a m o n g t h e n e w r e f o r m e d a c a d e m i e s i n t h e a t t e n -

t io n i t g av e t o p ra ct ic a l t r ai ni ng . P ro mi s in g s tu de nt s w er e o ft e n s en t o ut

i nt o G e ne va ’s d ep en de nt v il l ag es t o s er ve a n a pp re n ti ce sh i p i n t he r ur al

s c h o o l o f h a r d k n o c k s b e f o r e b e i n g t r u s t e d w i t h a m a j o r c i t y p a r i s h . E v e n

s o , t h e re s t il l r e ma i ne d t e ns i on s b e tw e e n t h e a c ad e mi c t r ai n in g a v ai l ab l e

a n d t h e m o r e h u ma n s k il l s t h at c h ar a ct e r iz e d s u cc e ss f ul p a ri s h m i ni s tr y.

T h e i s s u e w a s r a i s e d s p e c i f i c a l l y i n c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n G e n e v a a n d

t he c hur ch in R oue n, N or mand y, i n 1 61 3, w he n t he Ro ue n c hur ch

q u e s t i o n e d t h e a p t i t u d e o f t w o m e n G e n e v a h a d p r o p o s e d t o s e r v e t h e m :

A s f or t he s ec on d o ne , w ho m y ou s ay w as b or n a nd r ai se d i n y ou r c hu rc h a nd

w ho m y ou u se d f or a whi le a s a r ep la ce me nt p re ac he r i n an ex tr ao rd in ar y

a ss em bl y n ea r t he c it y, b ec au se w e a re n ot s ur e o f t he s tr en gt h o f h is v oi ce , w e

f ea r i t w il l n ot b e h ea rd b y t he f ou r t o f iv e t ho us an d p eo pl e w ho m ak e u p t hi s

c hu rc h, a p oi nt w hi ch we r ai se d s pe ci fi ca ll y w he n we wr ot e t o t wo o f t he

m em be rs o f y ou r c om pa ny. Yo u d o n ot m en ti on t hi s ma t te r w h en d e sc r ib i ng

t h is m a n, b u t o n ly r e co m me n d h i s m o ra l s a n d l e ar n in g .35

Whe n Ri chard Green ham gave up his F ellows hip at Pem brokeC ol le ge C am br id ge t o t ak e o n a p ar is h c ha rg e a t D ry D ra yt on i t w as t o

f ul fi l a n u rg en t c al li ng t o t he p ar oc hi al m in is tr y. B ut i ts g eo gr ap hi ca l

35 K a r i n M a a g , S e m in a ry o r U n iv e rs i ty ? T h e G e ne v a n A c ad e my a n d R e fo r me d H i gh e r E d uc a -t i o n , 1 5 6 0 – 16 2 0 (A l d e r s h o t , S t A n d r e w s S t u d i e s i n R e f o r m a t i o n H i s t o r y , 1995) , p . 1 1 0 .




p r ox im i ty a ls o a ll ow ed h im t o e st ab li sh a s or t o f h ou se ho l d s em i na ry t o

a ss is t e ag e r y ou ng g ra du at es g ai n p ra ct ic al e xp er ie nc e b e fo re p lu ng in g

i n to p a st o ra l r e sp o ns i bi l i ti e s. I n o t he r p l ac e s e n er g e ti c m i ni s t er s b a nd e d

t og et h er i n i nf or m al c om bi na ti on s f or m ut ua l s up p or t a nd c on ti nu in g

b ib li ca l e du ca ti on . I t w as u nf or tu na te t ha t i n E ng la nd s uc h c om bi n-

a ti on s e xc it ed t he d is ap p ro va l o f p ol it i ca l l ea de rs t h ro ug h t h ei r a ss oc i -

a ti on w it h f or wa rd c ri ti cs o f t he e st ab li sh ed c hu rc h. B ut E ng la nd w as

u n u s u a l i n a n u m b e r o f r e s p e c t s , n o t l e a s t i n i n s t i t u t i n g a s e p a r a t e t i e r o f

l i ce n se d p r ea c he r s a s a n i n di v id u al l y s e l ec t ed s u bs e t o f t h e p a ri s h m i ni s -

t ry. E lsewhe re in Prot est ant Eur op e it was t aken for granted that a

p r op e r ly c a ll e d m i ni s t er w o ul d b e a p r e ac h in g m i ni s te r.

W h a t t h e n d o w e k n o w o f t h e q u a l i t y a n d i m p a c t o f t h i s p r e a c h i n g , i n

t he g ene ra ti on s w he n t he P ro te st an t c hu rc he s g re w t o ma tur it y ? As

h as al re ad y b ee n t he c ase , s om e o f t he b est e vi de nc e fo r t he p rac ti ca l

d iv in it y o f t he P ro te st an t c le rg y c om es f ro m n ot es t ak en b y t ho se w ho

sat in the congrega tion. Re cent ly Mar go Todd has undert aken an

e xh au st iv e s ur ve y o f t hi s s ur vi vi ng e vi de nc e f or t he c as e o f S co tl an d,

a nd h er c on cl us io ns a re w or th c it in g i n d et ai l, f or a v ig ne tt e o f w ha t a t

l ea st a n i mp or ta nt s ub se t o f l it er at e a ud it or s m ad e o f t he p re ac he rs ’

perf o rm a n ce:

W ha t s tr ik es m od er n r ea de rs . . . a re t he r ep et it io n o f t he me s, s o u se fu l f or o ra l

t r an s mi s si o n o f c o mp l ex i d ea s ; t h e f r e q ue n cy o f n u mb e re d l i st s o f i d ea s , a g ai n a

p r a c t i c a l d e v i c e t o a i d m e m o r y ; t h e s i m p l i c i t y a n d v i v i d n e s s o f t h e l a n g u a g e ; a n d

t he c om bi na ti on o f r at he r d ry e xp os it io n o f t ex t – p ur el y a t ra ns mi ss io n o f d ata

a n d d o c t r i n e – w i t h i n t e n s e l y e mo t i o n a l a n d e v o c a t i v e l a n gu a ge i n e xh o r t a t i o n .36

I f w e t a k e t h i s a s a n a c c u r a t e s u r v e y o f t h e e f f e c t i v e P r o t e s t a n t s e r m o n ,

w e d i s c e r n h e r e a s h r e w d b l e n d o f c e r t a i n t i m e l e s s f e a t u r e s , s t a n d a r d s o f

t h e p r ea c he r ’s c r af t s i nc e b e fo r e t h e R e fo r ma t io n , w i th c e rt a in e l em e nt sp e cu li ar t o P ro te s ta nt is m. T he e ss en ti a l a nd n ec es sa ri ly s om ew ha t d ry

B ib li c al e xp os it io n i s b al an ce d b y t h e i nt e ns e e mo ti o na l e ng ag em en t o f

t h e p r ea ch e r, a nd t he c l ea r a pp li ca ti o n o f t he B ib l ic al p r ec ep ts t o t he l iv es

o f t h e c om mu ni ty. S co t ti sh p r ea ch e rs g en er al ly f ol lo w ed t h e R e fo rm a-

t io n p ri nc ip le o f p re ac hi ng s eq ue nt ia l s er mo ns w hi ch m ov ed s te ad il y

t hr oug h a b oo k o f t he B ib le – s om et ime s w he n t he y h ad fi nis he d o ne

b ook they woul d ask t he advice of the ir kirk session as to wh at th ey

s ho ul d u nd er ta k e n ex t . A ll s er mo ns w er e e xp ec t ed t o p ro ce e d t o a c le armodel or for m, in thre e essentia l part s. An openi ng point by point

r ec ou nt in g of t he B ib lic al t ex t w ou ld gi ve w ay t o a mi dd le p ass ag e of

36Margo Todd, T h e C u l t u r e o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m i n E a r l y M o d e r n S c o t l a n d (N e w H a v e n , C o n n . ,2002) , p . 5 0 .

Preaching 35



e xe ge s is , b e fo re t ur n in g, i n t he f in al s ec t io n, t o t h e a pp li ca ti o n o r ‘ us e’ .

I n t his f in al s ec ti on p re ac he rs o ft en m ove d q ui ck ly fr om i mp ar ti ng

k no w le dg e t o v ig or ou s d en un ci at i on s o f s in . I t w as i mp or t an t t o m ai n-

t ai n a b al an ce o f c om fo rt a nd t er ro r : s om e m in is te rs k ep t c he ck li st s o f

d oc tr in es a pp ro p ri at e t o e ac h p ur p os e . B ut a bo ve a ll t he c on gr e ga t io ns

e xp ec te d v is ib le s ig ns o f e mo ti on . T he a bi li ty t o t ra ns fe r h is o wn e mo -

tional intensity to the auditory was wide ly regard ed as a sign of an

e ff e ct i v e p r e ac h e r. T h e c h ar i sm a ti c E d in b ur g h p r ea c he r R o be r t R o ll o ck

d ev el op ed s uc h a h ol d o n h is a ud ie nc e t h at h e s uc ce e de d i n p er su ad in g

t he c it y f at he r s t o a ut ho ri ze a t h ir d S un da y s er m on .

O n t h e S a b b a t h m o r n i n g a t s e v e n o ’ c l o c k – a t h i n g w h i c h h a d n e v e r b e e n d o n e i n

E d i n b u r g h b e f o r e – h e b e g a n t o p r e a c h , a n d t h a t w i t h s u c h d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h eS pi ri t a nd o f p owe r, w it h s uc h m ig ht y f or ce o f s en ti me nt, a nd s uc h g ra ve

i mp re ss iv en es s o f s ty le , t ha t t he m in ds o f t he g re at er p ar ts o f h is h ea re rs w er e

s t i r r e d u p , a n d t h e y w e r e i r r e s i s t i b l y i m p e l l e d t o a d m i r e t h e p r e a c h e r . F o r he not

o nl y e xc it ed t he o rd in ar y c la ss o f h ea re rs , b ut h e a ff ec te d m en o f l ea rn in g.37

S u ch a c c ou n ts c o ul d h a ve b e en r e p li c at e d a l l o v er P r ot e st a nt E u ro p e ,

t ho ug h t he s er mo n t ra di t io n d id d iff er f ro m p la c e t o p la ce . I n L ut h er an

G e r m a n y , e v o c a t i o n s o f t h e D e v i l p l a y e d a m u c h m o r e p r o m i n e n t p a r t i n

s e r m o n c u l t u r e t h a n e l s e w h e r e – a p r o t e a n d o c t r i n e o f d e n u n c i a t i o n t h a tc oul d b e t ur ne d a gai ns t si n, t he Tu rk , p ap ist , o r Ca lvi ni st s. To t he

E ng li sh ma n R ic ha rd G re en h am , r ef le ct i ng o n t he p r ea ch e r’s a rt , i t w as

p ri nc i pa ll y ‘ ne ce s sa ry t ha t t he M in is t er o f G od d oe v er y s ha rp l y r eb uk e

t he p eo pl e f or t he ir s in ne s, and t ha t h e l ay b ef or e t he m G od ’s g r ie vo us

j u dg e m en t s a g ai n st s i nn e r s’ .38 So long as such structures were not

d ir ec te d a ga in st s pe ci fi c i nd iv id ua ls , s uc h c au st ic J er em ia ds c au se d

m uc h l es s r es en tm en t t ha n o ne m ig ht i ma gi ne . F or t he p ro ph et ic r ol e

w as w el l un de rs to od, e ve n se en as se em ly an d p ro pe r. I n t he e ndl essc o m p e t i t i o n t o e n t e r t h e n a r r o w d o o r t h a t l e d t o t h e k i n g d o m o f h e a v e n ,

f ew e xp ec t ed t o b e c on gr at ul at e d t h at t he ir p la ce w as a ss ur e d.

A ll o f t hi s w as c le ar ly u nd er st oo d, s o l on g a s p re ac he rs k ep t w it hi n

c er t ai n r e co gn i ze d l im i ts . I t w as s el do m w is e t o d en ou nc e s pe ci f ic i nd i-

v id ua ls , e sp ec ia ll y p eo pl e o f i nf lu en ce . N or c ou ld o ne r is k t oo m uc h

g en er al iz ed c ri ti ci s m o f t h e f or c es o f a ut ho ri t y. I n a ll o f E ur op e m ag is -

t ra te s k ep t a c ar ef ul w at ch t ha t t he e mo ti on al d is pl ay o f p ul pi t o ra to ry

w a s k e p t i n b o u n d s ; a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t c r i t i c i s m o f i m m o r a l i t y d i d n o ts t r a y t o w a r d s c r i t i c i s m o f p u b l i c a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t f a i l e d t o a c t t o r e p r e s s i t .

O n e p r e a c h e r w h o c l e a r l y o v e r s t e p p e d t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e p e r m i s s i b l e

37 Ibid., p . 2 9 .38 P a r k e r a n d C a r ls o n , P r a ct i ca l D i v in i t y, p . 6 6 .




w as t he f am ou s B ro th er C or ne li s of B rug es , a z eal ou s an d v eh em ent

oppon ent of the Refo rmation, who chose the polit ically sensiti ve

m om en t o f 1 56 6 t o e mb ar k o n a r em ar ka bl e t ir ad e f ro m t he p ul pi t :

‘ Yo u F le mi ng s’ , h e s ho ut s w hi le j um pi ng u p a nd d ow n a nd b as hi ng t he p ul pi t,‘ ar e t he m os t r eb el li ou s o f a ll D ut ch me n. I t’s a f la w i n y ou r c ha ra ct er, y ou h av e

a l wa y s r e vo l te d a g ai n st y o ur p r in c es . Yo u w er e t h e f i rs t o n es t o t u rn a g ai n st t h e

c at ho li c r el ig io n a nd t o p re ac h a ll k in ds o f h er es ie s. Yo u a re t he i ni ti at or s o f

I co no cl as m. T he re fo re I a dv is e y ou t o k ee p q ui et a nd t o s hu t u p. S hi t a ll o ve r

y o u r s e l v e s ! A l l m i s f o r t u n e s , m i s e r i e s , p l a g u e s w i l l b e f a l l y o u . I n s h o r t , y o u w i l l b e

s l a v e s f o r e v e r , y o u a r e f i n i s h e d a n d s o a r e a l l y o u r l a w s a n d p r i v i l e g e s . F r o m n o w

o n I d o n ’ t w a n t t o p a y a n y a t t e n t i o n t o y o u a n y m o r e . I s h i t o n y o u r r i g h t s , I w i p e

m y a ss w it h y ou r p ri vi le ge s ! ’

N at ur al ly t hi s f lo w of vi tr io l l ef t h is aud ie nc e s tu nne d. B ut wh en

B ro th er C or ne li s b eg an t o i nv ok e t he m as sa cr e o f t he I nn oc en ts , f ea r

t u rn e d t o d i sm a y.

S om e p eo pl e r an o ut o f t he c hu rc h, l oo ki ng b ac k o ve r t he ir s ho ul de rs , o th er s

c r o s s e d t h e m s e l v e s a n d s h o u t e d , ‘ G o d s a v e u s ! ’ P e o p l e c r i e d , c h i l d r e n s c r e a m e d ,

b e ca u se b r ot h er C or n el i s h i ms e lf w a s s c re a mi n g, b a sh i ng t h e p u lp i t, s t am p in g

h is f ee t, j um pi ng u p a nd d ow n a nd t hr as hi ng a ro un d. P eo pl e i n t he s tr ee ts w er e

t e l li n g e a c h o t h er, ‘B ro th er C or ne li s i s a s n ut ty a s a f ru it ca ke . G od h el p h im t o

r e ga i n h i s s e ns e s’ .39

T hi s w as t oo s en si ti ve a m om en t t o a ll ow a m in is te r t o f ur th er r ou se

t he p op ul ac e, a nd B ro th er C or ne li s w as s oo n d ep ri ve d o f h is p ul pi t. I n

l es s t ro ub le d t im es t he a ut ho ri ti es w er e p re pa re d t o a ll ow p re ac he rs a

l ar ge d eg re e o f l ic en ce . T he r el at io ns hi p b et we e n p r ea c he rs a nd m ag is -

t r at e s w a s m u tu a ll y s u pp o r ti v e, f o r a l l t h e d a y- t o -d a y f r us t r at i on s . I n t h e

N et he rl a nd s t h e r ef or m ed c le rg y r es en te d t h e f ac t t ha t t he m ag is tr a te s

w er e n ot p re pa re d t o e nf or ce s tr ic t m ea su re s t o e ns ur e c hu rc h a tt en d-a nc e a nd s up p re ss c om pe t ing s e ct s, a nd o ft e n v oi ce d t h es e f ru st ra ti on s

t o t he ir o wn c on gr e ga ti on s.40 B ut t he m ag is tr at es w er e s lo w t o a ng er.

They, after all, held t he strongest hand, since t hey b oth owne d t he

c h ur ch b ui ld i ng s a nd p ai d m in i st e ri al s al ar ie s. F or a ll t he ir c om pl a in ts ,

p o si t io n s i n t h e m o st p r es t i gi o us c i t y c h u r c he s w e re k e en l y s o ug h t a f te r,

a nd p re ac h in g a bi li t y w as t he e ss en ti a l k ey t o p ro mo ti o n. Yo un g m en o f

39 K a re l B o st o en , ‘ R ef o rm a ti o n, C o un t er - Re fo r ma t io n a n d L i te r ar y P r op a g an da i n t h eL ow C ou nt ri es i n t he S ix te en th C en tu ry : T he C as e o f B ro th er C or ne li s’ , i n N . S co ttA mo s, A nd re w P et te gr ee a nd H en k v an N ie ro p ( ed s. ) T he E du ca ti on o f a C hr is ti anS o ci et y . H u m a n i s m a n d R ef o r m a t i o n i n B r i t a i n a n d t h e N et h er l a n d s (A l d e r s h o t , S t A n d r e w sS t u d ie s i n R e f o rm a t io n H i s t or y , 1999) , p p. 1 75 –6 .

40 A nd re w P et te g re e, ‘ Co mi ng t o Te rm s w it h V ic to ry : T he U pb ui ld in g o f a C al vi ni stC h ur c h i n H o ll a nd , 1572–1590’ , i n D uk e, L ew is a nd P et te gr ee , C a lv i ni s m i n E u ro p e,p p . 1 6 0 – 8 0.

Preaching 37



a bi li t y c ha fe d v ol ub ly i f c on si gn e d t o a n u nr e wa rd in g r ur al p ar is h , b ut

f or t h os e i n t h e p ri nc i pa l p ul p it s h ig h s ta nd ar ds w er e e xp ec t ed . P re ac h-

i ng w as , a bo ve a ll , p hy si ca ll y d em an di ng . D el iv er in g s er mo ns f or a n

h ou r o r m or e t o l ar ge c on gr eg at io ns i n t he c av erno us D ut c h c hu rc h es

p la ce d a h ea vy s tr ai n o n s ta mi na a nd l un gp o we r.41 E ve n i n t he s ma ll er

Sco ttish church es th e demands of mul ti pl e S un da y an d w ee kd ay

s e r mo n s l e ft m a ny m i ni s te r s e x h au s te d .42

R ela ti ons b et we en c hu rc h and s tat e w er e o ft en t ens e, s om et im es

a c ri m on i ou s , b u t e s se n t ia l ly m u tu a ll y s u pp o r ti v e. T h ro u gh o ut P r ot e st -

a nt E ur op e c on gr eg at io ns l ai d o ut c on si de ra bl e f un ds i n b ui ld in g t he

f ab ri c o f t he n ew w or sh ip s er vi ce , n ot l ea st t hr ou gh t he e re ct io n o f f in e

n ew p ul pi ts t ha t b y t he ir i mp os in g p hy si ca l p re se nc e w ou ld p ro pe rl y

r ef l ec t t h e n ew c en tr al it y o f t he s er mo n. I n G e rm an y, S co t la nd a nd t he

N e t h e r l a n d s s u c h f i n e l y c r a f t e d w o r k s i n s t o n e o r w o o d w e r e a f e a t u r e o f

m a n y c h u r c h e s , n e w a n d o l d ; i n N o r w a y t h e L u t h e r a n w o o d e n p u l p i t s o f

t he p os t- Re fo rm at io n p er io d a re s om e o f t he m os t b ea ut if ul o f a ll r el i-

g i ou s a r te f ac t s. I n n e w b u il d in g s t h e i n t er n al a r ch i t ec t ur e o f te n r e fl e ct e d

a n e le ga nt r es o lu ti on o f t he c om pe t in g c la i ms t o i nf lu en c e a nd r ul e t ha t

m ar ke d a ny e ar ly m od er n s oc i et y. T he n ew c hu rc h a t B ur nt is la nd , F if e

( 16 13 ), wa s c ons tr uc te d t o t he m ost m od er n p ri nc ip le s, w it h a f ine

o rn at e g al le ry a nd a n i mp o si ng c l os ed p ew f or t he l ai rd . I t a pp e ar s v er y

l or dl y, u nt il o ne m ount s t he p ulp it . F ro m h er e, di re ct ly i n h is l ine o f

s ig ht a nd l es s t ha n f iv e y ar ds a wa y, t he m in is te r l oo ke d d ir ec tl y d ow n

u p on t h e l a ir d ’s p e w : f a r f r om p r ov i di n g p r iv i le g e d p r iv a cy , e v e ry f i dg e t,

y aw n o r a tt e mp t a t d iv er si on w ou ld b e d ir ec tl y u nd er h is e ye .

T he p re di ca me nt o f t he l ai rd o f B ur nt is la nd o ff er s a n a pp ro pr ia te

c lo si ng v ig ne tt e w it h w hi ch t o r ef le ct o n t he p ow er fu l i nf lu en ce o f t he

R e f o r m a t i o n p r e a c h i n g t r a d i t i o n . T h e r e i s l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t f r o m t h e f i r s t

d a y s o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n p r e a c h i n g p l a y e d a f o r m a t i v e r o l e i n s h a p i n g t h e

n e w m o v e m e n t ; a n d i t w o u l d c o n t i n u e t o p l a y a v i t a l p a r t i n s h a p i n g t h e

n e w P r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h e s i n t h e g e n e r a t i o n s a h e a d . T h e s e r m o n p r o v i d e d

t h e i d e a l v e h i c l e t o e x p r e s s t h e b i b l i o c e n t r i c c o r e o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m : i n i t s

t u r n i t s w i f t l y b e c a m e t h e c o r e o f a l l P r o t e s t a n t w o r s h i p . I f s e r m o n s w e r e

an occasional , even somewha t exoti c par t of the pre -R eformati on

w or sh ip e xp er ie nc e, t his w as ne ve r t he c as e i n any o f t he m ag is te ri al

P ro te st ant c hu rc he s. T he s er mon b ec am e t he c en tr al p ivo t a ro und

w h ic h P ro t es ta nt w or sh ip w as s ha pe d . T he n ew P ro te st a nt p eo pl e l iv ed

41 O ne c hu rc h i n t he N et he rl an ds s ad ly h ad t o r ej ec t a n o th er wi se s at is fa ct or y m in is te rp ur el y o n t he g ro un ds t ha t h is v oi ce w as n ot r ob us t e no ug h t o c ar ry.

42 Todd, C u l t u re o f P r o t es t a n ti s m, p p . 2 8 – 9 .




o n a d ie t o f se rm ons : a t e ve ry S un day o bse rvan ce , an d of te n t hr ou gh

t h e w ee k.

T he r ol e o f p re ac hi ng a ls o t el ls u s m uc h a bo ut t he c ul tu re o f t he n ew

P ro te st a nt c hu rc h es . T hi s w as i nt en se ly b ib li c al . S er mo ns a ss um e d a

h i g h l e v e l o f i n t e r e s t i n , i f n o t a l w a y s k n o w l e d g e o f , t h e t e x t a n d m e a n i n g

o f S c r i p t u r e . T h e e x p o s i t o r y m e t h o d l e d c o n g r e g a t i o n s p a t i e n t l y t h r o u g h

t h e b o o k s o f t h e B i b l e , f a m i l i a r a n d u n f a m i l i a r . T h e l o n g r e g u l a r h o u r s o f

t h e e xp os i to ry s er m on t hu s p la ye d a n i mp or ta nt c at e ch is ma l f un c ti on ,

e ve n o ut si de t he f or ma l c at ec hi sm s er mo ns s et b y m an y c hu rc he s f or

S un da y a ft e rn oo ns . M os t o f a ll , s er m on s a do pt e d a m e th od a nd p at te r n

e n ti r el y a p pr o pr i at e f o r i l li t e ra t e a nd s e mi - li t e ra t e p o p ul a ti o n s : t h e p u r-

p os ef ul u se o f l is ts , p ai re d c on tr as ts , r ep et it io n, s um ma ry a nd r ei te r-

a ti on . I t w as t he b ed ro ck a ro un d w hi ch t he c hu rc he s h ar ne ss ed o th er

co m m un i ca tio n m ed i a.

Preaching 39



3 Militant in song

A C at ho li c v is it or t o a P ro t es ta nt w or sh ip s er vi ce i n s ix te e nt h- c en tu ry

E ur op e w ou ld i mm ed ia te ly h av e b ee n s tr uc k b y s ta rk c on tr as ts t o t he

fami liar tradi tion of h is own up bri nging. The scal e of the physical

a lt e ra ti on s w ou ld o bv io us ly v ar y, d ep e nd in g o n w h et h er h e h ad s tu mb -

l ed up on a c hu rc h c le an se d o f al l i ma ge s f or C al vi ni st w or sh ip , or a

Lutheran c hurch, in whic h th e intern al fab ric might be largely un-

t ou ch ed . B ut i t i s u nl ik el y, o ne m ig ht s ur mi se , t ha t i f t he s er vi ce w er e

i n p ro gr es s, h is m in d w ou ld l in ge r m uc h o n a rc hi te ct ur e a nd i nt er na l

d ec o ra ti on : m or e a rr e st in g b y f ar w as t he e ss en ti al u nf am il i ar it y o f t he

w or sh ip s er vi ce . F or a s ta rt , t he re w ou ld o nl y h av e b ee n o ne s er vi ce i n

p ro gr es s ; i n t hi s P ro te st an t c hu rc h h e w oul d n ot h ave o bs er ve d on e

p ri e st c el eb ra ti ng M as s a t t he H ig h A lt ar, w hi le o th er s w er e e ng ag ed i n

d ut ie s i n t he s id e c ha pe ls . N o p ri es ts w ou ld h av e b ee n h ea ri ng c on fe s-

s i o n ; t h e f a m i l i a r b u s t l e a n d v a r i e t y w o u l d h a v e b e e n m i s s i n g . R a t h e r t h e

at te nt io n o f t he c ong re ga ti on g at he re d i n t he n av e w oul d h ave b ee n

f oc us ed o n t he p ul pi t, f ro m w hi ch t he m in is te r w ou ld b e c on du ct in g

t h e s e r v i c e . I f h i s a r r i v a l w a s u n p l a n n e d , o u r C a t h o l i c v i s i t o r w o u l d i n a l l

l ik e li ho od h av e f ir st h ea rd t he v oi ce o f t h e m in is t er, l ea di ng t he c on gr e -

g at io n i n p r ay er, r e ad in g f ro m S cr ip t ur e o r p re ac hi ng . P re ac hi ng w ou ld

o b v i o u s l y h a v e o c c u p i e d t h e l o n g e s t t i m e : p r o b a b l y a n i n o r d i n a t e l e n g t h

f or s om eo ne n ot i nu re d b y l on g p ra ct ic e. B ut i f h e p er se ve re d t hr ou gh

t he w ho le s er vi ce h e w ou ld u lt im at e ly o bs er ve t h e u nf ol di ng o f a w ho le

ne w r it ua l, ut te rl y di ff er en t i n r hyt hm a nd f oc us f ro m t he M as s : t he

f a m i l i a r r i t e s r e p l a c e d b y a n e w o r d e r o f p r a y e r , S c r i p t u r e , p r e a c h i n g a n d

co m m u na l s i n g in g .

I t w a s t h is l a st , c o m mu n al s i ng i ng , t h a t, a l on g w i th r e gu l ar p r ea c hi n g,

r ep re se nt ed t he m os t di st inc ti ve i nn ova ti on o f t he n ew e va ng eli ca l

w or sh ip s er vi ce . T he s in gi ng o f h ym ns a nd p sa lm s, p un ct ua ti ng a nd

f ra mi ng t h e p e ri od s o f e xh or t at io n a nd i nt e rc es si o n, b ec am e a u bi qu i-

t ou s p ar t o f P ro te st an t w or sh ip . F or m an y p eo pl e i t w as t he p ar t o f t he

s er vi ce t he y f oun d mo st c on ge ni al , a nd i t p lay ed a p ro fou nd p ar t i n

i nc ul ca ti ng a s en se o f l oy al ty a nd i de nt if ic at io n w it h t he n ew w or sh ip

40



t ra di ti on . T he r ea so ns f or t hi s a re n ot h ar d t o f at ho m. T he P ro te st an t

t r a d i t i o n o f c o m m u n a l s i n g i n g d r e w o n a d e e p l o v e o f s o n g i n m e d i a e v a l

s o c i a b i l i t y , a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e a r t i c u l a t e d o n e o f t h e c o r e p r i n c i p l e s o f

t h e R e f o r m a t i o n : t h a t t h e p e o p l e s h o u l d b e a n i m a t e d b y a n a c t i v e , l i v i n g

f ai th . T he l ea di ng r ef or me rs e ag er ly e mb ra c ed t he p ra ct i ce o f s in gi n g a s

a p ri ma ry e xp r es si on o f a l iv el y c om mi t me nt t o a n a ct i ve r el i gi on .

A s u su al , M ar ti n L ut he r f ou nd w or ds t o e xp r es s t he se a sp ir at i on s. ‘ I

i n t e n d ’ , h e w r o t e t o S p a l a t i n i n 1 5 2 3 , ‘ t o m a k e v e r n a c u l a r p s a l m s f o r t h e

p e o p l e , t h a t i s s p i r i t u a l s o n g s , s o t ha t t h e W o r d o f G o d e v e n b y m e a n s o f

s o n g m a y l i v e a m o n g t h e p e o p l e . ’1 A g e n e r a t i o n l a t e r T h e o d o r e d e B eze

w ou ld e c ho t h es e s am e s en ti m en ts w it h a n a lm os t e xa c tl y p ar al le l p sy -

c ho lo gi ca l i ns ig ht . ‘ In t ru th ’, h e a ve rr ed , ‘ we k no w b y e xp er ie nc e t ha t

s ing in g h as t he p ow er t o e nf lam e t he hear ts o f m en s o t ha t t he y p ra ise

G od w it h a n e ve r m or e v eh e me nt z ea l. ’2

T h e s e w e r e l a r g e h o p e s a n d l a r g e c l a i m s . B u t t h e y d o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e

role of music as a pedagogic tool in t he ser vice of the Refor mation

d ese rve s a s ys te mat ic e xp os it io n. M us ic h ad t he p owe r t o m ov e, b ut

n ot a lw ay s i n s im pl e p ra is e a nd w or s hi p. T he m us ic o f t he R ef or m at io n

also p layed a lar ge role wh en th e movemen t moved from praise to

d e st r u ct i on , f r om e x ho r t at i on t o c o nf r on t at i o n a n d r i di c ul e . T h is m u st

a ls o n ot b e i gn or ed .

I f t he r ef or me rs i nv es te d s uc h h op es i n m us ic , i t w as p ar tl y b ec au se

s ing in g w as s uc h a ub iq uit ous p ar t o f p re -i ndu st ri al s oc ie ty. I n t he

h om e s, a t w or k , i n t he f ie ld s a nd w or k sh op s, w he re v er p eo pl e g at he r ed ,

t he y s an g. M ot he rs s an g t o t he ir c hi ld re n, a s p ar en ts s ti ll d o ; s ch oo l-

tea chers ta u g ht t h ei r s t ud e nt s t h ro u gh m n em o ni c r h y me s , a s t e ac h er s o f

i n fa n ts s t il l d o .3 I n a n d o u t o f t h e w o r k p l a c e , p e o p l e s a n g t o w h i l e a w a y

t h e h o u r s o f t o i l a n d w a i t i n g . W e a v e r s h a d t h e i r w o r k s o n g s , s u n g t o t h e

r hy th m o f t he l oo m ; m in er s h ad t he ir d is ti nc ti ve t un es , t he Bergmanns-

lieder . Shep herds sang (and play ed) while the y te nded the ir flocks.

W he n i ns pi ra t io n f la gg ed t he re w er e o ft e n t r av el li ng s in ge r s a nd e nt er -

t ai ne rs t o o ff er n ew s on gs , a nd e ve n n ew s s on gs . I n i nn s a nd d ri nk in g

h ou se s, o r e ve n i n t he m ar ke t p la ce ( in f ac t w he re ve r p eo pl e g at he re d)

t r av e ll i ng b a ll a d- s in g er s h o p ed t o e a rn a f e w c o in s t h r ou g h e n te r ta i ni n g

t h e t h ro n g. S i ng i n g w a s p a rt i cu l ar l y a s so c ia t ed w i th w a nd e r in g . S a il o r s,

1 R o b i n A . L e a v e r , ‘ G oo s t l y p s a l m es a n d s p i ri t u a ll s o n g es’ . E n g l is h a n d D u t ch M et r i cal P s a l ms from Coverdale to Utenhove, 1535–1566 (Oxford, 1991) , p . 3 .

2 L es p s ea u mes m i s en r y m e f r a nco i s e ( L y on , D e s To u rn e s, 1 5 63 ) , s i g. A 4 r.3 P e t e r B u r k e, P o pu l ar C u lt u re i n E a rl y M o de r n E u ro p e ( L on d on , 1 9 78 ) . A d am F o x, Oral

a n d L i te r at e C u lt u re i n E n gl a nd , 1 5 00 – 17 0 0 (O x f o rd , 2 0 0 0 ).

Militant in song 41



s o ld i e rs , b e gg a rs a n d j o ur n ey m en a l l h a d t h ei r p a rt i c ul a r s o ng s t h at t o ld

o f l i f e o n t h e r o a d o r a t s e a .

T he t ra di ti on o f p op ul ar s on g w as b y n o m ea ns c on fi ne d t o t he m or e

h um bl e s oc ia l o rd er s. T he e nt er ta in me nt c ul tu re o f n ob le a nd c ou rt

s oc ie ty a lso r evo lve d a ro und si ng in g : at t he l oo m, d ur ing a nd a ft er

f ea st i ng , t ho ug h h e re , o f c ou rs e, t h e p op u la r c ha ns on s a nd b al la ds w er e

o f te n p e rf o rm e d b y p r o fe s si o na l s i ng e r s a n d p l ay e rs . T h e h i gh e r r e ac h e s

o f u r b a n s o c i e t y d e v e l o p e d a h y b r i d t r a d i t i o n t h a t r e f l e c t e d t h e i n f l u e n c e

o f b ot h t he c our t an d t he s tr ee ts ; f or sk il l in s in gin g a nd p lay ing w as

p ri ze d h er e as a s oc ial a cc omp li sh me nt , i f no t a s a m ean s o f e ar ni ng a

living.4

A lm os t t he o nl y p la ce o ne w ou ld n ot e xp ec t r eg ul ar ly t o f in d m us ic

w as i n t h e p ar is h c hu rc h . T hi s r e ma rk r eq u ir es s om e q ua li fi ca ti on . T he

M as s w ou ld h av e b ee n c on du ct e d b y t he p re si di ng p ri e st a cc o rd in g t o a

p la in so ng c ha nt , i f o ne n ot a lw ay s w h ol ly a ud ib le t o t he c on gr e ga ti on .

T hi s w as a r it e t ha t r e qu ir ed l it tl e a ct iv e c on gr eg at i on al p ar ti ci p at io n.

P ar is hi on er s m ig ht s in g o n f es ti va ls , i n p ro ce ss io n s, o r a t s pe ci al o bs e r-

vance s, and the re was a wide repert oire of re ligiou s songs for such

o cc as io ns ( wh ic h o ft en t oo k p la ce o ut si de t he c hu rc h b ui ld in gs ).5 But

c on gr e ga ti on al s in gi ng p la ye d n o n ec es sa ry p ar t i n t he r e gu la r M a ss .

I n t he l ar ge r u rb an c hu r ch es , c at h ed ra ls a nd a ri st oc ra ti c c ha pe ls t he

M as s w ou ld o ff er a m or e e la bo ra te s pe ct ac le . M os t o f t he se c hu rc he s

m aintaine d choirs capable of performi ng a full ch oral Mass : it was

i nd e ed t he c om po si ti on a nd p er fo rm a nc e o f s uc h M as se s t ha t o ff er e d a

p ri nc ip al o ut le t f or t he t al ent s o f mu si c p ro fe ss ion al s i n t he c ent ur y

b e fo r e t h e R e f or m at i on . D u ri n g t h is p e ri o d m u si c al c o mp o s it i on e n jo y ed

a p er io d o f e xc ep ti on al f er ti li ty, c en tr ed m os tl y o n t he g re at c ou rt s o f

E u r o p e . A s i n s o m u c h o f t h e c u l t u r a l f l o w e r i n g o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , I t a l y

l ed t he w ay, t ho ug h t he F le mi sh / B ur gu nd ia n t ra di ti on a ls o p ro vi de d a

p o we r f ul s o ur c e o f i n ve n ti o n a n d v i rt u o si t y.

T h e P r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h e s w e r e t h e h e i r s t o t h e t o t a l i t y o f t h i s t r a d i t i o n ,

t h ou g h t h e ir r e la t io n sh i p w i th t h e m o re o r na t e p o ly p h on i c c o mp o si t i on s

o f t he l at e f if te en th c en tu ry w as a c om pl ex o ne . I n t he n ew P ro te st an t

t ra di t io n a l ac k o f o rn am en ta t io n, e xp r es se d i n s im pl ic it y o f m et r e a nd

c l e ar a r ti c ul a t io n o f m e an i ng t h ro u gh a s t ri c t s t ro p h ic s t ru c t ur e , b e ca m e

a p os it ive v ir tu e, i n c ons ci ous c ont ra -di st in ct io n t o t he d ec or at ed

4 B y w a y o f i n tr o du c ti o n, I a in F e nl o n, T he R en ai ss an ce . F ro m t he 1 47 0s t o t he E nd o f t he1 6 t h C en t u ry (Basingstoke, 1989).

5 F o r E n g l a n d s e e n o w B e a t K u m i n, ‘ Ma s s es , M o rr i s a n d M e tr i ca l P s al m s : M u si c i n t h eE n g l is h P a r is h , c . 1 4 0 0 – 16 0 0 ’, i n F i o n a K i s b y, M u s i c a n d M u s i ci a n s i n R en a i s s a n ce C i t i esa n d To w n s (Cambridge, 2001) , p p. 7 0– 81 .




elabor at ion of the c hor al Mass. Her e, Luther an d his followe rs at-

t em pt ed t o d ef in e a m us ic al m an if es ta ti on o f t he c or e S cr ip tu re p ri n-

c i p l e s o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n : t h e p u r e w o r d o f S c r i p t u r e w a s m a d e m a n i f e s t

i n t h e n ew m us ic . T he R en ai ss an ce t ra di ti on , h ow e ve r, a ls o l ef t i ts m ar k

i n s e ve r a l m o re p o si t iv e r e s pe c t s, q u it e a p ar t f r om t h is p o le m ic a l a nt i t h-

e si s. T he R en ai ss an ce f lo we ri ng o f p ol yp ho ni c c om po si ti on i ns pi re d

b ot h a n i mi t at iv e b ou rg e oi s t r ad it io n a nd c on si de r ab le i nt er es t i n m u-

s ic al t he or y. Th ese t wi n i mp ul se s b ro ug ht f or th mu ch l ear ne d a nd

p e rc e pt iv e t he or iz in g o n h ow m us ic m ov e d a nd a ff ec te d t h e e mo ti o ns :

i n t hi s r es pe ct t he h um an is t r ed is co ve ry o f t he w is do m o f t he a nc ie nt s

w a s a l so i n fl u e nt i al . F i na l ly t h e w e al t h o f m u si c al i n ve n ti v e ne s s, a nd t h e

d e m a n d f o r p e r f o r m a n c e s c o r e s f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d d o m e s t i c u s e , l e d t o

s i g n i f i c a n t d e v e l o p m e n t s i n p r i n t c u l t u r e . T h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f m u s i c i n t h e

m ar k et p la ce c al le d f or s pe ci al is t t yp e s f or m us ic al n ot at io n. B y t h e t im e

o f t he R ef or ma t io n t he t ec h ni c al p r ob le ms c on ne c te d w it h t hi s m us ic al

t yp e h ad b ee n l ar ge l y r e so lv ed .

The Wittenberg Nightingale

M ar ti n L ut he r w as a m an o f r ef i ne d a rt is ti c s en si bi l it y, a nd m us ic w as a

s pe ci a l p as si o n. A s a y ou ng b oy a t s ch oo l h e q ui c kl y d is co ve r ed a t al en t

f or si ng ing ; as a y oung ad ult h e ma st er ed b ot h t he lu te and t he fl ut e.

M usi c c on ti nue d t o p la y a n i mp or tan t p ar t i n h is li fe t hr oug ho ut h is

c ar ee r i n Wi tt en be rg ; i t w as a s ub je ct o n w hi ch h e t ho ug ht d ee pl y a nd

i nt el li ge nt ly, a nd w it h a c le ar u nd er st an di ng o f c on te mp or ar y m us ic

t h eo r y. H is m us ic al e xp er ie nc e w as u nd ou b te dl y b r oa de ne d d ur in g h is

t ri p t o R om e, a nd t hr ou gh h is e xp er ie nc e o f w or sh ip i n t he Wi tt en be rg

Schlosskapelle , w he re F re de rick the Wise emplo yed a lar ge numbe r of

s i n g ers a n d i n s trum en ta li s ts .6 T he p ol yp ho ni c r e pe rt oi re s un g h er e w as

e xt e ns iv e, a nd i nc lu de d w or k s b y J os qu in , I sa ac a nd O br e ch t.

T h ro u gh o ut h i s lif e Lu th er ne ve r wa ve re d in h is b eli ef i n mu si c as

a power for good.7 I n h is mo st e xt end ed c om me nt o n t he su bje ct , a

p re fa ce t o a n a nt hol og y o f sh or t L at in m ot et s p ub li sh ed in 1 53 8, h e

a c kn o wl e dg e d t h e p o we r f ul p s yc h ol o gi c al a n d m o ra l f o rc e o f m u si c f i rs t

a rt ic ul a te d b y A ri st o tl e a nd P la to . T he r e w as o ne i mp or ta nt c or o ll ar y :

t h e o bl ig at i on t o e mp l oy t hi s d iv in e g if t t o G od ’s g lo ry.

6 C a rl S c ha l k, L ut he r o n M us ic : P ar ad ig ms o f P ra is e ( S t L ou is , M o. , 1988) . P au l N et tl ,L ut he r a nd M us ic (Philadelphia, 1948) . F ri ed ri ch B lu me , P ro t es ta n t C h ur c h M u si c :

A History (New York, 1974).7 N o t l e a s t a s a m e a n s o f w a r d i n g o f f t h e d e p r e s s i o n t h a t p l a g u e d h i m f o r m u c h o f h i s l i f e .

S ee R eb ec ca Wa g ne r O et ti ng er, Mu si c a s P ro pa ga nd a i n t he G er ma n R ef or ma ti on(A l d er s h o t, S t A n d r ew s S t u d ie s i n R e f o rm a t io n H i s t or y, 2001) , p . 4 3 .

Militant in song 43



T he g if t o f l an gu ag e c om bi ne d w it h t he g if t o f s on g w as o nl y g iv en t o m an . . .

t ha t h e s ho ul d p ra is e G od w it h b ot h w or d a nd m us ic , n am el y b y p ro cl ai mi ng

[ t h e W o r d o f G o d ] t h r o u g h m u s i c a n d b y p r o v i d i n g s w e e t m e l o d i e s w i t h w o r d s .8

I n t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i t w a s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t m u s i c s h o u l d p l a y

a p a r t i n L u t h e r ’ s c o n c e p t i o n o f a r e f o r m e d l i t u r g y . I n t h e F o r m u l a m i ssae

o f 1 52 3 L ut he r ’s i nn at e c on se rv at i sm d ic ta te d t h e r et en ti on o f t h e t ra d-

i ti o na l s tr uc tu re o f t h e M as s, e ve n t h ou gh t he t he o lo gi ca l p r ec ep ts w er e

r a di c al l y r e in t er p r e te d . T h e m o st r a di c al d e pa r tu r e i n t e rm s o f c o mm u -

n al p ar t ic ip at io n w as m e nt io ne d a lm os t a s a n a ft er t ho ug ht . ‘ I a ls o w is h

t ha t w e h ad a s m an y s on gs i n t he v er na cu la r a s p os si bl e w hi ch p eo pl e

c o ul d s i ng d u ri n g M a ss , im me di at e ly a ft e r t h e g ra du al a nd a ls o a ft er t he

S a nc t u s a n d A g nu s D e i. ’9 T hi s c ha ng e w as c on so li da t ed i n t h e Deutsche

Messe o f 1 52 6. M usi c i s f un dam en ta l t o t hi s se rvi ce . T he s im pl if ie d

p ro g ra mm e o f t he t ra di ti on al M as s p ro vi de d f or f re qu en t i ns ta nc e s o f

c o ng r e ga t io n al s i ng i ng : o f t h ir t y- n in e p a ge s o f t e xt , t h ir t y -o n e i n co r p or -

a te m us ic al n ot at io n. L ut he r h im se lf p la ye d a l ar ge p ar t i n t he w or k o f

c om po si ti on , a lo ng w it h c ol le ag ue s s uc h a s A gr ic ol a, H eg en wa lt a nd

others.

L ut he r ’s c on ce p ti on o f t he n ew e va ng e li ca l M as s w as n ot w it ho ut i ts

c ri t ic s. I n Wi tt en b er g A nd re as K ar ls ta dt w as a v er y r el uc t an t m us ic al

c om mu ni ca to r. I n a l et te r t o T ho ma s M un tz er i n 1 52 4 K ar ls ta dt l ai d

b ar e h is b as ic p hi lo so ph ic al o bj ec ti on s : ‘ I c an no t a t a ll b el ie ve t ha t t he

p eo pl e c ou ld b e i ns pi re d b y h ol y s on gs . R at he r i t i s a f ac t t ha t e xc es s i n

t he se m at te rs a ct s a s a d et er re nt t o d iv in e t hi ng s. ’10 A s t hi s c om me nt

s u gg e st s , M un t z e r w a s b y t h i s p o i n t a l r e a d y w e l l a d v a n c e d w i t h h i s o w n

p ro j ec t o f a G er ma n Volksliturgie, t ho ug h t hi s h ad l ed h im i n a r ad ic al ly

d iff er en t d ir ec ti on t o L ut he r. H e b el ie ve d t ha t a p ur if ie d v er na cu la r

ve rsi on of the Gregorian ch ant was t he be st means t o p repare e lec t

C hr i st ia ns f or C hr is t’s i nc a rn at io n i n t h ei r h ea rt s. B ut L ut h er w as n ot

p er sua de d, a nd i n h is e xc ha ng e w it h M un tze r h e ar tic ul at ed a c le ar

p ro gr am me fo r t he r ol e o f m us ic in t he c om muni ca ti on p roc ess . F or

L u th e r, M un t ze r ’s t r an s la t io n o f t h e G r eg o r ia n r i te w a s i n su ff i ci e nt . To

c om muni ca te t he wo rd e ffe ct ive ly t he re h ad t o b e an as si mi la ti on o f

s ac re d m us ic t o t he t un es p eo pl e a ct ua ll y k ne w. T he s e m ig ht b e d er iv ed

f r om t r ad i ti o na l r e li g io n o r e v e n p r o fa ne t u ne s .

8 L u t h er ’ s Wo r k s . A m er ica n ed i t io n, e d . J a ri s la v P e li k an ( 5 4 v o ls . , P h il a de l ph i a, 1955 –86),v o l. L I II : L i tu r gy a n d H y mn s, p p . 3 2 3 – 4 .

9 Ibid., v o l . L I I I , p . 3 6 .10 Gun th er F ra nz ( ed .) , T h om as M u n t ze r. S c hr i ft e n u n d B r ie f e. K r it is c he G e sa m pt a us ga b e

(Gut e rs l oh , 1 9 68 ) , p . 4 1 5. Q u ot e d i n H e lg a R o bi n so n - Ha m me r st e in , ‘ T he L u th e ra nR e f o r m a t i o n a n d i t s M u s i c ’ , i n h e r T h e T ra n sm i ss io n o f I d ea s i n t h e L u th e ra n R e fo r ma t io n(B l a c kr o c k , C o . D u b l in 1989) , p . 1 4 7 .




T hi s m er gi ng o f t he t ra di ti on s o f s ac re d a nd s ec ul ar m us ic i s r ig ht ly

s ee n a s t he d is ti nc ti ve c on tr ib ut io n o f L ut he ra n h ym no dy. F or t ex ts ,

L ut he r o ft en d re w o n t he i ns pi ra ti on o f t he p sa lm s ; o th er h ym ns w er e

b a s e d o n L a t i n t e x t s f a m i l i a r f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e . B y 1 5 2 4

t he re h ad a cc um ul at ed a c or pu s of a rou nd f or ty Wi tt en be rg h ym ns

(around half written by Luther) ; these form ed the basis of the

f i rs t Wi t te n be r g h y mn a l, t h e G e y s t li c he s G e s an g k B u ch l ei n.11 A t L u th e r’ s

e n co u ra g e me n t, t h e c o mp o se r, t h e t w en t y- e ig h t- y e ar - ol d J o ha n Wa l te r,

h ad c om po se d p ol yp ho ni c c ho ra l s et ti ng s f or t he h ym ns i n f ou r o r f iv e

p ar ts . A s L ut he r a ss er te d i n h is f or ew or d t o t hi s v ol um e, h e h op ed t hi s

c h al l e ng i ng f o rm a t w o ul d :

G i v e t h e y o u n g – w h o s h o u l d a t a n y r a t e b e t r a i n e d i n m u s i c a n d o t h e r f i n e a r t s – s om et hi ng t o w ea n t he m a wa y f ro m l ov e b al la ds a nd c ar na l s on gs a nd t o t ea ch

t he m s om eth in g of v alu e i n t hei r pl ac e, th us c om bi ni ng t he g ood wi th th e

p le as in g, a s i s p ro pe r f or y ou th .12

I n l i tu r gi c al p r a ct i ce t h es e p o ly p h on i c s e tt i ng s w e re p r e su m ab l y s u ng

b y a c ho ir, q ui te p os si bl y i n a lt er na ti on w it h t he c on gr eg at io n a nd s in gi ng

a lt er na te s ta nz as i n u ni so n. I f t hi s w as s o, t he e nd ur in g L ut he ra n t r ad -

i t i o n o f c o m b i n i n g s i m p l e c o n g r e g a t i o n a l s o n g w i t h c o m p l e x p o l y p h o n i c

m us ic w as e st ab li s he d a t a n e ar ly d at e .T he f ir st L ut he ra n h ym ns a ch ie ve d a r ap id p op ul ar it y. I t i s t ho ug ht

t h at t h e f i rs t c o mp o si t i on s c i rc u la t ed a s b r oa d sh e e ts , t h o ug h s u rv i va l s i n

t h is f or m at a re r ar e. B ut t h er e i s d ef in it e e vi d en ce o f a w id e c ir cu la ti on ,

w it h p ri nt e d cop ie s p ub lis he d in Au gs bu rg and M ag de bur g as w el l

a s W i tten berg .13 I n 1 5 2 4 a n e n t e r p r i s i n g N u r e m b e r g p u b l i s h e r c o l l e c t e d

a number of these hymns and issued them in a single vol ume, the

Achtliedebuch . T he r e w er e f ur t he r s ma ll c ol le ct i on s p ub l is he d i n E rf ur t

t h i s s a m e y e a r . H y m n s a l s o b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e s t o c k i n t r a d e o f t h e s t r e e tp ed la r. T he c it y c hr on ic le o f M ag de bu rg , a f re e i mp er ia l c it y 7 0 k il o-

m e t r e s d i s t a n t f r o m W i t t e n b e r g , r e p o r t e d t h a t o n 6 M a y 1 5 2 4 a p o o r o l d

m an s to od i n t he m ar k et p la ce a nd s an g t wo o f L ut h er ’s e ar li e st h ym ns ,

‘ Au f t ie fe r N ot’ and ‘Es wollt uns Got t gen adi g s ein ’, w hi ch h e al so

o ff e re d f o r s al e .14

In W itten berg , Wa l ther’s G e y s t li c he s G e s an g k B u ch l e in w a s f ol lo w ed i n

1 52 9 b y a n ew c on gr e ga ti on al h ym na l, t he G e i s t li c ke l i ed e r , a w o r k t h a t

w en t t hr ou gh a t l ea st e ig ht f ur th er e di ti on s d ur in g L ut he r’s l if et im e.

11 M a rk u s J e nn y, L ut h er s g e is tl i ch e L i ed e r u n d K i rc h en g e sa n g e. Vo l l s ta n di ge N eu ed it io n i nErga n z u ng z u B a nd 3 5 d e r We i ma r er A u sg a be (Cologne, 1985).

12 Luther’s Works, v o l . L I I I , p . 3 1 6 .13 Leaver, ‘ G o o s tl y p s a lm es ’ , p . 6 .14 G u st a v H e rt e l ( e d. ) , D i e C hr on ik en d e s n ie de rs a c h si s ch e n S t a d t e : M a gd e b ur g (Leipzig,

1899) , v o l . I I , p . 1 4 3 .

Militant in song 45



The se wor ks form ed the c orners tone of a huge mass of p ublished

h ym na ls t h at c on t in ue d t hr ou gh o ut t h e c en tu ry. I f w e c ou nt o nl y t h os e

e d i t i o n s t h a t h a v e s u r v i v e d , t h e p r i n c i p a l c a t a l o g u e s o f s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y

p ri nt e d m us ic l is t m or e t ha n 2 ,0 00 h ym n e di ti on s. G iv en t he l ik e li ho od

t h a t m a n y m o r e h a v e n o t s u r v i v e d , f o r t h i s i s a c l a s s o f l i t e r a t u r e s u s c e p -

t ib le t o a ve ry h ig h r at e of at tr it ion , w e m ay c onf ide nt ly a ss er t t ha t a s

m an y a s t hr ee t o f ou r m il li on hym na ls a nd s on g s he et s w er e c ir cu la ti ng

i n s i x teen th- centu ry Germ a ny .15

T he c on t in ui ng p op u la ri t y o f t he e ar li e st h ym ns i n t he l at er e di ti on s

a ls o h el pe d t o k ee p a li ve t he m em or y o f t he R ef or ma ti on ’s m os t e xu lt an t ,

o pt im is ti c p ha se , i n a p er io d l at er i n t he c en tu ry w he n o th er t he ol og i-

c a l l i te r at u r e b e ca m e i n cr e a si n gl y c o m pl e x a nd i n tr o sp e c ti v e. O f c o ur s e

Luther’s hymnody also evolve d. He inc luded a number of imp or-

t a nt e m be l l is h me n t s t o h i s Gei stl i cke l i ed er , i nc lu di ng a s e ct io n o f h ym ns

base d on the five main parts of the Shor t Catech ism of 1529. Fr om

t hi s p oi nt o n t he L ut he ran h ym n r ep er to ir e b ec am e a f und ame nt al

par t of religi ous p edagogy. Th e typica l sc hool day cited by Gerald

S tr au ss f ro m a s ch oo l o rd in an ce o f O ld en bu rg i s p ac ke d w it h G er ma n

h ym ns an d p salms f ro m m or ni ng p raye r t o t he fi nal b le ssi ng b ef or e

d e p ar t ur e h o me .16 E duc at or s r ec og ni ze d an d w er e q ui ck t o e xp lo it

t he m ne mo ni c p ow er s o f v er se s et t o r ec og ni za bl e t un es , a nd s ch oo l-

c hi ldr en w er e e xp ec te d t o l ea d ad ul ts i n s ing ing dur in g t he se rvi ce .

W he n, l at e r i n t he c en tu ry, v is it or s o bs e rv ed a l ac k lu st r e p e rf or ma nc e

b y t he c on gr eg at io n, t he y o ft en p re sc ri be d i nc re ase d si ngi ng i n t he

s c h oo l s. I n t h is w a y t h e m u si c al r e pe r t oi r e o f L u th e ra n h y mn o dy p a ss e d

i nt o t he f ab ri c o f s oc ie t y, a nd f ro m t he c hu rc he s o ut i nt o t he s tr ee ts .

T h e l i tu r gi c a l e x pe r imen t s o f Wi tt en be r g q ui ck ly f ou nd t h ei r e c ho i n

o t h e r p a r t s o f G e r m a n y .17 I n N u r e m b e r g t h e p i o n e e r i n g c h u r c h o r d e r o f

1 52 5 e st ab li sh ed a n e xt en de d p la ce f or c on gr eg at io na l s in gi ng . T he

h ym n t ex ts i ns er t ed i nt o t he l it ur gi es w er e u su al ly t ho se o f Wi tt e nb er g ,

t ho ug h Nur em be rg a lso de ve lop ed it s o wn l ive ly t ra di ti on o f h ym n

c o m p o s i t i o n : t h e w o r k , i n p a r t , o f t h e m u l t i - t a l e n t e d a r t i s a n a u t h o r H a n s

S ac h s. To t he n or th , c en tr e d o n R os t oc k, a f ur t he r d is ti nc t iv e t r ad it io n

o f h ym no dy d ev el op e d, i nf lu en c ed p ar ti cu l ar ly b y t he w or k o f t h e l oc al

r e fo r me r, J o ac h i m S l ut er. H is G an tz s ch on e u nd e s ee r n ut te g es an gk b oe k

c on t ai ne d f if ty -f o ur h ym ns , i nc lu di n g h ym ns f or M at i ns a nd Ve sp er s .

15 T h e e s ti ma t e i s a d ap t ed f r om t h e d a ta p r es e n te d b y C h ri s to p he r B o yd B r ow n , ‘ S in g in gt he G os pe l : L ut he ra n H ym ns a nd t he S uc ce ss o f t he R ef or ma ti on i n J oa ch im st ha l’(H a r v ar d U n i v er s i ty , P h . D . d i s s e rt a t i on , 2001) . A r e vi s ed v e rs i on o f t h is d i ss e rt a ti o n i ss h or t ly t o a p pe a r a s a m o no g ra p h w i th H a rv a rd U n iv e rs i ty P r es s .

16 Strauss, L u t he r ’s H o us e o f L e ar n in g , p . 2 3 1 .17 T h i s p a r a g ra p h f o l lo w s L e a v e r, ‘ G o o s tl y p s a l mes ’ , p p . 1 7 f f .




T he i nf lu en ce o f t hi s R os to ck t ra di ti on w as a ls o f el t i n D en ma rk a nd

S we de n. B ut m os t i mp or ta nt b y f ar w as t he l ar ge ly i nd ep en de nt l it ur -

g i c a l t r a d i t i o n c r a f t e d i n t h e R h i n e l a n d c i t y o f S t r a s b o u r g . T h e l i t u r g y a s

i t e m e r g e d f r o m t h e y e a r s l e a d i n g t o t h e a b o l i t i o n o f t h e M a s s a l l o w e d a

c e nt r al r ol e f or c on gr e ga ti on al s in gi ng . M ar ti n B uc e r, w ri ti ng a t a t im e

w h e n t h e c h u r c h o r d e r w a s n o t y e t f i n a l l y f i x e d , d e s c r i b e d h i s i n t e n t i o n s

t h u s :

W he n t he p eo pl e g at he r o n S un da y, t he m in is te r e xh or ts t he m t o c on fe ss s in s

a nd to p ra y f or me rcy. He c on fes se s t o Go d f or th e co ng re gat io n, pr ay s f or

m er cy, a nd p ro cl ai ms r em is si on o f s in s t o t he b el ie ve rs . T he p eo pl e t he n s in g

s o m e s h o r t p s a l m s o r h y m n s o f p r a i s e , a f t e r w h i c h t h e m i n i s t e r s a y s a b r i e f p r a y e r

a nd r ea ds s om et hi ng f ro m t he e pi st le s o f t he a po st le s, e xp ou nd in g i t b ri ef ly.

H e re a ft er t h e c on g re g at i on s i ng s t he D e ca l og u e o r s o me t hi n g e l se . T h e m i ni s te rt he n r ea ds t he Go sp el a nd d el iv er s t he s er mo n, w he re af te r t he p eo pl e s in g t he

a r ti c le s o f f a it h .18

T hi s s tr ik in g l ev el o f c om mu na l p ar ti ci pat io n, r ep eat ed t hr ou gh t he

s er vi ce , b et ra ys a c le ar t he ol og ic al p ur po se . T he c an on o f t he M as s h ad

b een eliminated and in its place stood t he Word of God. But it was

n ec es sa ry f or t he c on gr eg at ion t o v er ba li ze it s r es po ns e, a nd f or e ac h

i nd iv id ua l t o w it ne ss t o h is C hr is ti an c om mi tm en t a nd t o e nc ou ra ge o th er s

i n t he ir s. T hi s b ec am e t he l ei tm ot if o f t he S tr as bo ur g R efo rm at io n. D ur in g

1 5 2 4 a t l e a s t s i x e d i t i o n s w e r e p u b l i s h e d o f t h i s b a s i c l i t u r g y , a n d a f u r t h e r

s ix b et we en 15 26 a nd 1 537 . Wi th e ac h t he s tr uc tu re of t he s er vic e wa s

s im pl if ie d, t h e s er mo n e mp h as iz ed , a nd t h e r ol e o f p sa lm od y e nl ar ge d. I t

w o u l d be the d i s ti n cti v e co n tri bu ti o n o f the S tra s bo u rg R ef o rm a ti o n .

T he f ul l p ot en ti al o f L ut he ra n h ym no dy i n t he m at ur e c hu rc h t ra d-

i t i o n h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d i n a s u p e r b r e c e n t s t u dy o f J o a c h i m s t h a l b y

t h e A m e r i c a n c h u r c h h i s t o r i a n C h r i s t o p h e r B r o w n .19 Joachimsthal was a

n e w t o w n i n t h e G e r m a n / C z e c h Erzgebirge, c r e a t e d a f t e r t h e d i s c o v e r y o f

r i c h s i l v e r d e p o s i t s . B y 1 5 2 0 i t w a s h o m e t o o v e r 5 , 0 0 0 m i n e r s a n d a t i t s

p ea k i n 1 53 3 t he i nh ab it an ts n um be re d m or e t ha n 1 8, 00 0. L ut he r’s

t ea ch in g e nt er ed J oa ch im st ha l a lo ng w it h t he i nf lu x o f S ax on m in er s

w ho d om in at ed b ot h t he w or k f or ce a nd t he p ro sp er ou s m in e o wn er s

who held sway among the ci ty elite. The wealth of the new town

s paw ne d a r an ge o f ur ban i ns ti tut io ns , i nc lu di ng a r en ow ne d La ti n

s ch o ol , a g ir ls ’ s ch oo l a nd a h os pi ta l.

T he m usi ca l c ul tu re o f t he t ow n w as sh ap ed b y t wo m en : t he c om -

p o s e r N i c o l a s H e r m a n , c a n t o r i n t h e L a t i n s c h o o l , a n d J o h a n M a t h e s i u s ,

18 Q u o te d i n Ibid., p . 2 5 . 19 B r o w n, ‘ S i n gi n g t h e G o s p e l’ .

Militant in song 47



successively rector of the Latin scho ol and senior pastor of the

Joachimsthal church. Mathesius promoted the use of music in church

an d school with extr aordinary zeal, b oth from the p ulpit and in his

s te ad y s up po rt f or H er ma n’s w or k . H er ma n w as r e sp on si b le f or s ev er al

c o l l e c t i o n s o f m o r e t h a n t w o h u n d r e d h y m n s , i n t e n d e d t o b e s u n g i n t h e

s c ho ol , i n h ou se ho ld d ev ot io ns , a nd i n t he c h ur ch .

T ru e t o t he c om pa ra ti v e c on se r va ti sm o f L ut he ra n l it ur gi ca l p re fe r-

e n c e s , H e r m a n a n d M a t h e s i u s p r e s e r v e d t h e e s s e n t i a l s h a p e o f t h e L a t i n

l it ur gy. T he o ve rw he lm in g e nt hu si as m o f t he c on gr eg at io n f or h ym n

s i n g i n g w a s a c c o m m o d a t e d p a r t l y w i t h i n t h e s e r v i c e , b u t a l s o b y a n h o u r

o f c o n g r e g a t i o n a l s i n g i n g b e f o r e t h e s e r v i c e b e g a n . T h i s w a s p o p u l a r a n d

w el l a tt en de d. A h igh st and ar d o f p er for man ce i n t he f or mal r it e w as

a s s u r e d b y t h e s y s t e m a t i c u s e o f m u s i c i n s c h o o l s w h e r e t h e c h u r c h c h o i r

w as t r ai ne d. T he t ow n g ov e rn me nt a ls o s up p or te d m us ic a ct iv el y, b ot h

t hr ou gh it s fi na nc ial s up po rt o f t he sc ho ol , a nd b y f und ing a s taff o f

p r o f e s s i o n a l m u s i c i a n s w h o h e l p e d s u p p l y t h e t o w n ’ s m u s i c a l n e e d s . T h e

c o mm u na l m u si c a l t r ad i ti o n o f J o ac h i ms t ha l m u st h a ve b e en e x ce p t io n -

a ll y r ic h, a nd c er ta in ly r e ac h ed i nt o e ve ry a sp e ct o f c it y l if e, s ym bo li z ed

b y t he p ra ct ic e o f t he c ho ra l s tu de nt s m ak in g a t wi ce w ee kl y p er am bu -

l at io n o f t he t ow n’s s tr ee ts , s in gi ng h ym ns . M at he si us a ls o p os it iv el y

p ro mo te d t he p ra ct ic e o f h ym n s in gi ng i n a d om es ti c c on te xt – i nd ee d

t hi s f lo ur is hi ng o f t he d om es ti c h ym n t ra di ti on w as o ne o f t he c le ar es t

m a n i fes ta ti o n s o f L u thera n i s m’s po pu l ar s u ccess .

W hat wa s t he i mp ac t of al l t hi s m us ic al i nst ru ct io n ? Th er e i s l it tl e

d o u b t t h a t t h e c i t i z e n s o f J o a c h i m s t h a l r e v e l l e d i n t h e i r s i n g i n g – b u t d i d

i t t e a c h ? T h i s q u e s t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r t i n e n t w h e n c o n s i d e r e d a g a i n s t

t he b ac kg ro un d o f a r ec en t h is to ri og ra ph ic al t ra di ti on t ha t h as b ee n

d is t in ct ly s ce pt i ca l a bo ut t h e a bi l it y o f t he n ew e va ng el ic al p r ea c he rs t o

e ng ag e t he m as se s a t o th er t h an a s up er fi ci al l ev el . T he c as e a ga in st t he

e ff ec ti ve ne ss o f t he n ew p ed ag og ic c ul tu re c an b e d is ti ll ed i nt o t hr ee

m ai n c ha rg es . F ir st ly, t ha t t he r ef or me rs r ep la ce d o ne s or t o f e sc ha to -

l o g i c a l d e s p a i r w i t h a n o t h e r . I n t h i s p e r c e p t i o n t h e f e a r o f H e l l s t i r r e d u p

by t he teachi ngs of the late med iaeval c hurch was r eplaced by the

h op el es sne ss i ndu ce d b y a g ri m t he olo gy o f m an’s p ow er le ssne ss t o

i nf l ue nc e s al va t io n. S ec on dl y, s ce pt i cs c it e e mp ir ic a l d at a t h at a pp ea r

t o s ho w t ha t t he r ef or me rs f ai le d t o i mp ar t e ve n t he m os t b as ic u nd er -

s ta nd in g o f t h e e ss en ti al s o f f ai th , e ve n o ve r t he c ou rs e o f s ev er a l g en er -

at ions . Finall y, it h as been suggeste d t hat as the new evangelical

c hu r ch es b ec am e i ns ti tu t io na li ze d , t h e c lo s e c o- op e ra ti on b et w ee n a

f or ma ll y e du cat ed c le rg y an d t he s tat e p ow er c ause d a n i nc re asi ng

d is t an ce t o g ro w u p b et w ee n m in is te r a nd l ai ty i n t h e p ar i sh .




Yet if we follow Chri stopher Brown in h is sensiti ve evocat ion of

t he ‘ ge nt le p ed ag og y’ o f L ut he ra n h ym no dy, t he n w e c an s ee t ha t t he

L ut he ra n h ym n t ra di ti on o ff er s a p ar ti al r es po ns e t o a ll o f t he se c on -

c e rn s. I t i s c le ar, f ir st ly, t h at i n J oa ch i ms th al a t l ea st c hu rc h l if e w as t h e

j oi nt c re at io n o f b ot h c le rg y a nd l ai ty. T he e vo lu ti on o f t he l it ur gi ca l

r ou nd r ep re s en te d a j oi nt e nt e rp ri s e i n w hi ch c it iz en s a nd m in i st er s h ad

a ll i nv es te d h ea vi ly. H ym ns p la ye d a p iv ot al p ar t i n t hi s r el at io ns hi p.

T h e y w e r e w r i t t e n b y c l e r g y , b u t w e r e d e f i n i t e l y r e g a r d e d a s a p a r t o f l a y

culture.

They coul d also play an impo rt ant r ole in conve ying the c entral

m es sa ge s o f t he n ew e va ng el ic al t ea ch in gs . L ut he r a nd h is c ol le ag ue s

p ro vi de d h ym ns f or e ac h p ar t o f t he c at ec hi sm al c yc le , a nd c at ec hi sm

h ym ns a re a rr an ge d i n h ym na ls f or u se i n i ns tr uc ti on . B ut c on gr eg a-

t io na l h ym ns a ls o a dd re ss ed q ui te d ir ec tl y c or e t he ol og ic al c on ce rn s

s uc h a s j us ti fi ca ti on b y f ai th . T he p ow er le ss o f f al le n m an t o f ul fi l t he

L a w w a s o f c o ur s e a x io m at i c, a n d c o m b i ne d w i th t h e n at u ra l m o ra l iz i ng

t e nd en c y o f t he p ul p it , p re ac hi n g c ou ld h av e a s al ut a ry b ut d ep re ss in g

e ff ec t. T he h ym n, i n c on tr as t, c ou ld p re se nt t he h ea ve nl y p ar ad ox o f

e va ng e li ca l t he ol og y, L aw a nd G r ac e , i n a m uc h m or e p os it i ve l ig h t. To

quote Brown : ‘One of the greatest virtues of the hymns was that,

wher eas a sermon taken in isol ation . . . might se em excessive in its

emph as is on the law, the Luthe ran hymns wit hi n the ir r elatively

s m a l l c o m p a s s u s u a l l y s u c c e e d e d i n p r e s e n t i n g b o t h l a w a n d t h e G o s p e l ,

u si ng t h e c on tr as t w h ic h L ut he r an t h eo lo g y p os it ed bet w ee n t h es e t wo

d o ct r i ne s t o g r ea t d r am a ti c a nd p s yc h o lo g i ca l e ff e ct . ’20

O t h e r h y m n s p r o m o t e w o r k s o f l o v e a n d n e i g h b o u r l y s e r v i c e , a n d t h e y

a re o f c ou rs e e na ct ed i n a c on te xt t ha t e pi to mi ze s t hi s s en se o f a l iv in g,

a ct iv e c om mu ni ty. H er e a ll t he a sp ec ts o f f ai th – e mo ti on al , p sy ch o-

l o gi c al a n d r a ti o na l – c o mb i ne d w i th p h ys i ca l a c ti v it y t o e n ca p su l at e t h e

c or e t e ac hi ng s o f t h e n ew c h ur ch a nd i ts c la im , s o i mp or t an t t o L ut he r,

t o c re at e a ne w C hr ist ian p eo pl e. Th is se nse o f t he p ow er o f t he su ng

word was dist il le d, as is so often the case, into parable s of wonder-

w or k in g m ir ac l es . O ne s uc h w as t he t al e o f a p os se s se d g ir l w ho se i nn er

d e m o n s r e s i s t e d a l l t h e p o w e r s o f t h e c l e r g y u n t i l s h e w a s b r o u g h t b y h e r

d esp ai ri ng fa mi ly i nt o t he c hu rc h s ervice. Here hymns sung by the

c on gr e ga t io n d ro ve o ut t he e vi l s pi r it s.21 T he C hr is t ia n p e op l e i n s on g

p os se ss e d t he ir o wn p ow er t o h ea l a nd m ak e w ho le .

20 Ibid., p . 2 0 2 . 21 Ibid., p . 2 2 0 .

Militant in song 49



The Power of the Word

L u t h e r a l w a y s i n t e n d e d t h a t h i s h y m n s a n d s p i r i t u a l s o n g s s h o u l d f i n d a

l if e o ut si de t he l it ur gi ca l s et ti ng : i n s ch oo ls , b ut a ls o i n t he s tr ee ts a nd

t a ve r ns . T h e L u th e ra n R e fo r m at i on i n f a ct s p aw n e d a r e ma r ka b l e r a ng e

o f m us i ca l s et ti ng s , s om e f or t he w or s hi p s er vi ce , o th e rs f or l es s f or m al

s et ti ng s, t ho ug h t hi s i s a d is ti nc ti on n ot a lw ay s e as y t o m ai nt ai n. T he

o ve rl ap b et we en t he t wo c ul tu re s i s w el l i ll us tr at ed b y t wo of Luther’s

m os t f am ou s h ym ns, E in neues Lied and Ein f este Berg .22 Luther

composed Ein n eu es L ie d t o mark and celebrate the witness of tw o

A ug us ti ni an m on ks e xe cu te d i n B rus se ls i n 1 52 3 f or t he ir r ef us al t o

r ec an t t he ir L ut he ra n b el ie fs . L ut he r w as p ow er fu ll y a ff ec te d b y t he ir

de at hs , a nd t he de pt h o f h is e mot io n is vi vi dl y e vid ent in t he t we lv e

s ta nz as o f t he h ym n c om po se d a ft e r t h e e xe cu ti on s. T he t e xt w as o bv i-

o us ly a n ew c om po si ti on , a nd a lt ho u gh i t l at e r f ou nd a p la c e i n c on gr e-

g a t i o n a l w o r s h i p , i t h a d n o t b e e n w r i t t e n f o r l i t u r g i c a l p u r p o s e s . I n f a c t i t

o we s m or e t o t he t ra di ti on o f t he n ew s s on g, t ra di ti on al ly s un g i n t he

m ar ke t p la ce s in t he m ann er o f t he Ba nkelsa nger . The hymn E in f es t e

Berg , b y c o n t r a s t , w a s a l w a y s c l e a r l y i n t e n d e d f o r l i t u r g i c a l u s e . B a s e d o n

P sa lm 4 6, i t i s t he a rc he ty pal m et ri ca l p sa lm – t he b ib li ca l t ex t i n t he

ve rnac ul ar se t i n st ro ph ic f or m – a fo rm t ha t w oul d b ec om e t he mo st

c h ar a c te r is t ic m u si c al c r ea t io n o f P r o te s ta n ti s m. B u t t h e o v e rw h el m in g

r e s on a nc e w i th L u th e r an c o ng r eg a t io n s a n d t h e m i li t an t l y ri c o f E i n f e s t e

Berg e ns ur ed i t a l if e i n a nd o ut o f t he c hu rc h b ui ld in g. Wi th i ts m il it ar -

i st ic lang ua ge i t b ec am e a b at tl e s on g, t he ‘ Ma rs e il la is e o f t he R ef or m a-

tion’.23 A t t he s en si t iv e t im e o f t he A ug sb ur g I nt er im , E in f e st e B e rg was

a ct ua ll y b an ne d f ro m u se i n N ur e mb e rg u nt i l a v er si o n l es s o ff en si ve t o

C at ho li cs c ou ld b e c ra ft ed . S o t he t wo f or ms – t he l it ur gi ca l h ym n a nd

t he p ol em i ca l s on g – w er e a lw ay s t o s om e e xt en t i nt er wo v en .

B ey on d t h is , h ow e ve r, t h er e s oo n a ls o e me rg e d a t ra di ti on o f o ve rt l y

p ol em ic al l it er at ur e t ha t h ad l it tl e p la ce i n t he c hu rc h s et ti ng . T he se

s on gs dr ew on t he sa me so ur ce s of in sp ir at io n f or t he ir t une s. Li ke

L ut he r’s h ym ns t he y m ad e m uc h u se o f c on tr af ac ta , m el od ie s t ak en

f ro m s ec u la r t r ad it io na l o r r e li gi ou s s on gs ; i nd e ed , t h e t wo r ep er t oi re s

s ho we d a c on si de ra bl e d eg r ee o f o ve r la p. M an y o f t h e p ol em i ca l s on gs

a d d r e s s e d t h e b u r n i n g t h e o l o g i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s o f t h e d a y : t h e c u l t

o f s a i n t s , t h e a b u s e o f M a r i a n d e v o t i o n , t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f t h e e n d - t i m e .

O th e rs e xu lt ed i n t he c on fo un di ng o f L ut he r’ s e ne m ie s, t h e P op e a nd t he

22 S e e h e re Wa g ne r O e tt i ng e r, M u si c a s P r op a ga n da, p p. 6 2– 9. T he f ol lo wi ng s ec ti on i sh e av i ly i n de b te d t o t h is s e mi n al s t ud y.

23 Ibid., p p . 4 6 – 7 .




Cath olic clergy. Some had very spec ific targe ts. Th e anonym ous

‘ Mar tinus ist nit geschwi gen’ containe d an expl icit attac k on t he

C a tho li c theo l o gi a n J ero me E m s e r , u n d e r t h e g u i s e o f ‘ t h e G o a t ’ : ‘ G o a t ,

d es is t w it h y ou r b le at in g ! ’24 T hi s r ef er en ce p oi nt s u s t o t he m ix ed a nd

v a r i e d s o c i a l a p p e a l o f t h e s e s o n g s . O n l y t h o s e w h o h a d f o l l o w e d t h e e b b

a nd f lo w o f R ef o rm at io n p ol em ic w it h s om e u nd er s ta nd in g c ou ld h av e

b e en f am il ia r w it h t hi s d es ig n at io n o f E ms er, a L ei p zi g o pp on en t w it h

w h o m L u t h e r h a d e n g a g e d i n a f u r i o u s p a m p h l e t w a r o v e r t h e c a n o n i z a -

t io n o f t h e l oc al s ai nt , B en no . I nt er e st i ng ly, E ms er c ou nt er e d L ut he r’ s

Against the New Idol w ith a verse work of his own, ‘Ach Ben no, du vil

h eilig er man’. Th is was p ubl ished in broad she et f orm on the press

m ai nt ai ne d t o p ub li sh E mse r’s wo rk i n D re sd en : p er hap s it w as t hi s

u nw e lc om e a pp r op ri at i on o f t h e p op ul ar m ed iu m b y a C at h ol ic oppon-

e nt t h at i ns p ir ed t he c on t em pt uo us a no ny mo us r es p on se a bo ve .25 Al-

t hou gh t he re i s no e vi de nc e t ha t L ut he r p enn ed t he v er se a tt ac k o n

E ms er, h e w as n ot a ve r se t o e xt en di ng h is f re qu e nt a d h o mi n em attacks

i n t o v e r s e . H i s t w o - s t a n z a w o r k , ‘ A c h d u a r g e r H e i n z e ’ , a t t a c k s H e i n r i c h

o f B r au n sc h we i g f o r p e r mi t t in g t h e e x e cu t io n o f P r o te s ta n ts . H e f o ll o ws

t h e s o n g w i t h t h e c o m m e n t , ‘ W h e n I c o m p l e t e t h i s s o n g I w i l l a l s o f i n d a

v er se t o d eal wi th t he f el low in M ai nz ’ – b y w hi ch h e me ant C ar di na l

A l br e ch t o f B r an d en b ur g .26

T h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l s o n g s w e r e t h o s e t h a t a d d r e s s e d t h e c o r e i s s u e s o f

R ef or m at io n d eb at e a nd e nc ap su l at ed t h e e ss en c e o f t he n ew t e ac hi ng .

B et w ee n 1 52 3 a nd 1 52 5 t he N ur e mb e rg s ho em ak e r– po et H an s S ac h s

cont ribu ted a range of Ch ri stian so ngs to t he cause, alongside t he

t h ir te e n t r an sl at io ns o f t h e p sa lm s h e c on tr ib u te d t o t he G e rm an M as s.

B en ea th t h ei r p ol is he d a cc e ss ib il it y, t h es e s on gs , w hi c h d we l t o n c or e

e va ng el ic al t he me s s uc h a s j us ti fi ca ti on a nd r ig ht d ev ot io n, r ev ea l a

c on si de r ab le s ub tl et y o f c om po si t io na l m et ho d. S ac h s’ o ve r t p ur po se

w as t o e ff ec t a ‘ Ch ri st ia nl y c or re ct ion ’ o f t radi ti ona l so ng s. F or t hi s

r ea so n h e p ur po se fu ll y t oo k a s h is m od el w el l- kn ow n s on gs o f M ar ia n

d ev ot io n. I n t hi s i ns ta nc e t he c on tr af ac tu m s er ve d a d ou bl e p ur po se .

It not only made use of a famili ar tune, so that the song was more

i ns ta nt ly m em or ab le , b ut i t p er fo rm ed a d ee pe r t he ol og ic al a ct : s up -

p la nt i ng t ra di t io na l b el ie fs w it h t ho se m or e f it ti ng t o e va ng e li ca l s en s-

i bi li ti e s. T hi s i ll us tr at e s a n i mp o rt an t a sp ec t o f t h e s uc c es s o f L ut he r an

p ol em i ca l s on gs , k no wn a s i nt e rt ex t ua li ty. T he n ew t ex t i s o ve rl ai d o n

24 T r an s c r ib e d , w i t h t r a ns l a t io n , i n Ibid., p p. 3 10 –1 2.25 F r an k A u ri c h, D ie A nf a n ge d es B uc hd ru ck s i n D re sd en . D ie E ms er pre ss e, 1 52 4– 15 26

(Dresden, 2000) , p p . 5 4 – 5 .26 Oettinger, M u s ic a s P r op a ga n da, p p. 1 18 –1 9.

Militant in song 51



t h e o l d w o r d s , b u t t h e m e m o r y o f t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t r e s o n a t e s t h r o u g h t h e

m e a n i n g . T h i s a p p l i e s w h e t h e r t h e o l d t e x t i s i n v e r t e d o r t r a n s m u t e d ( a s

w it h t he t ra di ti on al s on gs o f M ar ia n d ev ot io n ‘ cl ea ns ed ’ b y S ac hs ) o r

w h e th e r t h e o r ig i na l e n ha n ce d t h e n e w v e rs i on . T h e p o pu l ar t r ad i ti o na l

G e r m a n s o n g , t h e Judaslied , c o n t i n u e d t o b e s u n g w e l l i n t o t h e s i x t e e n t h

c e n t u r y i n i t s o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n , a s w e l l a s p r o v i d i n g t h e m e l o d y f o r a h o s t

o f L ut he ra n c on tr af ac ta . T he r es on an ce o f t he o ri gi na l, ‘ O w re tc he d

Judas, what have you done ? You have betrayed my Lord’, provided easy

t ar ge t s f or m od er n e ne m ie s o f t he e va ng e li ca l c au se . N ot s ur p ri si ng l y,

p ol em ic al s on gs t hat use d t hi s t un e e njo ye d a p ar ti cul ar r es ona nc e

d ur in g t he A ug sb ur g I nt er im , w it h M au ri ce o f S ax on y t he o bv io us , i f

n o t a l wa y s s t at e d, t a r ge t .

Th e u se o f t he se f am il ia r t une s wa s of u tm os t i mp or tan ce t o t he ir

s uc ce ss. F or b ot h L ut he r a nd h is s uc ce ss or s i t w as a q ui te de li be ra te

s t r a t e g y , a s t h e y w e r e h a p p y t o a c k n o w l e d g e . T h e a u t h o r s o f t h e d e d i c a -

t or y p re fac e t o t he 1 57 5 s on g b oo k o f t he B oh em ian B re th re n c om -

m e nt ed : ‘ ou r s in ge r s t oo k u p [ se cu la r m el od i es ] i nt en t io na ll y, i n o rd er

t ha t t he p eo pl e be a tt ra ct ed t o a g ra sp o f t he t ru th m or e e as il y t hr ou gh

f a m i l ia r s o u nd s ’.27 F am il i ar t un es m ad e m em or i za ti on t ha t m uc h s im -

p le r, a nd e xp lo it e d t h e u bi q ui ty o f s on g i n p re -l i te ra te s oc i et ie s. T he ir

use also vitiated the need to print these songs with the expe nsive

a nd c om pl ex m us ic al t yp e. M os t o ft en t he s on g w ou ld b e p ub li sh ed i n

a t e x t - o n l y v e r s i o n , w i t h a p r e f a t o r y n o t e , ‘ t o b e s u n g t o t h e t u n e . . . ’ O f

t he 1 83 b ro ad sh e et s o ng s t h at h av e s ur vi ve d i n t he p re c io u s M eu se b ac h

c o ll e c ti o n i n Be rl in , o ve r t wo -t hi rd s c it e a w el l- kn ow n t un e a s m el od y

i n t hi s w ay.28 M ost i mp or tan t o f al l, t he r efo rm er s w it h t he ir n ewl y

w ri tt en s pi ri tu al s on gs h ad c re at ed a g en re t ha t w or ke d w it h t he g ra in

o f s ix te en th -c en tu ry s oc ie ty. T he ir i mp or ta nc e c an b e g au ge d f ro m

the fr equency with whic h Luth er comme nted on th e need t o teach

s in g in g, a nd t he t he me w as f re qu en tl y e vo ke d i n t h e n ew G e rm an c hu rc h

orders.

Th e new spiritua l songs quic kl y made the ir way into t he general

e nt er ta in me nt c ul tur e o f t he n ew L ut he ran s oc ie ti es. T he S pa ni sh

C ar me l it e T ho ma s a J e su w as s ur pr is ed t o f in d L ut he r’s h ym ns b ei ng

s un g i n p ri va te h ou se s, w or ks ho ps , m ar ke t p la ce s, s tr ee ts a nd fiel d s ;

e ve n, ac cor di ng t o on e m or e h ost ile r ep or t, in t he b at hh ouse s.29 We

s ho ul d n ot b e s ur p ri se d. I n c on tr a st t o t h e s ce pt ic is m e xp r es se d i n t h is

book that a print ed broadsheet image coul d be ‘read’, as is often

as se rt ed , i t i s r el at iv el y e as y, i n t he c ase of so ng , t o c ha rt a p at h f ro m

27 Ibid., p . 5 . 28 Ibid., p . 2 6 .29 R o b i ns o n -H am m e rs t e i n, ‘ L u t he r a n R e f o r m a ti o n a n d i t s M u s i c’ , p . 1 6 1 .




p ri nt t o o ra l c ul tu re . A l it er at e p er so n w ou ld b e n ee de d t o r ea d t he n ew

t ex t a nd f it i t t o t he ( us ua ll y w el l- kn ow n) t un e ; t he re af te r t he re w as a

w e ll - es t ab l is h ed t r ad i ti o n b o th o f i n di v id ua l p u bl i c s i ng i ng a n d o f g r o up

c o n v i v i a l i t y , b y w h i c h i t c o u l d b e m a d e k n o w n t o , a n d s w i f t l y l e a r n e d b y ,

a w i de r a u di e nc e . H a ns - Ch r is t op h R u bl a ck h a s b r i ll i an t ly d e m on s tr a te d

t he p ro ce ss o f d is se mi na ti on i n o ne p ar ti cul ar in st anc e, t he c as e of a

seditious song that cir culate d in the city of Nor dl in ge n d ur in g t he

P e a s a n t s ’ W a r i n 1 5 2 5 . T h e a u t h o r o f t h e s o n g w a s a l o c a l w e a v e r , C o n t z

A na han s, an d t he i nt er rog at io n o f t he l oc al r in gl ea de rs of t he r evo lt

r eve al ed m uc h ab ou t h ow i t s pr ead a ro und t he c it y. I t wa s s un g a t t he

i n n o f B a l t h a s a r F e n d , o n e o f t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e r e v o l t . L a t e r , o n e A n t o n

F or ne r a sk ed t he aut hor t o si ng i t i n h is h ous e. A ft er a t hi rd s ing in g i n

a no th er in n, w it hi n a m on th it wa s s o we ll k no wn t ha t Ha ns Tr um er

c o u l d r e n d e r i t : i t w a s h i s d r u n k e n p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e s o n g w h i l e m e a n t

t o b e o n w at c h d ut y t ha t a le rt ed t he m ag is t ra te s t o i ts s ed it i ou s c on te nt .

Trumer claimed to have heard it in Spangen berg’s inn, wh ere fif ty

c i ti z en s h a d b e e n p r e se n t, i n cl u di n g t h e m a st e r o f t h e We a ve r s’ G u il d .30

P op ul ar s on g p er fo rm ed m any i mp or tan t f unc ti on s in s ix te ent h-

c e n t u r y s o c i e t y . I t p r o v i d e d a n i m p o r t a n t a r t i s t i c o u t l e t f o r l e s s - e d u c a t e d

p e o p l e , f o r v i r t u a l l y e v e r y o n e c a n s i n g . S o n g i s c h e a p a n d a c c e s s i b l e , a n d

r eq ui re s n o s ta gi ng o r t ra in in g f or e nj oy me nt . I ts p ot en cy a s a t oo l o f

R e f o r m a t i o n i s o b v i o u s i n a n a g e w h e r e m o s t o p i n i o n f o r m i n g t o o k p l a c e

i n a c om mu na l, r at h er t ha n a p ri va te s et ti ng .

A p ow er fu l i ll us tr at io n o f t he p ot en cy o f s in gi ng a s a m ea ns o f h ar ne ss in g

a n d c h a n n e l l i n g d i s s e n t e v e n w i t h o u t t h e a g e n c y o f p r i n t i s p r o v i d e d b y i t s

r ol e i n t he H us si te R ev ol ut io n, a h al f- ce nt ur y b e fo re t h e a dv en t o f p ri nt .

T he s on gs b or n i n t he e xc it eme nt o f th e C ze ch r eb el li on r an t he f ul l g am ut

o f p ol it ic al a nd r el ig io us g ri ev an ce s.31 T he y i nv ei gh ed a ga in st t he w ea lt h o f

t he c hu rc h a nd t he ‘ Ju da s c le rg y’ ; t he y p il lo rie d t he C ou nc il o f C on st an ce

a n d t h e p i t i l e s s d e s t r u c t i o n o f H u s :

O y o u C ou n ci l o f C on s ta n ce

W h o c a ll y o ur s el f h o ly ,

H ow c ou ld y ou w it h s uc h n eg le ct

A n d g r e a t l a c k o f m e rcy

D e s t r o y a h o l y m a n ?32

30 H a n s - C h r i s t o p h R u b l a c k , ‘ T h e S o n g o f C o n t z A n a h a n s : C o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d R e v o l t i nNor dl in ge n, 1 52 5’ , i n R . P o- Ch ia H si a ( e d. ), T h e G er ma n P eo pl e a nd t he R ef or ma ti on(Ithaca, N.Y. 1988) , p . 1 1 2 .

31 T ho ma s A F ud ge , T h e M ag ni fi ce nt R id e. T he F ir st R ef or ma ti on i n H us si te B oh em ia( A ld e rs h ot , S t A n dr e ws S t ud i es i n R e fo r ma t io n H i st o ry , 1 9 98 ) , p p . 1 8 6– 2 1 6.

32 Ibid., p . 1 9 1 .

Militant in song 53





a l l o w e d a c a u t i o u s p l a c e f o r c o n g r e g a t i o n a l s i n g i n g i n t h e l i t u r g y , s p e c i f -

i ca ll y t he s in gi ng o f p sa lm s b ef or e a nd a ft er t he E uc ha ri st . I n h is f ir st

y ear s i n G en eva h e r ec om me nd ed t he u se o f t he me tr ic al p sa lm s in a

s ub mi ss i on t o t he c i ty c ou nc il : ‘ th e p sa lm s c an s ti mu la te u s t o r ai se o ur

hearts to God and arouse us to an ardour in invoki ng as well as in

e xa lt in g w it h p ra is es t he g lo ry o f h is n am e’ .37 B ut h is r ea l a wa ke ni ng t o

t h e f u l l p o t e n t i a l o f t h e p s a l m s i n a l i t u r g i c a l s e t t i n g c a m e i n t h e y e a r s o f

s er vi ce i n M ar ti n B uc e r’s S t ra sb ou rg ( 15 3 8– 41 ). C al vi n, b ru is e d a nd

h um il ia t ed a ft e r t he b ru sq ue t e rm in at io n o f h is f ir st G en e va n m in is tr y,

w as h er e p ut i n c har ge of t he sm all F re nc h e xi le c hu rc h. H e w as ab le

b ot h t o o bse rv e t he ma tur e S tr as bo ur g c hur ch o rd er an d t o ap pl y i ts

e ss en ti a l f ea tu r es t o t h e w or sh ip o f h is c on gr e ga ti o n. A lm os t i mm e di -

a te ly, h e b eg an t o p re pa re a n e di ti on o f t he m et ri ca l p sa lm s i n F re nc h.

Some of the tra nslations were his own ; the re st were the wor k of t he

F r en ch c ou rt p oe t , C lem e nt M a ro t .

Clem ent Mar ot was one of the m ost acc omp lishe d of sixte enth-

c e n t u r y F r e n c h p o e t s , a n d a f a v o u r i t e a t t h e c o u r t o f F r a n c i s I . A p r o t e ge

o f t he k in g ’s s is te r, M ar gu e ri te o f N av ar r e, M ar ot h ad f li rt e d w it h e va n-

g el is m e ar ly i n h is c ar ee r, b ut t his w as n ot e vi de nt w he n h e b eg an h is

w or k o n t he v er si fi ca ti on o f t he p sa lm s i n 1 53 2. P er ha ps i ro ni ca ll y, i n

v ie w o f t he ir l at er h is to ry, t he p sa lm v er si fi ca ti on s w er e i ni ti al ly m uc h

p r a i s e d b y t h e k i n g a n d h i s c i r c l e : F r a n c i s , h i s s o n H e n r y , a n d C a therine

d e’ M ed ic i w er e a ll s ai d t o h av e h ad t he ir p ar ti cu la r f av ou ri te s.38 The

c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e f i r s t t h i r t y t r a n s l a t i o n s c o m p l e t e d i n 1 5 3 9 w a s d e d i c a t e d

t o the kin g. The ir app ropriation for th e new evange lical lit urgy in

S tr as bo ur g m ig ht w el l h av e b e en t ho ro ug hl y u nw el c om e, a nd c er t ai nl y

i t m ad e i t d iff ic ul t f or M ar ot t o r em ai n i n P ar is . I n 1 54 2 h e l ef t F ra nc e

for good. His verse translati ons were formally c ondemne d by t he

S or bo nn e i n 1 54 4, t he y ea r o f h is d ea th .

T he F re nc h m et ri ca l p sa lm s o bv io us ly d re w o n t he s am e s cr ip tu ra l

c an on a s m an y o f t he L ut h er an h ym ns ; t he C al vi ni st w or sh ip t ra di ti on

a s i t e me rg ed i n S tr as bo ur g a nd G en ev a w as , h ow ev er, d is ti nc ti ve i n a

number of ways. F ir stly, the singing of the psalms bec ame the core

c on gr eg at io na l a ct iv it y o f a r ef or me d s er vi ce t ha t h ad a ba nd on ed t he

t ra di ti on al c an on o f t he M as s. T he p sa lm s a ls o r ep re se nt ed t he t ot al

c or pu s o f C al vi ni st h ym no dy ( al on g w it h a s ma ll n um be r o f v er si fi ca ti on s

o f o t h e r s c r i p t u r a l p r a y e r s a n d c a n t i c l e s ) . T h e y w e r e n o t , a s w a s t h e c a s e

i n t h e L u t h e r a n t r a d i t i o n , p a r t o f a n e x t e n d e d h y m n r e p e r t o i r e . B e c a u s e

37 L e a v e r, ‘G o o s tl y p s a lm es ’ , p . 4 1 .38 Henri-Leo n a r d B o r d ie r, L e c h an so nn ie r H ug ue n ot d u X VI e s ie cle ( r e pr i nt e d n, G e ne v a,

1969) , p . i x .

Militant in song 55





F i gu r e 3 . 1. T h e p r og r es s iv e s o ph i st i ca t io n o f m u si c al t y po g ra p hy . F r om

the Achtliederbuch o f 1 5 2 4 t o t h e F r e n c h R e f o r m e d P s a l t e r o f 1 5 6 3 .

Militant in song 57



t hr ou gh t he 1 53 0s a nd 1 54 0s , w as t o p ri nt a ll n ot es a s s ep ar at e c ha ra c-

t e r s , e a c h w i t h a s m a l l p o r t i o n o f t h e f i v e - b a r s t a v e . T h e s e c o u l d t h e n b e

s e t u p i n l in es o f t y p e a s i f t he y w er e c on ve nt io na l l e tt e r c h a ra ct e rs . I t w as

a n e le ga nt a nd u lt im at el y h ig hl y s at is fa ct or y r es ol ut io n o f a c om pl ex

p r o b l e m , b u t o n l y i f t h e p u b l i s h e r w a s p r e p a r e d t o g o t o the co n s i d era bl e

e xp en se o f p ur c ha si ng t he s pe ci a l f on ts o f m us ic al t yp e.41

Th at t he G en eva n p ub li sh ing i ndu st ry w as ab le t o un de rt ak e t he

n ec es sa ry i nv es tm en t w as t he c on se qu en ce o f t wo c ir cu ms ta nc es : t he

l a r g e i n j e c t i o n o f c a p i t a l t h a t f o l l o w e d t h e a r r i v a l i n t h e c i t y o f e s t a b l i s h e d

m e mb e rs o f t he w el l- fo un de d P ar is p ri nt f ra te r ni ty, a nd t h e e no rm ou s

p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e p s a l m s t h e m s e l v e s . F r o m t h e t i m e o f C a l v i n ’ s r e t u r n t o

G e ne va i n 1 54 1, t h e p sa lm s b ec am e a n e ss en ti a l p ar t o f c hu r ch l if e.

Calvin’s F orm e d es p ri er es, establi sh ed soon after his ret urn from

S t r a s b o u r g , i n c o r p o r a t e d a l l o f t h e M a r o t p s a l m s t h e n e x t a n t ; a n e d i t i o n

o f 1 54 3 us ed al l o f t he f if ty v er si fi ca ti on s c omp le te d b efo re M ar ot ’s

d ea th . A ll o f t he e ar ly e di ti on s w er e p ub li sh ed i n s ma ll f or ma ts , o ft en

i n p ar al le l w it h e di ti on s o f t he Catechisme and F or m e d e s p ri e r es e c c le s i as -

tiques. B o o k s e l l e r s t o o k t o b i n d i n g t h e t h r e e b o o k s t o g e t h e r , e m p h a s i z i n g

t h e ir i m po r ta n ce f o r p r iv a te a nd c o ng r e ga t io n al u s e. T h e r e sp o ns i bi l it y

t o r e nd e r t h e m u si c al n o ta t io n a c cu r at e ly a n d w i th o ut v ar i at i on w a s o n e

t h a t t h e p r i n t e r s t o o k s e r i o u s l y , a n d t h a t m a g i s t r a t e s a n d m i n i s t e r s r i g i d l y

e nf or ce d. W he n o ne m us ic al ly l it e ra te p ri nt e r s pi ed a n ot e t ha t h ad s li d

d o w n f r o m i t s s t a v e a n d s i l e n t l y c o r r e c t e d t h e e r r o r f o r a n e w e d i t i o n h e

w a s r e po r t ed a n d i m pr i so n ed f o r t w en t y- f ou r h o ur s . T h e s y mb o l ic p o i nt

w as c le ar : n ot o nl y t he w or ds o f S cr ip tu re , b ut a ls o t he t ra ns la ti on a nd

t he a pp o in te d m e lo di es , w er e r eg ar de d a s h av i ng n ea r c an on ic al s ta tu s.

I n t hi s w ay t he y w er e a pp ro pr ia te d t o t he G os pe l p ri nc ip le o f t he ‘ pu re

w or d o f S cr ip tu re ’. I n f ac t, a lt ho ug h n ew t ra ns la ti on s o f S cr ip tu re d id

a pp ea r, t he re w as l it tl e a tt em pt t o r ev is e o r v ar y t he t ex t o f t he p sa lm s.

T he y beca me , i n t hi s f ir st a nd f in al f or m, a s ta pl e o f F re nc h C al vi ni st

culture.42

T he r e i s l it tl e r ea so n t o d ou bt t he e no rm ou s a nd i mm ed ia t e p op ul ar i ty

of the new met rical psalms. The new congre ga tional singing had a

p ro fou nd r es on anc e, b ot h w it h t he c hu rc h c om mu ni ty i n G ene va,

a nd a mo ng t he e mb ry on ic c on gr eg at io ns b ac k i n F ra nc e. E di ti on s o f

t he p sa lm s w er e a s ta pl e o f t he c ol po rt e ur t ra de m an ag ed f ro m G e ne va

41 P i er re P i do u x, ‘ L es o r ig i ne s d e l ’ im p re s s io n d e m u si q ue a Genev e’ , i n J .- D. C an da uxa n d B . L e sc a ze ( e ds . ), C i nq s i e cl es d ’ i m pr i m er i e g en ev o is e ( 2 v o ls . , G e ne v a , 1980) , v o l . I ,p p . 9 7 – 1 0 8.

42 T he e xc ep ti on w as C al vi n’s o wn e a rl y a nd r at he r c lu ms y v e rs if ic a ti on s ; t he se w er eq u ie t ly r e pl a ce d b y m o re a c co m pl is h ed t ra n s la t io n s b y T h eo d o r e d e B e ze.




by Lauren t de Normand ie, who supplied pedla rs with the wares

(often on c redit) that they then carried over the mountai ns into

France.43 T he e xp lo s io n o f p ub l ic w or sh ip i n F ra nc e i n t h e e ar ly 1 56 0s

brought a further surge of demand. Already by this point public

p sa lm s in g in g w as i de nt if ie d a s t he d ef in in g a ct iv it y o f t h e n ew C al vi ni st

congregations.

T he e xp an si on o f t he c hu rc h es i n F r an ce c oi nc id e d w it h t he c om pl e -

t i o n b y d e B ez e o f t h e M a r o t c a n o n . T h i s e v e n t w a s m a r k e d b y o n e o f t h e

m os t e xt r ao rd in ar i ly c oo rd i na te d p ub l is hi ng v en tu re s o f t h e s ix te e nt h

c en tu ry. A nt ic ip at in g t he l ik el y d eg re e o f p ub li c i nt er es t i n t he n ew ly

c om pl et ed P sa lt er, t he G en ev an a ut ho ri ti es o rg an iz ed a s yn di ca te o f

p ri nt er s i n G en ev a a nd F ra nc e t o b ri ng i t t o t he m ar ke t. T he e nt er pr is e

w as m an ag ed b y t he L yon me rc ha nt A nt oi ne Vi nc ent , w ho l ic ens ed

p ub l ic at io n b y s om e t h ir t y p ri nt e rs i n f iv e d iff er e nt l oc at i on s : G en e va ,

L y o n , P a r i s , C a e n a n d R o u e n . T h e i n t e n t i o n w a s t o e n s u r e t h e a v a i l a b i l -

i t y o f 3 5 , 0 0 0 c o p i e s o f t h e w o r k w i t h i n a y e a r .44 T h i s s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n

c om fo rt ab ly a cc om pl is he d, n ot l ea st b ec au se i n t hi s b ri ef i nt er va l t he

P sa lt e r c ou ld b e p ub l is he d w i th ou t f ea r o f r ep ri sa l. A lt ho u gh t he 1 56 1

C ol lo q uy o f P oi ss y h ad f ai le d i n i ts i nt en ti on t o p ro mo te r ec on c il ia ti on

b e t we e n t h e c o nt e n di n g r e li g io u s p a rt i e s, T h eo do re d e B ez e h ad t ak en

a dv an ta ge o f t he m oo d o f c on ci l ia ti on t o a sk f or a r oy al p r iv il e ge f or t h e

P sa lt e r. I nc re di bl y, t hi s w as g ra nt ed , a c ir cu ms ta nc e t ha t e xp l ai ns t h e

sudden ent husiast ic involve ment of so large a number of Par is ian

printers.45

T he a tm os ph e re o f g oo dw i ll t h at f ue ll ed t he d is cu ss io n s o f 1 56 1 w as

q u ic k l y d i s pe l le d . Wi t h t h e o u t b r ea k o f f i gh t in g i n 1 5 62 , P a ri s ia n p r in t e rs

w ho h ad e ng ag ed w it h P ro te st an t p ub li sh in g f ou nd t he ms el ve s b ad ly

e x p o s e d : m o s t w e r e s w i f t l y r u i n e d a n d d r i v e n o u t o f t h e c a p i t a l . B u t t h e

p sa lm s r e ta in e d a t en ac io us h ol d o n P ro te st an t a ff ec t io ns , e ve n i n t hi s

most Catholic of cities. Whe n in 1571 the stoc k of the Pr ote st ant

b oo ks el le r R ic ha rd B re to n w as s ei ze d and de st ro ye d, m or e t han h al f

w as c om pr i se d o f e di ti on s o f t h e p sa lm s .46

43 H e id i -L u ci e S c hl a ep f er, ‘ L au r en t d e N o rm a nd ie ’ , i n G . B e rt h ou d ( e d. ) , A sp ec ts d e l a propagande religieuse (Geneva, 1957) , p p. 1 76 –2 30 . O ls on , C a lv i n a n d S o ci a l We l fa r e,

p p . 5 1 –2 .44 Eugen ie D ro z, ‘ An to in e V in ce nt . L a p ro pa ga nd e p ro te st an te p ar l e p sa ut ie r’ , i n

Berthoud, A s p ec t s d e l a p r op a ga n de r e li g ie u se, p p. 2 76 –9 3.45 Pidoux, L e p s a u ti er H u g u eno t .46 A f u rt h er 1 0 p e r c e nt o f t h e s t oc k c o mp r is e d c o mb i ne d e d it io n s o f t h e N e w Te s ta m en t

a nd t he P sa lt er. B ar ba ra D ie fe nd or f, B e ne at h t he C ro ss . C at ho li cs a nd H ug ue no ts i nSixteenth-Century Paris (New York, 1991) , p p . 1 3 2 , 1 3 6 .

Militant in song 59



H ow d oe s o ne a cc ou nt f or t h is e xt ra or di na ry p op ul ar i ty ? O f c ou rs e,

t he m et ri ca l p sal ms c oul d r el y on t he e nt hus ias ti c p at ro na ge o f t he

m i n i s t e r s a n d c o n s i s t o r i e s o f c h u r c h e s t h a t h a d g r o w n w i t h e x t r a o r d i n a r y

s pe ed i n t he l ast f ive ye ar s. B ut i n F ran ce , t oo , t he us e o f t he m et ri cal

p sa lm s q ui ck l y o ut gr e w t h e c on fi ne s o f f or m al c on gr eg a ti on al w or s hi p.

P s al m s i ng i ng b e c am e t h e d e fi n in g a c ti v it y o f t h e P r ot e st a n t i n su r ge n c y.

E v e n i n t h e y e a r s o f p e r s e c u t i o n , c o n d e m n e d e v a n g e l i c a l s w a l k e d t o t h e i r

e xe c ut io n w it h t he p sa lm s o n t h ei r l ip s. T he c ro w d o ft e n r es po nd e d b y

s i ng i ng w i th t h e m i n a n e m ba r r as s in g g e st u re o f s o li d ar i ty. C e rt a in l y t h e

F re nc h a ut h or it ie s w er e d is co mf o rt ed : t h ei r r es po ns e w as t o o rd er t ha t

t ho se c on de mn ed t o d ie s ho ul d hav e t he ir t on gu es c ut o ut t o p re ve nt

s uc h c om mu na l a ct s o f d ef ia nc e.47 As t he chur ches grew in size and

c o nf i de n ce , p s al m s i ng i n g b e c a m e s u cc e s si v el y a b a dg e o f i d en t i ty a nd a

s y m b o l o f m i l i t a n c y . I n 1 5 5 7 i t w a s a v a s t p u b l i c d e m o n s t r a t i o n , a c c o m -

p an ie d b y t he si ng in g o f p sa lm s, t ha t a le rt ed He nr y I I t o t he p ro gr ess

m ad e b y h er es y i n t he c ap it al . A s e ve nt s h ur tl ed o ut o f c on tr ol c la sh es

b e t we e n r i va l g a ng s o f r e l ig i ou s e n th u s ia s ts i n B o rd e au x , R o ue n a n d t h e

c i t i e s o f t h e s o u t h w e re in va r i ab l y a c co m p an i ed b y r o wd y p s al m s i ng i n g

o n t h e P r o t e s t a n t s i d e .48 I n t h i s c o n t e x t t h e s o u n d o f t h e f a m i l i a r p s a l m s ,

s we ll in g f ro m a n ea rb y s tr ee t o r m ar ke t, w ou ld b e a s p ub li c a s ig na l a s

t h e r i n g i n g o f t h e t o w n b e l l s , a n d c i t i z e n s c o u l d e i t h e r b e a t a h a s t y r e t r e a t

o r j o i n t h e f r a y . B u t t h i s u s e o f t h e p s a l m s f o r t h e i n s o l e n t a p p r o p r i a t i o n

o f p ub lic sp ac e und ou bt ed ly p laye d a l ar ge p ar t i n t he r isi ng s ens e o f

a ng er a nd f ru st ra ti on a mo ng t he C at ho li c p op ul at io n – a n a ng er t ha t

f ue l le d t h e e xt r ao rd in ar y p as si on s o f t he R el ig io us Wa rs . S o t oo d id t he

v i o l e n c e t h a t a c c o m p a n i e d t h e p s a l m s i n g i n g . A t t h e f a m o u s G i v r y f a i r i n

1 56 1, t he si te of a n ot or io us p ub li c p re ac hi ng, g an gs o f P ro te st an ts

r am pa ge d a mo ng t h e s ta ll s, s in gi ng p sa lm s a nd o ve r tu rn in g t he w ar es

o f C at ho li c ve ndo rs. I co no cl ast ic at ta ck s o n c hur ch es a nd w ay si de

s hr in es w ou ld i nv ar ia bl y b e a cc om pa ni ed b y b oi st er ou s s in gi ng . To

C at ho li cs t hi s d ou bl e i nv er si on o f t he r el ig io us p ur po se o f S cr ip tu re –

o ut do or s a nd p ar t o f a r it e o f v io le nc e a nd d es tr uc ti on – e nc ap su la te d

t he i r s en se o f a li en at io n f ro m a r e li gi on r un r io t – o ft e n q ui te l it e ra ll y.

47 T h e F r en c h m a rt y ro l og i st J e an C r es p in r e po r te d t h at , d e s pi te t h is , p r is o ne r s o n o c c as i onm ira cu lo us ly s til l re ta in ed th e po we r o f s pe ec h a t t he s ta ke – a n e ch o, n o d ou btc on sc io us , o f s im il ar m ir ac ul ou s m an if es ta ti on s a tt en di ng t he d ea th s o f t he e ar lyC h r i st i a n m a r ty r s . H is to ir e d e s v ra ys t es mo in s d e l a v er it e d e l ’ E va n g i le (G e n ev a , 1 5 7 0 ),ff . 7 9r, 1 63 v, 2 90 v. D av id Wa ts on , ‘ Th e M ar ty ro lo gy o f J ea n C re sp in a nd t he E ar lyF r e n ch E v a n g el i c a l M o v e m e nt , 1 5 2 3 – 15 5 5 ’ (U n i v e r s it y o f S t A n d r ew s , P h . D. d i s s er t a -tion, 1997) , p p . 3 7 , 6 2 , 1 0 1 .

48 P h i l ip B e n e d ic t , R o u e n d u r i n g t h e W a r s o f R e l i g i o n (Cambridge, 1981) , p p . 4 9 – 7 0 . P h i l i pConner, H u g u en o t H e ar tl a nd . M o nt a ub a n a n d S o ut h er n F r en c h C a lv i ni s m d u ri n g t h e Wa r so f R el i gi o n (A l de r s h ot , S t A n d r ew s S t u d ie s i n R e f o rm a ti o n H i s t or y, 2002).




How had the psalms assum ed this potency as a badge of party

a lle gi an ce ? I n p ar t t hi s o we s m uc h t o t he p ow er s ing ing h as t o fo rg e

b on ds a nd c on ne ct io ns t ha t g oe s b ey on d t he n or ma l s tr at if ic at io n o f

c om mu ni ty l if e. I n p ar ti cu la r, s on g h ad t he p ed ag og ic p ow er t o u ni te

d iff er en t s or ts o f p eo pl e i n a w ay t ha t c ut s a cr os s d iv is io ns b et we e n t h e

l it er at e a nd t he i ll it er at e. T he m ne mo ni c p ow er o f s on g, d ri ll ed i n t he

c o ng r e ga t i on a l w o rs h ip s e rv i ce , w a s p a rt i cu l ar l y e n ha n ce d i n t h e c a se o f

t he p sal ms . Th is c ir cu mst an ce w as g iv en add ed p ot enc y b y c er tai n

c o m p o s i t i o n a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e p s a l m s t h e m s e l v e s . B e c a u s e o f t h e c o m p l e x

m et r ic a l s tr uc t ur e o f t h e o ri gi na l v er se , t h er e w as l it tl e c ap ac it y t o r eu se

m el od ie s ; m os t r em ai ne d ( in t he F re nc h c on te xt a t l ea st ) s pe ci fi c t o a

p a r t i c u l a r p s a l m . T h i s l e f t a l a r g e r e p e r t o i r e t o b e t a u g h t , b u t o n c e i t w a s

known the p ot ency of th e t ext was enhanced by assoc iation with a

p ar ti cu la r m el od y. T he m os t p op ul ar p sa lm s s oo n b ui lt t he ir o wn w eb

o f a s s o c i a t i o n s . P s a l m 6 8 b e c a m e t h e s o n g o f b a t t l e : ‘ L e t G o d a r i s e , m a y

h is e ne mi e s b e s ca tt e re d’ . V ic t or y a ch ie ve d, t he H ug ue no t h os t w ou ld

s in g P sa lm 1 24 : ‘ If it h a d n o t b e e n t h e L o r d w h o w a s o n o u r s i d e , n o w

m a y I s r a e l s a y . . ’ .49

I n t h i s c o n t e x t , o n e d i d n o t e v e n n e e d t o h e a r t h e w o r d s t o f e e l t h e w e l l

o f a ss oc ia ti on , c on st an tl y d ee pe ne d a nd e nr ic he d b y c on te mp or ar y

e v e n t s : j o y o u s , t r i u m p h a n t o r t r a g i c . T h e m e t r i c a l p s a l m s t o o k a p o w e r -

f u l p a r t o f t h e S c r i p t u r e c a n o n a n d s h a p e d i t t o t h e n e e d s o f a n e v a n g e l -

i c al m o ve m e nt . S i ng i n g e x pr e s se d b o th t h e p o w e rf u l u r g e t o w i tn e ss , a n d

t h e p ow er a nd s tr en gt h o f a c om m un al m om e nt .

T h e H u gu e no t m o ve m en t i n F r an c e s o on l o st t h e e x tr a or d i na r y v i ta l -

i t y o f t h i s e v a n g e l i c a l m o m e n t . B u t t h e a f f e c t i o n f o r t h e p s a l m s e n d u r e d .

N um e ro us w it ne ss es , f ri en dl y a nd h os ti le , t e st if y t o t h e e nd ur in g p op u -

l ar it y o f t he m et ri ca l p sa lm s i n t he r ef or me d c om mu ni ti es . C at ho li cs

f re tt ed t ha t t he F re nc h j oy o f s in gi ng m ad e t he p oo r p ar ti cu la rl y s of t

t arge ts for t he h eretics . Som e urged the poet s (includi ng th e great

R on sa r d) t o t ak e u p t he ir p e ns t o r ec la im t he p sa lm s f or t ru e r el ig io n.50

A p oi gn an t c od ic il i s p r ov id ed b y a n i nc id en t r ec e nt ly r ec ov er e d f ro m

t he r ecor ds of t he Spanish Inqui sit ion. In 1557 or 1558 a group of

a ro u n d f o rty F r e n c h P r o t e s t a n t s l e f t t h e i r h o m e s i n N o r m a n d y t o r e s e t t l e

i n T o l ed o .51 H e r e t h e y l i v e d i n c o g n i t o , m e e t i n g t o g e t h e r i n s e c r e t t o s i n g

49 W. S t an f or d R e id , ‘ T he B a tt l e H y mn s o f t h e L o rd . C a lv i ni s t P s al mo d y o f t h e S i xt e en t hC e nt u ry ’ , i n C a rl S . M e ye r ( e d. ) , S i xt een t h C en t u r y E s s a ys a n d S t u d ies, v o l . I I ( S t L o u i s ,Mo., 1971) , p p. 3 6– 54 .

50 T he t as k w as t ak en u p b y A rt us D es ir e, w ho c om po se d a v ol um e o f C at ho li c h ym nss pe ci fi ca ll y t o m ak e i t u nn ec es s ar y f or C at ho li cs t o u se t he P ro te s ta nt p sa lm s. A rt usDesire, Hymnes en Francois (P a r is , R u e l le , 1 5 6 1 ).

51 T he c as e w il l b e d is cu ss ed a t l en gt h i n a f or th co mi ng s tu dy b y C li ve G ri ff in .

Militant in song 61



psalms and reaffirm the ir faith, unt il they were discove red and

d en ou nc ed . A pp ar en tl y a n um be r o f m em be rs o f t he g ro up h ad b ee n

h ea rd s in gi ng p sa lm s a s t he y w en t a bo ut t he ir w or k. T he p ra ct ic e h ad

b ec o me s o e ng ra i ne d t h at t he y c ou ld n ot h e lp t he m se lv es .

T he m et ri ca l p sa lm s w ou ld b e a s ig na tu re p ar t o f t he r ef or me d t ra d-

i t i o n w h e r e v e r i t b e c a m e e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e F r e n c h e x p e r i e n c e e x e r c i s e d a

p ar t ic ul ar l y p o we r fu l i nf l ue nc e i n t he N et h er la nd s, w h er e e va ng el ic al s

s har ed a c omm on e xp er ie nc e of e xi le , and jo ine d in t he sa me jo yo us

e xp lo si on o f p ub li c w or sh ip i n t he 1 56 0s . B ut t he D ut ch c hu rc he s a ls o

de ve lo pe d t he ir o wn i nde pe nd ent t rad it io n, i nc ub at ed i n t he e xi le

c h u r c h e s o f L o n d o n a n d E m d e n i n t h e 1 5 5 0 s . T h e p r o v i s i o n o f m e t r i c a l

psalms for the London Dutch ch urch was the achiev ement of Jan

U te nh o ve , f ai th fu l c ol la b or at or o f J oh n a L as co a nd l at e r t r an sl at or o f

t he B ib le . U te nh ov e, a p at ri ci an i nt el le ct ua l f ro m a l it er ar y f am il y i n

Ghent, drew on an eclectic range of sources. He had spent time

i n S t r a s b o u r g , a n d t h e G e n e v a n F r e n c h p s a l m s w o u l d h a v e b e e n f a m i l i a r

f r o m t h e i r u s e i n t h e L o n d o n F r e n c h c h u r c h . U t e n h o v e a l s o d r e w o n t h e

Souterliedekens , a song book publ ished in An twerp in 1539–40 that

c on t ai ne d t ra ns la ti o ns o f a ll 1 50 o f t h e p sa lm s. S in ce t he Souterliedekens

m ade m uch use of fami liar folk melodies, includin g drink in g and

h un ti ng s on gs , i n thi s w ay t h e p op u la r r ep er t oi re i nf il tr at ed t h e D ut ch

m etri cal tra d iti o n .52

U t e n h o v e ’ s p s a l m s a c q u i r e d a n i n s t a n t p o p u l a r i t y b o t h i n L o n d o n a n d

E md en , t he n or th G er ma n t ow n t o w hi ch t he c on gr eg at io n h ad b ee n

f or ce d t o mo ve af te r t he ac ce ssi on of M ar y Tu do r in 1 55 3. I n 1 55 9,

f ol lo w in g t h e a cc e ss io n o f E li za be th , t he D ut c h c h ur ch i n L on do n w as

r e- es tab li sh ed , a nd it w as h er e t hat t he w or k o f ad din g t o t he p sal m

t ra ns la ti on s w en t f or wa rd . U te nh ov e d ie d i n 1 56 3, s o i t w as l ef t t o h is

L o n d o n c o l l e a g u e G o d f r i e d v a n W i n g hen t o s u p e r v i s e t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f

t he p r oj ec t, f in al l y p ub li sh e d i n 1 56 6.53

W i t h t h e o u t b r e a k o f t h e D u t c h R e v o l t i n t h e s a m e y e a r t h i s m u s t h a v e

s ee me d a s p ro pi ti ou s a c oi nc id en ce a s t ha t o f t he F re nc h p ub li ca ti on

in 1562 ; in fact, the influence of Utenhove’s psalms woul d be far

l es s e nd ur in g. E ve n b ef or e c om pl et io n i t w as h av in g t o c om pe te w it h

i nd ep end ent r ival v ent ur es , m ost no ta bl y t hat o f P ie te r D at he nus .

D at h en us i de nt if ie d t wo m aj or d ef i ci en c ie s o f t he U te nh ov e p sa lm s : a

c er ta in s ch ol ar ly p ed an tr y i n t he u se o f l an gu ag e, a nd t he b ew il de ri ng

e cl e ct ic is m o f t h e m el od ie s.54 I n c ont rast t he p sal ms of Dat he nu s al l

c lo se ly f ol lo w t he F re nc h m ode ls i n s tr uc tu re and m et re , s o t hat t he

52 Leaver, ‘ G o o s t ly p s a l mes ’ , p p . 9 2 – 8 .53 Ibid., p p. 2 57 –6 9. 54 Ibid., p p. 2 69 –7 1.




F r en ch m el od ie s c ou ld b e e mp l oy ed f or t he s am e p sa lm s i n t h e D ut c h.

T hi s w as a s ig ni fi c an t a dv an ta ge i n a c ul tu re l ik e t he N et he r la nd s w h er e

c o nn e c ti o ns b e t we e n F r e nc h a n d D ut c h -s p e ak i ng e v an g el i c al s w e re s o

close.

I n t h es e c ir c um st an ce s t he v er si on o f D at h en us w as b ou nd t o p re va il ,

t hou gh n ot w it ho ut s om e m om ent s of c om ic f ar ce w he n me mb er s o f

t h e n e w c h u r c h e s c o m i n g f r o m d i f f e r e n t e x i l e b a c k g r o u n d s s t r u c k u p t h e

p sal m t o c om pe ti ng m el od ie s. Th e f ir st Du tc h sy no ds , r ec og ni zi ng

t he p roblem, made a decis ion for Dath enus, and in 1571 even t he

L on do n c on gr e ga ti on f el l i nt o l in e. I n t he i nt er ve n in g y ea rs t he m et ri c al

p sa lm s h ad a lr ea dy t ak en t he ir p la ce a t t he c en tr e o f D ut ch r ef or me d

w or sh ip . I n t he y ea rs o f s tr ug gl e t he y e me rg ed , a s i n t he F re nc h c as e,

a s a b ad ge o f i de nt it y. C on de mn ed e va ng el ic al s w en t t o t he ir d ea th s

s i n g i n g t h e p s a l m s ; i n 1 5 6 5 a r e t u r n i n g e x i l e f r o m E m d e n w a s f o r t u n a t e

t o avoid th e sa me fate wh en he arriv ed dr unk in a Cath olic se rvice

in Antwerp and started singing psalms during the Latin chant s.

W he n i n t he s um me r o f 1 56 6 t he r is in g o pp os it io n b ro ug ht t ho us an ds

out into the fields to hear the returned exile preachers, enter-

p r is in g p r in t er s i n t h e N et he rl a nd s r us h ed o ut e di ti on s o f t he p sa lm s t o

m ee t t he ne w d em and . So me e ve n a pp ro pr iat ed t he fa mi li ar de vi ce

o f t he E md en p rin te r G il le s v an de r Er ve , t he p ri nc ip al p ub li sh er of

Dutc h Calvinist texts dur ing t he pr evi ous ten years. The Psalte rs

were brou gh t o ut i nt o t he fi el ds an d s ol d t o t he c ro wds f or a s tui ve r,

o r l es s.55 H er e , t oo , C at h ol ic o bs er ve rs h ad n o d ou bt o f t he p ar t p la ye d

b y c om mu na l s in gi ng i n f os te ri n g t h e e xt ra or di na ry g ro wt h o f t he e va n-

g el ic al c hur ch es dur in g t he D ut ch Wonderjaar . When the inquis i-

t i ve a nd t h ou g ht f u l p a tr i ci a n d i ar i st M a rc u s v a n Va e rn e wi j ck w a nd e r ed

o ut t o o bs er ve t he c on st ru ct io n o f t he n ew C al vi ni st c hu rc h i n G he nt ,

he quickl y dis cerned the impo rtance of both the psalms and

c om mun al s ing in g i n t he l if e o f t he n ew c om mun it ie s. T he p sal ms,

h e obse rved, ‘foste red a truly god ly exhi laration , t he more so be-

cause ea ch u nd er st oo d t he f in e w or ds o f t he H ol y S cr ip tu re w hi ch h e

sang’.56 Wi th t h is s im pl e c om m en t Va n Va er ne w ij ck c ap tu re d t he t ru e

p o t e n c y o f t h e p s a l m s a s b o t h a f o r m o f s c r i p t u r a l t e a c h i n g a n d a t o o l o f

co m m un a l s el f -i d en tif i ca tio n .

55 Pettegree, E m d e n a n d t h e D u t c h R e v o l t E x i l e a n d t h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f R e f o r m e d P r o t e s t a n t i s m( O xf o rd , 1 9 92 ) , p . 1 4 0. H o wa r d S l en k , ‘ J an U t en h ov e ’s P s a lm s i n t h e L o w C o un t ri e s’ , Nederlands Archief voor Kerkgeschiedenis, 4 9 (1968 –9), p p. 1 55 –6 8.

56 Q uo te d i n D uk e, L ew is a nd P et te gr ee , Calvinism. Documents, p p . 1 53 , 1 55 . A cc or di ng t oVa n Va er ne wi jc k t he c om mu ni ty u se d t o t ea ch e ac h o th er t he p sa lm s i n t he e ve ni ng s,t h at i s , o u ts i de o f t h e w o rs h ip s e rv i ce .

Militant in song 63



I n S co tl an d a nd E ng la nd t he p sa lm t ra di ti on b ui lt o n t he se c on ti ne n-

t al b e gi n ni ng s i n r at h er d iff er en t w ay s. T he S c ot ti sh t ra di t io n d re w o n

t he t wo s tr ea ms o f t he G e ne va n P sa lt e r a nd t he S te rn h ol d a nd H op k in s

c ol l ec ti on p op ul ar s ou th o f t he b or de r. A s i n G e ne va , w h er e J oh n K no x

h ad s pe nt e du ca ti on al a nd p ro fi ta bl e y ea rs , p sa lm s in gi ng b ec am e a n

i nt e gr al p ar t o f t he s er vi ce . A s i n E ng la nd , t he l oc al v er na cu la r t ra ns la -

tions dre w on a dr ast ic ally reduced canon of melodie s. Th e use of

s im pl if ie d m el od ie s d oe s n ot s ee m t o h av e i mp ed ed t he ir p op ul ar it y –

q u i t e t h e c o n t r a r y . A l t h o u g h t h e F i r s t B o o k o f D i s c i p l i n e h a d c a u t i o u s l y

r eg ar de d p sal m si ng in g as de si ra bl e b ut no t st ri ct ly n ec es sa ry, t he

c o ng r e ga t io n s t o ok t o t h e p s al m s w i th e n th u si a sm .

Psalm s were sung before and after each sermo n ; no doubt they

pro vided welco me relief after the prolonged perio d of attentive

l is te ni ng t o t he p re ac he r. T he S co tt is h p ra ct ic e ( as w as a ls o t he c as e i n

t he N et he rl an ds ) w as f or t he p sa lm s t o b e l in ed o ut b y a p re ce nt or, t he

c on gr e ga ti on t h en r ep ea ti ng b ac k t he l in e, a n i de a l m et h od f or c om m it -

t i n g t h e t u n e t o m e m o r y . N a t u r a l l y t h e y w e r e s u n g u n a c c o m p a n i e d . T h i s

p ra c ti ce o f a lt e rn at io n, b e tw ee n c an to r a nd c on gr e ga t io n, w h ic h i s s ti ll

pra ctised in some part s of th e Western Isles , coul d creat e a str on g

emoti onal impa ct. As a b oy Andre w Me lville found the singing of

the blin d p rece ntor in Montr ose so delight ed him that h e ‘learned

m any o f t he p sal ms an d t une s t he re of i n me tr e, w hi ch I h av e t ho ug ht

e ve r s in ce a g re at b le ss in g a nd c om fo rt ’.57 B y t he end of the cent ury

t he p rac ti ce o f p sal m si ng in g wa s s o de ep ly e ng rai ne d t hat c ong re -

g at io ns r ea ct ed v er y a dv er se ly t o a tt em pt s t o i nt ro du ce a n ew v er si on .

‘ T he p e op le ’ , i t w as o bj ec te d, ‘ h as b ee n s o l on g a cq ua i nt ed w it h t he o ld

metre tha t s om e c an s ing al l o r a t le ast m an y of t he p sal ms w it ho ut t he

book’.58

I n E ng la nd , t h e i nf i lt ra ti on o f t he m et ri ca l p sa lm s i nt o t he l it ur gi ca l

t ra di t io n w as m or e c om pl e x. E ng la nd h ad a m or e r ob us t a nd i nd ep e nd -

e n t t r ad i ti o n o f v e rn a cu l ar h y mn t r an s la t io n , r e ac h in g b a ck i n to t h e f i rs t

g en er at io n of r ef or m, w he n M ile s C ov er da le p ub li sh ed h is Goostly

Psalms ( 15 35 ). T he f or ty- on e t ext s i n t hi s v ol um e w er e dr awn , i n t he

m ai n, f ro m L ut he r’ s h ym ns . T he p ra ct ic e o f s in gi n g p sa lm s i n E ng la nd

w as si gni fic ant ly de ve lo pe d dur in g t he r ei gn of E dw ar d VI , t hou gh

h er e C ov er d al e’s w or k w as e c li p se d b y t he n ew t r an sl at i on s o f T ho ma s

S te rn ho ld , a G en tl em an o f t he P ri vy C ha mb er d ur in g t he l as t y ea rs o f

H e n r y V I I I . I n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f C l em e nt M a ro t , S t er n ho l d b e ga n w r it i ng

p sa lm s t o s in g a t c ou rt , a pp ar e nt l y t o p op ul ar c ha ns on t un es , b ut i t w as

57 Todd, C u l t u re o f P r o t es t a n ti s m, p . 7 2 . 58 Ibid.




o nl y wi th t he ac ce ss io n o f E dw ar d V I t hat t he p sal ms g ai ne d a w ide r

c ur re n cy. T he se p sa lm s h ad n o i mm e di at e l it ur gi c al p ur p os e, s in ce t h e

1 54 9 P ra ye r B oo k m ad e n o e xp li ci t p ro vi si on f or h ym n s in gi ng . T he

p op ul ar i ty o f t h e n ew P sa lt e r, b ot h S te rn ho l d’s v er si on a nd a c om pl e te

c y cl e p u bl i s he d b y R o be r t C r ow l ey, s u gg e st s i n fo r ma l l i tu r gi c a l u s e.

E n g l i s h P r o t e s t a n t s f i r s t b e c a m e a t t u n e d t o t h e f u l l p o t e n t i a l o f p s a l m -

o dy d ur in g t he y ea rs o f e xi le u nd er M ar y. I n E md en , We se l, F r an kf ur t,

S tr as bo ur g a nd G e ne va , t h e E ng li sh c on gr e ga ti on s f ir st o bs er ve d t h en

adopted a f or m o f w or sh ip s e rv ic e i n w hi c h c on gr e ga ti on al s in gi ng w as

integral.59 Th e c li max o f t hi s a ct ivi ty w as t he p ub li ca ti on i n 1 55 6 of

W il l i a m W hi tti ng ha m ’s O ne and Fift y Psa lme s of Da vid , t he m ajo ri ty

b as ed o n S te rn h ol d’s o ri gi na ls , t ho ug h h ea vi ly r ev is ed . A s w as t he c as e

with the Dut ch Psalt er of Utenhove , the c anon of t ranslati ons was

g ra du al l y c om pl e te d a ft e r r es t or at io n o f t he E ng li sh P ro te s ta nt c hu rc h

u n d er E l i z abeth.

T he E ng li sh m et ri ca l p sa lm s w er e i mm e di at el y p op ul ar. T he r ig ht t o

p ub li ca ti on w as f or J oh n D ay e a p ro fi ta bl e p ar t o f h is v ic e- li ke g ri p o n

t he s ta pl es o f E ng li sh c on gr eg at ion al l if e, an d r ep ea te d r e- edi ti ons

a pp ea re d v er y s te ad il y f ro m h is p re ss . A cc or d in g t o t he l at es t t ab ul at io n

t h er e w er e o ve r 1 30 s ep ar at e e di ti on s d ur i ng t he r ei gn o f E li za be th , a nd a

f u r t h e r 3 4 0 b e f o r e t h e E n g l i s h C i v i l W a r . T h i s p o p u l a r i t y i s a l l t h e m o r e

e xt ra or di na ry w he n o ne c on si de rs t ha t t he l it ur gi cal f un ct io n of t he

p sa lm s i n E ng li sh w or sh ip r es te d o n m os t i ns ec ur e f ou nd at io ns . T he

r o y a l i n j u n c t i o n s o f 1 5 5 9 t h a t p e r m i t t e d t h e p e r f o r m a n c e , b e f o r e o r a f t e r

E ve ni ng P ray er, o f a ‘ hym n o r s uc h li ke so ng ’, ma y h ave c ove re d t he

p sa lm s , b ut t he p sa lm s w er e n ev er s pe ci f ic al ly p re sc r ib ed f or w or s hi p.

A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e r a n g e o f t u n e s i n u s e a c t u a l l y d i m i n i s h e d . W h e r e a s

t he e di ti on s o f t he 1 54 0s h ad u se d o ve r f or ty t un es f or t he r ep er to ir e,

b y t h e e n d o f t h e c e n t u r y t h i s h a d s o d i m i n i s h e d t h a t o v e r h a l f t h e p s a l m s

w er e ap po in te d t o b e s un g t o j us t t hr ee t un es . T hi s s ee ms no t t o h av e

diminis hed th eir populari ty. By the time of the English Ci vil War

t he re m ay h av e b ee n as m an y as on e m il li on c op ie s o f t he se b oo ks i n

p ri nt , m an y i n c on ve ni en t s ma ll f or ma ts b ou nd f or p er so na l u se w it h

c a te c h is m s a n d B i bl e s.

Militant in song

I n E n g l a n d t h e n , a s i n S c o t l a n d , F r a n c e a n d t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , t h e p s a l m s

q ui ck ly b ec am e e mb ed de d i n t he c ul tu re o f t he n ew Pr ot es ta nt is m.

59 L e a v e r, ‘G o o s tl y p s a lm es ’ , p p . 1 7 5 – 2 37 .

Militant in song 65



T he ir p op ul ar it y a nd u se s pi ll ed o ut f ro m t he w or sh ip s er vi ce i nt o t he

s tr ee t s a nd p r iv at e h om e s ( in E ng la nd , q ui t e p os si bl y t h e p sa lm s m ad e

t he r eve rs e j our ne y) . Tim es o f c ri sis a cc ent ua te d an d f oc us ed t he ir

p ur po se as a b adg e o f i de nt it y a nd m il it ant de fi anc e, t ho ug h i n t hi s

r es p ec t t he o ri gi na l t ex t o ft e n r eq ui re d l it t le e mb el li sh me nt . T hi s p oi nt

w a s m a de w i t h s o me f o rc e i n t h e u n co m fo r ta b l e p r o ce e di n gs c o nd u ct e d

by t he Gene van magistra tes after t he failure of the Conspirac y of

Amboi se in 1560, an ill-jud ged armed insurrection in which the

G e n e v a n m i n i s t e r s a p p e a r e d t o b e i m p l i c a t e d . A m o n g t h e c h a r g e s l e v i e d

a g ai n st T h eo d o r e d e B eze w as t he t ex t o f h is t ran sl at ion o f P sal m 4 0, a

v er it a bl e h ym n t o v io le n ce :

W ho w il l r is e u p f or m e a ga in st t he e vi l- do er s ?A nd h e s ha ll b ri ng d ow n u po n t he m t he ir o wn i ni qu it y ;

A nd s ha ll c ut t he m o ff i n t he ir o wn w ic kedne s s ;

Ye a, t he L or d o ur G od s ha ll c ut t he m o ff .60

O n t hi s o cc as io n t he c ou nc il c ho se t o b el ie ve d e B ez e ’s d e ni a ls . Tw o

y e a r s l a t e r h e w o u l d b e i n F r a n c e , r a l l y i n g s u p p o r t a t t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s o f

t he D uk e o f C on de, p re ac hi ng w it h a s wo rd a t h is b el t.

I n s uc h c ir cu ms ta nc es f ew c ou ld d en y t he p ot en ti al f or i nc it em en t

e m b e d d e d i n t h e t e x t o f S c r i p t u r e . B u t , a s i n t h e L u t h e r a n t r a d i t i o n , t h ec las h o f r el igi ous c ul tu re s al so nur tur ed t he g ro wt h of an e xp li ci tl y

p ol em ic al so ng t ra di ti on , o ft en o f a t on e an d v ir ul enc e t ha t m ade it

w h ol ly i na pp ro pr i at e f or f or ma l c on gr e ga ti on al w or sh ip . O nc e a ga in ,

t he F re nc h l ed t he w ay. T he f ir st k now n e xam pl es o f p ro te st s on gs i n

F ra nc e d at e f ro m 1 52 5 ; t he y e ma na te f ro m t he M ea ux c ir cl e, a nd a re

e x pr e s si v e o f t h e b i tt e r ne s s f e lt w h en B i sh o p B r ico n ne t a b an d on e d h i s

f l i r t a t i o n w i t h d i o c e s a n r e f o r m . T h e y s u r v i v e n o t i n p r i n t , b u t i n a r e p o r t

f ro m t he l ie ut ena nt -g en er al of t he b ail li ag e of M eau x r egi st er ed i nt he r ec or ds o f t he P ar le me nt o f Pa ri s. T he l oc al o ffi ce r h ad c ar ef ul ly

t r a n s c r i b e d t h e s o n g , o f w h i c h t h i s g i v e s a f l a v o u r . I t w a r n s t h e p r e a c h e r ,

M ic he l d’ Ar en de , a f ri end o f t he r ef or me r, G ui lla um e F ar el , o f t he

d an ge rs o f d is se nt :

D o n’ t p r ea c h t h e t r ut h , M a st e r M i ch a el !

I f y ou c on ti nu e t he G os pe l w ay

T h e r e i s t o o g r e a t a d a n g e r

O f l a nd i ng i n p r is o n, i n t h e C on c ie r ge r ie .61

T he t un e w as t ha t o f a p op ul ar s on g, N ’a ll ez p lu s a u b oi s j ou er .

60 Q u ot e d D o na l d R . K e ll e y, Francois Hotman. A Revolutionary’s Ordeal (P r i n c e to n , N . J .,1973) , p . 1 2 5 .

61 Bordier, C h a n s o n n ier H u g u eno t , p p . x i ii – xx i ii .






The reference is to Rober t Stuart, who in December 1559 had

a s s a s s i n a t e d A n t o i n e M i n a r d , t h e j u d g e w h o c o n d e m n e d A n n e d e B o u r g

t o d e at h .

I n t h e s e n e w t y p e s o f p o l i t i c a l v e r s e w e o b s e r v e t h e c o n v e r g e n c e o f t w o

s ep ar at e t ra di ti on s, r el ig io us s on g a nd s ec ul ar p oe tr y. T he s ix te en th

c en tu ry i n F ra nc e w as a p er io d o f c on si de ra bl e p oe ti ca l e ne rg y, m uc h

o f i t w ri tt en u nd er t he s po ns or sh ip o f t h e g re at . P oe ts w er e a cc u st om e d

t o b en di ng t he ir t al en ts t o h ea pi ng p ra is e o n t he ir p at ro ns : i n t hi s t he y

t oo k t he ir c ue fr om fi gur es l ik e R onsa rd and M ar ot , wh os e p ol ish ed

v e rs e s o f c o ng r at u la t io n a nd p r ai s e a c hi e ve d n o ta b le f e at s o f s o ph i s ti c a-

t io n a nd s yc op ha nc y. I t w as a s ma ll s te p f ro m e nc om i a o f n ob le v ir tu e s t o

p r a i s e o f t h e i r p a t r o n s ’ v a l o u r i n t h e f i e l d o f b a t t l e ; a n o t h e r s m a l l s t e p t o

h ea pi ng d er is io n o n t he ir r el ig io us e ne mi es . H ug ue no t p oe ts t oo k u p

t he c hal le ng e w it h vi go ur, in a p ole mi ca l e xc hang e t ha t r eac he d i ts

f ir st c li ma x d ur in g t he b ri ef r ei gn o f F ra nc is I I, w he n t he d om in at io n

o f g o v e r n m e n t b y t h e G u i s e m a d e t h e m a c o n v e n i e n t t a r g e t o f c r i t i c i s m .

B ut e ve n t hi s p oli tic al ve rs e h ad no t e nt ir el y ou tg ro wn i ts c on ne c-

t i on w i th t h e p r ev i ou s g e ne r at i on o f a n ti c le r i ca l a n d r e l ig i ou s l i te r at u re .

The E s tr ei ne s a u C ar di nal t o ok b ot h i ts r h yt hm a nd r hy me f ro m M ar o t’s

v e r s i o n o f P s a l m 3 8 .65 O t h e r v e r s e s l a u d e d t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e n e w m o v e -

ment. The H y m n e a Dieu co m pa red C o n d e, w i t h i n e v i t a b l e h y p e r b o l e , t o

Moses.66

Th e p oet ical batt le reach ed its climax wit h th e onset of the first

r el ig io us w ar. T he se w er e t he y ea rs i n w hi ch t he H ug ue no t m ov em en t

expanded most rapidly beyond the lit erat e cor e of its earliest con-

g re ga ti on s ; p er ha ps n ot c oi nc id en ta ll y m uc h o f t hi s n ew ly m in te d p o-

l em ic w as in v er se . M any of t he w or ks f ro m t hi s p er io d a re e xt re me ly

t op ic al , c el eb ra ti ng t he s ho rt -l iv ed H ug ue no t v ic to ri es o f 1 56 2– 3, o r

h e ap i ng s c or n o n t h e v a nq u is h e d C a th o l ic s . A n u mb e r e x pl i ci t l y e x pl o it

t he n ew f am il i ar it y w it h t h e m el od ie s o f t h e m et ri c al p sa lm s. T he Can-

t i q u e e t a c t i o n d e G r a c e a u S e i g n e u r g a ve t h an ks f or t h e P ro te st an t v ic to r y

in Lyon in verses designed to be sung to the tune of Psalm 7. The

P ro te st an t p ri nc es w er e s in gl ed o ut f or s pe ci al p ra is e f or t he ir p ar t i n

t he m il it ar y s uc c es s. A no th e r m il it ar y v ic t or y w as c el eb ra te d i n t he Ode

h ys to ri al e d e l a b at ai ll e d e s ai nc te G il e, s ur l e c ha nt d u p se au me h ui ta nt e v n.

65 Ibid., p . 1 1 2 .66 Jacques Pineaux, ‘Poes ie de c ou r e t p oes ie d e c om ba t : l ’a dm ir al G as p ar d d e C ol ig ny

d ev an t l es p oet e s c o n t em p o ra i n s ’, B ul le ti n d e l a S oc ie te d ’H i s to i r e d u P r o tes t a nt i s meFr an ca is , 1 1 8 ( 1972) , p p. 3 2– 54 .






s in gin g in t he m ar ke t sq uar e, and e ven atte mp ted to p rohibit any

r ef er e nc es t o S cr ip t ur e i n s on g.69 T he f ir st r ev ol t o f 1 56 6 w as s pe ed il y

r ep r es se d ; m em be rs o f t he c on gr e ga t io ns r e ti re d b ac k i nt o e xi le , t o p la n

f or a no th er d ay, w hi le t he D uk e o f A lv a a rr iv ed f ro m S pa in t o r es to re

o be di en ce . A mo ng t ho se c au gh t u p i n t he c la mp do wn o n d is si de nc e

w er e a n um be r o f s tr ee t v end or s, i nc lud in g t he se ve nt ee n- ye ar -ol d

p ed la r C or ne li s P et er z, a rr es te d i n H ar li ng en i n D ec em be r 1 56 7 f or

s in g in g s ca nd al ou s s on gs . S in c e h is s to c k w as i mp ou nd ed a s e vi de n ce ,

t h r e e e x a m p l e s o f h i s w a r e s a c t u a l l y s u r v i v e w i t h t h e p a p e r s d e p o s i t e d i n

t he K am pe n S ta ds ar ch ie f. O ne i s a t hi n s tr ip p ri nt ed i n a s im pl e b la ck

l et te r t yp e, n o d ou bt e xc ep ti on al ly c he ap t o p ro du ce . P et er z d ep os ed

t h a t h e r e c e i v e d h i s s o n g s f r o m i n ter m e d i a r i e s , a n d w h e n h e s o l d o u t h e

h ad t he m r e pr in te d i n S te en wi j k.70

I t w as t he a dm in is tr at io n o f A lv a, a nd p ar ti cu la rl y h is h at ed t ax , t he

i nf am ou s Te nt h P enny, w hi ch i nsp ir ed t he l ar ge st an d mo st v ar ie d

r ep e rt o ir e o f o pp os it io n s on gs . M an y o f t he l it er al ly h un dr ed s o f s on gs

m e nt io ne d t he t ax b y n am e, a nd A lv a w as a p ar ti cu la r f oc us o f p at r io t ic

a nd r e li gi ou s h at r ed . O n 1 6 M ar ch 1 57 2, d ay s b e fo re t he r eb el s l an de d

b ac k i n H ol la nd , t he p eo pl e o f G he nt f ou nd t he ir s tr ee ts l it te re d w it h

c op ie s o f a p ar o dy o f t he L or d’s P ra ye r, i n ‘ th e s ty le o f t h e r he to r ic ia ns ’,

i n h o n o u r o f A l v a :

H el li sh f at he r w ho i n H el l d ot h d we ll

C ur se d b e t hy n am e i n h ea ve n a nd i n h el l

T h y k in g do m , w hi c h h a s l a st e d t oo l o ng , be gone

T h y w i l l i n h e a v e n a n d e a r t h b e n o t d o n e .71

T he B eg ga r s on gs u se d a m ix tu re o f p op ul ar f ol k t un es a nd c on tr a-

f ac ta o f t he b y no w w el l- kn ow n m et ri ca l p sa lms . M an y o f t he p sal m

t un es w er e u se d o ve r a nd o ve r a ga in , i n a c om pl ex g en ea lo gy t ha t p il edlayers of allusion on t op of one another. In 1564, for instance, th e

e x e c u t i o n o f t h e C a l v i n i s t m i n i s t e r C h r i s t o f f e l F a b r i t i u s w a s c o m m e m o r -

at ed w it h a ne wl y c omp ose d s ong , ‘ Ant we rp en r ij ck , O Ke yse rl ic ke

S te de ’. I t w as s un g t o t he t un e o f P sa lm 7 9. ‘ An tw er pe n r ij ke ’ b ec am e

a c l a s s i c p r o t e s t s o n g o f t h e m o v e m e n t , a n d t h e t u n e w a s u sed a g a i n a n d

a g a i n f o r n e w l y c o m p o s e d s o n g s f o r o v e r a h u n d r e d y e a r s .72 L o ui s P e t er

69 Johann Decavele, D e d ag e ra ad v an d e R ef or ma ti e i n V la an de re n, 1 52 0– 15 65 (Brussels,1975) , p p. 2 20 –9 .

70 M ar ti ne d e B ru in , ‘ Ge uz e n- e n a nt ig e uz e nl ie de re n’ i n L . P. G ri jp ( ed .) , E e n m u zi e k- geschiedenis der Nederlanden (Amsterdam, 2001) p p. 1 74 –8 0.

71 Geoffrey Parker, T h e D u tc h R e vo l t (London, 1977) , p . 1 2 7 .72 L o u i s P e t e r G r i j p , ‘ V a n g e u z e n l i e d t o t G e d e n k -c l a n c k ’ , D e Z ev en t i en d e E eu w, 1 0 (1994),

p p . 2 6 6 – 7 6.




G r ij p h as e nu me r at ed o ve r t we nt y e xa mp l es i n a w i de r an ge o f p ol it ic a l

a n d c o nf e s si o na l c o nt e x ts , i n cl u di n g t h r ee f u rt h e r B e gg a r s o ng s a n d f i ve

C al vi ni st r el ig io us t un es . T he s on g w as a ls o a pp ro pr ia te d b y R om an

C at h ol ic s, a nd b y t he D ut c h A na ba pt is t s o n n o f ew e r t h an t we lv e o cc a-

s ion s. He re t he n i s a c om pl ex w eb i nd ee d : a s on g t o c om me mo rat e a

C a lv i ni s t m a r t yr, b a se d o n a C a lv i ni s t p s al m , t h a t b e c om e s a s t ap l e o f t h e

co m petin g A n a ba pti s t tra d i ti o n .

N ot h in g i ll us tr at e s t h e e xt r ao rd in ar y r ic hn e ss a nd c om pl ex i ty o f t hi s

t r a d i t i o n o f p o l e m i c a l s o n g b ette r t h a n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e Wilhelmus, n o w

t he D ut ch n at io na l a nt he m.73 The Wilhelmus w as c om po se d a ro un d

1 56 8 as a s ong i n e xu lt at io n o f Wil li am o f Or ang e, ne wl y e me rg ed as

t he c ham pio n o f P ro te st ant r es is tan ce t o A lva. Th e c omp os er o f t he

f if te en- ve rs e l yr ic i s t ho ug ht t o h ave b ee n t he st at es ma n t he ol ogi an

Marni x de Ste Aldegon de, a close ally of Orange, but the tun e was

F r e n c h . I n f a c t i t w a s t a k e n f r o m a c o n t e m p o r a r y C a t h o l i c p o l i t i c a l s o n g ,

c om po se d t o c el eb ra te t he d ef ea t o f C on de a t t he b at tl e o f C ha rt re s.

D es pi te t h is m ix ed h e ri ta ge , t he Wilhelmus s w if t ly a tt ai ne d a n e xt r ao r-

d in ar y p op ul ar it y, b ec om in g t h e m od el f or n um e ro us c on tr a fa ct a. T he

t un e w as u se d f or o ve r t we nt y d iff er en t B eg ga r s on gs . B ut t hi s d id n ot

p r e ve n t i t b e in g a p pr o pr i at e d w i th e q ua l f r eq u en c y b y b o th A na b ap t i st s

a n d R o m a n C a t h o l i c s ( o r r e - a p p r o p r i a t e d , i n t h e l a t t e r c a s e ) . A C a t h o l i c

s on g l am en ti ng t he f at e o f t he p r ie st s m ar ty re d a t G or c um ( a n ot or io us

P ro te st ant a tr oc it y o f 1 57 4) w as s et t o t he Wilhelmus t un e, an d t hi s

b e ga n a t r ad it io n t h at e xt en de d w el l i nt o t he D ut c h G o ld en A ge .

T h e a p pr o p ri a ti o n o f a n a n th e m f o r s a ti r i ca l , o p po s it i o na l p u rp o se s i s

a n o bv io us a nd d el ib e ra te p ro vo ca ti on . H er e t he p re vi ou sl y i ns ur ge nt

D ut ch , n ow e st ab li sh ed as t he r ule rs o f t he fr ee no rt h, w er e r ep ai d i n

t he ir o wn c oi n. S ma ll w on de r t ha t i n t im es o f t en si on t he r ul er s o f t he

N et he rl andi sh t ow ns t ri ed t o r es tr ic t p ub lic s in gin g o f t he se h ig hly

i n f l am m a tory tu n es.

F or a ll i ts e xc e pt io na l p op u la ri ty, t h e Wilhelmus e xh i b it s s e ve r a l f e a-

t ur es t yp ic al o f t he s on g r ep er to ir e o f t he ag e. No th wi th st an di ng i ts

p ur po se as a r al lyi ng c ry f or a m ass m ove me nt , a nd it s e xt rao rdi na ry

s uc c es s i n t hi s r eg ar d , t h e l yr ic al c om po si t io n w as o ne o f c on si de ra bl e

c om pl e xi ty a nd s op h is t ic at io n. T he f if te e n e ig ht - li ne v er se s a re o rg an -

i ze d t o r ef le ct a c om po si ti on al s ym me tr y : v er se s 1 a nd 1 5 a re p ai re d i n

t e r m s o f s u b j e c t m a t e r i a l , a s a r e 2 a n d 1 4 , u n t i l t h e y c o n v e r g e a t v e r s e 8 .

The first lett ers of the fiftee n verses sp ell out the name Willem van

Nassa u. In this respect the Wilhelmus c on ti nu es t he ar ch , e le gant

73 M a r t i n e d e B r u i n , ‘ H e t W i l h e l m u s t i j d e n s d e R e p u b l i e k ’ , i n L o u i s P e t e r G r i j p , Nationalehymnen. H e t W il h el m us e n z i jn b u re n (N i j me g e n a n d A m s t er d a m, 1998) , p p. 1 6– 42 .

Militant in song 71



c o mp o si t io n al t r ad i ti o n o f t h e Rederijkers, a n d t h e s a m e c o u l d b e s a i d o f

m uc h o f t he ‘ p op ul ar ’ m us ic o f t he f ir st C al vi ni st e ra .

Godly ballads

I n E ng la nd , t he p ot en ti al o f v er se h ad b ee n c on sc io us ly e xp lo it ed b y

b o th p r op o ne n ts a n d o p p on e nt s o f r e li g i ou s c h an g e s i nc e t h e b e g in n in g

o f t he R ef or ma ti on . I n h is e ff or ts t o b ui ld s up po rt f or t he m ea su re s o f

H en ry V II I, T ho ma s C ro mw el l p ro ve d a n e ff ec ti ve p io ne er o f t he e x-

p lo it at io n o f v er se f or p ro pa ga nd a p ur po se s. A s l at er r ep or te d b y t he

m ar ty ro lo gi s t J oh n F ox e, h e w as t he s po ns or o f m an y ‘ ex c el le nt b al la ds

a nd b oo ks . . . c on tr iv ed a nd s et a br oa d c on ce rn in g t he s up pr es si on o f

t he P op e a nd a ll P op is h i do la tr y’ .74 A mo ng h is s po ns or e d a ut h or s w as

Wi l li a m G r ay, w h os e F an ta s ie o f I do la t ry d en o un ce d t he f al se i ma ge s,

m ir acles and shri ne s of t he saints. With compo sitions of this sort

C ro mw el l a nd h is c re at ur es t ap pe d s ki lf ul ly i nt o t he c om pl ex w eb o f

g os si p , r um ou r, n ew s a nd l ib el t h at w as t h e s ta pl e o f v il la ge s oc i ab il it y.

B ut s uc h w ea po ns c ou ld a ls o b e t ur ne d a ga in st t he R ef or ma ti on : s oo n

H en ry ’s m in is te r w as f or ce d t o c on fr on t a g ro un ds we ll o f d am ag in g

r um ou rs a nd p ro ph ec i es i ns pi re d b y t h e u ns et t li ng e ff ec ts o f t he a ss au lt

o n t he C at h ol ic c hu rc h.

The conflic t ebbed back and forth through the generations of

m i d- c en t ur y r e l ig i ou s c h an g e. T h e E d wa r di a n R e fo r m at i on s t im u la t ed

a n ew w av e o f a nt i- Ca th ol i c b al la ds , i nc lu di ng a t l ea st o ne t it le , Mistress

Mass, t h a t w a s s t i l l c i r c u l a t i n g i n E n g l a n d d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f M a r y . T h e

M ar ia n e xi le aut ho rs a lso di d no t n eg le ct t he c ul tu re o f c he ap p ri nt .

T he f or me r b is ho p J oh n P oy ne t w as a mo ng t ho se u rg in g t he h is to ri an

John Bale not to immerse himself wholly in scholarly projects : ‘Ballads,

r h y m e s a n d s h o r t t o y s t h a t b e n o t d e a r a n d w ill e a s i l y b e b o r n a w a y , d o

m uc h g oo d a t h om e a mo ng t he r ud e p eo pl e’ .75

B ey on d s uc h o rc h es t ra te d c am pa ig ns , t h e E ng li sh R ef or ma ti on a ls o

developed a r ob us t t ra di ti on o f c om me rc ia l b al la d p ri nt s o n r el ig io us

subjects.76 Th es e ‘ go dl y b al lad s’ we re ve ry mu ch p ar t o f t he g ene ra l

74 Q u ot e d i n F o x, O r a l a n d L i te r at e C u lt u re, p . 3 8 3 .75 Ibid., p . 3 8 6 .76 F o r w h at f o ll o ws s e e e s pe c ia l ly Te s s a Wa t t, C he a p P r in t a n d P o pu l ar P i et y, 1 5 50 – 16 4 0

(Cambridge, 1991) . S o me o f t h e i n te r pr e ta t iv e c o nc l us i on s o f Wa t t’s a n al y si s o f b a ll a dsh av e r ec en tl y b ee n c ha ll en ge d b y I an G re en . S ee e sp ec ia ll y I an G re en , P ri nt a nd P ro te st an ti sm i n E ar ly M od er n E ng la nd ( Ox fo rd , 2 00 0) , p p. 4 45 –7 2. S ee a ls o n ow,C hr is to ph er M ar sh , ‘ Th e S ou nd o f P ri nt i n E ar ly M od er n E ng la nd : T he B ro ad si deB al la d a s S on g’ , i n J ul ia C ri ck a nd A le x an dr a Wa ls ha m ( ed s. ), T he U se s o f S cr ip t a nd P r i n t, 1 3 0 0 – 17 0 0 (Cambridge, 2004) , p p . 1 7 1 – 9 0.




e nt er t ai nm en t c ul t ur e o f E li za be t ha n E ng la nd , p ar ti cu l ar ly i n t he f ir st

h al f o f t h e r ei gn . T he ir m os t r ec e nt h is to ri an , Te ss a Wa tt , h as o ff er e d a

careful estimat e of th e total size of t his market. Bas ed on the tit les

r e gi st e re d i n t h e r ec or ds o f t he S ta ti on er s’ C om pa ny, s he r ec ko n s t h at

a s m an y o f t hr ee o r f ou r m il li on c op ie s o f t he se b ro ad sh ee ts m ay h av e

b e en p ub li sh e d i n t h e e ig ht y y ea rs b ef or e 1 64 0.

T he se a re s ta gg er i ng , b ut p la us ib l e, f ig ur es . T he o ut p ut i s e sp ec ia ll y

i mp re ss iv e wh en o ne c ons ide rs t ha t al l o f t he se p ub lic at io ns h ad t o

radiat e out from one centre of produc tion, London. Of course it is

p os si bl e t ha t, i n t he p ar t ic ul ar c as e o f E ng la nd , t he f ac t t h at p ub l is hi ng

w a s w h ol l y c o nc e nt r at e d o n t h e m e tr o p ol i s m a y a c tu a ll y h a ve i n cr e as e d

t he ap pe tit e f or t he se p rin ts. I n 1 64 1 o ne p rin t ad ve rt is ed i ts elf w it h

a bold cl aim : ‘ for a peny you m ay have all th e Newes in England , of

M ur de rs , F lo ud s, Wi tc hes, Fires, Tempest s, and wh at no t, in one

o f M a r t i n P a r k e r s B a l l a d s ’ .77 T h a t i s p r e c i s e l y t h e p o i n t : t h e d o m i n a t i o n

o f t he m et ro po li s m ea nt t ha t o nl y t hr ou gh L on do n c ou ld o ne h av e ‘all

t h e n ew s o f E ng la nd ’ – a nd i nc id en t al ly m uc h f or ei gn n ew s a s w el l.78

A lt ho ug h t he m aj or c om me rc ia l p ur po se w as a lw ay s t it il la ti on a nd

e nt er t ai nm en t , i t i s p os si bl e t h at a t l ea st a t t he b eg i nn in g o f E li za be t h’s

r e ig n s om e g od ly p r ea ch e rs s aw t he p en ny b al la ds a s a u se fu l a dj un ct t o

t h e p r e a c h i n g o f t h e c h u r c h . I t i s e a s y t o s e e w h y , w h e n o n e c o n s i d e r s t h e

h el pf ul t op og ra ph y o f s ub je ct m at er ia l s up pl ie d b y Te ss a Wa tt o n t he

b as is o f h er a na ly si s o f t he r ec or ds o f t he S ta ti on er s’ r eg is te rs . M an y o f

t he b al lad s ad dr ess ed, e ve n i f i n r at he r si mp lis ti c t er ms, so me o f t he

m aj or i ss ue s c on fr o nt in g c it iz en s o f s ix t ee nt h- c en tu ry P ro te st a nt s oc i -

e t ie s i n t h ei r d ev ot io na l l iv es . B al la ds f oc us e d a tt e nt io n o n t he u bi q ui ty

o f si n, a nd t he i mm or ali ty o f e ve ryd ay l iv in g ; on t he un ce rt ai nt ie s of

s al va ti o n, a nd o n f ea r o f t he a ft er li fe . T he c on ce r n f or t h e h e re af te r w as

c le ar ly an e sp ec ial ly li ve ly, na ggi ng a nx ie ty. T hi s w as r ef le ct ed i n a

h ug el y p op ul ar s ty le o f b al la d b as ed o n l as t d yi ng w or ds , s om e o f p io us

c it iz ens w ho h ad li ve d a g ood li fe , o th er s o f r ep ent ant si nn er s : i n t hi s

c as e t he v er y p op ul ar s ub g en re o f t he e xe c ut io n b al la d w as a n e sp ec ia ll y

i m p o r t a n t e x a m p l e . T h i s p r o v i d e d a p e r f e c t e x a m p l e o f t h e i n t e r w e a v i n g

o f t he d es ir e f or s en sa ti on a nd t it il la ti on w it h a d eg re e o f s en te nt io us

m or al iz in g. Wa s t hi s l at te r e le me nt m er el y a f ig l ea f o f r es pe ct ab il it y,

or did th e dra ma of exe cution really t urn t he minds of witn esses to

77 Watt, C h ea p P r i nt , p . 1 1 .78 O n t he m ar ke t f or f or ei gn n ew s s e e b el ow , c ha pt er 8. O n E l iz a be th a n n e ws p a mp h le ts

s ee a ls o S an dr a C la rk , T he E l iz a be t ha n P a mp h le t ee r s. P o pu l ar M o ra l is t ic P a mp h le t s,1580–1640 (London, 1983).

Militant in song 73



c on te mp la ti on o f s om br e v er it ie s ? I f s o, t he e xe cu ti on b al la d c ar ri ed

t he s e c on c er ns t o a w id er a ud ie nc e .

Despi te the ap parent ec lipse of the godly ballads as the psalms

t ig ht en ed t he ir h ol d o n E ng li sh p ar is h l if e t ow ar ds t he e nd o f t he s ix -

t e en th c en tu r y, s om e o f t h em w er e s uff ic ie n tl y e nd ur i ng t o f or m p ar t o f

t h e S t at i on e r s’ s t oc k u n ti l d e ep i n to t h e s e ve n te e nt h c e nt u ry . P a rt i c ul a rl y

p op ul ar we re t hos e t hat c ele br at ed Pr ot est an t h er oe s, s uc h a s A nne

A sk ew a nd t he M a ri an e xi le , K at he ri ne B ra nd o n, D uc he ss o f S uff ol k.

T h e c o m p l e x i n t e r p r e t a t i v e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t h e b a l l a d s a r e w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d

b y a 1 60 2 b ro ad sh ee t o f t hi s e ve rg re en t al e o f e xi le a nd a dv en tu re . O n

t h e o n e h a n d , t h e b a l l a d m a k e s m u c h o f t h e m o r e t h e a t r i c a l e l e m e n t s o f

a t al e t ha t s ee ms t o h ave ac cr ue d ad di ti onal c omi c e le me nt s w it h t he

p a s s a g e o f t h e y e a r s . I n t h i s r e s p e c t t h e b a l l a d h a s m o r e i n c o m m o n w i t h

a ny n um be r o f t al es o f f or t it u de a nd a dv en tu re t o ld w it h l it tl e m or al i zi ng

p ur po se . O n t he o th er h an d, a s t he o pe ni ng o f t he b al la d m ak es c le ar,

t he re i s n o d ou bt w ho a re t he h er oe s, a nd w ho t he v il la in s :

W he n G od h ad t ak en , f or o ur s in ne

T h at p r ud e nt p r in c e, K i ng E d wa r d a w ay,

T h en b l oo d y B on n er d i d b e gi n

H i s r a gi n g m a li c e t o b e tw a y

A ll t ho se t ha t d id G od ’s Work professe

H e p er se cu te d m or e o r l es s.79

T he r e qu ir ed n am e r ec og ni t io n i s h er e , a t t he v er y e nd o f E li za be t h’s

r ei g n, e sp ec ia l ly i nt e re st in g . N ot o nl y d o w e h av e i nv oc at i on o f E dw ar d

VI , t he g odl y p ri nc e, b ut c le ar ly t he r ef er enc e t o B is ho p Bo nn er, t he

p a n t o m i m e v i l l a i n o f J o h n F o x e ’ s n a r r a t i v e o f t h e M a r i a n p e r s e c u t i o n s , i s

e xp ec te d t o r ais e a f ri ss on of h or ro r. Ot he r p op ul ar b al lads at ta ck ed

p op e ry, a nd c al l ed a tt en t io n t o t h e c ea se le ss s tr ug gl e a ga in st t h e f or ce so f i nt er na ti on al C at h ol ic is m, c ru el , c un ni ng a nd u bi qu it ou s : a t h em e

w h ic h d ov et ai l ed n ea tl y w it h t h e p am ph le ts r el at in g n ew s o f P ro te s ta nt

t ri al s a nd t ri um ph s i n t he c on ti ne nt al w ar s, a nd i ndee d w i t h t h e t h e m e s

o f m u c h o f t h e t o p i c a l d r a m a o n t h e L o n d o n s t a g e .80 O f c o u r s e w e h a v e

t o c on si de r t ha t, e ve n i f n ot r ep ri nt ed , m an y o f t he se b al la ds m ay h av e

c on ti nu ed t o c ir cu la te i n m an us cr ip t c op ie s, b y w or d o f m ou th , a nd a s

p ar t o f t he r ep er to ir e o f p er fo rm an ce o f t ra ve ll in g e nt er ta in er s. I n t hi s

w a y t h e b a l l a d s c o m p o s e d i n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f t h e E l i z a b e t h a n s e t t l e m e n tc ou ld r es ur fa ce t o a rt ic ul at e t he r um bl in g u ne as e a t t he R om an iz in g

t e nd en ci es o f t he L au di an a ge nd a o f t he e ar ly s ev en te en t h c en tu ry.

79 Watt, C h eap P r i n t , p . 9 1. T he b ro ad s he e t i s i ll us tr at ed o n p . 9 2.80 B e l o w, c h a p t er s 4, 8.




I n r e c e n t y e a r s h i s t o r i a n s h a v e b e g u n t o c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i n t e r p r e t -

a ti ve p ar ad ox w e h av e b ee n off er ed i n r ec en t st udi es o f t he E ng li sh

R ef or mat io n, a na rr at iv e i n w hi ch E ng li sh p eop le de ep ly l ov ed t he

p ra ct ic es o f t he o ld c hu rc h, r es en te d i ts d is ru pt i on , a nd a cc ep t ed t h e

n e w r i te s w i th p a ss i ve i n co m pr e h en s io n .81 An d ye t w it hi n t wo o r t hr ee

g en er at io ns t he y c ar ed s uff ic ie nt ly a bo ut t he ir n ew c hu rc h t o w an t t o

d ef en d i t, d og ge dl y a nd p as si on at el y, a ga in st t wo g en er at io ns o f t he

S tu ar t m on ar ch y. B y t he s ev en te en th c en tu ry, f or a ll t ha t t he y m ig ht

n ot u nd er st an d p re ci se p oi nt s o f d oc t ri ne , m an y p e op l e h el d t he ir n ew

c hur ch i n gr eat affe ct ion , a nd fe lt a n e qu al and p ro fo un d di sl ik e of

Catholicism.

Why t his migh t b e so is addresse d more systemat ically in a late r

c ha pt er, b ut o ne m ay a lr ea dy s ee h ow t he s in gi ng t ra di ti on s d is cu ss ed

i n t hi s c ha pt er m ay h av e p la ye d t he ir p a rt i n t hi s p ro ce ss . G od ly b al la ds

a nd p sal m s in gi ng s ho ul d n ot i n t hi s r es pe ct b e v ie we d as b ei ng i n a n

a nt ag on ist ic r el at io ns hi p. F or t he b al lad s, f or a ll t he ir si mp li ci ty of

p ur po se a nd s ty le , d o s ke tc h t he b as is o f a c oh er en t l ay ma n’s t he ol og y.

T he ir e nd ur in g p op ul ar it y d em on st ra te d t ha t E ng li sh p ar is hi on er s

w er e p er fe ct ly c ap ab le o f a bs or bi ng t he ir m es sa ge s a s p ar t o f a d iv er se

en tertai n m ent cu l tu re.

I t i s a c ha ra ct er is ti c o f t he m at ur e P ro te st an t c hu rc he s t ha t a s t he ir

c le ri ca l l ea de rs d ev el op ed a n ar ro we r v ie w o f t he a cc ep ta bl e m ea ns t o

e n li g h te n me n t , t h e y s p ur n ed t r ad i ti o ns t h at h a d e ff e ct i ve l y a r ti c ul a te d

s o m e o f t h e c o r e d o c t r i n e s a n d d e b a t e s o f t h e s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e l i g i o u s

s t r u g g l e . T h i s w a s t r u e o f s o n g , i n s o f a r a s t h e y l o o k e d a s k a n c e w h e n t h e

a ut ho ri z ed c on gr eg a ti on al s in gi ng o f p s al ms a nd h ym ns s tr ay e d i nt o a

m or e p op ul ar i di om . I t w as a ls o t ru e o f t he t he at re .

81 J. J. Scarisbrick, T he R ef or ma ti on a nd t he E ng li sh P eo pl e (Oxford, 1984). C h r is t o p he r

Haigh, E n g l i s h R ef o r m a t i o n s . R el i g i o n , P o l i t i cs a n d S o ci et y u n d er t h e T u d o r s (O x f o rd , 1 9 9 3 ).Eamon Duffy, T h e S t ri p pi n g o f t h e A l ta r s : T ra d it i on a l R e li g io n i n E n gl a nd , c . 14 0 0 – c . 15 8 0 ( N ew H a ve n , C o nn . , 1992).

Militant in song 75



4 Reformers on stage

A ft er p re ac hi ng a nd s on g w e t ur n t o e xa mi ne o ne f ur th er a sp ec t o f o ra l

cult ure : drama . As with t he ot he r two media, dram a had a ric h and

v ar i ed m ed ia ev al h e ri ta ge ; t he t h re e m od e s o f c om mu ni ca ti on w er e i n

m an y r es pe ct s c lo se ly c on ne ct ed , a nd e ac h d re w o n t he t ra di ti on s a nd

a ss oc ia ti on s o f t he o th er. P op ul ar t he at ri ca ls m ad e m uc h u se o f s on g

an d the pla ying of musical instrumen ts : drums , horns and pipes

p r o vi d ed t h e s t ea d y b a ck c lo t h t o t h e o t he r m o re d r am a ti c s p ec i a l e f f ec t s

e xp ec t ed b y a d is c er ni ng a nd d em a nd in g a ud ie nc e . M e di aeva l d ra ma

a ls o s ha re d m uc h i n c om mo n w it h t he p re ac hi ng t ra di ti on .1 We h a ve

a l r e a d y l a i d s o m e s t r e s s o n t h e t h e a t r i c a l i t y o f t h e m e d i a e v a l s e r m o n , a n d

p r e ac h i ng c e rt a in l y s h ar e d w i th t h e m o re o v er t t h e at r ic a l p e rf o rm a nc e s

the sense of a spe cial event for wh ich large and e age r crow ds would

g at he r i n t he e xp ec ta ti on o f s om et hi ng r ou si ng a nd u nu su al . T he t wo

e ve nt s h ad m uc h i n c om mo n in t er ms of t he ir unf ol di ng r hyt hm an d

d ra ma : t he l on g p er io d o f a nt ic ip at io n, t he g at he ri ng o f l ar ge b od ie s o f

e ag er a ud it or s, m il li ng n oi si ly i n t he c it y’s p ub li c s pa ce ; t he c ar ef ul ly

m an ag ed c ho re o gr ap h y o f t h e p er fo rm an c e, t h e s ki ll o f t h e p er fo rm er t o

rouse emo tion and build to a th rilling climax. Pr eachers were we ll

aw ar e o f t he w ei gh t o f e xp ec ta ti on s t hat f el l o n t he ir p er fo rm anc e ; if

t he y f ai le d t o e nt e rt a in a nd e nt hr a l, t ra ve ll in g p la ye rs o ff er ed o th er f re e

entertainments.

T hi s d oe s n ot i mp l y, h ow e ve r, t ha t t he g re at p r ea ch e rs w er e n ec es sa r-

i l y o p p o s e d t o d r a m a , o r r e s e n t e d t h e c o m p e t i t i o n o f d r a m a t i c p r e s e n t a -

t io ns . O n t h e c on tr ar y, a tt e nd an ce a t g r ea t p as si on p la ys w as p os it iv e ly

e nc o ur ag ed , e ve n b y t h e g ra nt o f i nd ul ge nc e s. M e di ae va l p la y r e co rd s

s u g g e s t t h a t p l a y g o e r s r e c e i v e d r e m i s s i o n ( t h e m o s t c o m m o n p e r i o d w a s

f o r t y d a y s ) f o r p e r f o r m a n c e s i n L u c e r n e , M a i n z , S t r a s b o u r g , V i e n n a a n d

1 C a r l a v a n D a u v e n - K n i p p e n b e r g , ‘ E i n A n f a n g o h n e E n d e : E i n f uh r en d es z u r F r ag e n a chd e m V e r h al t n i s z w i s c h e n P r e d i g t u n d g e i s t l i c h e m S c h a u s p i e l d e s M i t t e l a l t e r s ’ , i n U l r i c hM eh le r a nd A nt on H . To ub er ( ed s. ), Mittelalterliches Schauspiel (Amsterdam, 1994),p p . 1 4 3 – 6 0.

76



s e ve r al o t he r c i ti e s.2 P l ay s o r p r o ce s si o ns w e re a l so s t ag e d i n c o nn e c ti o n

w it h t he s al e o f i nd ul ge nc e s.3 T h e s k il f ul p r ea c he r c o ul d m a ke e ff e ct i ve

u se o f t h e d ra ma t ic r ep e rt o ir e t o c on ne ct w it h t he l iv es o f h is a ud it o rs .

I t m us t a lw ay s b e r em em be r ed t h at t he m ed ia ev al d ra m at ic t ra di ti on

w as b or n a nd n ur t ur ed i n t he c h ur ch ; t he f ir st d ra ma ti c r e pr es e nt at io ns

form ed an integral part of the liturgi cal round. Although by the

f ou rt e en t h a nd f if te en th c en tu ri es t he se p er fo rm an c es h ad b ec om e a n

e n t i r e l y s e p a r a t e s o c i a l e x p e r i e n c e , e v e n t h o u g h p l a y s h a d e m e r g e d f r o m

t h e c hu rc h , t h ey r em ai n ed e xc l us iv el y r el ig io us i n s ub je ct m at er i al a nd

t he me s. A s t he p re ac he r w ov e h is w eb o f a ll eg or y a nd e xh or ta ti on , h e

w ou ld k no w t ha t a l ar ge p ar t o f t he r ep er t oi re o f b ib li ca l s to ri es f am il ia r

t o his audito rs emerge d from performan ce drama : the mediaeval

m y st e ri e s , m i ra c le p l ay s a n d f a rc e s. T h e R e fo r m at i on e n g ag e d t h is t r ad -

i ti on w it h an aw ar en ess o f b ot h t he o pp or tun it ie s an d t he p er il s of a

p e r f o r m a n c e m e d i u m t h a t g a v e f u l l r e i n t o t h e d r a m a t i z a t i o n o f e m o t i o n ,

b el ie f a nd t he p er il s o f i mm or al l iv in g. I t w as a s ub tl e a nd c on st ru ct iv e

r e la t io n sh i p, t h ou g h n o t w i th o ut i t s b r ui s in g a s pe c t s.

Miracles and mysteries

M ed ia e va l d ra ma h ad m uc h i n c om mo n w it h t he p r ea ch in g t r ad it io n. I t

w as u bi qui to us , b ut o cc asi ona l ; i t w as a ls o f un dam ent al ly a n ur ba n

p h en om en on . T he d is ti ng ui sh e d s ch o la r L yn et t e M ui r h as d es cr ib e d

t he p op ul ar p as si on p la ys a nd C or pu s C hr is ti p la ys a s o ne o f t he o ut -

s t an d in g c u lt u r al m o nu m e nt s o f m e di a ev a l E u rope – a claim which, as

w e h a v e s e e n , h a s a l s o b e e n m a d e f o r p r e a c h i n g .4 Fu rther, the g eo g ra ph-

i ca l h ea rt la nd s o f d ra ma a nd p re ac hi ng s ho w a h ig h d eg re e o f c on ve r-

g en ce : F ra nc e, I ta ly, G er ma ny, E ng la nd a nd t he L ow C ou nt ri es w er e

t h e c hi ef s tr on gh ol ds o f t h e m ed ia ev al b ib l ic al p la y. T hi s c on ve rg en ce

w as f ar f ro m a cc id en ta l. P la ys f ou nd t h ei r p r im ar y l oc at io n i n t he h ea rt -

l an ds o f c om me r ce a nd t he c en tr es o f p op ul at i on m ob il it y t h at o ff er e d

t he g re at es t o pp or tu ni ty t o g at he r a c ro wd . T he ir s po ns or s w er e o ft en

t he c it y f at he rs t he mse lv es, f or t he st ag in g o f p lay s r ep re se nt ed o ne

a sp ec t o f a g ro wi ng c iv ic s en se o f s el f- aw ar en es s, m uc h a s t he se s am e

m a g i s t r a t e s m i g h t s e e k t o a t t r a c t t h e b e s t a n d m o s t c e l e b r a t e d p r e a c h e r s .

T he k in sh i p o f t h es e t wo s pe ci al e ve nt s i s a r em in de r t ha t t he g at h er in g

2 B e r n d N e u m a n n , G e i st l ic h es S c ha u sp i el i n Z e ug n is d e r Z e it . Z u r A u ff u hrung mittelalterlicher religio s e r D r am e n i m d e ut s ch e n S p ra c hg e bi e t ( 2 v o ls . , M u ni c h, 1987) , n os . 2 10 6, 2 25 8,2 6 6 0 , 3 0 2 4 .

3 G le n n E h rs t in e , T he at er, C ul tu re a nd C om mu ni ty i n R ef or ma ti on B er n, 1523–1555 (Leiden, 2002) , p . 1 8 .

4 L y n e tt e R . M u i r, T h e B i bl i ca l D r am a o f M e di a ev al E u ro p e (Cambridge, 1995) , p . 1 .

Reformers on stage 77



o f l ar ge c ro wd s o ut do o rs w as n ot j us t a n o cc as io n f or w or ry in g d is or de r

( th ou gh i t c ou ld b e t hi s a ls o) , b ut a n i mp or ta nt p ar t o f c om mu na l s el f-

expression.

D ra ma a ls o r ep re se nt ed a c ru ci al a re a o f p op ul ar e ng ag em en t w it h

b ib li ca l t ea ch in g. M os t o f t he v ar ie d f or ms o f m ed ia ev al d ra ma w er e

i nt e ns el y b ib li c al i n t he ir e ss en ti a ls . I n b r oa d t e rm s, m ed ia ev a l d ra ma

c onf or me d t o o ne of t hr ee m ai n s ty le s : t he m ys te ry p lay, t he m ir ac le

p l a y , a n d t h e m o r a l i t y p l a y . T h e f i r s t o f t h e s e c l e a r l y h e w e d c l o s e s t t o t h e

b i b l i c a l n a r r a t i v e , w h i l e t h e m i r a c l e p l a y g e n e r a l l y p r e s e n t e d t h e l i f e o f a n

i nd iv id ua l s ai nt . T he m or al it y p la y w as a r at he r s ep ar at e o ut gr ow th ,

though still with a clear spir itual intent : general ly it p resen ted th e

c ho ic es o f t he C hr is ti an l if e t hr ou gh a ll eg or ic al r ep re se nt at io ns t ha t

p e r s o n i f i e d t h e v i r t u e s a n d v i c e s . I t i s t h i s f o r m t o o f r o m w h i c h d e v e l o p s

t he h um an is t d ra ma t h at f or ms a f ur th e r i mp o rt an t p ar t o f t h e i nh er i te d

d r am a ti c h e r it a ge o f t h e R e f or m at i on .

O f a ll t he se v ar io us d ra ma ti c m an if es ta ti on s i t w as t he m ys te ry p la y

t ha t h ad t he l ong est h er it ag e a nd t he g re at es t p op ula ri ty. Th e b es t

k no wn w er e t he p as si on p la ys a nd t he C or pu s C hr is ti p la ys , t he se l as t

s p e c i f i c a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e g r e a t E u c h a r i s t i c f e a s t t h a t a c h i e v e d s u c h

d r a m a t i c p o p u l a r i t y i n t h e l a t e m e d i a e v a l p e r i o d .5 M a n y o f t h e s e C o r p u s

C h r i s t i p l a y s w e r e i n t e r w o v e n w i t h t h e g r e a t p r o c e s s i o n s t h a t a c c o m p a n -

i e d c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e f e s t i v a l i n m a n y p a r t s o f E u r o p e – a r e m i n d e r t h a t

m e di ae va l d ra ma w as o ft e n n ot c on fi ne d t o a s in g le f ix ed l oc at io n e ve n

f or a w ho le p er fo rma nc e. Th e p ass io n p lay s, w hic h r ea ch ed t he h ig h

point of their populari ty in the late fiftee nth and early sixteenth

c en tu ri es , w er e a ls o o ft en c om bi ne d w it h p ro ce ss io ns a nd r el ig io us

f e s t i v a l s . T h e t o w n s o f F r a n c e a n d G e r m a n y w i t n e s s e d t h e m o s t i n t e n s e

engageme nt wit h th ese play cycle s, though England t oo had a r ich

h er it ag e o f s ac re d p la y c yc le s, s ev er al o f w hi ch s ur vi ve i n r ea so na bl y

c om pl e te f or m. T he p as si o n p la ys w er e, a s t h ei r n am e s ug ge st s, c en tr e d

on the life of Jesus, though this became the fram ework for a vast

s pr aw li ng n ar ra ti ve t ha t m ix ed s to ri es f ro m t he O ld a nd N ew Te st a-

m e n t s . F r a n c e , i t s e e m s , h a d t h e l o n g e s t p l a y s i n E u r o p e . T h e A c t s o f t h e

A po st le s o f S im on a nd A rn ou l G re ba n e xt en de d t o 6 0, 00 0 l in es , a nd

t h e r e w e r e m a n y o t h e r s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e s i z e . A s t h i s s u g g e s t s , t h e s t a g i n g

o f s u c h p l a y s w a s a v a s t u n d e r t a k i n g , i n c l u d i n g l a r g e n u m b e r s o f p l a y e r s ,

p ro p s a nd s pe ci a l e ff ec t s. B y t h e f if te e nt h c en tu ry r e sp on si b il it y f or t he

e x p e n s e i n v o l v e d w a s s h o u l d e r e d j o i n t l y b y t h e l o c a l c i t y m a g i s t r a t e s a n d

t he c iv il g ui ld s. T he g ui ld s o ft en c on tr ib ut ed s ce ne s r ep re se nt at iv e o f

5 M i r i R u b i n, C o r pu s C h ri s ti . T h e E u ch a ri s t i n L a te M e di a ev a l C u lt u re (Cambridge, 1991),p p . 2 7 7 – 8 7.




t h e i r c r a f t : w e l l k e e p e r s w e r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r N o a h a n d t h e F l o o d , b a k e r s

for the La st S up pe r ; b la ck sm it hs p or tr ay ed C hr is t i n c ha in s b ef or e

Pilate.6

T he se v as t a nd s pr aw l in g p er fo rm an c es c om bi n ed t h e s er io us t re at -

m en t o f b ib li ca l t he me s w it h a s tr on g e le me nt o f t he f ar ci ca l. T he l ow

c o m e d y w a s p r o v i d e d b y s t o c k c h a r a c t e r s s u c h a s J u d a s , t h e J e w s a n d t h e

D e vi l , w h o, i n te r e st i ng l y, i s f r eq u e nt l y r e p re s en t ed a s a s t up i d b u ng l er –

a prototype of t he mode rn pantomim e vi llain. Judas r eceived his

i ll -g ot t en r e wa rd i n b ad c oi n ( a c om mo n c on ce r n o f u rb an c om me r ci al

l if e) . T he b ur le s qu e e le me nt s u nd ou b te dl y i nc re as ed t he c ap ac i ty f or

r ow di ne ss a nd s oc ia l d is or de r i nh er e nt i n s o l ar ge a n i nt er ru p ti on t o t h e

n or ma l w or ka da y r eg im e, a nd b y t he s ix te en th c en tu ry t hi s w as g iv in g

i nc r ea si ng c on ce r n t o u rb an a ut ho ri t ie s e ve n i n C at h ol ic c ou nt ri es . I n

1 5 4 8 t h e P a r i s a u t h o r i t i e s o r d e r e d a b a n o n f u r t h e r p e r f o r m a n c e s b y t h e

p r e vi o us l y p r i vi l e ge d C o nf r erie de la Passion. But wi th the pub lic t he

p as si on p la ys r et ai ne d a r ob us t p op ul ar it y. A w id e v ar ie ty o f p la y t ex ts

s uc ce ss fu ll y m ad e t he t ra ns it io n f ro m m an us cr ip t t o p ri nt : o ne o f t he

m o s t s u c c e s s f u l , t h e P a s s i o n o f J e a n M ic h e l , a l a r g e t e x t o f 3 0 , 0 0 0 l i n e s ,

w en t t hr ou gh a t l ea st t we nt y e di ti on s.7

T he h ag io gr ap hi c al m ir ac l e p la ys h ad d ev el op ed i n p ar al le l w it h t h e

m ys te ry p la y i n t he f ou rt ee nt h a nd f if te en th c en tu ri es , t ho ug h t he y d o n ot

s ee m t o h av e a ch ie ve d q ui te t he s am e p op ul ar it y. T he se w or ks , w hi ch

g en er al l y p re se n te d t h e m ai n e ve nt s i n a s ai nt ’s l if e, s e em o ft e n t o h av e

b e e n w r i t t e n t o b e p e r f o r m e d o n a s a i n t ’ s n a m e d a y . A s t h i s w o u l d i m p l y ,

t h ey w er e m or e r es tr ai n ed a nd s ob er p er fo rm an ce s t ha n t he m ys t er ie s ;

t he y w er e a ls o m uc h s ho rt er. T he y s ee m t o h av e b ee n m os t p op ul ar i n

S pa in a nd I t al y, a s w el l a s i n F r an ce , w h er e t h e t i t le s om et i me s c on ce al ed

a p la y t ex t t ha t l ef t f ar m or e r oo m f or c on te mp or ar y d ra ma a nd s oc ia l

c om me nt . Th e fo rt y p lays i n t he c ol le ct io n Mi ra cl es d e No tr e D am e

p e r f o r m e d i n P a r i s i n t h e f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y w e r e l a r g e t e x t s , w i t h a c a s t

o f c ha ra ct er s t ha t s tr et ch ed t o a s m an y a s f if ty r ol es . T he p lo ts , w hi ch

e ac h b ui ld t ow ar ds a m ir ac ul ou s i nt er ve nt io n b y t he V ir gi n, a ll ow t he

p o r t r a y a l o f a c o m p l e x w e b o f c r i m e a n d d e c e i t : t h e s e pl a ys h a ve d r if t ed

f ar f ro m t he p io us m ys ti ci s m o f t he s ou th er n t ra di t io n.8

M o r e g e n e r a l i n i t s a p p e a l w a s t h e m e d i a e v a l m o r a l i t y p l a y , a f o r m t h a t

s paw ne d a w ide var ie ty of i nve nt iv e an d p op ul ar e nt er tai nm en ts i n

m an y E ur op ea n c ul tu re s. T he m or al it y p la y r ev ol ve d a ro un d a c as t o f

6 James Parente, ‘Drama’, in T h e O xf or d E nc yc lo pe di a o f t he R ef or ma ti on ( 4 v ol s. , N ewYork, 1996) , v ol . I I, p p. 4 –9 . E hr st in e, T h ea ter, C u l t ur e a n d C o m m un i t y, p . 3 5 .

7 G ra h a m A . R u nn a ll s , Re pertoire des myste res francais imprime s (1486–1630 ) (E d i nb u r g h,1997) , p p. 2 6– 3 1.

8 John Fox, A L i te r ar y H i st o ir y o f F r an c e . T h e M i dd l e A g es (London, 1974) , p p. 2 51 –2 .




c ha ra ct er s r ep re se nt in g t he p er so ni fi ca ti on o f a bst rac ti ons s uc h a s

V ic e, V ir tu e, C on sc ie nc e a nd F ai th . T he ir i nt er ac ti on ( of te n w it h a n

E v e r y m a n f i g u r e , r e p r e s e n t i n g h u m a n i t y ) a l l o w e d t h e w o r k i n g o u t o f t h e

p lay ’s d idac tic e le me nt . T hi s f or m o f d ram a w oul d p ro ve t o h av e an

e nd ur in g i nf lu en ce i n m an y f ut ur e l it er ar y g en re s : o ne t hi nk s, f or i n-

s t a n c e , o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n d i a l o g u e , w h i c h m a d e e x t e n s i v e u s e o f r e p r e -

s e nt at iv e p e rs on if ic at i on s o f t h is n at ur e. T he m ed ia ev al m or al it y p la y

a ls o i nf lu en c ed t h e d ev el op me n t o f t h e a ll e go ri ca l m or al p la ys t ha t w er e

t he s to ck i n t ra de o f t he e me rg in g u rb an d ra ma ti c s oc ie ti es : i n F ra nc e

the puys, in t he N et he rl ands t he Rederijkerkamers. Th e after life of the

m or al it y p la y w as e qu al ly s tr on gl y f el t i n t he Tu do r i nt er lu de , a s ho rt

m or al is ti c d ra ma p er fo rme d as a di ve rsi on i n a l ong er w or k. P lac in g

s p e e c h e s i n t h e m o u t h s o f a l l e g o r i c a l a b s t r a c t i o n s a l s o a l l o w e d a p u n g e n t

c ri t ic is m o f c on t em po ra r y m or al it y, a p ot en ti al e xt en si ve ly e xp lo it ed

d u ri n g t h e R e fo r m at i on e r a.

M o r a l i t y p l a y s h a d a s e r i o u s p u r p o s e , b u t t h e y a l s o e m p l o y e d m a n y o f

t h e b u r l e s q u e f e a t u r e s t h a t e n l i v e n e d s c e n e s i n t h e m y s t e r i e s . T h e c o m i c

p ot en ti al i s o bvi ous e no ug h i n a p lay l ik e Bien-avise e t M al - av is e , two

c ha ra c te rs w ho s et o ut o n a j ou rn ey t og et h er b ef or e g oi ng t he ir s ep ar at e

w a y s. B i en - av i s e f ol lo ws R ea so n, w ho l ea ds h im t o F ai th ; t he c om ed y

a ri se s m os tl y t hr ou gh t he a dv en tu re s o f M al -a vi se w i th h i s v ar io us e vi l

c o mp a ni o ns . I n F r an c e t h e moralite a l s o s p a w n e d a s p e c i f i c s u b g e n r e , t h e

sottie , a sa ti ri cal f ar ce p er for me d b y u rb an dr ama so ci et ie s. H er e t he

ac tor s wo re f ool s’ c lot hin g, al lo wi ng t he c low n’s de fe nc e of c rit ic al

di st an ce f rom t he p la ys ’ s at ir ic al p ar odi es o f m anne rs an d p ol it ic al

e v e nt s . T h e sottie h ad s om et hin g i n c om mo n w it h t he f ar ce , a f or m o f

d ra ma ti c p er fo rm a nc e t ha t h ad l ar ge ly o ut gr o wn t he r el ig io us o ri gi ns

o f t h e d ra ma ti c m ed iu m. T he se p la ys f lo ur i sh ed e sp ec ia l ly i n G er ma ny

a s t h e Fastnachtspiel o r c a r n i v a l p l a y , b u i l d i n g o n t h e c a r n i v a l t r a d i t i o n o f

S hr ov e Tu es da y, t he l as t d ay b ef or e t he L en te n f as t. T he p lo ts o f t he se

p la ys u su al ly r ev ol ve d a ro un d t h e a dv en t ur es o f c l ev er p ea sa nt s d ec e iv -

ing each othe r and th eir socia l b ette rs : a soc ial r ep resenta tion that

a pp ea le d t o t he l ar ge ly u rb an a ud ie nc es o n m an y l ev el s. I n F ra nc e t he

farce s e ngag ed a wide r range of soci al typ es, though the plots still

i nv ol ve d p ea sa nt c un ni ng a nd t he h oo dw in ki ng o f t he c re du lo us . I n

Pathelin , c om po se d a ro un d 1 47 0, t he e po ny m ou s c en tr al c h ar ac t er i s a

r as ca ll y l aw ye r. H e p lo ts w it h a c or ru pt s he ph e rd t o h oo dw in k a f oo l is h

d ra pe r, o nl y t o b e c he at ed i n h is t ur n b y t he s ly s er va nt . I n t hi s w ay t he

f ar ce s c om bi ne d b ro ad s la ps ti ck h um ou r w it h t he p ot en ti al f or s oc ia l

c ri ti ci sm ( of t he l awy er ) a nd b roa d- br us h m or ali zin g. Th is d ou bl e

pote ntial would be fully embrac ed by the Refo rmation in several

l o ca t io n s w h e re t h e Fastnachtspiel t r a di t io n w a s p a rt i cu l ar l y r o bu s t.




T he f in al d ev el op m en t o f s ig ni fi c anc e i n t he p re -R ef or ma ti on p e ri od

w as t he g ro wt h of h um ani st dr ama .9 H um ani st d ram a e me rg ed t o a

p o s i t i o n o f s o m e i m p o r t a n c e a s p a r t o f t h e v a s t e x p a n s i o n o f e d u c a t i o n a l

p rovisi on in norther n Europe during t he fiftee nth and sixtee nth

c ent ur ie s : t o m any e duc at io na l r efo rm er s i t wa s t o b e ( wi th mu si c) a

m a i n s t a y o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m o f t h e n e w L a t i n s c h o o l s . H u m a n i s t t e a c h e r s

r e c o m m e n d e d t h e s t u d y o f a n c i e n t d r a m a , w i t h T e r e n c e a s t h e m o d e l , a s

a m ea ns t o an e le gant L at in s tyl e, b ut t he m ov eme nt a ls o s paw ne d a

s ig ni fi ca nt q ua nt it y o f n ew w ri ti ng . A n i mp or ta nt p io ne er i n t hi s f ie ld

w as G ul ie lm us G ra ph eu s, t he D ut ch s ch oo lm as te r w ho s uc ce ss fu ll y

c om bi ne d R om an c om ic l an gu ag e w it h a b ib li ca l s ub je ct i n h is d ra ma

o f t he P ro di ga l S on , Acolastus ( 15 29 ). T hi s w or k wa s a m il est on e in a

d ev el op i ng g en re t ha t w ou ld r ec ei ve t he e nt hu s ia st ic s up po rt o f a ll t h e

m a i n strea m P ro tes ta n t chu rches .

Reformation drama

The Refo rmation effec ted considera ble chang e to the mediaeval

d ra ma ti c t r ad it io n, t ho ug h n ot i ni ti al l y f ro m a v ie wp oi nt o f i de ol og ic a l

s c ep t ic i s m. T h e Wi t te n be r g r e fo r me r s s t ro n gl y a d vo c at e d d r am a a s p a rt

o f t he p ro ce ss o f e xp os it io n a nd i nc ul ca ti on o f t he n ew r el ig io us f ai th ,

p ar ti cu la rl y w it hi n t he s ch oo l c ur ri cu lu m. I n t hi s r es pe ct d ra ma w as

e nc om p as se d i n t he r el at iv el y b en ig n L ut he ra n e va lu at i on o f t he v is ua l

m ed ia , s om et im e s e xp l ic it ly : L ut h er r eg ul ar ly r e fe r re d t o p la ys a s p ai nt-

i n g s (Gema lde) , p i c t u r e s (Bild ) , o r e v e n , f o l l o w i n g C i c e r o , a s a m i r r o r .10

N e ve r th e l es s , t h e Wi t t en b er g r e fo r me r s r e ma i ne d w a ry o f e m br a c in g

t h e p r e- R e fo r ma t io n d r am a ti c t r ad i ti o n t o o w h ol e h ea r te d ly . F o r a l l t h ei r

r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p e d a g o g i c p o t e n t i a l , t h e i r f i r s t c o n c e r n w a s t o d i s t a n c e

t h em se l ve s f ro m t he m ed ia ev al p as si o n p la y, w h ic h , w it h i ts t ra ns ce nd -

e n t e m o t i o n a l i s m , t h e y r e g a r d e d a s s o m e t h i n g a k i n t o t h e M a s s . L u t h e r ’ s

f ir st e xp li ci t c om me nt o n d ra ma , i n h is S er mo n v on d er B e tr ac ht un g d es

h e yl ig e n l ey de ns C hr is t i ( 15 18 ), w as t hus di re ct ed f ar m or e t ow ar ds a

s us ta in ed a tt ac k o n t he C at ho li c t ra di ti on t ha n a p os it iv e e vo ca ti on o f

t he p ri nc ip le s o f a n ew e va ng el ic al d ra ma . F or t he se r ea so ns i t w ou ld

b e som e years before Witten berg emb rac ed t he sort of civic public

p er fo rm an ce c ha ra ct er is ti c o f p re -R ef or ma ti on d ra ma i n G er ma ny.

I ni ti al e ne rg i es w er e d ir e ct ed t ow ar d s e nc o ur ag in g d ra ma i n t he s ch o ol

9 James A. Parente, R el ig io us D ra ma a nd t he H um an is t T ra d it io n : C hr is ti an T he at er i nG er ma n y a n d t h e N et h er l a n ds, 1500–1680 (Leiden, 1987).

10 Ehrstine, T h ea ter, C u l t ur e a n d C o m m un i t y, p p. 2 16 –1 7. F or a c om pe nd iu m o f L ut he r’ss t at e me n ts o n d r am a s e e T h om as I . B a co n , M a rt i n L u th e r a n d t h e D r am a (Amsterdam,1976).




c ur r ic ul um , o f w hi ch L ut h er a nd M el an ch t ho n w er e e nt h us ia st ic p ro -

p o ne n ts . T h is w a s a p a rt i cu l ar e n th u si a sm o f P h il i p M e la n c ht h on . E v en

b e f o r e h i s a r r i v a l i n W i t t e n b e r g , h e h a d i n 1 5 1 6 , a t t h e p r e c o c i o u s l y e a r l y

a g e o f n i n e t e e n , p u b l i s h e d a n e d i t i o n o f s i x p l a y s b y t he L a ti n d ra m ati s t

Te re nc e : t his w as on e o f h is f ir st p ub li sh ed w or ks .11 Melanchthon’s

e nt hu si as m f or Te r en ce w ou l d f in d i ts e ch o i n t he n ew G er ma n c hu rc h

o r de r s w h er e t h e r e -o r ga ni z e d s c ho o l r e gi m e f r eq u e nt l y m a de p r ov i si o n

f o r d r am a ti c p e r fo r ma n c e.

T hi s p os it iv e b ut q ua li fi ed e nd or se me nt o f d ra ma m ea nt t ha t w hi le

p l a y s w e r e t o b e p e r f o r m e d i n t h e s c h o o l s , t h e y d i d n o t , i n W i t t e n b e r g a t

l ea st , f or m p ar t o f t he a gi ta ti on f or e va ng el ic al c ha ng e. To t he e xt en t

t ha t r e fo rm e rs r e co gn iz e d t he p ol em i ca l p ot e nt ia l o f d ra ma , t hi s w ou ld

h av e t o b e r ea li ze d e ls ew h er e. H er e, P ro te st an ts s ei ze d o n t he c on vi vi a l

f or ma t o f t he c ar ni va l p la y, t he e st ab li sh ed v eh ic le f or m uc h r ib al dr y

a nd s oc ia l s at ir e ; t hi s w as n ow t ur ne d i n a m uc h m or e s ys te ma ti c w ay

o n t h e o l d c h u r c h . A n e a r l y i n s t a n c e o c c u r r e d i n t h e n o r t h G e r m a n c i t y

of Danzig in 1522, where Mich ae l Schmarz ( appa rent ly a former

p up il o f A lb re ch t D ur er ) d ir ec te d a n a nt i- pa pa l c ar ni va l p la y, w hi ch

enac te d Luth er’s stru ggle against Rome until his disap pearanc e

f oll ow ing t he Di et of Wo rm s. Th e mo st si gni fi ca nt f lo we ri ng of t he

e va ng el ic al c ar ni v al p la y i s f ou nd i n t wo c on t ra st in g c it ie s i n G er ma ny

a nd S wi tz er la nd , N ur e mb e rg a nd B er n. I n N ur em be r g t h e P ro t es ta nt

c ar ni va l p la ys f or me d p ar t o f t he v as t a nd v ar ie d o ut pu t o f t he w or k o f

H a ns S a ch s .

We h av e a lr ea dy m et H an s S ac hs i n c on ne ct io n w it h h is h ym ns a nd

p oe ti ca l w or ks p ub li sh in g i n t he s er vi ce o f t he R ef or ma ti on , a nd t he se

w e r e i n d e e d t h e g e n r e s t h a t d o m i n a t e d t h e b u l k o f h i s a s t o n i s h i n g o u t p u t

o f s om e 1 ,7 00 o ri gi nal c om po sit io ns . B ut S ac hs al so w rot e o ve r t wo

h u nd r e d p l a y s, i n a d di t io n t o t h e i m po r t an t g r ou p o f r e l ig i ou s d i al o gu e s

p ub l is he d i n s up p or t o f t h e R ef o rm at io n in 1 52 4, a p iv ot al m om en t o f

d e c i s i o n f o r t h e N u r e m b e r g R e f o r m a t i o n .12 S a chs co n tri bu ted co pi o u s l y

t o b ot h t he m aj or g en re s o f G er ma n R ef or ma ti on d ra ma , t he c ar ni va l

p la y a nd t h e b ib l ic al d ra ma , b ut h is o ut p ut a ls o s ho ws d ef in it e p at te rn s,

h int ing a t a c le ar h ie ra rc hy o f s er io us ne ss of p ur po se i n t he m ind o f

t he a ut ho r. S ac hs w ro te h is f ir st c ar ni va l p la ys i n 1 51 7, t oo e ar ly t o b e

infl uenced b y the Reforma tion. The re is t he n a gap of more than a

11 Parente, R e l ig i ou s D r am a a n d t h e h u ma n is t T r ad i ti o n, p p . 2 0 f f .12 P au l A . R us s el l, L ay T he ol og y i n t he R ef or ma ti on . P op ul ar P am ph le te e rs i n S ou th we st

Germany, 1521–1525 (Cambridge, 1986) , p p . 1 6 5– 8 0. P h il i p B r oa d he a d, ‘ T he C o nt r i-b u t i o n o f H a n s S a c h s t o t h e D e b a t e o n t h e R e f o r m a t i o n i n N u r e m b e r g : A S t u d y o f t h eR e li g io u s D i al o gu e s o f 1 5 24 ’ , i n R o be r t Ay l et t a n d P e te r S k ri n e ( e ds . ), H a ns S a ch s a n d F ol k T he at re i n t he L at e M id dl e A ge s (Lewiston, N.Y., 1995) , p p. 4 3– 62 .




decade befor e he r eturns to the genr e, a period fille d by his hymns,

p oe ms , a nd t he R ef o rm at io n d ia lo gu es . M an y o f t h e c ar ni v al p la ys w er e

p ub li sh ed i n a g re at b ur st o f c re at ive e ne rg y i n t he e ar ly 1 55 0s , wh en

m an y o th er a ut ho rs h ad t ur ne d t o m or e e ar ne st b ib li ca l d ra ma . T ha t

said, the best of Sac hs’ plays effect ively c ombi ne the twin goal s of

e nt er tai nm ent a nd e di fi cat io n as w el l a s a ny of t he l ig ht er d ram at ic

p erforma nce s of t he Refo rmation. One ge ts a tast e fr om a funny,

r u mb u st i ou s p i e ce c a ll e d T he I nq ui si to r w it h M an y C au ld ro ns o f S ou p.

S im on Wi rd t i s s en te nc ed t o l is te n t o t he m on ks ’ s er mo ns , w he n h e i s

p u z z l e d b y t h e m e s s a g e t h a t w h a t p e o p l e g i v e i n t h i s l i f e t h e y w i l l r e c e i v e

b ac k a h un dr ed fo ld i n t he n ex t. G iv en t ha t t he m on ks g iv e t hr ee c au l-

d r o n s o f s o u p a d a y t o t h e p o o r f r o m t h e i r l e f t o v e r s , i n t h e n e x t l i f e t h e y

w i l l b e d r o w n e d i n s o u p – 1 0 9 , 5 0 0 c a u l d r o n s a y e a r ! T h i s c a l c u l a t i o n s o

e nr ag es t he I nq ui s it or t h at h e d is mi ss es S im on , w ho w ou ld p re fe r t o b e

a t h om e r ea di ng h is B ib le i n a ny c as e.13

T h e e x pl o r at i on o f H a ns S a c hs ’ m u lt i -f a ce t e d l i te r ar y a c hi e ve m e nt i n

t h e s er vi ce o f t he R ef or ma t io n p oi nt s t he w ay t o o ne p ar t ic ul ar p ro bl em

o f i n te r p re t in g t h e d r am a ti c o e uv r es : t h e r e la t io n sh i p b e t we e n d r am a t ic

p i e c e s i n t e n d e d t o b e p e r f o r m e d , a n d t h e d i a l o g u e . S o m a n y o f t h e e a r l y

p ol em ic al w ri ti ng s o f t he Re fo rm at io n w er e w ri tt en i n t he f or m o f a

d ia log ue , wi th t wo o r a l ar ge r c as t o f c ha rac te rs. No t a ll o f t he se w er e

i nt en de d t o b e p er fo rm ed ; s om e w er e s o s ty li ze d t ha t t he y w ou ld h av e

b e e n t o t al l y u n su i ta b le f o r p e r fo r m an c e.

S om e d is ti n gu is he d s tu di es o f G er ma n l it er at ur e d ea l w it h t h is c on -

u nd ru m b y e ff ec ti ve ly i gn or in g i t : t re at in g d ia lo gu es a nd d ra ma s a s i f

t he y a re e ss en ti al ly o ne a nd t he s am e. F or o ur p ur po se s t hi s i s c le ar ly

i na de qu at e. O ne c an c er ta in ly i ma gi ne t ha t r ea de rs o f t he p am ph le t

d ia lo gu es h ad t he ir r ea di ng e nr ic he d b y t he m en ta l a ss oc ia ti on s w it h

p er fo rm ed d ra ma ; p er ha ps t he y e ve n e na ct ed d ia lo gu es w it h f ri en ds

( t ho ug h t hi s r eq ui re d a va il ab i li ty o f m o re t ha n o ne c op y) . B ut t he r ea c h

o f a d i a l o g u e t h a t w a s r e a d b u t n o t p e r f o r m e d i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e

i mp ac t o f a p er fo rm ed p la y : l es s e xt en si ve i n t er ms o f i ts s oc ia l r an ge ,

b ro ad er g eo gr ap hi ca ll y. T he p la y p er fo rm ed a nd t he p ri nt ed t ex t a ls o

i mp ac t o n t he ir r ea de rs a nd a ud it or s i n d iff er en t w ay s. P la yg oe rs m ay

come away with bro ad imp re ssions that may foc us on the central

m es sa ge , b ut c oul d e qu al ly b e o f a sp ec tac ula r p ie ce of st ag in g, o r a

c o m i c e p i s o d e t h a t h a s l i t t l e t o d o w i t h t h e m a i n p l o t . R e a d e r s m a y s t u d y

13 T hi s p lo t i s d es cr ib ed i n J oh n E . Ta il by, ‘ Sa ch s a nd t he N ur em be rg Fastnachtspiel T ra d it i on o f t h e F i ft e en t h C e nt u ry ’ , i n Ay l et t a n d S k ri n e, H a ns S a ch s a n d F o lk T h ea t re,p p . 1 8 7 – 9 5.




a p am ph le t a t l ei su re , b ut t he y m is s t he r ei nf or ce me nt a nd i mp ac t o f a

c om m un al ly s ta ge d e ve nt ; a nd o f c ou rs e t he y m us t b e r ea de r s.

Most effect ive of all would be if a p la y were both p erform ed and

p ri nt ed, i n w hic h c as e i t w oul d p ro fi t f ro m t he m ut ual ly r ei nf or cin g

s t r e n g t h s o f b o t h m e d i a . T h i s i s c e r t a i n l y t h e c a s e w i t h t h e p l a y s o f H a n s

S ac h s, a nd w it h t he s ec on d m aj or s ou rc e o f R ef or m at io n p la y t e xt s , t he

S wi ss c it y o f B er n .

T he f lo we ri ng o f e va ng el ic al d ra ma i n B er n w as i n t he f ir st i ns ta nc e

t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f a n o t h e r R e f o r m a t i o n p o l y m a t h , t h e p a i n t e r a n d p o e t

N ik la us M an ue l. M an ue l, a n e ar ly c on ve rt t o t h e R e fo rm at io n, h ad b y

1 5 2 2 t u r n e d h i s b a c k o n h i s p a i n t i n g ; i n s t e a d h i s t a l e n t s w e r e p o u r e d o u t

in a se ries of evange lical car ni val plays th at set a new standard for

e va ng el ic al d ra ma . M a nu el ’s w or k i nf lu e nc ed t wo o f t he m o st f am ou s

e ar ly dr am at ic c re at io ns o f t he Re fo rm at io n : O f the Pope and his

Priesthood ( 1 5 2 3 ) a n d T h e I n du l ge n ce P e dl a r ( 1 5 2 5 ) . I t i s n o t e w o r t h y t h a t

t he s e b ri l li an t a nd e xc o ri at in g d en un ci at io ns o f t he s ta ge v il l ai ns o f t he

O ld c hur ch s hou ld h ave b ee n p er for me d b ef or e B er n h ad o ffi ci al ly

a do pt ed t he R ef or ma ti on ( in 1 52 8) . B ut a lt ho ug h t he B er n p at ri ci at e

r em ai n ed c au t io us o n r ef or m, M an ue l w as a bl e t o c ap it a li ze o n t he t id al

w av e o f a nt i- p ap al f ee li ng c re at ed b y t he r ec en t a ll ia nc e b et w ee n L eo X

a nd C ha rl e s V. T hi s u nl i ke ly r ec on ci li a ti on b et w ee n t h e a nc i en t H ab s -

b u r g f o e o f S w i s s l i b e r t i e s a n d a t r a d i t i o n a l a l l y v i o l a t e d a l l t h e n o r m s o f

S w i s s p o l i t i c s , a n d s e n t a t r e m o r o f a n x i e t y t h r o u g h t h e S w i s s c i t y s t a t e s ;

i n t h is c o nt e x t M a nu e l f o un d e a ge r a u di t or s f o r h i s p a ge a nt d e no u nc i n g

t h e c y n i c a l a b u s e o f c l e r i c a l p o w e r . O f t h e P o p e a n d h i s P r i e s t h o o d i s i n f a c t

a more subtle work than this may sugg est . Whil e the Po pe’s initial

a p p ea r an c e w i t h a p a ra d e o f e c c le s ia s ti c al o ff i ci a ls e s ta b li s he s t h e p l ay ’s

g e ne r al t h e me o f e c cl e si a st i c al c o rr u pt i on , t h e l o we r e chel o ns o f p r i es t s,

m o n k s a n d n u n s l a m e n t t h e i r g r o w i n g i m p o v e r i s h m e n t .14 T h e r e a r e a l s o

e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e s t o B e r n ’ s i m m e d i a t e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n ; M a n u e l w a s a

w e ll - c on n ec t e d m e mb e r o f t h e c i ty ’s p o li t ic a ll y a c ti v e c i ti z en r y, a n d w e ll

p lac ed t o r ef le ct t he fe eli ng s o f p ol it ic al i nse cur it y i n t he w ak e of t he

S wi ss d ef ea t a t t he b a tt le o f B ic o cc a.

M an ue l’s c ar ni va l p la ys w er e t hu s a h ig hl y c on te mp or ar y a s w el l a s

p ol it i ca ll y c h ar ge d a da pt at io n o f t h e l on g- e st ab li sh e d t ra di t io n o f t h e

c a r n i v a l p l a y . W e k n o w f r o m t h e i r s t a g i n g t h a t t h e y c o u l d o n l y h a v e b e e n

p er fo rm ed w it h t he e xp li ci t s up po rt o f t he c it y m ag is tr at es . T he p la ys

t o o k p l a c e i n o n e o f t h e c i t y ’ s m o s t p r o m i n e n t c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n s , a n d t h e

ac tor s were dr awn from among t he younger male members of the

14 Ehrstine, T h ea ter, C u l tu r e a n d C o m m un i t y, p p . 9 4 – 5 .




l ea di ng f ami li es o f t he c it y. O f c our se t he p la ys we re al so i nt ende d t o

e nt er t ai n, a nd M an ue l’ s p la y a ls o m ad e u se o f t h e s to ck p e as an t c ha ra c-

t e r s w h o s e b o o r i s h b e h a v i o u r w a s a s t a p l e o f t h e s e u r b a n e n t e r t a i n m e n t s .

This takes a m ore sinister turn in T he I nd ul ge nc e P ed la r w he re t he

i nh ab it an ts o f t he v il la ge s et u po n t he e po ny mo us t it le char a ct e r w h en

t h ey d is co ve r h ow h is t ri ck s h av e a bu se d t h ei r n aıv e p i et y.15 T h e p e dl a r

i s b o u n d a n d h o i s t e d u p u n t i l h e c o n f e s s e s t o h i s a b u s e o f t h e c o m m u n i t y

a nd t h e w or t hl es sn e ss o f h is i nd ul ge nc e s. T he t he m e n o d ou bt w on t h e

s y m p a t h y o f t h e a u d i e n c e , b u t t h e e n a c t m e n t o f p e a s a n t v i o l e n c e p r o v e d

a n u nt im el y w ar ni ng o f t he d an ge r o f u nl ic en se d a ct iv is m a ga in st t he

a bu se s o f c le ri ca l t ra di ti on – a lt ho ug h t he p la y w as p er fo rm ed i n B er n

a nd s ub se q ue nt ly c i rc ul at ed i n m an us c ri pt a mo ng M an ue l ’s f ri en ds , i t

w a s n e ve r p u bl i sh e d.

T he c ar ni va l p la y c ap tu re d a p ar ti cu la r m om en t i n t he e va ng el ic al

a g en d a, a n d t h e b o is t e ro u s u n di s c ri m in a t in g a n ti c le r i ca l is m t h at p r ov e d

s o p ow e rf ul a c om po ne n t o f t he e ar ly u rb a n r e fo rm m ov em en t . I n m or e

s ob e r t im es i ts f re e -r an gi ng s at ir e m ig ht s ee m l e ss a pp ro pr i at e, a nd t h e

f ina l t ri um ph o f t he Re fo rm at io n i n B er n b ro ug ht an e nd t o t he b ri ef

f l o u r i s h i n g o f t h e e v a n g e l i c a l Fastnachtspiel . E l s e w h e r e t o o , a s P r o t e s t a n t

t h e o l o g i a n s e m b a r k e d o n a w h o l e s a l e r e n o v a t i o n o f t h e w o r s h i p t r a d i t i o n

o f t h e c h u r c h , t h e y a l s o t u r n e d a m o r e s c e p t i c a l e y e o n c a r n i v a l c e l e b r a -

t io ns , w hi ch w er e c on de mn ed b ot h a s a r el ic o f C at ho li c r it ua l a nd a s

a n o cc as io n f or l ic e nt io us b e ha vi o ur. E nc ou ra ge d t o l oo k e ls ew h er e f or

m od el s o f d ra ma ti c p er fo rm an ce , P ro te st an ts f ou nd t he m i n t he n ew

h u m a n i s t d r a m a , t o w h i c h e v e n t h e W i t t e n b e r g r e f o r m e r s h a d g i v e n t h e i r

u ns ti nt in g s up p or t. H um a ni st p ri nc i pl es p er mi tt e d t he e lu ci da ti o n o f a

n ew t he or y o f d ra ma ti c p er fo rm an ce t ha t m ov ed b ey on d t he r ea ct iv e

s at ir e o f t h e c ar ni va l p la ys t o a m or e c on st ru ct iv e e ng a ge me n t w it h t h e

t h e o l o g i c a l a g e n d a o f t h e e v a n g e l i c a l m o v e m e n t . T h i s w a s p r e d i c a t e d o n

a f un da me nt al ly d iff er en t u nd er st an di ng o f t he i nt er ac ti on b et we en

a u di e nc e s a n d r e li g io u s i m ag e r y : o n e t h at f o st e re d i n te l l ec t ua l c o mp r e -

h e ns io n r at h er t ha n a n e mo ti o na l r e sp on se . T he se n ew p r in ci p le s w er e

l aid o ut w it h s om e c lar it y b y t he i nf lue nt ia l R ef or ma ti on dr am at is t

T ho ma s K ir ch me y er ( Na og e or gu s) , a S ax on p as to r a nd t he a ut ho r o f a

s er ie s o f i mp or tan t b ib li cal dr ama s, as w el l a s a nu mb er of m or e c on-

v en ti on al s at ir es a ga in st t he R om an c hu rc h. I t w as t he b ib li ca l p la ys ,

h ow ev e r, t ha t p oi nt e d t he w ay t ow a rd s t he f ut u re o f G er m an P ro te st a nt

d r a m a . I n t h e p r e f a c e t o h i s J u d as Iscar i o t ( 1 5 38 ) K ir c hm ey er l ai d o ut t h e

i d eo l og i c al m o ti v at i on o f h i s d r am a ti c w r it i ng :

15 Ibid., p p. 1 07 –1 3.




I f it i s th e d ut y o f th eolo gy to tea ch p ie ty a nd th e tr ue wo rs hip of God a nd to

a d vo c at e a l i fe s ty l e t ha t p l ea s es G o d a n d w or k s t h at a r e g o od a n d c on s eq u en t ly

t o r e b u k e i m p i e t y , i n c o r r e c t w o r s h i p o f G o d a n d d e p r a v e d b e h a v i o u r , a l l o f t h e s e

th ing s ar e als o i n ou r tra ge dies , an d in a ce rtai n wa y they a re taugh t m ore

e ff ec ti ve ly t he re ; f or a s H or ac e s ay s, ‘thin gs h ea rd i nc it e t he m in d m uc h l es st h an t ho s e t h in g s o u r t r us t in g e y es s e e. ’16

T hi s i s a n i mp or t an t s ta te me n t, r ep re s en ti ng a s i t d oe s a f un da me n-

t a ll y p o si t i ve r e -e v al u at i on o f w h at m i gh t b e p e r ce i ve d t h r ou g h t h e e y es .

T h e d r a m a t i s t s p r o p o s e d n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n a s y n e r g y o f t h e s e n s e s t o d o

Go d ’s w o rk .

T hi s w as a n a ge nd a t h at w as e mb ra c ed w it h p ar t ic ul ar e nt h us ia sm b y

H a n s v o n R ut e , a ut ho r o f a s eq ue nc e o f b ib li c al d ra ma s s ta ge d i n B er n .

I t m i g h t l e g i t i m a t e l y b e a s k e d w h y B e r n , a c i t y o f s o m e 5 , 0 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t ssom e way from Europe ’s main trade routes, spawned such a rich

d ra ma ti c t r ad it io n. T he m os t r ec en t s tu dy o f t h is d ra ma t ra di t io n s ug -

g e s t s t h a t t h e l a c k o f a l o c a l p r i n t i n g p r e s s u n t i l a c o m p a r a t i v e l y l a t e d a t e

m a y h a v e p l a y e d i t s p a r t : c e r t a i n l y t h e s e b i b l i c a l d r a m a s w e r e a n i m p o r t -

a nt m ea ns o f c om mu na l co mm un ic at io n a nd e na bl ed t he f or gi ng o f a

s ha red rel i gi o u s i d en ti ty.17 Vo n R ut e c om po se d f iv e m aj or p la ys o ve r a

p er i od o f s ev en te en y ea rs , a ll f oc us e d o n a m aj or h er oi c f ig ur e f ro m t he

B ib l e n ar ra t iv e : f ro m Joseph ( 15 3 8) t o Goliath ( 15 55 ) . T hi s r ef le ct ed ac e n t r a l t h e m e o f a l m o s t a l l P r o t e s t a n t d r a m a s , t h e p a t h o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l

t ow ar ds s al va ti on , t h ou gh t h e p er fo rm an ce o f t h es e p la ys c on t in ue d t o

r e q u i r e a h e r o i c a p p l i c a t i o n o f e f f o r t t o d e p l o y t h e v a s t c a s t s r e q u i r e d f o r

t h e s u cc e s sf u l s t ag i ng o f t h e se e x te n de d d r am a s.

V o n R ut e ’ s c o m p o s i t i o n s i n B e r n w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y a c o n s i d e r a b l e

f lo we ri ng o f b ib li ca l d ra ma t hr ou gh o ut L ut h er an G e rm an y. T hi s m ay

p ar t ly h av e b ee n s ti mu la te d b y M ar t in L ut he r ’s m or e e xp li ci t p ra is e o f

‘ co me di es b le ss ed t o G od ’ i n h is 1 53 4 c om me nt ar ie s o n To bi t an d Judith. That Luther’s comments were influential is suggested by the fact

t ha t o ne L ut he ra n a ut ho r, P au l R eb hu n, a ct ua ll y r ep ri nt ed L uther’s

r em ar ks a s a n a ft er wo rd t o h is n ew b ib li ca l p la y, Susanna (1535).18 In

1538 the Dess au sc hoolmaster Joach im Greff eve n conce ived of

p re se nt in g t he p as si on n ar ra ti ve a s t he c en tr al f oc us o f a v er se d ra ma ,

thus raising the spect re of the drama tic represent at ion of Christ ,

u n kn o wn i n t h e P r o te s ta n t t r ad i ti o n s i nc e t h e ir s u pp r e ss i on o f t h e m e di -

ae val p ass ion p lay. Th e c ont ro ve rs y r ai se d b y G re ff ’ s p ro po sa l i n-du ce d h im t o r es hap e h is p ro po se d p lay t o f oc us on t he r es ur re ct ion

r at he r t ha n t h e p as si on . W he n t he l oc al m in is te rs c on ti nu e d t o e xp r es s

16 Ibid., p . 2 1 7 . 17 Ibid., p . 5 9 . 18 Ibid., p . 2 1 .




m is gi vi ng s, t h e m at te r w as r e fe r re d t o Wi tt e nb er g , w h ere b o th L ut he r

a n d M e la n ch t h on e m ph a t ic a ll y s u pp o r te d t h e d r am a ti s t.19

T he sh ak in g off o f t hi s l as t t ab oo wa s a dr am at ic d em on st rat io n of

t he e xt en t t o w hi ch P ro te st an t t he ol og ia ns w er e c om fo rt ab le i n t he ir

r e sh a p in g o f t h e m e di a ev a l d r am a ti c t r ad i t io n . M o st P r ot e st a n t d r am a ,

i t m ust b e sa id, c on ti nu ed t o f in d i ts m ai n t he me s f ro m t he h ist or ic al

b oo ks o f t he O ld Te st am en t a nd t he A po cr yp ha . B ut t he t ra di ti on w as

p op ul ar a nd e nd ur in g, w in ni ng t he s up po rt o f r ef or me rs i n a ll m ai n-

s tr ea m P ro te st an t c hu rc he s. M ar ti n B uc er i nc lu de d a w ar m e nd or se -

m en t o f d r a ma i n h i s l as t g re at w or k, D e R e g n o C h r i s t i , a nd b i bl ic al d ra ma

a lso f ou nd i ts p lac e i n t he F re nc h r ef or me d c ul tur e, p ar tl y t hr oug h

t r an sl at io ns o f G e rm an a ut ho rs s uc h a s T ho ma s K ir ch m ey er. A n e sp e-

c ia ll y p op ul ar w or k a mon g t he F re nc h Hug ue no ts w as t he Abraham

sacrifiant b y T h e o d o r e d e B ez e, a p la y t ha t r ep r es en ts t h e p er fe c t f us i on

o f t h e h um an is t e du ca t io na l t ra di t io n a nd t he n ew e va ng e li ca l b ib li c al

drama.20

T he P ro te st an t t rad it io n o f b ib li cal dr am a dr ew t og et he r se ve ral

t h em es o f i mp or ta nc e f or t h is s tu dy. F i rs tl y, d ra ma w as c on ce i ve d a nd

o rc he st ra te d p ri ma ri ly a s a p ed ag og ic t oo l, e xp lo it in g a nd r es ha pi ng

a n i mp or ta nt p ar t o f m ed ia ev al e nt e rt ai nm en t c ul tu r e t o t hi s p ur po se .

I t i s i mp or ta nt t o r ec og ni ze t he e xt en t t o w hi ch t hi s p la y t ra di ti on w as

a pp ro pr ia te d a nd c ho re og ra ph ed b y t he l ea de rs o f t he n ew P ro te st an t

s oc ie ti es . Al mos t w it ho ut e xc ep ti on , t he au th or s of t he p la ys w er e

p as to rs , s ch o ol ma st er s o r m em be rs o f t h e l oc al p at ri ci at e . T he s ta gi n g

o f a p er fo rm a nc e c ou ld o nl y b e a cc om p li sh ed w it h t h e f ul l c o- op er a ti on

o f t h e c i t y m a g i s t r a t e s f o r , l i k e m e d i a e v a l c i v i c d r a m a s , t h e s e w e r e p u b l i c

occasions to wh ich all membe rs of the comm unity woul d be freely

a d mi t t ed . T h e e x pe n se w a s u n de r t ak e n b e c au s e t h ey b o th o ff e re d e n te r -

t ai nm en t a nd f or wa rd ed t he i de ol og ic al a ge nd a o f t he n ew P ro te st an t

establishment.

D ra ma w as p ro mo te d b e ca us e i t a ls o o ff er ed a p ar ti cu la rl y e ff ec ti ve

s yn er gy o f d iff er e nt m od es o f c om mu ni ca ti on . R ec en t s tu di es o f P ro t-

e st an t t he at re h av e d ra wn a tt e nt i on t o t he s ha re d i c on og ra ph y b e tw e en

t h e at r e a n d P r ot e s ta n t v i su a l c u lt u re . T h e F a ir a n d P le a sa nt P la y (1538)

b y t h e M a g d e b u r g p l a y r i g h t V a l t e n V o i t h w a s a n a t t e m p t t o a d a p t t o t h e

s t a g e L u c a s C r a n a c h ’ s a r t i s t i c m o t i f o f t h e L a w a n d t h e G o s p e l , a n d t h i s

was far from being th e fir st exam ple of such a syne rgy of image and

19 Ibid., p p . 1 – 5 .20 Theodore de Beze, A b r a h am s a cr if i a n t. T r a ged i e f r a n co i s e ( Ge n ev a , 1 5 50 ) . C r it i ca l

e di ti on w it h i nt ro du ct io n a nd n ot es b y K . C am er on , K . M . H al l a nd F. M . H ig ma n(Geneva, 1967).






m en tio ne d, an d H ei nr ic h B ul li ng er al so p en ne d a y ou th ful w or k of

d ra ma , h is l it t le -k no wn L uc re ti a a nd B ru tu s. The p lay, writt en wh ile

B ul li ng er w as s ti ll i n K ap pe l, i s a r ob us t d ef en ce o f t he c on st it ut io n o f

t h e S wi ss C on fe de ra t io n t hr ou gh t he m ed iu m o f a s to ry m ad e f am il ia r

b y t he g re at R om an h is to ri an L iv y. I t w as p er fo rm ed t o g re at a pp la us e

in b ot h Basle and Aarau, and th en revived again by the students of

Zur ich in 1939 at t he outbreak of t he Se cond World War, wh en its

c o nt e m po r ar y s i gn i fi c an c e m u st a g ai n h a ve b e e n v e ry o b vi o us .24

S uc h p la ys , w ri tt en f or a ud ie nc es r ea dy t o b e b ot h e nt er ta in ed a nd

e d i f i e d , h a d a n o b v i o u s r o l e a s a c o m m u n a l e x p r e s s i o n o f s h a r e d p o l i t i c a l

a n d t h e o l o g i c a l v a l u e s . I t r e m a i n s t o b e s e e n w h e t h e r d r a m a c o u l d p l a y a

r ol e i n p ro mo ti ng t he Re fo rm at io n ag en da i n p lac es wh er e i t di d no t

e nj oy o ff ic ia l s po ns or s hi p. S uc h w as t he s it ua ti o n i n t he f ir st h al f o f t h e

c ent ur y i n t he l ar ge st s tat es o f w est er n E ur op e, w he re a dvo ca te s of

t h e r ef or m a ge nd a f ac e d f or mi da bl e o pp os it i on ; i n t hi s c on t ex t, w h er e

a dv oc a cy o f e va ng e li ca l d oc tr in e b ec a me t oo d an ge r ou s, d ra ma m ig ht

b e co me t h e v e h ic l e f or m or e s ub t le m es sa ge s o f c h a ng e . E n g la nd , F ra nc e

a n d t h e N e t h e r l a n d s a l l d e v e l o p e d a c o d e d d r a m a o f d i s s e n t , r e f l e c t i n g i n

p ar t t he s ep ar at e d ra ma ti c h er it ag e o f t he d iff er en t l an ds , b ut a ls o t he

commo n int erest in th e new hum anist drama. In this resp ect it was

s ig ni fi c an t t ha t p r ec is e ly t ho se e du c at e d i nt el le c tu al s d ra wn t o e xp er i -

m en ta ti on i n n ew d ra ma ti c f or m a ls o m an if es te d a d eg re e o f c om mi t-

m en t t o t he w id er h um an is t a ge nd a, w it h i ts s ce pt ic al e xa mi na ti on o f

ex i s ti ng chu rch i n s titu ti o ns .

I n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y E n g l a n d w a s a l r e a d y e x h i b i t i n g

t he t re nd t ow ar ds t he h ig hl y i nd iv id ua l d ra ma ti c t ra di ti on t ha t w ou ld

b ec om e e vi de nt i n t he El iza be th an t he at re . W he re as p lay ma ki ng i n

E ur op e r em ai ne d l ar ge ly t he p re se rv e o f n on -p ro fe ss io na ls , E ng la nd

a lr ea dy h ad i ts f ir st p ro fe ss i on al c om p an ie s, n or ma ll y b an ds o f p la ye rs

a ss oc i at ed w it h a n ob le h ou se h ol d. B e tw een 1 53 0 a nd 1 58 0 s om e f if ty

n ob le me n’s t ro up es h av e b ee n r ec or de d.25 T he s e c om pa ni e s m os tl y

p er fo rm ed i n p ri va te t o a p ri vi le ge d a ud ie nc e ; b ut i n t im es o f p ol it ic al

t ur bu le n ce e ve n s uc h r es t ri ct ed p er fo rm a nc es c ou ld p la y a n i nf lu en ti a l

p ar t i n f ra mi ng t h e r el ig io us d eb at e .

I t w a s i n t h e f l u i d a n d c o m p l e x p o l i t i c s o f t h e r e i g n o f H e n r y V I I I t h a t

t he p ot en ti al o f d ra ma f or r el ig io us p ol em ic w as f ir st s ys te ma ti ca ll y

24 E m i di o C a m p i, ‘ B u l li n g e r’ s E a r l y P o l i t i c al a n d T h e o lo g i ca l T h o u gh t : B r u t u s T i g ur i n u s’,i n B r uc e G o rd o n a n d E m id i o C a mp i ( e ds . ), A r c hi t ec t o f R e fo r ma t io n . A n I n tr o du c ti o n t oH ei n ri ch B u l l in g er, 1 5 0 4 – 15 7 5 (G r an d R a p i ds , M i c h ., 2004) , p p . 1 8 1 – 9 9.

25 P a u l W h i tf i e ld W h i te , T h e at re a n d R e fo r ma t io n . P r ot e st a nt i sm , P a tr o na g e a n d P l ay i ng i nT u do r E n g l an d (Cambridge, 1993) , p . 1 2 .




e xp lo it ed . I n t he b ri ef p er io d o f H en ry ’s a ct iv e p at ro na ge o f a r ef or m

a ge nd a, p l ay s w er e c on sc io us ly e mp l oy ed t o p r om ot e s up p or t f or r oy al

p ol ic i es . T hi s c am pa ig n r e ac h ed i ts a po ge e i n t h e c o- o pe ra t io n b e tw ee n

t h e k i ng ’s m i ni s te r, T h om a s C r om w el l , a nd t h e P r ot e s ta n t a u th o r, J o hn

B a l e . B a l e ’ s i n v o l v e m e n t w i t h d r a m a s e e m s t o h a v e p r e - d a t e d h i s a s s o c i -

at io n w it h C ro mw el l. I n 1 53 4 h e w ro te f ou rt ee n p la ys fo r t he E ar l o f

O xf or d, a P ri vy C ou nc il lo r a nd e ar ly e xp on en t o f r ef or m. F ro m 1 53 7

B a l e a l s o e n j o y e d C r o m w e l l ’ s d i r e c t p a t r o n a g e . B y t h i s t i m e B a l e h a d h i s

own troupe , ‘Bal e and h is fe llows’, whic h per forme d in a vari ety of

l oc at i on s, a t c ou rt a nd e ls e wh er e. B et w ee n 1 53 7 a nd C ro m we ll ’s f al l i n

1 54 0, B al e’s p la ye rs t ou re d e xt en si ve ly a ro un d E ng la nd , i n a s er ie s o f

a n nu a l e x pe d it i on s t h at t o ok t h em a s f a r a f ie l d a s S h re w sb u r y, Yo r k a n d

N o r w i c h . F o r m a n y o f t h e s e p l a c e s t h e p e r f o r m a n c e s m u s t h a v e b e e n t h e

f ir st v is ib le s ig n o f t he n ew i de o lo gi ca l w in d b lo wi ng f ro m c ou rt .

Bale played a critica l role as both theatrical entrepreneur and

a ut ho r. T he s ur vi vi ng t ex ts r ev e al h is w ho le h ea rt ed e ng ag em en t w it h

C r om w e ll ’s r e fo r m p r o gr a mm e . B o th K in g J o hn e, h is b es t- kn ow n p la y,

a nd t he l es s- re ga r de d T hr e e L aw s a re v ic io us ly a nt ic le ri ca l i n t em pe r,

p re s en ti ng t he C at h ol ic c le rg y a s ‘ th e c on t em po ra ry m an if es t ation o f a

t im el e ss s pi ri tu al e vi l c or r up t in g G od ’s l aw s t hr ou gh t he a ge s’ .26 With

T he K na ve ri es o f T ho ma s B ec k et , o n e o f B a l e ’ s m a n y p l a y s f o r w h i c h o n l y

t h e t i t l e s u r v i v e s , w e c a n p r e s u m e t h a t t h e t e x t p u r s u e d a s i m i l a r p o l i t i c a l

agenda to that of K in g J oh ne, wh ile at t he same time end or sing the

g ove rn me nt a tt ac k o n i ma ge s an d sh ri ne s. B al e’s p lays ar e n ot t o b e

c o m p a r e d t o t h e g r e a t c i v i c d r a m a s o f P r o t e s t a n t G e r m a n y . W r i t t e n f o r a

m uc h m or e m od es t t ro up e o f p la ye rs , t he y c ou ld b e s ta ge d w it h m uc h

l es s c er em on y i n a w id e v ar ie ty o f s et ti ng s, p ub li c o r p ri va te . B ut t he y

s e e m t o h a v e h i t t h e i r m a r k . J o h n A l f o r d e , a y o u n g m a n w h o a t t e n d e d a

perf o rm a n ce o f K i ng J o hn e i n C an t er bu ry i n 1 53 8, c am e a wa y b el ie vi ng

‘ t h a t i t y s p e t i e t h a t t h e B i s s h o p o f R o m e s h o u l d r e i g n e a n y l e n g e r , f o r i f

h e s h oul d, t he s ai d B is sh op w ol d do w it h o ur Ki ng as h e d id w it h K ing

John’.27

S uc h o ve r tl y p ol it ic a l d ra ma w as i ne v it ab ly w ho ll y d ep en de nt o n t he

p ro te ct io n o f a n i nf lu en ti al p at ro n. T he f al l o f C ro mw el l b ro ug ht a n

e nd t o B ale ’s t ou ri ng c om pany, and t he Ac t fo r t he A dva nc em ent o f

T ru e R el ig io n i n 1 54 3 s pe ci fi ca ll y p ro hi bi te d i nt er lu de s a nd p ri nt ed

m at te r m ed dl in g ‘ wi th i nt er pr et ac io ns o f S cr ip tu re , c on tr ar y t o t he

do ct rin e s et f or th or t o b e se t f or th b y t he k yn ge s m aie st e’ . Th e e me r-

g en ce o f a P ro te st an t r eg im e i n 1 54 7 b ro ug ht t he r ep ea l o f t hi s s ta tu te

a nd a n i mm e di at e r ev iv al o f a nt i- Ca t ho li c d ra ma . E ve n t h e y ou ng k in g

26 Ibid., p . 2 7 . 27 Ibid., p . 2 9 .




a pp ar en tl y c on tr ib ut ed : B al e’s c at al og ue o f b oo ks b y B ri ti sh a ut ho rs

i nc lu de d a n a nt i- p ap al i nt erlud e e n ti t le d T he W ho re o f B ab yl on, w hi ch

h e a tt r ib ut e s t o E dw ar d V I.28 O ut si d e t he c on fi ne s o f t he c ou rt , d ra ma

p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n p r o m o t i n g t h e n e w e v a n g e l i c a l a g e n d a . A s i n

G e rm an y, l ea di ng c l er ic al s up p or t er s o f t he r e gi me p la ye d a p r om in ent

r o l e a s a u t h o r s : B a l e , B e c o n , F o x e , U d a l l a n d B a l d w i n a l l w r o t e p l a y s .29

T he b ri ef o pp or tu ni ty o f E dw ar d’s r ei gn i n f ac t w it ne ss ed t he c on ve r-

g en ce o f t he t wo s tr an ds o f G er ma n P ro te st an t d ra ma : t he a nt ic le ri ca l

s at ir e o f t he c ar ni va l p la y a nd t he b ib li ca l d ra ma . T he E ng li sh a ut ho rs

a ls o b or ro we d g en er ou s ly f ro m t he c on t in en ta l t ra di ti on , b ot h i n t he ir

c h oi c e o f t h e me s a n d s t yl e s, a n d i n s t ra i gh t fo r w ar d t r an s la t i on s .

T he s he er r an ge a nd v it al it y o f t he d ra ma ti c t ra di ti on i n E ng la nd a t

t hi s t im e i s a f it ti ng p ro lo gu e t o t he m or e c el eb ra te d d ra ma s o f t he l at er

E li za be th a n p er io d, t ho ug h l at e r p la yw r ig ht s w ou ld n ev er a ga in m at c h

t he ideo logica l coh erence of t he Edwardian era. John Foxe woul d

h av e n o h es it at io n i n e vo ki ng d ra ma i n h is f am ou s t ri lo gy o f c on du it s

o f t he R efo rm at ion , ‘ pl ay er s, p ri nt er s and p re ac he rs ’. T he M ar ian

r eg im e s ee ms t o h av e c on cu rr ed , t ak in g i mm ed ia te s te ps t o s up pr es s

t he p la yi ng o f u na ut ho ri ze d i nt er lu de s w it hi n m on th s o f t he q ue en ’s

a c ce s si o n i n 1 5 53 .

In Fr ance, evange licals woul d neve r enjoy th e luxur y of such an

e xt e nd ed o pp or t un it y t o d ev el op a n i nd ep e nd e nt d ra ma ti c t ra di t io n.

F or a ll t ha t, d ra ma ti c p e rf or ma nc es h ad a l on g h is t or y o f v en t in g p ol it -

i c al d i ss e n t, a n d s u pp o r te r s o f e v an g el i ca l r e fo r m w o ul d m a ke e x te n si v e

u s e o f t h i s t r a d i t i o n i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . A c o n v e n i e n t

v e h i c l e f o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f c o d e d c r i t i c i s m w a s p r o v i d e d b y t h e sotties or

farces , s a ti r ic a l e n te r t ai n me n ts o f te n p e rf o rm e d b y l o ca l d r am a s o ci e ti e s .

N ot al l w er e c ri ti cal of t he e st ab li sh ed p ow er s. Th e J eu d e P ri nc es by

Pierre Gringore in 1512 provided generous praise of Louis XII.

G r in go r e, w ho e ar ne d h is l iv i ng p ar tl y a s a n o rg an iz er o f m ys te r ie s a nd

f ar c es , w as a ls o a n i mp or ta nt r el ig io u s a ut ho r a nd a n e ar ly o pp o ne n t o f

Luther. T h e T h r e e P i l g r i m s o f 1 5 2 1 w a s m o r e d a r i n g , r i s k i n g a n a t t a c k o n

t h e k i n g ’ s m o t h e r , L o u i s e o f S a v o y e . I n t h i s d r a m a t h r e e p i l g r i m s e m e r g e

f ro m r et r ea t a n d f in d s o c ie t y m u ch c ha ng e d : t he w om e n g ov e rn a nd m en

t h in k o nl y o f p le as ur e . T he y r et r ea t b ac k t o t he ir c el ls .

This was sailing close t o th e wind, and play s that att acked st oc k

p op ul ar t ar ge ts i n t he c le rg y b ec am e i nc re a si ng ly d iv is iv e . A s ce pt ic a l

v oi ce w as m ai nt ai ne d i n t wo c on tr a st in g l o ca ti on s : a t c ou rt i n t h e c ir cl e

28 John Bale, Scriptorium illustrium ( B as le , 1 55 7) , v o l. I , p . 6 74 .29 John N. King, E n g li s h R ef o rm a t io n L i t era t u r e. T h e T u d or O r i gi n s o f t h e P r o tes t a nt T r a d it i on

(P r in c e t o n, N . J . , 1982) , p p . 2 7 1– 3 18 .




o f h um an is t in te ll ec tua ls ar ou nd M ar gu er it e o f Na va rr e, an d in t he

m un ic ip a l L at i n s ch o ol s. M ar gu e ri te , t he k in g’s s is te r, w as h er s el f t he

d i st i ng u is h e d a u th o r o f d e vo t io n al p o et r y a n d t h e Heptameron, a c o l l e c -

t i on o f m o ra l t a le s m o de l l ed o n B o cc a c ci o ’s Decameron. B u t w h i l e m a n y

o f t h os e p r ot ec te d b y M ar gu er it e w er e c le ar ly r ef or mi st i n i nc li n at io n,

t he ir i nf lu en ce w as l im it ed b y d is cr et io n a nd c au ti on . A m or e p ub li c

m a ni f es t at i on o f e v an g el ical energy was permi tted by the rise of the

m un ic ip a l L at in s ch oo l s.30 F rance, in commo n wit h man y par ts of

E u ro p e, w i tn e ss e d a n e x tr a or d in a ry e x pl o si o n o f e d uc a t io n al p r ov i si o n

d ur in g t he s ix te en th c en tu ry. M an y t ow ns s ei ze d t he o pp or tu ni ty t o

f ou nd o r r eo rd er a L at in s ch oo l, i ns pi re d b y t he f as hi on ab le h um an is t

e du ca ti on al a ge nd a. C it y m ag ist ra te s v ie d f or t he mo st c ele br at ed

t e ac he rs , m an y o f w ho m l at er g av e t r ou bl e b y t h ei r a dv an ce d v ie ws . A s

i n G er ma ny, d ra ma p la ye d a n i mp o rt an t p ar t i n t he s ch oo l c ur r ic ul um ,

b ut i n m an y l oc at i on s t he s tu de nt s c le ar ly p r ef e rr ed m or e c on tr o ve rs ia l

f a re t h an t h e Te r e nc e p r es c r ib e d.

A r ec en t s tu dy o f B or de au x d em on st ra te s h ow d ra ma c ou ld c om e t o

p l a y a c e n t r a l r o l e i n t h e c l a s h o f i d e o l o g i e s t h a t w o u l d l e a d u l t i m a t e l y t o

t he F re nc h R el i gi ou s Wa rs .31 T he g ra mm ar s ch oo l i n B or de au x, t he

Colleg e d u G uy en ne , w as a t yp ic al l y b ol d m un ic ip al v en t ur e , f ou nd ed

i n 1 53 2 w i th a s ub s ta nt ia l e nd ow m en t o f 5 00 l iv re s. S tr on gl y s up p or t ed

by the c it y fath ers, it also quickl y b ecame a hotb ed of evangelical

a gi ta ti on . M at te rs w er e c om pl ic at ed b y t he f ac t t ha t o nl y t wo g ro up s

were permi tt ed t o stage dram at ic enter tainm ent s on t he st ree ts of

B or de au x : t he s tu de nt s o f t he c ol le ge , a nd m em be rs o f t he basoche, t h e

l o ca l c o nf r at e r ni t y o f S t Yv e s. T h e c o nt r as t in g d r am a ti c e n te r ta i nm e nt s

b ec am e t he f oc al p oi nt fo r t wo c om pe ti ng wo rl dv ie ws . T he basoche

p r ef e rr e d t h e C a th o li c v o ic e w i th o s te n t at i ou s c e l eb r at i on o f t r ad i ti o na l

p ub l ic c er em o ni es ; t he se w er e f re qu e nt ly d er id ed b y t he s ch ol ar s o f t he

c o l l e g e , w h o t o o k t o a t t a c k i n g l o c a l c e r e m o n i e s a n d p r o c e s s i o n s . I n 1 5 5 6

t he s ch o la rs o rg an iz e d t h em se l ve s i nt o m il it ar y -s ty le l oc al c om p an ie s.

T h e m a gi s t ra t es w e re c a ug h t i n b e tw e e n, m i se r ab l e a n d i m po t en t . T h ey

t ri ed t o r es to re p ea c e b y b an ni ng e it he r s id e f ro m p e rf or mi n g ‘ au cu ne s

p ie c es c on ce r na nt l a r el ig io n o u f oi c hr et i en n e, l a v e ne r a ti o n d e s s a in t es

e t l es i ns ti tu t io ns d e l ’E gl is e ’, b ut t h is h ad l it tl e e ff ec t. B y 1 55 9 b ot h s id es

h ad t ak e n t o p at r ol li ng t he s tr ee t s o f B or de au x i n r iv al g an gs .

30 G e o r ge H u p p er t , P u b li c S c ho o ls i n R e na i ss a nc e F r an c e (Chicago, 1984).31 K ev in G ou ld , ‘ “V iv re e t m ou ri r e n l a r el ig io n a nc ie nn e, r om ai ne e t c at ho li qu e” . C at ho li c

A c t i v i s m i n S o u t h -W e s t F r a n c e ’ (U n i v e r s i t y o f W a r w i c k , P h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , 2003) . I a mg ra te fu l t o D r G ou ld f or p er mi ss io n t o r ea d a nd c it e h is d is se rt at io n i n a dv a nc e o f i tspublication.




T hi s t ra ns fo rm at io n f rom d ram at ic so ci et y t o vi gil ant e m ob m ay

seem to us extr eme, but it capture s the p ot ency of p lays as a public

e xp r es si on o f s ha re d s oc ia l v al ue s . W he n t he se v al ue s w er e s ha re d, t hi s

w as a s ou rc e o f s tr en gt h ; wh en t he y b ec ame c on te st ed, t he d ram at ic

t r ad it io n b e ca me v er y d is ru pt i ve . T hi s r em ai ne d t h e c as e e ve n w he n, a s

i n t he N et he r la nd s, t he p r in ci p al f oc us f or d ra ma ti c p er fo rm an ce w as i n

o st ens ib ly c lo se d dr am a s oc ie tie s s uc h a s t he C ha mb er s of R he to ri c

(Rederijkerkamers ).

T he c ha mb e rs w er e a p e cu li ar ly N et h er la nd is h i ns t it ut io n.32 They

h av e s om e e ch oe s i n t he F re nc h puys, b ut no wh er e d id t he y a tt ain t he

s oc ia l s ig ni fi ca nc e o f t h ei r p la ce i n t h e c ul t ur e o f t he L ow C ou nt r ie s. I n

t h is e du ca t ed , h ig hl y l it e ra t e u rb an s oc ie t y t h e c ha mb e rs w er e a u bi q ui -

t o u s p r e s e n c e : i n t h e D u t c h - s p e a k i n g p r o v i n c e s a l o n e t h e r e w e r e c l o s e t o

t w o h u nd r ed .

T he C ha mb er s o f R he to ri c a ro se i n t he f if te en th c en tu ry w it hi n t he

s tr on gl y a rt is an al c ul tu re o f t h e m er c ha nt t ow ns o f F l an de rs , H ol l an d

a n d B r ab a nt . T h e y h a d m u ch i n c o mm o n w i th r e li g io u s c o nf r at e r ni t ie s ,

n o t l e a s t a s t r o n g o c c u p a t i o n a l b a s e a n d a n i n t e r e s t i n s o c i a l c o n v i v i a l i t y .

T he y a ls o s ha re d a s tr on gl y r el ig io us f un ct io n, e xp re ss ed o ft en b y t he

f ou nd in g o f a n a lt ar i n h on ou r o f t he c ha mb er ’s p at ro n s ai nt . B ut t he ir

p ri nc ip al p ur po se w as t he p er fo rm in g o f t he s er io us a ll eg or ic al p la ys

(S pe le n v a n Z in ne) w ri tt en s pe ci al ly f or t he m. T he Spelen, which had a

s tr on gl y m or al is ti c q ua li t y, m ig ht b e p er fo rm e d a t p ri va t e g at h er in gs o f

m em be r s, o r i n p ub l ic . T he p ub li c p la ys w er e s om et im es s po ns or ed b y

t he c iv il a ut ho ri ti es t o a cc om pa ny r el ig io us h ol id ay s o r o th er s pe ci al

o cc asi ons ; s om et im es c ham be rs fr om di ffe re nt c it ie s w oul d m ee t

t og et he r f or c om pe ti ti on s, a s i n t he f am ou s a nd u lt im at el y n ot or io us

n at io na l c om pe ti t io n o f 1 53 9, t h e Landjuweel .

Wi th r es pe ct t o t he ir m emb er sh ip t he c ha mb er s at tr ac te d a g oo d

s e c t i o n o f t h e w e a l t h i e r a r t i s a n s a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d m e r c h a n t e l e m e n t s

o f s o c i e t y . T h e t h e m e s o f t h e i r p l a y s w e r e o f t e n o v e r t l y r e l i g i o u s . I n 1 4 9 6

A n tw e r p’ s G i ll y fl o w er c h am b e r h o st e d a c o nt e s t i n vo l vi n g t w en t y- e ig h t

c ham be rs w he re t he q ue st io n as si gne d f or de ba te w as : ‘ Wh at i s t he

g re at es t mystery or grace ordained by God for the bless edness of

hu m a n i ty ?’33 A s t h is e xa mp l e i nd ic at es , f or c om pe t it io ns o f t h is n at ur e

t h e h os t c ha m be r e st ab li sh e d t he t he m e a nd s et t he q ue st io n.

Yet in a society such as the Netherl ands it is hard to see how the

c ham be rs c oul d h av e a vo id ed e nga ge me nt w it h t he r is ing r el ig iou s

32 G a r y K . Wa i t e , R e f or m er s o n S t ag e . P o pu l ar R e li g io u s D r am a a n d R e li g io u s P r op a ga n da i nt h e L o w C o un t ri e s o f C h ar l es V, 1 5 15 – 15 5 6 (Toronto, 2000).

33 Ibid., p . 4 2 .




c o n t r o v e r s i e s o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e p i e t i s t i c

t he m e o f t he 1 49 6 c om p et it io n a nd t he s am e A nt we r p c ha mb er ’s e nt r y

f or t he Landjuweel o f 1 53 9 i s i ns tr uc ti ve . I n t he l at er c om pe ti ti on t he

t he me f or d is cus si on w as , ‘ Wh at i s t he g re at est c om fo rt fo r a dy in g

m an ? ’ Th e Antwer p e ntry b egins with a ve rbal batt le b etween two

a ll e go ri ca l f ig ur e s, E xa mi na ti o n o f t he S cr ip t ur e s a nd F al se M e an in g.

E xa mi na ti on r ou ts F al se M ea ni ng w it h h is a ff ir ma ti on t ha t t he s ou l’s

c on so la ti on i s f ou nd i n t he p ur e u nt ai nt ed Wo rd o f G od . T he c en tr al

c ha ra ct er, Dy in g M an, t he n e nt er s a nd ap pr oa ch es se ve ral f ur th er

a ll eg or ic al f ig ur es i n a n a tt em pt t o s ol ve t he m ys te ry. N ei th er R ea so n

n o r L a w c a n p r o v i d e t h e a n s w e r : t h e s o l u t i o n i s r e v e a l e d w h e n P r e a c her

o f t he Wo rd p re se nt s D yi ng M an w it h L ut he r ’s t e ac hi ng o n s al va ti o n.34

T he A nt we rp c ha mb e r’s p r es en ta ti o n w as b ol d, b ut n ot e xc ep t io n al . A t

t he 1 53 9 Landjuweel o nl y t hr e e o f t h e n in et e en p la ys c ou ld b e d es cr ib e d

a s o r th o do x .

A t G h e n t , t h e Rederijkers h a d o v er r ea c he d t h e ms e lv e s ; t h e Landjuweel

c aus ed a p ub li c s cand al , and i n t he w ak e o f t he G he nt r evo lt ( wh ic h

b ro ke o ut on ly w ee ks a ft er t hi s c omp et it io n) C har le s V or de re d ne w

m ea su re s t o c ur b t he c ha mb er s. I nd iv id ua ls d o n ot , h ow ev er, s ee m t o

h av e b ee n p un is he d. T he m em be rs o f t he A nt we rp c ha mb er e nj oy ed

t he p ro te ct ion o f t he c it y m ag is tr at es, t o wh om t he y w er e we ll c on-

n ec te d. I t w as v er y d iff er en t i n A ms te rd am w he re t h e m ar g in al iz at i on

o f t he c it y’s rederijker culture by the town rege nt s had led the local

c ha mb er i nt o m uc h m or e d an ge ro us p at hs , i nc lu di ng a f li rt at io n w it h

A nab ap ti sm i n t he m id- 15 30 s. Th e m or e r adi ca l e ng ag em ent w it h

r ef or m se em s t o h av e b ee n a p ro duc t o f so ci al al ie na ti on fr om a c it y

e li te w ho h el d t he ms el ve s a lo of f ro m rederijker f es ti vi ti es . B ut w he n i n

1535 the props of one of the Amsterdam chambers were used in

a n a tt e mp t ed A na ba pt i st c ou p, t h e r he to ri c ia ns w er e i ne v it ab ly s we pt

u p i n t h e s ub s eq u e nt r e tr i b ut i on .

O n t he w h ol e t he m or e c au ti ou s a nd l es s p ro vo ca ti ve a pp r oa ch o f t he

A n t w e r p c h a m b e r w a s t h e m o r e t y p i c a l . D e s p i t e t h e s c a n d a l o f t h e 1 5 3 9

Landjuweel , t h e C h a m b e r s o f R h e t o r i c c o n t i n u e d t o p r o v i d e a n o u t l e t f o r

c ri t ic is m o f o rt h od o x r el ig io n, a lb e it w it h g r ea te r s ub t le ty a nd c on ce a l-

m e nt . W ha t i s s tr ik i ng i s h ow f ew p la ys e ve r m ou nt a t r en ch an t d ef e nc e

o f o rt h od ox y. A cc or d in g t o G ar y Wa it e :

E ve n C at ho li c p la yw ri gh ts c on st ru ct ed t he ir p la ys i n w ay s t ha t d ef en de d a

t ra d it io na l u nd e rs ta n di ng o f s al v at io n a n d s ac r am en t al f a it h w it ho u t u n du l y

a li en at in g r ef or m- mi nd ed m em be rs o f a n a ud ie nc e. T hi s c ou ld b e d on e b y

34 Ibid., p . 6 8 .






T hr ou gh o ut E ur op e , d ra ma w ou ld m ak e i ts m os t e ff ec ti ve c on tr ib u -

tion to th e evangelical caus e in places wh ere the Reform at ion h ad

al re ad y b ee n i nt ro du ce d, ar ti cul at in g s har ed val ue s i n a c omm un al

s et ti ng . I t c oul d c ont ri bu te t o t hi s p roc ess e ve n w he n t he at re go er s

l oo ke d f or l es s o st en s ib ly r el ig io u s s ub je c t m at e ri al t h an t h e s at ir es a nd

b i bl i c al p l ay s o f t h e f i rs t L u th e ra n g e ne r at i o n.

The theatrical city

I n t h e f ir st g en er at i on a ft er t h e R ef o rm at io n, d ra ma p ur su ed a n o ve rt l y

d id ac ti c p ur p os e. P ro te st a nt r ef or me r s w er e p e rs ua de d o f t he v al ue o f

d ra ma ; s ec ul ar ( pa rt ic ul ar ly c la ss ic al ) p la ys w er e a ls o a pp ro ve d a nd

i nt e gr at ed i nt o t h e s ch oo l c ur ri cu lu m . R ef o rm er s w er e l es s s up p or ti v e

o f d ra ma t ha t s ou gh t m er e ly t o e nt e rt ai n .

I n t he s ec on d h al f o f t h e s ix te en th c en tu r y o ve r tl y b ib l ic al d ra ma l os t

s om e o f i ts a pp ea l. T hi s w as a d ou bl e- ed ge d p ro ce ss . O n t he o ne h an d

t he p la yg oi ng p ub l ic d es ir ed p la ys w it h a w id er r ep er t oi r e o f t h em es a nd

s ty le s : c om e di es a nd h is to r ie s a s w el l a s i mp ro v in g m or al t al es . M e an -

w h i l e , t h e p r e a c h e r s s e e m t o h a v e l o s t s o m e o f t h e i r i n i t i a l c o n f i d e n c e i n

the beneficia l consequen ces of p layg oing. No doubt the two wer e

c on ne ct ed . B ut t he r es ul t w as a r ea li g nm en t o f t he p la ce o f p e rf or ma nc e

d r am a i n P r ot e s ta n t c u lt u re .

N ow he re w as t hi s c ha ng e m or e p ro fo un d t ha n i n E ng la nd . We h av e

a lr ea dy c al le d a tt en ti on t o t he i nd iv id ua li ty o f t he E ng li sh d ra ma ti c

t ra di ti on, a nd t hi s c ont inu ed t hr oug h t he m or e sp ec ta cu la r de ve l-

o pm ent s o f t he El iza be th an e ra. Th e r ap id e vo lut io n o f t he E ng li sh

d ra ma ti c t r ad it io n c on ti nu e d a pa ce a ft er t h e a cc e ss io n o f E li za be t h. I n

t he 1 56 0s a nd 1 57 0s p ro vi nc ia l t ow ns s ee m t o h av e w it n es se d a s ig ni fi -

c an t d ec li ne i n t he n um be r o f c iv ic a nd p ar is h p r od uc t io ns : r ep u di at in g

t he i r t r ad it io n al m ys te r y a nd m ir ac le p la ys , t he y r el ie d m or e a nd m ore

f or t he at ri ca l e nt er ta in me nt s o n v is it in g t ro up es o f p ro fe ss io na ls .36

L on do n, m ea nw hi l e, e xp er i en ce d a c on t ra ry t r en d. Wi th in t he f ir st t wo

d e ca d es o f E l iz a be t h ’s r e i gn p u bl i c p l ay i ng w a s t r an s fo r m ed f r om i n te r -

m it te nt r ec re at io n, p er fo rm ed i n t av er ns o r, i n a c on ti nu at io n o f t he

a ma te ur t ra di ti on , i n t he I nn s o f C ou rt , t o a r eg ul ar s ch ed ul ed e ve nt i n

p er ma ne nt ly e st ab li sh ed p la yh ous es. B et we en 1 57 6, w he n J ame s

B u r b a g e , l e a d e r o f t h e E a r l o f L e i c e s t e r ’ s t r o u p e , b u i l t T h e T h e a t r e n e a r

Shoreditch, and 1598, when The Globe was opened, as m any as

n in e o f t he se t he at re s w er e c on st ru ct ed , t ho ug h s om e w er e r el at iv el y

36 P a t r ic k C o l l in s o n , T h e B i rt h pa n gs o f P r ot e st a nt E n gl a nd . R e li g io u s a n d C u lt u ra l C h an g e i nt h e S i x t een t h a n d S ev en teen th C en t u ri es (London, 1988) , p p. 1 02 – 3.




s h o r t - l i v e d . I n t heir h e y d a y t h e y w e r e a d i s t i n c t i v e a n d i n f l u e n t i a l p a r t o f

m etro pol i ta n l i f e.37

T h e e r a o f t h e g r e a t o u t d o o r L o n d o n t h e a t r e s l a s t e d o n l y e i g h t y y e a r s ,

b u t i n t h i s t i m e t h e c u l t u r e o f p l a y g o i n g w a s c h a n g e d u t t e r l y . T h e t h e a t r e

b e c am e c o mm e r ci a li z e d. P l ay e r s w e re f u ll - t im e p r of e s si o na l s, b u t s o t o o

w er e p layw ri gh ts , s up er se di ng t he e ar lie r g en er at ion o f c le ri cs a nd

s ch o ol ma st er s w ho , i n E ng la nd a nd e ls ew he re , h ad f ur ni s he d t h e v as t

m aj or it y o f t ex ts i n t he f ir st e va ng el ic al g en er at io n. M os t o f a ll , t ho se

w ho f re qu en te d t he p lay hou se s w er e c us to me rs wh o c ame , p ayi ng a

p en ny t o s ta nd o r t hr ee pe nc e f or t he b et te r s ea ts , e xp ec ti ng d iv er si on

a nd e nt e rt a in me nt . T he y c am e , t oo , i n v er y l ar ge n um be r s. T he l ar ge r

p l ay h ou s es c o ul d a c co m mo d at e a c o ns i de r a bl e a u di e nc e , p e r ha p s u p t o

t h re e t ho us an d. E ve n a ll ow in g f or t h e f ac t t ha t t he y d id n ot a lw ay s p la y

t o a f ul l h ou se , A nd re w G ur r h as sug ge st ed t hat i n t he 1 59 0s t he t wo

m a i n c o m p a n i e s w e r e v i s i t e d b y 1 5 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e a w e e k – 7 – 1 0 p e r c e n t o f

t h e p op ul at i on o f t he c it y.38

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e L o n d o n p l a y s c e n e w a s u n m a t c h e d e l s e w h e r e

in Europe, and it is no t altogether easy to see why it sho uld have

o cc ur re d i n t hi s w ay, a t t hi s t im e, a nd i n E ng la nd . T he e ar ly d ev el op -

ment of the pro fession al compani es and the great outpouring of

d r a m a t i c e n e r g y d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f E d w a r d V I p r o v i d e d a s o l i d f o u n d a -

t i o n , b u t t h a t d o e s n o t e n t i r e l y e x p l a i n w h y t h e E n g l i s h t r a d i t i o n s l i p p e d

i t s m o o r i n g s i n t h i s w a y , w i t h t h e p r e c o c i o u s d e v e l o p m e n t o f a c o m m e r -

c ia l s ec ul ar t he at re . T he s ti mu lu s m ay h av e b ee n, p ar ad ox ic al ly, t he

g r ow i ng d i sa p pr o va l o f t h e at r ic a l s i n v ar i ou s o ff i ci a l a n d c h ur c h c i rc l es .

I n 1 5 7 2 t h e t r a v e l l i n g c o m p a n i e s w e r e s e v e r e l y c o m p r o m i s e d b y t h e A c t

f o r t h e P u ni s hm e nt o f Va g ab o n ds , w h ic h s p e ci f ic a ll y m e nt i on e d v a gr a nt

p la ye rs a mo ng i ts i nt en de d t ar ge t s. Tw o y ea rs l at er t he C it y o f L on do n

m ove d t o r ein i n p la ys p er fo rm ed i n i nn ya rd s ; t he f oll ow ing de cade

f ur th er c rit ic is m fo ll ow in g a f at al ac ci de nt at a b ear ba it ing in duc ed

W a l s i n g h a m t o l e n d h i s s u p p o r t t o e f f o r t s t o o r g a n i z e t h e L o n d o n p l a y e r s

i nt o a s in gl e c om pa ny u nd er t he p at ro na ge o f t he q ue en ’s n am e. Wi th

t hi s c le ar e vi de nc e t ha t t he l ea di ng c ou rt ie rs h ad n ot a ba nd on ed t he ir

t r ad it io n o f t h ea tr ic al p at r on ag e, t h e d is ap p ro va l o f t he c it y f at h er s w as

n ot e no ug h t o k il l o ff t he t he at re . I ns te ad t he t he at re s w er e b ui lt i n t he

o l d l i be r t ie s o u ts i de t h e c i ty w a ll s , i n S h or e di t c h, B l ac k fr i ar s , a nd a c ro s s

t h e r iv er i n S ou th wa r k.

37 Jean Wilson, T he A rc ha eo lo gy o f S ha ke sp ea re (Stroud, 1995) . A nd re w G ur r, TheS h a k esp ea r ea n S t a g e, 1 5 7 4 – 16 4 2 (Cambridge, 1970).

38 Gurr, T h e S h a k esp ea r ean S t a g e, p . 1 4 0 .






T he a tt it ud e o f t he se r es pe ct ed L on do n c it iz en s w ho a tt en de d t he

p la ys s ee ms, o n t he w hol e, m or e m eas ur ed t han t ho se p am ph le te er s

w ho i nv e ig he d a ga in st t he t h ea tr e . F or a lt h ou g h t h e L on do n p la y t r ad -

i ti on h ad m ov ed a wa y f ro m t he e ar li er t as te f or b ib li ca l d ra ma , t he n ew

s e cu l ar p l ay s s t il l p r o vi d ed p l en t if u l o p po r t un i ti e s t o r e in f or c e t h e v a lu e s

of a Pro testant socie ty. Per haps it was more succ essful in this task

b e c au s e t h e p r o se l yt i zi n g w a s l a rg e ly u n co n sc i ou s .

We m ay explo re this sugg estion by considering a pair of plays

p er fo rm ed t o g re at a pp la us e o n t he E li za be th an s ta ge i n t he l as t y ea rs

o f E li zab et h’s r ei gn, M ar lo we ’s The Massacre of Paris and The

Sho em aker’ s H o l i d ay b y T ho ma s D ek ke r. M ar lo we w as n o P ro te st an t,

b u t h e s t i l l s c o r e d a m a j o r s u c c e s s w i t h h i s c o m i c b o o k r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f

t h e F r e n c h W a r s o f R e l i g i o n , f i r s t p e r f o r m e d , i t m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d , a t

a time when English troo ps were in se rvice in Franc e in sup por t of

H en ry I V. C r it i cs a re s ev er e o n T he M as sa c re o f P ar is w hi ch , t o b e s ur e,

w in s n o p la ud it s f or s op hi st ic at io n o f p lo t o r c ha ra ct er d ev el op me nt .

T he m ai n c har ac te rs ar e l it tl e m or e t ha n c ar ic at ur es : t he e vi l G ui se ,

t he p lo tt in g C at he ri ne , t he n ob le H en ry. B ut f or L on do n’s p la yg oe rs

t h is s e ems to h ave b ee n e nou gh ; c er tai nl y t he y f lo ck ed t o s ee t he p la y

i n d r ov e s.42 Fo r Ma rl ow e’s Massacre c au gh t t he m oo d o f t he m om en t.

I t c ry st al li ze d a p er ce pt io n o f F re nc h p ol it ic s t ha t L on do ne rs w ou ld

h av e b ee n i mb ib in g f ro m m an y d iff er en t s ou rc e s : p am ph le t s w it h n ew s

of the French camp aigns, at turns urgent and exult ant ; returning

s ol di e rs ; t h e c it y p re ac h er s.43 H er e t he p la y h e lp e d g al va ni ze a p op ul a-

t i o n e n g a g e d i n a s t r u g g l e f o r n a t i o n a l s u r v i v a l a g a i n s t o m i n o u s l y p o w e r -

f u l e n e m i e s , a s t r u g g l e i n w h i c h t h e F r e n c h p l a y e d t h e u n f a m i l i a r r o l e o f

allies.

The othe r allies in the wars of t he 1590s were the Dutc h, long t he

b ut ts o f u nk in d j ok es o n t he L on do n s ta ge . T he ir n ew s ta tu s a s f el lo w

w ar ri or s i n t he P ro te st an t c aus e m ay ac co un t f or t he ir not ab ly m or e

f a v o u ra bl e trea tm en t i n D ek k er’s T h e S h o e m a k e r ’ s H o l i d a y.44 I n t h i s p l a y

t he p lo t r ev ol ve s a ro un d a d ec ep ti on i n w hi ch t he h er o L ac y, h op in g t o

s ec ur e t he h and o f t he l ove ly R ose , t ak es e mp lo yme nt w it h t he r ic h

s ho em ak er Si mo n E yr e d isg ui se d a s a Dut ch man. T hi s i s a sc en ar io

42 Ta ki ng s o n t he f ir st n ig ht w er e £ 3 1 4s : a n a ud ie nc e o f a ro un d 9 00 i f t he y a ll p ai d t heb a si c e n tr y r a te .

43L i s a F e r ra r o P a r me l e e , G o o d n e w e s f r o m F r a u n c e : F r e n c h A n t i - L e a g u e P r o p a g a n d a i n L a t eE l i za b et h an E n g l a nd (Rochester, N.Y., 1996).

44 P a ul S . S e av e r, ‘ T he A r ti s an a l Wo r ld ’ a n d D a vi d B e vi n gt o n, ‘ T he a tr e a s H o li d ay ’ , i nD a v i d L . S m i t h , R i c h a r d S t r i e r a n d D a v i d B e v i n g t o n (e d s . ), T h e T h ea t r i ca l C i t y . C u l t u r e,T h ea t re a n d P o li t ic s i n L o nd o n, 1 5 76 – 16 4 9 (Cambridge, 1995).




charge d with confl ic ting emo tions for t he cur ious b eholder. The

p l a y g o i n g a u d i e n c e w o u l d h a v e i n c l u d e d m a n y w h o w e r e o n l y t o o a w a r e

o f t he t hr ea t p os ed t o n at iv e w or km en b y i mm ig ra nt c ra ft sm en . I t w as

a c t u a l l y f o r b i d d e n b y l a w t o e m p l o y a n a l i e n i n t h e w a y E y r e d o e s i n t h e

p l a y , a n d t h e i s s u e s t i l l c a u s e d r u m b l i n g s o f a n g e r . I n 1 5 9 2 – 3 t h e M a s t e r

o f t h e R e v e l s h a d b e e n f o r c e d t o i n s i s t t h a t a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e l i f e o f

S ir T ho ma s M or e c ou ld o nl y p ro ce ed i f t he sce n es d ep i ct in g t h e a nt i-

D u t c h r i o t o f E v i l M a y D a y w e r e f i r s t e x c i s e d .45 Y e t t h e D u t c h w e r e n o t

o nl y n ow a ll ie s b ut p ro sp er ou s f el lo w c it iz en s. P la yg oe rs w ou ld h av e

w al k ed t o t he t he at re t hr ou gh t he s tr ee t s o f S ou th w ar k, t he m os t D ut ch

p ar t o f L on do n.

To t he s e l ay er s o f c om pl e xi ty D ek ke r a dd s l ay er s o f b ib l ic al a ll eg or y.

T he s ch em in g v il la in o f T h e S ho em ak e r’ s H ol id a y i s Ha mo n, t he f rus -

t ra te d sui to r o f Ro se . A s cr ip tur al ly e duc at ed au di en ce w ou ld h ave

k no wn H am on f ro m t he O ld Te st am en t B oo k o f E st he r. H am on i s t he

e v i l c o u n c i l l o r w h o p l o t s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e J e w s l i v i n g i n e x i l e u n d e r

t he P er si an k in g A ha su er us . T he t hr ea t i s a ve rt ed o nl y b y t he j us t a nd

f ai th fu l a ct io ns o f E st he r a nd M or de ca i, t he k in g’s J ew is h c ou nc il lo r.

This was a tale of great significanc e for the Dutch, adopted as an

a ll eg or ic al o ri gi n m yt h d ur in g t he ir y ea rs o f r eb el li on a ga in st S pa in .

H am on w as s ee n a s t he p re fi gu ra ti on o f t he S pa ni sh D uk e o f A lv a, a nd

M o r d e c a i w a s a n a l l e g o r i z e d v e r s i o n o f W i l l i a m o f O r a n g e . T h e s c e n e o f

Mo rd eca i ’s v i n d i ca ti o n a n d H a m o n ’s co n d e mn a ti o n w a s f r eq u en t ly r e p-

r e s en t ed i n s e ve n t ee n th - c en t ur y D ut c h a r t.46 S ee n t hr o ug h t hi s p ri sm ,

T h e S h oe m a ke r ’s H o li d a y b ec om es a t es ti mo ny t o t he b on ds t ha t u ni te d

P ro te st ant s i n t he s tr ug gl e a ga in st e vil ; i n t he w or ds o f a r ec ent c om -

m e nt a to r, ‘ a n a r gu m ent i n f av ou r o f t he e xt en si on o f t he b or de rs o f t he

s pi ri tua l co m m un i ty ’.47

I f t h e g o d l y h a d n o t i m e f o r t h e p l a y , t h e p l a y w r i g h t s c e r t a i n l y r e s e r v e d

a space for God. Naming always had sign ificance in Refo rmation

l it er at ur e, w he th er i n t he d ia lo gu es o f t he 1 52 0s o r t he p la y. T hi s w as

un de rs to od. O nl y an au die nc e suffu se d w it h S cr ip tur e w oul d h ave

m ade sense of Dekker, an ambitio us playw right who seized this

45 V i r g in i a G i l de r s le e v e , G o ve rn me nt R eg ul at io n o f t he E li za b et ha n D ra ma (N e w Yo r k ,

1908) , p . 9 5 .46 Jacqueline Boonen, ‘Verhalen van Israel s B a l li n g s c ha p e n V ri j h e id s s t ri j d ’ , i n C h r is t i a n

Tum p e l (e d . ), H e t O u d e Te s ta m en t i n d e S c hi l de r ku n st v a n d e G o ud e n E e uw (Amsterdam,1991) p p . 1 0 6– 2 1 .

47 Jane Pettegree, ‘Shoemakers and Dutchmen : Brothers under the Skin. T h e S h o ema k er ’s

Holiday a n d T h o m as D e k k er ’s V i s i on o f P r o t es t a n t I n t e r n a t io n a l B r o th e r ho o d ’ (u n p u b-l i s h ed m a n u sc r i pt , S t A n d r ew s R e f o rm a t io n S t u d ie s I n s t it u t e, 2 0 0 3 ).

1 00 Re for mat io n an d th e Cu lt ur e of P er sua si on



p at ri ot i c m om en t t o o ff er t he L on do n a ud ie nc e a n ot ab ly s ym pa t he ti c

p resen tation of the Dutch Prote stant ally in th e stru ggle against

i n tern ati o n al C a tho li ci s m .

B y t he e nd of t he si xt ee nt h c ent ur y P ro te st ant ism i n E ng lan d w as

p r a g m a t i c , p a t r i o t i c a n d p o p u l a r . O n e c o u l d a l s o s a y t h a t i t w a s p o p u l a r

b ec au se i t w as p ra gm at ic a nd p at ri ot ic . To a ch ie ve t hi s, i t h ad t o h av e

f ou nd a h ol is ti c r ol e i n n at io na l c ul tu re . T hi s w ou ld h av e b ee n f ar l es s

l i k e l y h a d t h e m o r e a u s t e r e v i e w s o f t h e p r e a c h e r s w h o r a i l e d a g a i n s t t h e

d ra m a prev ai l ed .




5 The visual image

Wi th p r ea ch in g , m us ic a nd d ra ma w e h av e i nv e st ig at e d t hr ee d iff er en t

a s pe c t s o f t h e c o ll e ct i ve c u lt u r e o f s i xt e e nt h -c e n tu r y s o ci e t y. C l ea r ly t h e

t h r ee i m pa c te d o n t h e c o ns c io u sn e ss o f t h e C h r is t ia n p e op l e i n d i ff e re n t

w a ys ; w h er e a s d r am a ti c p e r fo r ma n ce s w e re o c c as i on a l, s p ec i a l e v en t s i n

m os t c on t ex ts , b y t he s ec on d g en e ra ti on o f t he R ef o rm at io n P ro te s ta nt

p e op l e s w o ul d h a ve h e ar d s e rm o ns v e ry r e gu l ar l y. S i ng i ng , m e an w hi l e ,

w as an e ng rai ne d p ar t o f b ot h t he ir p ub lic wo rs hi p c ul tu re an d t he ir

pri v a te en terta i n m ents .

A l l h e l p e d e n s u r e t h a t t h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e n e w e v a n g e l i c a l m o v e m e n t

w ou ld t ou ch a ll m em be rs o f s oc ie ty, b ot h t ho se w ho h ad a cc es s t o t he

n ew P ro te st an t t ea ch i ng s t hr o ug h r ea di ng – t he l it e ra t e – a nd t ho se w h o

h ad n ot . T ha t t he re s ho ul d b e n o g ul f i n u nd er st an di ng b et we en t he se t wo

g ro up s w as o f c ou rs e a h ug e c on ce rn t o c on te mp or ar y c hu rc hm e n, a wa r e

as t he y w er e o f t he b oo ki sh an d c er eb ra l t en de nc y o f t he t he ol og ic al

d e b a t e i n s p i r e d b y L u t h e r , a n d t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t e a c h i n g e v e n t h e b a r e s t

e ss en ti al s o f t he n ew C hr is ti an p ri nc ip le s t o t he p op ul at io n a t l ar ge : a

c on ce rn t o w hi ch t he g re at o ut po ur in g o f p ed ag og ic l it er at ur e i ns pi re d b y

the R ef o rm a ti o n bea rs el o qu en t tes ti m o n y .

T h e q u e s t i o n o f h o w c o g n i z a n c e o f t h e n e w C h r i s t i a n t e a c h i n g s c o u l d

b e i nc ul ca te d a mo ng t he b ro ad m as s o f t he p op ul at io n i s a ls o o ne t ha t

h as p re oc cu pi ed h is to ri an s, t ho ug h t he c on te xt o f t he d is cu ss io n h as

b ee n r at he r d iff er en t f ro m t ha t p ro po se d i n t he f ir st h al f o f t hi s b oo k.

I n e xp la in in g h ow t he e va ng el ic al t e ac hi ng i mp ac te d o n t he p op u la ti on

at l ar ge h is to ri an s h ave p ost ul at ed a sp ec ia l r ol e fo r vi sual i ma ge s,

e s pe ci al ly, i n t he c on te xt o f G e rm an y i n t h e f ir st e va ng e li ca l g en er at i on ,

f o r t h e w o o d c u t . T h e r e a r e v e r y g o o d r e a s o n s w h y w o o d c u t s s h o u l d h a v e

s o c a p t u r e d t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y s c h o l a r s h i p . I t w a s o n e

o f t he g re at a nd e nd ur i ng g lo r ie s o f t he R e fo rm at io n t h at t h e f ir st d aw n

o f t h e e v a n g e l i c a l m o v e m e n t s h o u l d h a v e c o i n c i d e d w i t h o n e o f t h e g r e a t

ages of Ger man art. This was the age of Dur er, C ra na ch a nd H an s

H ol b ei n ; o f A lt do rf e r, B re u a nd a h os t o f o th er l es s- d is ti ng ui sh e d, b ut

s t i l l r e p u t a b l e p r a c t i t i o n e r s . F r o m t h e m i d d l e o f t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e

102





p ub l is he rs e ss ay ed m or e c om pl e x r ep re s en ta ti on s. S om e , a ga in , w er e

i nc lu de d i n b oo ks , a nd t he re fo re a dj us te d t o t he u pr ig ht p or tr ai t f or m

o f t h e p r i n t e d p a g e . O t h e r s w e r e p u b l i s h e d a s s i n g l e s h e e t s , t h e w o o d c u t

e i th er f il li ng t he p ri nt e d p ag e o r l e av in g r oo m f or e xp la na t or y t ex t. T hi s

o ut po ur in g of v isua l i ma ge s c er ta inl y c aug ht t he at te nt io n of t hos e

c ha rg e d w it h m on it o ri ng t h e p er p le xi ng e xp l os io n o f p ub li c i nt er e st i n

L u t h e r a n d h i s q u a r r e l s . M a g i s t r a t e s a n d a g e n t s o f t h e E m p e r o r a l l n o t e d

t h e u n pr e c ed e nt e d n a tu r e o f t h e p a mp h le t c a mp a ig n , a n d t h e p a rt i cu l ar

p r es e n ce o f t h e se s e di t i ou s b r oa d sh e e t w o od c ut s . T h e q u an t it i es g e ne r -

a t e d w e r e c e r t a i n l y v e r y l a r g e – a n d f or t h i s w e d o n o t h a v e t o r e l y o n t h e

a s si d uo u s c o ll e ct i n g o f l a te r s c ho l ar s .5 I n 1 5 2 2 t h e a u t h o r i t i e s i n L e i p z i g

s ei ze d 1 ,5 00 c op ie s o f a b ro ad sh ee t a tt ac ki ng t he l oc al C atho l ic c h am -

p i o n J o h a n n e s E m s e r ( p r e s u m a b l y t h e w h o l e o f t h e e d i t i o n ) .6 I n t h i s c a s e

w e d o n ot k no w f or s ur e t ha t t hi s b ro ad sh ee t w as i ll us tr at ed – i t c ou ld

h ave b ee n t ex t on ly or e ve n v er se – b ut t he re i s no do ub ti ng t he st ron g

c on te mp or ar y s en se t ha t t he i ll us tr at iv e w oo dc ut w as a n i mp or ta nt

c om po ne nt o f t he p ub li c a gi ta ti on t ha t a cc om pa ni ed t he f ir st s ta ge o f

t he R ef o rm at io n. T hi s i s a n i nt e rp re ta t iv e i ns ig ht t ha t h as b ee n e ag er ly

a d op t e d b y m o de r n s c h ol a rs h ip .

I n 1 9 8 1 t h e l a t e R o b e r t S c r i b n e r p u b l i s h e d a n a u t h o r i t a t iv e a n a l y s i s o f

t he p ol em i ca l w oo dc ut t h at h as n ev er s in ce b ee n e qu al le d.7 F o r t h e S a k e

o f S i m p l e F o l k h a s b e e n , w i t h o u t d o u b t , o n e o f t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l s i n g l e

w or ks e ve r p ub li sh ed o n o ur s ub je ct . S ub se qu en t s ch ol ar s h av e b ee n

v ir t ua ll y u na ni mo us i n a do p ti ng S c ri bn er ’s c on te nt io n t ha t w oo dc u ts

form a vit al link in th e process by which the Ge rman Refo rmation

b e ca m e a m a ss m o ve m en t . S c ri b n er ’s i n te n t io n s a n d b a si c i n t er p re t at i v e

p u r p o s e i s s e t o u t w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c l a r i t y a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s w o r k :

‘ I t s a r g u m e n t i s t h a t t h r o u g h a s t u d y o f v i s u a l p r o p a g a n d a w e m a y g a i n a

wider u nde rs ta nd ing o f h ow t he Re fo rm at io n ap pe al ed t o c om mo n

folk.’8 P ri nt s w er e t he b oo ks o f t he u nl ea rn ed :

P ri nt in g m ad e p os si bl e t he e xa ct ly r ep ea ta bl e l it er ar y s ta te me nt , b ut t he p ri nt

c re at ed t he e xa ct ly r ep ea ta bl e v is ua l s ta te me nt . I t t hu s f ul fi ll ed t he s am e c om -

m u ni c at i on f u nc t io n f o r t h e i l li t er a te a n d the s e mi - li t er a te t h at p r in t in g f u lf i ll e d

f or t ho se a bl e t o r ea d i n t he n ar ro w s en se .9

5 S e e h e re e s pe c ia l ly , M a x G e is b er g , T h e G e rm a n S i ng l e- L e af W oo d cu t , 1 5 00 – 15 5 0 , r ev.a n d e d . Wa l te r L . S t ra u ss ( N ew Yo r k, 1974).

6 D . M ar ti n L ut he rs We rk e . K ri ti sc he G es am ta us ga be ( 6 8 v o ls . , We i ma r, 1883–1978),B r ie f we c hs e l, v o l. I I , p . 2 6 8.

7 R.W. Scribner, F o r t h e S a ke o f S i mp l e F o l k . P o pu l ar P r op a ga n d a f o r t h e G e rm a n R e f o rm a -tion (Cambridge, 1981).

8 Ibid., p . 1 . 9 Ibid., p . 5 .




G i v e n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s t h e s i s t o t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , i t i s i m p o r t a n t

a t t he o ut se t t o a ck no wl ed ge t he b ri ll ia nc e o f S cr ib ne r’ s a na ly si s. H is

r e ad in g o f t he w oo dc ut s i s c l ea r, a ut ho ri ta ti ve a nd s ub t le . H is a na ly si s

o f d iff er en t c at eg or ie s o f w oo dc ut – t he h ag io gr ap hi ca l i ma ge s o f t he

r e fo r me r, w o od c ut s t h at r i di c ul e t h e P o pe a n d c l er g y, a n d m o re p o si t iv e

p ed ag og ic i ma ge s – h as n ev er b ee n b et te re d. S cr ib ne r a ls o b ri ll ia nt ly

e vo ke s t he s ub t le i nt er we a vi ng o f t he se visual motifs with the wide r

t r ad it io ns o f p op u la r c ul tu r e.10 Ou r u nde rs tand ing o f t he ap pe al of

p op ul ar c ul tu re h as m ov ed o n, b ut f or m an y o f t he s ch ol ar s w ho h av e

s ub se q ue nt ly c on ce r ne d t h em se lv es w it h G er ma n w oo dc ut t ra di t io n,

S c ri b n er ’s b a si c c a te g or i es o f a n al y si s h a ve r e ma i ne d e s se n ti a ll y i n ta c t.

O u r p u r p o s e h e r e i s n o t t o d e n y t h e r i c h n e s s o f t h i s G e r m a n w o o d c u t

t r ad it io n b ut t o t e st w h et he r w oo dc ut s c ou ld , a s i s c la i me d, p la y s uc h a

v it al r ol e i n h el pi ng t he e va ng el ic al m es sa ge t o c ro ss t he c ru ci al d iv id e

b e tw e en a n e du ca t ed c or e a nd t he b r oa de r m as s o f t h e p op ul at i on . T he

r ol e o f t he w oo dc ut i n s ec ur in g t hi s w id er p ub li c e ng ag em en t h as b ee n

f a r m o r e o f t e n a s s u m e d t h a n c r i t i c a l l y e x a m i n e d , s t i l l l e s s d e m o n s t r a t e d .

T h us C h ri s ti a ne A n de r s so n ’s c o nf i d en t s t at e me n t t h at ‘ w oo d cu t s m a ni -

f e s t l y p l a y e d a c r u c i a l r o l e i n t h e s p r e a d o f L u t h e r a n i d e a s ’ s e t s t h e t o n e

f or t he ma nn er i n w hi ch S cr ib ne r’s w or k h as b ee n ab so rb ed i nt o t he

general l it er at ur e, an d m ost sc ho lar s ar e c ont en t t o l eav e t he m at te r

there.11

Y e t i n f a i r n e s s t o S c r i b n e r , e v e n i n t h e o r i g i n a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f h i s c a s e

h e n e v e r a t t e m p t e d t o c l a i m t h a t w o o d c u t s p l a y e d a necessary r o l e i n t h i s

r ega rd . On t he c on tr ar y, h e su gg es ts t hat t he w oo dc ut m om ent w as

e xt r em e ly b ri ef , p r ed ic at in g ‘ th e l on g t e rm t ri um ph o f p r in ti ng o ve r t h e

p rint as a major form of m ass communication, a fact of wh ic h t h er e

c ou ld b e n o d ou bt b y t he m id dl e o f t he s ix te en th c en tu ry ’.12 Although

o u r s e n s e o f t h e p r o c e s s o f R e f o r m a t i o n h a s s h i f t e d s i n c e S c r i b n e r w r o t e

t he se wo rd s – w e w oul d no t ne ce ss ar il y r eg ar d t he se con d h al f o f t he

s ix te ent h c ent ur y a s p ar t of t he ‘ lon g t er m’ – h e i s c er tai nl y c or re ct i n

h is e ss en ti a l p oi nt . T he n ew C al vi ni s t e va ng e li sm o f t he m id -s i xt ee nt h

c e nt ur y c er t ai n ly s pa wn ed a m as s m ov e me nt . T ho u sa nd s w er e c au gh t

u p i n a r a p i d , d r a m a t i c m o v e m e n t o f c h u r c h b u i l d i n g t h a t c h a l l e n g e d t h e

C a t h o l i c a s c e n d a n c y i n F r a n c e a n d t h e N e t h e r l a n d s . B u t t h e s e c h u r c h e s

10 O n t h is p o in t s e e a l so C h ri s ti a ne A n de r ss o n, ‘ P op u la r I m ag e ry i n G e rm a n R e fo r ma t io nB r oa d sh e et s ’, i n G e ra l d P. Ty s on a n d S y lv i a S . Wa g o nh e im , P ri nt a nd C ul tu re i n t heR e n a i s s a n c e . E s s a y s o n t h e A d v e n t o f P r i n t i n g i n E u r o p e (N e w a r k , N . J . , 1986) , p p . 1 2 0 – 5 0 .

11 Ibid., p . 1 2 1 . F o r a n e x a m p l e , a m o n g a n y n u m b e r , o f t h e u n i v e r s a l a n d l a r g e l y u n c r i t i c a la cc ep ta nc e o f t he S cr ib ne r t he s is , P et er M at he so n, T he R he to ri c o f t he R ef or ma ti on(Edinburgh, 1998) , p . 3 7 : ‘ Th e v is ua l i ma ge s p ro je ct ed b y b ro ad sh ee ts , w oo dc ut s,p o r tr a i ts , m e d a ll i o ns w e r e a l s o o f i n c a lc u l a bl e i m p or t a n ce . ’

12 Scribner, F o r t h e S a k e o f S i m p l e F o l k , p . 7 .

The visual image 105



e ng ag ed t he e nt hu si as m o f b ro ad s wa th es o f t he p op ul at io n w it ho ut

t he h el p o f i ll us tr at iv e w oo dc ut s. T he F re nc h H ug ue no t m ov em en t

p ro du ce d v ir tual ly n o w oo dc ut i mag es t hat h ad a b ro ad c ont em po -

r ar y p op u la r a pp ea l. T he f am ou s To rt e re ll a lb um , f am il ia r f r om m an y

d us t -j ac k et i ll us t ra ti on s, w as e ss en ti a ll y a s et o f h ig h- qu al it y n arrative

i m a g e s f o r t h e b o u r g e o i s d r a w i n g r o o m : t h i s w a s n o t c h e a p p r i n t .13 And

t he p am ph le t l it er at ur e of t he m ove me nt m ade no us e o f i llu st rat io n

w hat so eve r. T he c ons ci ou s la ck o f ad or nme nt w as i nd ee d p ar t of i ts

p ol em ic al a ge nd a. I t s ou gh t t o e ng ag e t he i nt el le c t, n ot t he s en se s.

I n t he N et he r la nd s t h e t ra di ti on o f t he p ol em i ca l w oo dc u t b eg an o nl y

w i t h t h e o u t b r e a k o f t h e D u t c h R e v o l t i n 1 5 6 6 , a n d t h e n i t c o n c e n t r a t e d

a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y o n t h e o b v i o us p o l i t i c a l t a r g e t s , A l v a a n d t h e S p a n i s h ,

r a th e r t h an o n r e li g io u s i s su e s.14 T h e d i ss i de n t r e li g io u s p u bl i sh i ng t h at

h a d s o c o n c erne d t h e a u t h o r i t i e s f o r a t l e a s t a d e c a d e w a s , a g a i n , w h o l l y

unillustrated.15 Ye t t h e F r en ch a nd D ut ch c hu r ch es c e rt ai nl y w on , a nd

w it h e xt ra or di na ry r ap id it y, w id e p op ul ar s up po rt f or t he ir c ha ll en ge

t o t radi ti on al au th or it y. I n t he se c as es a t l ea st , o ne mu st c er ta in ly

l oo k e ls ew he re t o u nd er st an d h ow t he e va ng el ic al t ea ch in g i ns pi re d a

m ass move ment. The woodc ut image is simp ly not ava ilable as an

explanation.

T h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e v i s u a l m e d i a i n

t he s ec on d g en er at io n s ho ul d a t l ea st e nc ou ra g e a s ce pt ic a l r e- e xa mi n-

a ti on o f t he r ol e o f t he p ol em ic al w oo dc ut i n t he G er m an R ef or m at io n.

T he f ir st g en er at io n o f t he G er ma n e va ng el ic al m ov em en t c er ta in ly

p ro du ce d a r an ge o f a rr e st in g i ma ge s. B ut f or w ho se b en e fi t ? A nd w ha t

p re c is e ly d id t h ey c on ve y t o t ho se w ho p os se ss ed t h em ? T he p re s um p-

t i o n t h a t w o o d c u t s o p e n e d t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n m e s s a g e

t o a w id er p ub li c h as b ec om e s o i ng ra in ed t ha t t he q ue st io n o f h ow t hi s

c ou ld o cc ur i s s ca rc e ly e ve r a sk ed . Ye t i f w e u nd er t ak e s uc h a n e nq ui ry,

w e s ee t ha t t he a ss er ti on o f t he s up er io r l eg ib il it y o f i ma ge o ve r t ex t i s

b a s e d o n a l a y e r o f t i e r e d a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t a r e s c a r c e l y e v e r t e s t e d . T h e y

m a y b e s u m m a r i z e d t h u s : t h a t i m a g e s c o u l d b e s e e n , a n d t h e r e f o r e r e a d ,

w it h c la ri ty ; t ha t t ho se w ho s aw t he m c ou ld d ec ip he r t he ir m es sa ge s ;

a n d t h a t , w h e n t h i s w a s n o t t h e c a s e , t h e m e a n i n g c o u l d b e c o n v e y e d t o

t h e v i su a ll y i l li t er a te b y i n fo r me d ‘ r e ad e rs ’ .

13 P hi li p B en ed ic t, ‘ Of M ar mi te s a nd M ar ty rs . I ma ge s a nd P ol em ic s i n t he Wa rs o f R e l i gi o n ’ , i n T h e F re nc h R en ai ss an ce i n P ri nt s f ro m t he B ib li ot he q ue N at io na le d e F ra nc e(L o s A n g e le s , 1995) , p p . 1 0 8 – 3 7.

14 D a n i e l H o r s t , D i e o p s t a d i n Z w a r t -w i t (2 v o l s . , U n i v e r s i t y o f A m s t e r d a m , P h . D . d i s s e r t a -tion 2000) d is c us se s a ll e xt an t p ri nt s s ur vi vi ng f ro m t he p er io d 1 56 6 t o 1 58 4, o ve r-w h e l mi n g ly p o l i ti c a l p r o p ag a n d a.

15 Pettegree, E m d e n a n d t h e D u t c h R e v o l t , c ha pt er 4 .




O nl y i f t he s e c on di ti o ns w er e m et c ou l d v is ua l i ma ge s f un ct io n a s t h e

b r i d g e b e t w e e n t h e m e s s a g e a n d t h e m a s s e s . H o w e v e r , a l l r e s t o n l a r g e l y

u nt es t ed a ss um p ti on s ; a ll , w h en t es te d, t ur n o ut t o b e h ig hl y q ue st i on ab le .

The world through blunted sight

I n m ode rn w est er n so ci et y w e a re fo rt una te t o b e a bl e t o as su me t hat

m os t o f u s e nj oy p er fe c t, o r a t l ea st p e rf ec tl y c or re c te d, s ig h t. A cc e ss t o

c o r r e c t i v e e y e g l a s s e s o r l e n s e s i s r o u t i n e , a n d t h o s e w h o d o n o t e n j o y t h i s

g re at b le ss in g a re , a t l ea st u nt il e xt re me o ld a ge , a t in y m in or it y o f t he

p op ul at io n. Our f ear o f b li ndn ess r ef le ct s in p ar t t hi s as su mp ti on of

c le ar -s ig h te dn es s ; i n p ar t t oo a n u nd er s ta nd in g t h at i n a s oc ie ty w h er e

s o m u ch e s se n ti a l i n fo r ma t io n i s c o nv e ye d t h r ou g h p r ec i se v i su a l s i gn al s

p oo r e ye s ig h t m us t b e a c on si de ra bl e h an di ca p.

S i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s o c i e t y h a d a v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e . P o o r

e ye si gh t w as , a s w as t he c as e f or p hy si ca l c on di ti on s a nd i ll ne ss o f a ll

s o r t s , s i m p l y a c o n d i t i o n t h a t h a d t o b e e n d u r e d . I t i s n o m e a n s c e r t a i n ,

h owev er, that th e abse nce of cl ear sigh t would have be en so keenly

f e l t . C e r t a i n l y f e w c u l t u r a l h i s t o r i a n s h a v e c o n s i d e r e d a t a n y g r e a t l e n g t h

t he p os si bl e i mp li ca ti on s o f t hi s f or t he v is ua l e nv ir on me nt , a nd m or e

s pe ci fi c al ly f or t he p er c ep ti o n o f w or ks o f a rt .

B y f ar t he m os t i ns ig ht f ul a nd p er ce p ti ve t re at me nt o f t hi s q ue s ti on i s

the class ic s tu dy b y P at ri ck T re vo r- Ro pe r, T he Wo rl d t hr ou gh B lu nt e d

Sight .16 T rev or- R o per, a d i s tin g u i shed o phthal m o l o gi s t, w a s pri n ci pa l l y

c on ce r ne d t o d et e rm in e h ow e ye d ef ec ts i n t he g re at p ai nt e rs m ay h av e

a f f e c t e d t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e i r w o r k s : w h e t h e r l o n g - s i g h t e d n e s s i n o l d

a ge c au se d t he l os s o f d et ai l i n t he l at er w or k o f L eo na rd o, R em br an dt

a nd T it ia n ; w h et h er C on st ab l e’s f on dn es s f or a ut um n al t in ts w as d ue t o

c ol ou r b li nd ne ss . O ur c on ce r n, o f c ou rs e , i s r at he r d iff er en t : t h at i s, t o

e x am i ne w h et h e r d e fi c ie n ci e s i n e y es i gh t m i gh t h a ve d r as t ic a ll y a ff e ct e d

t he p er ce pt ion of w or ks o f a rt . B ut T re vor -R op er ’s t re at me nt o f t he

c h r o n i c p r o b l e m o f i m p a i r e d v i s i o n m a k e s a u s e f u l s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r t h i s

pres en t i n v es ti g a tio n .

T he g re at m aj or it y o f t ho se w ho se s ig ht i s p oo r h av e h ad t he ir v is io n b lu nt ed

b e c a u s e o f s o m e o p t i c a l i m p e r f e c t i o n i n t h e i r e y e b a l l s , s o t h a t t h e y c a n n o t r e c e i v e

a c l e a r l y f o c u s e d i m a g e o n t h e i r r e t i n a s , a l t h o u g h t h e e y e s a r e o t h e r w i s e p e r f e c t l ys o u n d . S u c h o p t i c a l a n o m a l i e s c a n u s u a l l y b e n e u t r a l i z e d b y s p e c t a c l e s ; b u t u n t i l

t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y t h e se w e r e a l u x u r y , u s u a l l y c h o s e n b y t r i a l a n d e r r o r f r o m a n

i t i ne r a n t v e n do r ’s t r a y.17

16 Patrick Trevor-Roper, T h e W or ld t h ro u g h B l un t ed S i gh t (r e v is e d e d n , L o n d on , 1988).17 Ibid., p . 1 7 .




T h e s t at i st i ca l e x te n t o f t h e p r ob l e m i s d i ff i cu l t t o e s ta b li s h. To d ay , a s

m an y a s t hr ee i n t en o f t he p op ul at io n u nd er f or ty m ay n ee d c or re ct iv e

e ye gl as se s, t ho ug h t h is i s n ot n ec e ss ar il y a r e li ab le g ui d e t o i nc id en c e o f

p o o r e y e s i g h t i n t h e p a s t . I t m i g h t , f o r i n s t a n c e , b e h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e

u s e w e m a k e o f o u r e y e s t o d a y c o u l d h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h i s e p i d e m i c o f

p oo r- si gh te dn es s. A lt ho ug h w e a re n o d ou bt r ig ht t o b e w ar y o f o ve r-

s tr ai ni ng o ur e ye s, t he s ci en ce d oe s n ot i n f ac t s up po rt s uc h a n e xp la n-

at ion. The m ost comm on caus e of impair ed visi on in the younge r

p op ul at io n i s m yo pi a, o r n ea rs ig ht ed ne ss : a s ix th o f t he p op ul at io n i s

m y o p i c . M y o p i a i s t h e r e s u l t o f a n e y e b a l l t h a t i s t o o l o n g , s o t h a t p a r a l l e l

r a y s o f l i g h t c o m e t o a f o c u s i n f r o n t o f t h e r e t i n a . I t o f t e n p r e s e n t s i n t h e

l o w t e e n s , b e c a u s e t h e e y e h a s n o t g r o w n a t t h e s a m e r a t e a s t h e b o d y . I t

i s, b y a nd l ar ge , a g en et ic c on di ti on , n ot c au se d b y r ea di ng o r i na pp ro -

p r i a t e u s e o f t h e e y e s . B e s i d e s m y o p i a , a b o u t 1 5 p e r c e n t o f t h o s e i n n e e d

o f e y eg l as s es h a ve a s ti g m at i sm , a c o nd i ti o n t h a t c a us e s d i st o rt i on , r a th e r

t h a n b l u r r i n g , o f t h e i m a g e : a r o u n d o b j e c t w i l l a p p e a r t o b e o v a l . T h i s i s

a c on di ti on t ha t o ne i s b or n w it h.

T h e r e i s n o t h i n g i n t h e s c i e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t i n c i d e n c e o f p o o r v i s i o n

w ou ld h av e b e en l ow er i n p r e- in du st r ia l s oc ie t y. I f a ny th in g, t he r ev e rs e

is like ly to have been the case. Th e major e nvi ronmen tal c ause of

e ye d am ag e i s p oo r d ie t o r m al no ur i sh me nt . I n p ar t ic ul ar, d am ag e c an

o cc ur t o t he r et ina t hr oug h vi ta mi n A d ef ic ie nc y. To da y w e g ain o ur

m a j o r s o u r c e o f v i t a m i n A t h r o u g h f r e s h f o o d , e s p e c i a l l y v e g e t a b l e s . O u r

s ix te ent h- ce nt ur y f or eb ea rs, h owe ve r, s uff er ed f rom a no tab ly u n-

b al an ce d d ie t . L ac k o f f re sh v eg e ta bl es w as a p ar t ic ul a r p r ob le m f or c it y

d w el l er s , o u r t a rg e t c o ns u me r s o f w o o dc u ts .

It is certainly the case that this world of blun ted sight was little

c om m en te d o n i n t h e c on te mp o ra ry l it er at ur e . T he re a ga in , s ix te e nt h-

century peopl es accepted a wea lth of health problem s as part of

the unalt erable burde n of human existence ; poor vision was b y no

m e an s t he g re at es t a ff li ct io n t h at m ig ht h av e t o b e p at i en tl y b or ne o ve r

a l on g c ou rs e o f y ea rs . I t i s a ls o t he c as e t ha t p re -i nd us tr ia l s oc ie ty h ad

f ar le ss c all f or w hat w e m ig ht c al l p re ci si on d is ta nc e se ei ng ( of , f or

i ns t an ce , r oa d s ig ns o r a dv er t is in g h oa rd in gs ). T ha t s ai d, i t d oe s a pp ea r

t h a t t h e r i s e o f r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g ( n o t l e a s t t h e i n v e n t i o n o f t h e p r i n t e d

b oo k) s ens it iz ed so ci et y t o t he i mp edi me nt of w ea k e ye si gh t. H er e

we can cite one of the first recorde d refere nces to the impact of

the G uten berg Bibl e in the market place, when in 1455 the I tali an

h um an is t A en ea s S il vi us P ic c ol o mi ni r ec or de d h av in g m e t a t t he D ie t

o f F ran kfu rt a ‘ wo nd er ful m an’ wh o h ad b ee n a bl e t o su pp ly a B ib le

that might be read without specta cles and in 158 or 180 identical

copies.18 Th is r ef er enc e, q ui te a par t f ro m i ts i nt er es t t o sc ho lar s o f




p r i n t i n g , d o e s i n d i c a t e t h a t , a t l e a s t a m o n g t h e b e t t e r o f f , e y e g l a s s e s w e r e

f am il ia r e no ug h a mo ng t he c ul tu ra l e li te . S pe ct ac le s m ak e t he ir f ir st

a pp ea ra nc e i n t he r ec or ds t ow ar ds t he e nd o f t he t hi rt ee nt h c en tu ry. T he y

a pp ea r f ir st i n I tal y, a nd a re m os tl y sh ow n i n p ic tur es b ei ng w or n, or h el d,

b y m at ur e s ub je ct s. T hi s i s i ts el f si gni fi ca nt , fo r t he f ir st l ens es w er e

c on ve x , a nd c or re c te d f ar si gh t ed ne ss , a c on di ti o n m uc h m or e c om mo n

i n o ld er p eo pl e. B y t he m id -f if te en th c en tu ry s pe ct ac le m ak er s w er e

m a k i n g c o n c a v e g l a s s e s t o c o r r e c t ‘ t h e w e a k v i s i o n o f t h e y o u n g ’ , t h a t i s ,

m yo pi a. B ut i t w as f ar m or e d iff ic ul t t o g ri nd a nd p ol is h h ig hl y c ur ve d

c o n c a v e g l a s s e s : d i f f i c u l t a n d e x p e n s i v e . T h e s e w e r e l u x u r y i t e m s f o r t h e

r ic h , s uc h a s L eo X , L u th er ’s f am ou s – a nd f am ou sl y m y op i c – a dv er sa ry.

I n t h e c e n t u r y t h a t f o l l o w e d , t h e u s e o f s p e c t a c l e s s p r e a d f r o m I t a l y t o

n o rt h er n E u ro p e. I n E n gl a nd a s p ec t a cl e m a ke r s’ C o m pa n y w a s f o rm e d

i n 1 62 9. B y t he e nd o f t he s ix te e nt h c e nt ur y p ot e nt i al p ur c ha se rs c ou ld

t r y t h e i r l u c k w i t h t r a v e l l i n g s p e c t a c l e v e n d o r s i n t h e m a r k e t p l a c e . B u t i t

r e ma i ne d a r e me d y o f d e sp e ra t i on , c o nf i n ed t o p r os p er o u s c i ti z en s ( a nd

u su al ly t ho se of r ip er ye ar s) w it h a n oc cup at io na l ne ed t o r ea d t o de -

ciph er papers . Most of the pop ulat io n sti ll had to m uddle th rough

without.

T h e p r a c t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y s o c i e t y o f t h i s w o r l d

o f b lunt ed s ig ht h ave ne ve r r eal ly b ee n f ul ly e xp lo re d. B ut f ro m t he

p er sp ec ti ve o f t hi s p re se nt i nv es ti ga ti on o ne c on se qu en ce m us t h av e

b e en t ha t t he v is ua l c ul tu r e o f t h e p er io d w as n ot a lw ay s p er ce i ve d w it h

p r e c i s i o n . T h i s a p p l i e d t o t h e w o r l d o f f i n e a r t a s m u c h a s t o t h e p r i n t e d

w oo dc ut . P ai nt in gs , o ne m ay s ur mi se , a ch ie ve d t he ir i mp ac t a s m uc h

f ro m t he ir r ic h c ol our as f ro m a p ar ti cul ar p re ci sio n o f l ine ( co lo ur

blindnes s is much less comm on than other forms of visual impa ir-

ment).19 T hi s w as a n a ge i n w hi ch m uc h a rt , p ar ti cu la rl y r el ig io us a rt ,

w as h ig hl y t ac ti le a nd h ig hl y c ol ou re d . T he i mp ac t o f p ub li c o cc as io ns

design ed to impre ss – suc h as re ligiou s or civic pro cessions – was

a ch ie ve d p ar tl y t hr ou gh r ic h a nd l av is h u se o f c ol ou r : o n b an ne rs o r o n

c l o t h i n g . T h i s w a s a m o r e t a c t i l e a g e , a n a g e s e n s i t i v e t o s m e l l a n d t o u c h .

O ne m us t n ot a ss um e t h at o ur o wn h ie ra rc h y o f t h e s en se s, w hi ch g iv es

s uc h p ro mi ne nc e t o v is ua l p er ce pt io n, i s t ha t o f o ur f or eb ea rs . M os t

p a r t i c u l a r l y o n e m u s t n o t a s s u m e t h a t s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c i t i z e n s h a d t h a t

e y e f o r d e t a i l t h a t i s a n a b s o l u t e s t a p l e o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a r t , o r i n d e e d

o f t h e s a ti r ic a l w o o dc u t.

18 Q uo te d b y J oh n F lo od , ‘ Ma rt in L ut he r’s B ib le T ra ns la ti on i n i ts G er ma n a nd I nt er -n a t io n a l C o n t ex t ’ , i n R i c h ar d G r i ff i t hs (e d . ), T h e B i bl e i n t h e R e na i ss a nc e (A l d e rs h o t, S tA n d re w s S t u d ie s i n R e f o rm a t i on H i s to r y, 2001) , p . 4 5 .

19 M a l e s a r e m o r e c o m m o n l y a f f l i c t e d b y c o l o u r b l i n d n e s s t h a n f e m a l e s : r o u g h l y 4 m e n i n2 00 a re c ol ou r b li nd , c om pa re d t o 1 o f e ve ry 2 00 w om en .




F i gu r e 5 . 1. T h e s c ho l ar a s b e sp e ct a cl e d f o ol .




Reading pictures

T h o s e w h o s e r v e d t h e f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n o f e v a n g e l i s t s c l e a r l y b e l i e v e d t h a t

i ma ge s c ou l d a id t h ei r c au se . T he f ir st d ec ad e o f e va ng e li ca l e xc it e me nt

p roduc ed a wh ole range of me mora ble imag es, not least ima ges of

M a rt i n L u th e r h i ms e lf . L u th e r ’s p e rs o n e x ci t ed g r ea t c u ri o si t y t o t h os e ,

o n b o t h s i d e s o f t h e d e b a t e , a m a z e d t h a t h i s c r i t i c i s m s h a d s p a r k e d s u c h

a p ub li c f er me nt . H is p hys ic al f eat ur es we re m ade k now n t hr oug h a

s e r i e s o f w o o d c u t p o r t r a i t s t h a t f o l l o w e d a c l e a r , a n d e x t r e m e l y e f f e c t i v e ,

i co no gr ap hi c s ch em e : L ut her w a s c ha ra ct er is ti ca ll y r ep re se nt ed a s

m on k, t ea ch e r a nd p ro f es so r.20 The simp licity of his garb spoke as a

p ar ab le o f t he s im pl ic it y o f t he G os pe l m es sa ge , a nd t he n ob il it y o f h is

s t a n d a g a i n s t t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g f o r c e s o f t h e c h u r c h h i e r a r c h y . O f t e n h e

h ol ds o pe n t he b oo k o f S cr ip tu re , v al id at in g h is c la im , a s d oc to r a nd

p r of es so r, t o t e ac h t he p ur e G o sp el .

T he se i ma ge s w er e e ff ec t iv e p ar t ly b ec au se o f t h ei r c l ar it y a nd a pp ar -

e nt ly s im p li ci ty : t ho ug h i n t ru th t he y w er e a ls o l ay er e d i ma ge s d ra wi ng

o n a w e b o f h e l p f u l c u l t u r a l a s s o c i a t i o n s t o b o l s t e r L u t h e r ’ s i m a g e . T h e y

w er e a ls o, h ow ev e r, i ma ge s c ap a bl e o f m is in te rp r et at io n : m an y r ep r e-

s en te d L ut he r a cc om pa ni ed e it he r b y a d ov e o f p ea ce o r t he n im bu s o f

s ai nt ho od – a ss oc ia ti on s t ha t t he n ew m ov em en t o f r ef or m c ou ld n ot

s an ct i on . T he r e w as w it ho ut d ou bt , c on c ed es S cr ib n er, a n e xt e ns io n o f

l a t e m e d i a e v a l v e n e r a t i o n o f t h e s a i n t s t o L u t h e r : ‘ L u t h e r w a s w e l l o n t h e

way to beco ming the obje ct of a new cul t, wh at both h e and Erasmus

c a l l e d a “ s e c t ” w h e n a p p l i e d t o t h e f o l l o w e r s o f m e d i a e v a l s a i n t s ’ .21 The

w oo dc ut i ma ge o f L ut he r w it h t he n im bu s o f s ai nt h oo d w as s pe ci fi c al ly

p r oh ib i te d b y t h e c it y c ou nc i l i n N ur em be rg i n 1 52 2.

E ve n t h es e a pp ar en t ly s im p le i ma ge s w er e t he r ef or e c ap ab le o f c om -

p le x i nt er p re ta ti on – a nd m is re ad in g. I f t hi s w as t h e c as e e ve n f or t he se

g ra ph ic a ll y r el at i ve ly s im pl e d es ig n s, t he m or e c om p le x n ar r at iv e a nd

p ol em ic al i mag es c er ta inl y r eq uir ed a h ig h d eg re e o f in te rp re tat iv e

s o ph i st i c at i on . T h e e a rl y L u th e r an R e f or m at i on c e r ta i nl y g e ne r at e d a n

u nu su al r an ge a nd r ic hn es s o f s uc h v is ua l i ma ge s – i nd ee d, i t w as t he se

t ha t h av e l ar ge ly e xc it ed t he i nt er es t o f R ef or ma ti on h is to ri an s. T he

P o p e a n d h i s c l e r i c a l m i n i o n s w e r e e x c o r i a t e d i n a s e r i e s o f w i t t y , b a w d y

p o r t r a i t s t h a t p o u r e d s c o r n o n t h e m a s t e r s o f t h e c h u r c h f o r t h e i r e x p l o i t -

ation of t he ir power over a credulo us peopl e. Th ey were sho wn as

c yn ic al , l ux u ri ou s a nd g ro ss : a m ar k ed c on tr a st t o t he h on es t c it iz en r y

w ho se w ea lt h t he y s o r ec kl es sl y a pp ro pr ia te d. T hi s w as t he n eg at iv e

20 Scribner, F o r t h e S a k e o f S i m p l e F o l k , p p . 1 4 –3 6 . Wa r nk e , C r a n a chs L u t h er .21 Scribner, F o r t h e S a k e o f S i m p l e F o l k , p . 2 3 .






(Figure 5.2 ) . A t t he t op C hr is t p ou rs g ra in , i n t he s ym bo li c f or m o f t he

f ou r e va ng el is ts , i nt o t he h op pe r. T he f lo ur e me rg es a s F ai th , H op e,

C ha ri ty and t he c hu rc h, in di ca te d b y sm al l s cr ol ls w hi ch E ra sm us i s

l ad li ng i nt o h is s ac k. B eh in d h im L ut h er i s d is tr ib u ti ng t h e b ak e d b re ad

a s t h e W o r d o f G o d t o r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e o l d c h u r c h , w h o a l l o w i t t o

F i g u r e 5 . 2 . T h e D i v i n e M i l l . L u t h e r a n d E r a s m u s d i s t r i b u t e t h e h a r v e s t

o f t he G os pe l w hi le t he p ea sa nt K ar st ha ns t hr ea te ns t he s ce pt ic al

d i gn i ta r ie s o f t h e c h ur c h. U s ed w i th p e rm i ss i on o f L o is S c ri b ne r.






conforms far m ore to how we know the worl d of the visual image

f un ct i on ed i n p ol it e s oc ie ty. E ve n b ef or e t h e d ev el op e d t ra di ti on o f t h eE mb le m b oo k b ec am e a c or ne rs t on e o f l it er ar y s oc ie t y i n t he s ix te e nt h

c e n t u r y , t h e p l e a s u r e o f v i s u a l i m a g e r y l a y i n i t s c o m p l exity : t h e l a y e r s o f

a ll us io n t o w hi ch o nl y t he e du ca t ed w ou ld h av e a cc es s.25

T hi s p oi nt i s w el l m ad e b y R ic ha rd C ol e, a p er ce pt iv e c om me nt at or

o n v i s u a l i m a g e r y , w h e n h e c alls a t t e n t i o n t o H e n r y E s t i e n n e ’ s i n f l u e n t i a l

text, L’ ar t d e f ai re l es d ev ic es .26 E st ie nn e , l ik e o th e rs w h o p r om ot ed t h e

l ang uag e o f t he e mb le m, b el ie ve d t ha t e mb le ms a ct ed a s a mi rr or, a

v isua l e pi to me o f m or al it y a nd t he r ule s of li fe . Ma te ri als f ro m b ot h

25 A li so n A da ms a nd A nt ho ny J . H ar pe r ( e ds .) , T h e E mb le m i n R en ai ss an ce a nd B ar oq ueEurope (Leiden, 1992) ; A l is o n S a un d er s, T h e S i xt e en t h- C en t ur y F r en c h E m bl e m B o ok . AD e co r at i ve a n d U se f ul G e nr e (Geneva, 1988).

26 R i ch a rd G . C o le , ‘ P am p hl e t Wo o dc u ts i n t h e C o mm u ni ca t io n P r oc e s s o f R e fo r ma t io nG e r m a n y ’ , i n K y l e C . S e s s i o n s a n d P h i l i p N . B e b b ( e d s . ) , P i e t a s e t S o c i e t a s . N e w t r e n d s i nR ef o rm a t i on S o ci a l H i s to r y (Kirksville, Mo., 1985) , p p . 1 0 3 – 2 1.

F ig ur e 5 .3 . L ut he r l ea di ng t he f ai th fu l o ut o f d ar kn es s. A t t he b ac k o f

t he c av e t he p ri nc es o st en ta ti ou sl y t ur n t he ir b ac ks , w hi le L ut he r’s

o pp on en ts , i de nt if ie d b y t he ir a ni ma l h ea ds , a re a rr ay ed a bo ve . U se d

w i th p e rm i ss i on o f L o is S c ri b ne r.




t he N ew Te st am e nt a nd E g yp ti an h ie r og ly ph ic s w er e u se fu l t o c on ve y

h i dd e n m e an i ng :

We s ee t he H ol y G ho st d en ot ed b y t he P el li ca n, b ot h t he P el li ca n a nd C hr is t

s h e d t h e i r p r e c i o u s b l o o d f or t h e i r y o u n g o r l o v e d o n e s . G o d i s a l s o p r e s e n t e d b yt h e S u n, R o ck s a n d L i ll e y.27

I t i s h ig hl y s ig ni fi ca nt t ha t a ll o f t he se s ym bo ls , p ar ti cu la rl y t he p e li ca n,

s u n a n d r o c k , w e r e a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s a d o p t e d a s p r i n t e r s ’ d e v i c e s , w h e r e

t he y f un c ti on ed i nd iff er en tl y o n b ot h s id es o f t h e c on fe ss io na l d iv id e.

H er e on e s ee s h ow e ffe ct ive ly ap pa re nt ly si mp le i ma ge s c oul d li ve a

l ay er e d e xi st e nc e . A n e du ca t ed r ea de r w ou ld u nd er s ta nd t h e c om pl ex

cl a s s i ca l a s s o ci a ti o n s o f the pel i ca n . Mo re s tra i g htf o rw a rd l y , the pri n ter’s

d ev ic e f un c ti on ed a s a n e as y c od e o f r ec og ni t io n : a l og o, b ra nd m ar k o rl i v e r y . A s p r i n t i n g s h o p s d e v e l o p e d a p a r t i c u l a r r e p u t a t i o n , s p e c i a l i s m o r

c on fe s si on al o ri en t at io n, s uc h d ev ic e s b ec am e a c on ve n ie nt a nd r ec og ni z -

ab le c od e f or p ot en ti al p ur ch ase rs : a ne w l aye r o f as so ci at io ns q uit e

s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e a l l u s i v e p u r p o s e f o r w h i c h t h e y h a d f i r s t b e e n c h o s e n .

A t b o t h t h e s e l e v e l s , o f c o u r s e , d e v i c e s o r e m b l e m s a c t e d a s s y m b o l s o f

b el o ng in g. To p ot e nt ia l p ur ch a se rs t he d ev i ce b ec am e a v is ua l c od e o r

s ho rt ha nd f or w ha t t he b oo ks m ig ht c on ta in : a g ua ra nt ee o f q ua li ty, o r

c l u e t o g e n r e o r c o n f e s s i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n . T o t h o s e w i t h t h e k n o w l e d g e t ou nd er st an d t he m or e l ay er ed c la ss ic al o r l it ur gi ca l a ss oc ia ti on s o f t he

d e v i c e i t s e l f , t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n o f t h i s r e a f f i r m e d t h e i r p l a c e i n t h e w o r l d o f

t he e du cat ed. I n t hi s r es pe ct S cr ib ne r h as a p oi nt w he n h e c om pa re s

s o m e o f t h e m o s t s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d p r i n t i m a g e s w i t h t h e p r e - R e f o r m a t i o n

p il gr im s’ t ok en s. F or t he se p ri nt s w er e a cc es si bl e a nd e as il y o bt ai ne d

b ad ge s o f b el on gi ng , a t an gi bl e s ym bo l o f i de nt if ic at io n w it h t he n ew

m ov em en t – j us t a s t he p il gr im s’ b ad ge s h ad b ee n s ou ve ni rs o f a tt ai n-

m en t. T he p oi nt i n b ot h c as es w as t ha t t he y w er e o wn ed , n ot t ha t t he yw e re ‘ r e ad ’ .

T h e m o r e c o m p l e x e v a n g e l i c a l i m a g e s w e r e b y n o m e a n s s o a c c e s s i b l e ,

i n e it he r s en se o f t he w or d : t he y w er e n ot r ea di ly c om pr eh en si bl e, a nd

t h e y w e r e n o t a l w a y s p l a c e d i n c o n t e x t s t o w h i c h t h e c o m m o n f o l k w o u l d

r e a d i l y h a v e a c c e s s . ‘ T h e D i v i n e M i l l ’ , d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , a p p e a r e d o n t h e

t it le -p ag e o f a p am ph le t, n ot a s a b ro ad sh ee t ; o th er o f t he m os t f am ou s

i ma ge s o f t he R ef or ma ti on w er e a ls o b ur ie d d ee p i n t he p ri nt ed p ag e.

T he fa mou s C rana ch i ma ge s o f t he Ap oc aly ps e, di sc us se d at so mel e ng th b y S cr ib n er, w er e d es ig ne d t o a do rn L ut he r’ s N ew Te st am en t i n

1 52 2. T hi s i nc lu de d t he f am ou s i ma ge o f t he w ho re o f B ab yl on i n t he

p ap al t ia ra , a f ea tu re t hat C ra na ch r em ove d f or l at er e dit ion s a ft er

27 Q u ot e d i n ibid., p . 1 0 6 .




p rot est s fr om t he l oc al aut hor it ie s : i t is a p owe rfu l a nd f am ou s p ol e-

m ic al i ma ge , b ut i t i s no t t he li te rat ur e of t he st re et s. Th e S ep te mb er

Te st am en t w as a c os tl y b oo k a nd a p ri ze d p os se ss io n. T hi s p ar ti cu la r

i ma ge w ou ld h av e b e en a va il ab le o nl y t o t he r el at iv e ly p r os pe ro us . O ne

w on de r s, i nd e ed , w he th er t he se w er e n ot t he n at ur al t ar ge t a ud ie nc e o f

e ve n m an y o f t he i ma ge s p r in te d a s b ro ad sh ee ts .

Reading aloud

We must acc ept then that many Ref ormation woodcut s wer e not

i ns ta nt ly a cc es si bl e, n or m or e o bv io us ly r ea da bl e t ha n a p ri nt ed t ex t.

T hi s w as c le ar ly r ec og ni ze d b y c on te mp or ar ie s, t o t he e xt en t t ha t t he

m os t c om pl e x n ar r at iv e i ma ge s i nv ar ia bl y c om bi ne d i ma ge a nd s cr ip t :

e it he r a s s cr ip t s cr ol ls i n t he p ic tu re i ts el f, o r i n a n a cc om pa ny in g t ex t.

T h e s e t e x t s c l e a r l y c a n n o t b e r e a d b y t h e i l l i t e r a t e . I f t h e s e p i c t u r e s a r e t o

b e m ad e c om pr eh en si bl e t o t he m as se s, t he n t he y n ee d t o b e m ed ia te d

b y t h e l i t e r a t e , t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s o f o r a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n : r e a d i n g a l o u d .

T hi s i s t o m an y sc ho lar s a k ey a sp ec t o f t he R ef or ma ti on c ult ur e of

p er su as io n, a nd i t o bv io us ly h as a f ar w id er a pp li ca ti on t ha n m er el y t o

t h e v i su a l m e di a . We h a ve a l re a dy q u ot e d S c ri b ne r ’s a ff i rm a ti o n o f s u ch

a s c e n a r i o f o r t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h a p i c t o r i a l i m a g e m i g h t b e e x p l a i n e d ,

a nd a s im il ar p ro ce ss h as o ft en b ee n a ff ir me d f or t he d is se mi na ti on o f

m es sa ge s c on ta in ed i n t h e t e xt s o f p am p hl et l it er at u re . T hu s A le xa nd ra

Walsham , in h er dis cussion of the doct rine of pro videnc e in early

m od er n E ng la nd : ‘ Fi rs t g en er at io n l it er at es m ig ht s ha re a nd s ho w o ff

t h e i r m a s t e r y o f t h i s e s o t e r i c a r t b y r e a d i n g a l o u d t o f rien d s, f a mi l y, a n d

n ei gh b ou rs a t h om e o r i n l oc al c en tr e s o f s oc ia b il it y’ .28

I t i s a p le as in g a nd a ll ur in g p ro sp e ct , a nd i t i s g iv en s om e p la us i bi li ty

b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e f o r m e r s t h e m s e l v e s e x p l i c i t l y r e c o m m e n d e d s u c h a

m et ho d o f d is se mi na ti ng t he m es sa ge s o f t he ir p am ph le ts . O ne o f t he

m ost f am ou s o f al l t he R ef or ma ti on p am ph le ts , Karsthans , i ma gi ne s

p re ci se ly s uc h a s ce ne : a l it er at e e van ge li ca l s on c onv er ts h is f ar me r

f at he r w it h t he us e o f a p am ph le t h e h as b rou gh t w it h h im . So i t i s no

d is re sp e ct t o D r Wa ls ha m o r a ny o f t h e o th er m yr i ad s ch ol ar s w ho h av e

a ff ir me d s uc h a p ro ce ss – u su al ly w it h r ef er en ce t o w or k b y S cr ib ne r –

t h a t t h e r e i s v e r y l i t t l e c o n t e m p o r a r y e v i d e n c e t h a t b o o k s w e r e e v e r r e a d

i n t hi s w ay.

I t i s i ns tr uc ti ve i n t his r esp ec t t o r e- ex am ine t he e vi de nc e c it ed b y

D r S cr ib ne r i n h is m os t e xt en de d c on si de ra ti on o f t he i ss ue : h is a rt ic le

28 Alexandra Walsham, P r o vi d en c e i n E a rl y M o de r n E n gl a nd (Oxford, 1999) , p . 3 6 .




o n o ra l c ul tu r e a nd t he d iff us io n o f R ef or m at io n c ul tu re .29 He cit es a

n um be r o f a pp a re nt i ns t an ce s o f p ub li c r ea di ng , w h ic h , o n c lo se r e xa m-

i na ti o n, a ll t el l a s li gh tl y d iff er en t s to ry. T he m os t c ol ou rf ul e xa mp l es

c o m e f r o m t h e p a m p h l e t s t h e m s e l v e s , w h e r e a u t h o r s i m a g i n e d a p r o c e s s

o f g r o u p r e a d i n g a n d d i s c u s s i o n , b u t S c r i b n e r a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t t h e r e i s

no evide nce that suc h hop es were ever realize d. One well- known

e x a m p l e , w h e r e a n e v a n g e l i c a l u s e s a p a m p h l e t h e h a s t o h a nd t o c o n v e r t

a J e w, S c ri b ne r a c kn o wl e dg e s ‘ i s p r o ba b ly a l i te r ar y f i ct i on ’ .30 Instances

h e c it es o f o cc as io ns w he re i t c an b e a tt es te d f ro m c on te mp or ar y e vi -

de nce that a book was read alo ud t o a c ompa ny all relat e to Bib le reading :

s om e i n a f am il y s et ti ng , s om e t o g ro up s o f e va ng e li ca ls ( gr ou ps w hi ch a

d ec ad e l at er w ou ld b e c al le d c on ve nt ic le s) . S uc h m ee ti ng s p la ye d a n

i mp or ta nt r ol e i n t he g ro wt h o f t he R ef or ma ti on m ov em en t, b ut t he y

d o n ot h el p e xp l ai n t h e a pp e al o f e it he r p am ph le t s o r w oo dc ut i ma ge s.

Th er e m ay in de ed b e e vid en ce t ha t l it er at e f ri ends , w or km at es o r

e mp lo ye rs r ea d t o t he ir i ll it er at e f ri en ds o r e mp lo ye es . B ut i f t he re i s,

i t h as s o f ar e lud ed t ho se w ho c onf ide nt ly a ss er t t hi s a s an e sse nt ia l

c o mp o ne n t o f t h e p r oc e ss o f o r al d i ss e mi n at i o n.

I n t he t wo c ent ur ie s b ef or e t he R ef or ma ti on , r eadi ng w as o ft en a

c o m m u n a l e v e n t . R e a d i n g p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t

c u lt u r e o f a r is t oc r at i c s o ci e ty , l i k e s t or y te l l in g o r s i ng i ng . W h at w a s r e ad

t en de d t o r ef le ct t his so ci al mi li eu . T he t ex t c ho se n wo ul d of te n b e a

romanc e or a ch ivalric tale, a g enre th at was h ighly succ essful and

extremely p op ul ar b ot h i n t he m anu sc ri pt e ra an d i n t he fi rs t c ent ur y

o f p ri nt .31 N ob le h ou se ho ld s a nd p ri nc el y c ou rt s w er e o ft en r ea d t o i n

t h i s w a y : t h i s i n d e e d , i s t h e b e s t - doc u me n t ed l o ca t i on o f p u bl i c r e ad i ng

o u ts i de o f m o na s ti c c o mm u ni t ie s .32

T he e ss en ti a l p oi nt , h ow ev e r, i s t ha t i n t hi s s et t in g r e ad in g w ou ld b e

p er fo rm ed b y c le rk s or h ouse ho ld se rv ant s : me n w ho w er e t he so ci al

i n f e r i o r s o f t h o s e t h e y r e a d t o . L i s t e n i n g t o s u c h p e r f o r m a n c e s w a s m u c h

e nj oy ed , m uc h i n t he w ay t ha t n ob le h ou se ho ld s a ls o e nj oy ed s in gi ng ,

t umb lin g o r c lo wni ng . B ut in t hi s c on te xt – m uc h a s i n t he mo na st ic

29 R . W. S c ri b ne r, ‘ O ra l C u lt u re a n d t h e D if fu s io n o f R e fo r ma t io n C u lt u re ’ , i n h i s Popular C u l t ur e a n d P o p u la r M o v emen t s i n R ef o rm a t io n G er m an y (London, 1987) , p p . 4 9 – 6 9 . C f .h i s ‘ F lu g bl a tt u n d A n al p ha b et e nt u m. Wi e k a m d e r g e me i ne M a nn z u r e fo r ma t or i sc h enI de en ? ’ i n F l ug sc hr if te n a ls M as se n me d iu m d e r R ef or ma ti on sz ei t (Stuttgart, 1981),p p . 6 5 –7 6 .

30 S c r i bn e r, ‘ O r al C u l tu r e ’ , p . 5 7 .31 O n t h e c h i v a l r i c r o m a n c e s e e , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e m u l t i - l i n g u a l s u c c e s s o f A m a d i s d e G a u l e,

a t ex t t ha t e nj oy ed e nd ur in g p op ul ar it y i n S pa in , F ra nc e, a nd l at te rl y E ng la nd . J oh nO’Connor, A m ad i s d e G a ul e a n d i t s I n fl u en c e o n E l iz a be t ha n L i te r at u re (N e w B r u n sw i c k,N.J., 1970).

32 Joyce Coleman, P ub li c R ea di ng a nd t he R ea di ng P ub li c i n L at e M ed ia ev al E ng la nd a nd France (Cambridge, 1996).




h o u s e – t h e a c t o f p u b l i c r e a d i n g i m p l i e s l i t t l e a b o u t t h e r e a d i n g a b i l i t y o f

t h os e b ei n g r e ad t o . T he e vi de nc e s ug ge st s, i nd e ed , t h at m an y o f t ho se

w ho l is te ne d w ou ld t he ms el ve s h av e b ee n r ea de rs . T hi s m ig ht b e l es s

t ru e o f t he w om en t ha n t he m en , t ho ug h i t i s n ow t ho ug ht t ha t l it er ac y

w as q ui te w ide sp re ad am ong w om en o f h ig h st at us b y t he e nd o f t he

f if te en th c e nt ur y. O f M ar gu er it e o f N av ar re , a d is ti n gu is he d a ut ho r a s

w el l a s r ea de r a nd c on su me r o f d iv er se t ex ts , i t w as s ai d :

When she was alone in her room, one saw her holding in her hands a book

i n s t e a d o f a d i s t a f f , a p e n i n s t e a d o f a s p i n d l e , a n d t h e s t y l e t o f h e r w r i t i n g t a b l e t

i ns te ad o f h er n ee dl ew or k. A nd i f s he a pp li ed h er se lf e it he r t o t ap es tr y, o r s om e

o th er n ee dl ew or k ( wh ic h w as a m os t e nj oy ab le p as ti me f or h er ) s he h ad b y h er

s ome on e wh o re ad to h er f ro m a hi stor ian , or a po et or a noth er no ta bl e and

u s e f u l a u t h o r , o r e l s e s h e d i c t a t e d t o h i m s o m e t h o u g h t s f o r h i m t o w r i t e d o w n .33

T he i ma gi ne d s ce na ri o o f t he R ef or ma ti on p am ph le ts r eq ui re s t he

r e v e r s e o f t h i s s o c i a l n o r m : t h a t t h o s e o f h i g h e r s o c i a l s t a t u s s h o u l d r e a d

t o t he ir s oc ia l i nf er io rs . T hi s i s, i n s ix te en th -c en tu ry t er ms , t ru ly t he

w or ld t ur ne d u ps i de d ow n, a nd t h er e i s l it tl e e vi de n ce t ha t s uc h r e ad in g

a ct ua ll y p la ye d a ny s ub st an t ia l p ar t i n t h e d is se m in at io n o f t e xt . W ha t

i n d e e d w o u l d b e i t s s o c i a l c o n t e x t : t h a t a m a s t e r c r a f t s m a n s h o u l d b r e a k

o ff f ro m h is w or k t o r ea d t o h is a pp re nt ic es ? I t i s i n t hi s s oc ia l m il ie u t ha ts t a t u s w a s m o s t h i g h l y p r i z e d , a n d i t i s h a r d t o s e e i t b e i n g c o m p r o m i s e d

i n t h i s w a y . I h a v e c o m e a c r o s s o n l y o n e e x a m p l e , d a t i n g f r o m t h e 1 5 6 0 s ,

w he n t he N or ma n g ent le ma n d e G oub er vil le r ec or ds i n h is di ar y h is

p rac ti ce o f r ea di ng t o h is f ami ly and h ous eh old se rvan ts . T he t ex t,

h ow ev er, w as n ot a R ef or ma ti on p am phle t, b ut t ha t st ap le o f c our tl y

en tertai n m ent cu l tu re, A m ad is d e G au le.34

I t i s a ls o t he c as e t ha t i n s oc ia l m il ie ux w he re r ea di ng a bi li ty w as f ar

f ro m u ni ve rsa l, i t w as a p ri ze d and c ost ly s ki ll , an d t o so me e xt ent ac om mo di ty. T ho se w ho c ou ld r ea d a nd w ri te w ou l d n ot e xp ec t t h at t hi s

s ki ll b e f re el y d is pe nse d, e ve n i n t he se rv ic e o f t he G os pe l. Th is i s t he

c o n t e x t i n w h i c h w e m u s t u n d e r s t a n d t h e o c c a s i o n s o n w h i c h p a m p h l e t s

w er e r e ad a lo ud i n t he m ar ke t p l ac e, o cc as io na ll y c i te d b y S cr ib n er a nd

o th er s. H er e, w ha t w e s ee i s t he p am ph le t s el le r a dv er ti si ng h is w ar es ,

33 C h a r le s d e S a i n te -M a rt h e , O r a is o n f u ne b r e d e l ’ in c om p ar a bl e M a rg u er i te (P a ri s , 1 5 5 0 ),p . 6 8. Q uo te d i n S us an B ro om ha ll , Wo me n a nd t he B oo k T ra de i n S ix te en th -C en tu ryFrance (Aldershot, 2002) , p . 2 0 .

34 L e J ou rn al d u s ir e d e G ou be rv il le ( 4 v o ls . , B r ic q ue b os c q, 1 9 93 – 4) . K a th e ri n e F e dd e n, Manor Life in Old France ( N ew Yo rk , 1 93 3) , p . 7 5. O n Amadis s ee a bo ve , n . 3 1. I n t hef i c t i o n a l c o u n t e r p o i n t t o t h i s d o c u m e n t e d o c c a s i o n c r e a t e d b y N o e l d u F a i l i n h i s ProposRustiques, i t i s a g a in l a rg e ly r o ma n ti c f i ct i on w i th w h ic h t h e v i ll a ge r e ad e r e n te r ta i ns h i sa ud ie nc e. S ee L ou is R ay mo nd L ef ev re ( ed .) , P ro po s r us ti qu es d e N oe l du Fail (Paris,1928) , p p. 1 4– 15 .




m uc h a s a b al la d- si ng e r m ig ht s in g t o a ch ie v e a s al e.35 T h e i n t e n t i o n i s t o

t ant al iz e an d l ur e t he p ur ch ase rs r at he r t ha n e ng ag e in p ain st ak ing

e x p l a n a t i o n . T h e o n e c o n s i s t e n t e x c e p t i o n w e s e e t o t h i s p a t t e r n i s group

r ea di ng o f t h e B ib le , f or w h ic h t he re i s r ic h a nd v ar i ed e vi de n ce .36 This

ap ar t, t he re ap pe ar s t o b e l it tl e t ang ib le e vi de nc e t hat t he p ol em ic al

m e ss ag es o f p am ph le t s a nd w oo dc ut s w er e d is se m in at ed b y b e in g r ea d

a lo ud b y r ea de rs t o t ho se w ho c ou ld n ot r ea d.

T o s u m u p : w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e v i s u a l p r o p a g a n d a o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n ,

o ur i nv es t ig at io n t hu s f ar c as ts c on si de r ab le d ou bt o n a ny e as y a ss um p -

t io ns r eg ar di ng i ts p la ce i n t he p ro ce ss o f d is se mi na ti on . We c an no t

a ss um e t h at s uc h p ic t ur e s w er e s ee n w it h a ny c la ri ty ; t ho se w h o a pp re -

c i at e d t he ir m es sa ge s w er e l ik el y t o b e o ve r wh e lm in g ly t h os e w h o c ou ld

al so r ead ; and i t is al mos t im po ss ib le t o i ma gi ne a s ce nar io i n w hi ch

t h e s e l i t e r a t e ‘ r e a d e r s ’ o f w o o d c u t s w o u l d s h a r e t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i t h

s oc ia l i nf er io rs w ho c ou ld n ot r ea d. I n t he l ig ht o f t he se r ef le ct io ns t he

p er ce pt io n o f t he wo odc ut a s a p op ul ar m ed ium o f c om mu ni ca ti on

b e g i n s t o d i s i n t e g r a t e . W e a r e f o r c e d , i n c o n s e q u e n c e , t o a t t e m p t a m o r e

m ea su re d a ss es sm en t o f t he p la ce o f t he w oo dc ut i n t he l it er at ur e a nd

i n fo r ma t io n c u lt u r e o f t h e d a y.

Placing the woodcut

T he i ll us tr a ti ve w oo dc ut , a s a n a rt is ti c g en r e, g re w t o m at ur it y w it h t he

p ri nt e d b oo k . T hi s e ng ag em en t r ea ch e d b ac k t o t h e f ir st g en e ra ti o n o f

p r i n t a n d l o n g p r e - d a t e d t h e R e f o r m a t i o n . T h e w o o d c u t h a d a l o n g a n d

r i c h t r ad i ti o n a s i l lu s tr a ti v e m a te r i al i n t h e p r e- R e fo r m at i on b o ok w o rl d ,

i n b ot h a r e li gi ou s a nd a s ec ul ar c on te xt .

T he b uo ya nt m ar ke t i n r el i gi ou s b oo ks i ne vi ta bl y p ro vi de d o ne o f t he

m os t f er ti le a re as f or e xp on en ts o f t he n ew c ra ft . B oo ks o f H ou rs w er e

a lw ay s h ea vi ly i ll us tr a te d ; i n t h e m os t l av is h e di ti on s t he c e nt r al p an el

w o u l d b e f u r t h e r e m b e l l i s h e d b y i n t r i c a t e l y p a t t e r n e d b o r d e r s , a l s o m a d e

u p o f w oo dc ut b lo ck s. A lt ho ug h t he se i ll us tr at io ns r ev ol ve d a ro un d a

l i mi t e d r e p er t o ir e o f t h em e s, t h ey o f te n a c hi e ve d c o ns i de r ab l e h e ig h ts o f

a r ti s ti c a c co m p li s hm e n t. T h e ir s i mp l ic i t y o f l i ne w a s a c o ns c i ou s c h oi c e ,

i nt e nd ed t o p e rm it h an d c ol ou ri ng .37 I n t hi s w ay t he p rin te d B oo ks o f

H o ur s p r e se r ve d a n i n ti m at e c o nn e c ti o n w i th t h e m a nu s cr i p t t r ad i ti o n.

O th er p op ul ar p re -Re fo rm at io n r eli gi ous t ex ts, suc h a s ve rn ac ul ar

B ib le s, w er e a ls o l av is hl y i ll us tr at ed . T he B ib le s d em an de d t he ir o wn

35 S c r i bn e r, ‘ O r al C u l tu r e ’ , p p . 6 0 – 1 . C h a p te r 4 , b e lo w.36 Chapter 7, b e lo w.37 M a ri e B e rt h ai l, L e s p re mi er s g ra ve ur s f ra nca is . U n a rt n ai ss an t : l ’i ll us tr at io n d u l iv re

(Nantes, 1986).




narra tive cycles for the Old Test amen t book s, and for the b ook of

R ev el at io n, t ho ug h t he y s om et im es a ls o m ad e u se o f g en er ic d es ig ns

f ir st c re at ed f or u se i n o th er d ev ot io na l t ex ts .38 O nc e p ub l is he r s h ad

m ad e t he c os tl y i nv es tm en t r eq ui re d t o h av e a s et o f w oo db lo ck s c ut , i t

m a de e v id e nt s e ns e t o e x p lo i t t h ei r v e rs a t il i ty.

Tw o f ea tu re s o f t hi s e ar ly i ll us tr at iv e t ra di ti on s ho ul d b e s tr es se d.

I ll us tr at io ns t en de d t o b e r es er ve d f or t he m os t e xp en si ve b oo ks ; t he y

w er e, in t ur n, o ne o f t he m ost e xp en siv e fe at ur es o f t he se b ook s. I t i s

t he re fo re l it tl e s ur pr is e t ha t w he n t he i ll us tr at iv e t ra di ti on b eg an t o

s p r e a d f r o m r e l i g i o u s b o o k s t o m o r e s e c u l a r p r o j e c t s , i t w a s b o o k s a i m e d

a t m or e l e is ur ed a ri st oc ra ti c p ur c ha se rs t ha t w er e m or e l ik el y t o c on t ai n

t h e se i l lu s tr a ti o ns . E x am p l es i n cl u de e d it i on s o f t h e l i gh t e r l i te r ar y c l as -

s ic s ( Ov id a nd V ir gi l) , c hroni cl es an d h ist or ic al w or ks, a nd t he e ve r

p o pu l ar c h iv a lr i c r o ma n ce s .39 T he m ai n e xc ep ti on t o t hi s p at te rn w as

t h e u se o f i ll us tr at io n t o a do r n t he t it le -p a ge s ( t ho ug h n ot g en er al l y t h e

t e x t) o f e a rl y n e ws b o ok s : o ff i ci a ll y s p on s or e d p u bl i c ation s a d ve r t is i ng a

n ot ab le v ic to ry, o r j us ti fy in g a d ec is io n t o g o t o w ar.40 I n t hi s r es pe ct

t h e s e s h o r t p a m p h l e t s ( o f t e n i n t h e q u a r t o f o r m a t s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e

German Flugschriften) a re t he m os t d ir ec t p re cu rs or o f t he R ef or ma ti on

a p pr o p ri a ti o n o f i l lu s t ra t io n f o r s m al l b o ok s .

G iv en t ha t t he w oo dc ut h ad e st ab li sh ed s o s ig ni fi ca nt a r ol e i n b oo k

c u l t u r e , t h e i m p a c t o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n w a s a l w a y s l i k e l y t o b e p r o f o u n d .

T he G e rm an e va ng e li ca l m ov em en t c er ta in ly f ou nd a f un ct io n f or n ew

c la ss es o f p ol em ic al i ll us tr at io n ; b ut a t t he s am e t im e i t a ls o c al le d i nt o

q ue st io n c er t ai n o th e r c at eg or ie s o f r e li gi ou s l it er at ur e . B oo ks o f H ou rs

w e r e o b v i o u s l y n o l o n g e r i n d e m a n d i n P r o t e s t a n t c u l t u r e s , a n d p r o d u c -

t io n f el l o ff s ha rp l y. S om et im e s t he a cc um u la te d s to c k o f w oo db lo ck s

c oul d b e use d i n o th er b oo ks. Of te n, t ho ug h, t he y s imply j oi ne d t h e

l um be r o f t he p r in t s ho p, t h ei r v al ue h e av il y d is co un te d .41 F o r a r ti s an

s pe ci a li st s o f t h e w oo dc ut t r ad e t h es e e ve nt s p re s en te d a c on si de ra bl e

c h al le ng e. M an y d iv er t ed e ne rg i es i nt o p ur e ly s ec ul ar f or ms o f i ll us tr a -

t io n, s uc h a s t he p ea sa nt r ev el s a nd c ar ni va l p ri nt s s o p ro mi ne nt i n t he

p ag es o f t he v ol um es o f t he Si n g l e-Leaf W oo d cu t . T he re i s n o e vi de nc e,

38 B a r t A . R o s i er, T h e B i bl e i n P r in t . N e th e rl a nd i sh B i bl e I l lu s tr a ti o n i n t h e S i xt e en t h C e nt u ry( 2 v o ls . , L e id e n, 1997) , v o l . I , p p . 1 7 – 1 9 .

39 F o r e x a m p le s , B e r th a i l , Les premiers graveurs francais ; H i nd s , I n tr o du c ti o n t o a H i st o ry o f Woodcut .

40 Jean-Pierre Seguin, ‘L’information a l a f i n d u X V e s i e c le e n F ra nc e. P iec e s d ’ a c tu a l i teimprime es sous le reg ne de C ha rle s V II I’, A rt s e t T ra di ti on s P op ul ai re s, (1956),p p . 3 0 9 – 3 0 ; ( 1 95 7 ), p p . 4 6 – 7 4 .

41 G ra ha m A . R un na ll s, ‘ La v ie , l a m or t e t l es l iv re s d e l ’i mp ri me ur -l ib ra ir e p ar is ie n Jean Janot d’apres s on i nv en ta ir e a pr es deces (17 fev r ie r 1 5 22 [ n .s . ]) ’ , R ev ue B el ge d e

P h i lo s o p hi e et d ’ H i st o i re, 7 8 (2000) , p p . 7 9 7 – 8 5 0 , h e r e p p . 8 0 6 , 8 1 8 .




h ow eve r, t hat su ch p le bi an su bje ct s w er e i nt en de d t o ap pe al t o p ur -

c ha se rs f ro m t he s oc ia l m il ie u t he y d ep ic te d. R at he r, s uc h p ri nt s w er e

p ar t o f t he e nt er ta in me nt c ul tu re o f t he s am e s oc ia l g ro up s who m ig ht

p ur c ha se o th e r p r in ts , s uc h a s c os tu m e s er ie s o r b at tl e s ce ne s.42

Wi th t he p ass ag e o f ye ar s t hi s c ri si s o f p ur po se o nl y in te nsi fi ed f or

a rt is an s i n t he w oo dc ut t r ad e . T he s e co nd g en er at i on o f r ef or mers was

f ar l ess r el ax ed t ha n Lu th er i n i ts at ti tu de s t o t he vi sual m edi a.43 His

p er ce pt io n t ha t a ll t he s en se s p la ye d a l eg it im at e r ol e i n t he r el ig io us

a es th e ti c w as r ep la ce d b y a f ar m or e r ig id h ie r ar c hy o f i ns tr uc t io n. F or

C al vi n a nd B ul li ng er n ot hi n g w as p er mi t te d t o i mp in ge o n t h e p ri ma cy

o f t he Wo rd . Wi th t hi s, t he i ll us tr at iv e t ra di ti on l ar ge ly r ec ed ed f ro m

r e l i g i o u s b o o k s , a t l e a s t i n P r o t e s t a n t c e n t r e s . T h e B i b l e p r o v e d a p a r t i a l

e xc ep ti on , i n a t l ea st a l im it ed w ay. T he n ar ra ti ve c yc le s u se d t o a do rn

t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t b o o k s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e p o p u l a r s t o r i e s i n G e n e s i s a n d

E xo du s) r et ai ne d t he ir p op ul ar it y, b ut t he i nf lu en ti al G en ev a B ib le

w ou ld u lt im at el y p er mi t o nl y m ap s, d ia gr am s o f t he f ur ni ture o f the

Te m pl e , a n d ‘ G od l y Ta b le s ’, c h ar t i ng t h e p r o ce s s o f s a lv at i o n.44

T hi s r ep re se nt ed , i n t ru th , a c ri si s f or t he i ll us tr at iv e w oo dc ut t ra d-

i t i o n . S a l v a t i o n l a y i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f n e w g e n r e s o f b o o k t h a t r e l i e d ,

i nd e ed d ep e nd ed u po n, t h e e xe cu ti on o f h ig h- qu al it y w oo dc u ts o f v er y

s pe ci fi c d es ig n. S uc h b oo ks i nc lu de d b oo ks o f a rc hi te ct ur e ; m an ua ls

o f m ini ng and m il it ar y sc ie nc e ; s cie nt if ic d ia gr am s ; i ll ust rat io ns o f

c os tu me s, p la nt s a nd a ni ma ls i n w or ks o f a nt hr op ol og y a nd b ot an y ;

m e di c al h a nd b oo k s a n d w o rk s o f a s tr o lo g y a n d a st r o no m y. T h es e w e re ,

b y an d l ar ge , b oo ks p ub li sh ed i n f ol io , o ft en i n La ti n, f or t ec hn ic al ,

p ro fe ss ion al r eade rs . O nc e a gai n t he w ood cut h ad f oun d i ts na tur al

h om e i n e xp e ns iv e b o ok s.

T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e w o o d c u t c o n t i n u e d t o p l a y a r o l e i n c h e a p p r i n t ,

t hi s w as m ai nt ai ne d b y a s to ck o f u na mb i ti ou s a nd r at h er c ru de i ll us t ra -

t io ns t hat de co rat ed t he p op ul ar g en re o f s ens at io n b oo ks : ne ws o f

f lo od s, c om et s, m ir ac ul ou s b ir th s, c ri me s, a nd t he p er il s o f Tu rk is h

c o nq u e st . T h e se i l lu st r a ti o ns s h ow l i tt l e i m ag i na t i on o r o r ig i na l it y, a n d

i nd ee d w er e fr eq ue nt ly r eu se d f ro m o ne b ook t o an ot he r. Th e ma in

42 K e it h M o xe y, ‘ F es t iv e P e as a nt s a n d S o ci a l O r de r ’, i n h i s P ea s an t s , Wa r r io r s a n d W i v es.

P o pu l ar I m ag e ry i n t h e R e fo r ma t io n (Chicago, 1989) , p p. 3 5– 66 .43 F or t he C al vi ni st a tt it ud e t o i ma ge s, E ir e, T he Wa r A ga in st t he I do ls, a nd S er gi us z

Michalski, T h e R e fo r ma t io n a n d t h e V i su a l A r ts . T h e P r ot e st a nt I m ag e Q u es t io n i n We s te r na n d E a s t er n E u r o p e (London, 1993) . O n Z u r i c h , L e e P a l m e r W a n d e l , V o r a ci o u s I d o l s a n d V i o len t H a n d s. I co n ocl a s m i n R ef o rm a t io n Z u r ich (Cambridge, 1995).

44 C a t h er i n e D e l a no -S m it h a n d E l i za b e t h M o r le y I n g r am , M a ps i n B i bl e s, 1 5 00 – 16 0 0. A nIllustrated Catalogue (Geneva, 1991).






F i g u r e 5 . 4 .

P r o t e s t a n t b r a n d i n g . T h e p r i n t e r ’ s d e v i c e w a s

t h e f a m o u s s n a k e a n d a n

c h o r o f t h e G e n e v a p r i n

t e r

J e a n C r e

s p i n ,

t h o u g h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s w e r e t h e w o r k o f

a l e s s - e s t a b l i s h e d p r i n t e

r i n N o r m a n d y : a p i e c e

o f

c o m m e r c

i a l o p p o r t u n i s m

e v e n f o r t h i s g o d l y p u r p o s e .



R ef or m at io n m e ss ag e . T he R ef or m at io n c er t ai nl y r et ai ne d a p la ce f or

a r t ; i n de e d, t h e G e r ma n R e fo r ma t i on m o ve m en t b r ou g ht for t h s o m e o f

t h e g r e a t , o r i g i n a l a r t i s t i c w o r k o f t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d .46 B u t t h i s t o o

f ou nd i ts n at ur al h om e a mo ng t he f am il ia r p at ro ns o f a rt , t he n ob il it y

a n d t h e u r ba n p a tr i ci a t e.

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o s p e c u l a t e w h e t h e r t h i s w o u l d s t i l l h a v e b e e n t h e c a s e

h a d G e r m a n y a t t h i s t i m e n o t e n j o y e d s o r i c h a n a r t i s t i c t r a d i t i o n ; a n d i f

o ne of t he p re mi er ar ti st s, L uc as C ra nac h, h ad no t b ee n an i nt im at e

m em be r o f L ut h er ’s i nn e r c ir cl e. C ra na ch ’s r ec ru it me n t t o Wi tt en be r g

h ad b ee n t he m os t t an gi bl e s ym bo l o f F re de ri ck t he Wi se ’s d etermin-

a ti on t o c re at e a c ul tu ra l c ap it al w or th y o f h is E le ct or al d ig ni ty.47 His

e ar ly w or k, a s o ne w ou ld h av e e xp ec te d, c on si st ed m os tl y o f c on ve n-

t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s i m a g e s , m o s t m e m o r a b l y t h e e x t e n d e d s e r i e s o f w o o d c u t s

created t o i ll us tr at e a c at al og ue o f F re de ri ck ’s e no rm ou s r el ic c ol le c-

tion.48 B u t C r a n a c h w a s a l s o c a p t i v a t e d b y L u t h e r , a n d w i t h t h e o n s e t o f

t h e e v an g e li c al c o nt r o ve r si e s t h e o u t pu t o f h i s f o rm i da b le w o rk s ho p w a s

a dj us t ed s ea ml e ss ly t o s e rv e t he n ew m ov em e nt . T he m os t e vi de nt ( an d

a r g u a b l y m o s t e n d u r i n g ) p r o d u c t o f t h i s n e w e n g a g e m e n t w a s t h e s u p e r b

s eq ue nc e o f p or tr ai t i ma ge s o f L ut he r, f ro m t he v is io na ry m on k ( th e

m od el f or m an y o f t h e w oo dc ut p or tr ai ts) t hr ou gh t o t he p ic tu re o f t he

d ea d L ut he r p ea ce fu ll y a t r es t i n 1 54 6.49 T he C ra na ch p or t ra it s w er e

u nd ou b te dl y a c ru ci al p ol em ic a l t oo l o f t he R ef or m at io n, a nd t h ey w er e

p r od uc e d i n c on si de r ab l e n um be r s, f or C ra na c h h ad e st ab li sh e d i n h is

w or ks ho ps o ne o f t he e ar li es t a ut he nt ic at ed s ys te ms o f a rt is ti c m as s

p r od uc t io n. C ra na c h’s w or ks ho p p ra ct ic e i s e xt e ns iv el y d oc um e nt ed ,

and althoug h we do not have such evid ence f or one of the Luthe r

p or t ra it s , w e k no w t ha t i n 1 53 2 C ra na c h u nd er t oo k a c on tr a ct f or s ix ty

p a i r s o f s m a l l m a t c hi n g p o r t r a i t s o f F r e d e r i c k t h e W i s e a n d h i s s u c c e s s o r ,

John the Constant.50 O n e a s s u m e s t h e s e w e r e t o b e d i s t r i b u t e d , w h e t h e r

a s g if t s o r p ur c ha se d, a mo ng t h e l ea di ng h ou se s o f S ax o ny a nd p ri nc e ly

a l l i e s a r o u n d G e r m a n y . F o r n o b l e o r b o u r g e o i s f a m i l i e s a L u t h e r p o r t r a i t

46 C a rl C . C h ri s te n se n , A r t a nd t he R ef or ma ti on i n G er ma ny (A t he n s , O h i o , 1979) . O tt oBenesch, G e r ma n P a in t in g f r om D u r e r t o H o lb e in (Geneva, 1966).

47M ax J . F ri ed lan d er a n d J a ko b R o se n be r g, L u cas C r a n ach (N e w Yo r k , 1978). We r n e rSchade, C r an a ch : A F a mi l y o f M a st e r P a in t er s (New York, 1980).

48 Die te r K oe pp lin a nd T ilma n F al k, Lu ka s C ra na ch . G em a lde – Zeichnungen – Druckgraphik ( 2 v o ls . , B a sl e , 1974) , v o l . I , n o s . 9 7 – 1 0 1 .

49 F o r t h e e a r l i e s t i m a g e s s e e Ibid., n o s . 3 2 – 5 . T h e l a s t i m a g e o f L u t h e r o n h i s d e a t h b e d i si n t he L an de sm us e um H an no ve r. F or t hi s i co ni c i ma ge o f t he d ea d r ef or me r a t p ea ceC r a n a c h m a y h a v e b e e n w o r k i n g f r o m a s k e t c h m a d e a t t h e b e d s i d e b y L u c a s F o r t n a g e l .T h is p o rt r ai t i s r e pr o du c ed i n H e ik o O b er m an , L u th er. M an b e tw ee n G od a nd t he D ev il ( N ew H a ve n , C o nn . , 1989) , p . 7 .

50 C a rl C . C h ri s te n se n , P ri nc e s a nd P ro pa ga nd a : E le c to ra l S ax on A rt o f t he R ef or ma ti on(Kirksville, Mo., 1992) , p . 3 9 .




w a s a s i m i l a r t o t e m o f a l l e g i a n c e . T h e t w o m o s t p o p u l a r i m a g e s w e r e t h e

p ai re d p or tr ai t o f L ut he r a nd h is w if e, K at ha ri na v on B or a, t he a rc he ty pa l

P ro tes ta n t cl eri cal f a m i l y , a n d t h e p o r t r a i t o f L u t h e r t h e m a t u r e r e f o r m e r

p a i n t e d in 1528.51 P a i r e d p o r t r a i t s o f L u t h e r a n d M e l a n c h t h o n h a v e a l s o

survived.52 Judging how many examples can be found of the most

c om m on w or k sh op d es ig ns , t he s e p ic t ur es m us t h av e f ou nd t he ir p la ce

o n t h e w a l l s o f c o u n t l e s s b u r g h e r h o u s e h o l d s .

T he p ai nt er s ’ w or k sh op s o f t h e P ro te st a nt c it ie s, i n Wi tt en be r g a nd

e ls ew he re , a ls o g av e c on si de ra bl e a tt en ti on t o p ic to ri al t he me s t ha t

c o nv e r ge d t h e ol o gi c al l y w i th t h e e v an g e li c al d o ct r in e s. P o pu l ar t h e me s

i nc lu de d C hr is t w it h t he c hi ld re n, C hr is t t he G oo d S he ph er d, a nd o f

c ou rs e t he c ru c if ix io n . P ro te st an t a rt is ts a ls o g av e m uc h t h ou gh t t o a rt

f or t h e c hu rc h , p ar t ic ul ar l y t h e p r in ci pa l p ic t ur e t ha t a do rn ed t he h ig h

a lt ar. A lt ho ug h L ut he r a nd h is c ol le ag ue s d ep lo re d i co no cl as m a nd

w ou ld n ot c on te mp l at e t h e w an t on d es tr u ct io n o f e xi st i ng r el ig io u s a rt ,

the y gave discreet enco uragem ent to the creation of new t he matic

s c he me s t ha t w ou ld c r ea te a n ew t ra di t io n o f t h e P ro te s ta nt a lt ar pi e ce .

T h e t w o b e s t - k n o w n e x a m p l e s , b o t h f r o m t h e C r a n a c h w o r k s h o p , a d o r n

t he c hu rc he s o f We im ar a nd Wi tt e nb er g. T he We im ar a lt ar pi e ce g iv es

p ri de o f p la ce t o a P ro te st an t r eo rd er in g o f t he c ru ci fi xi on s ce ne . H er e

t he b lo od f ro m t he w ou nd i n C hr is t’s s id e i rr ig at es t he t ex t o f t he B ib le

h el d b y L ut he r. T he s id e p an el s r ep la ce t he t ra di ti on al s ai nt s w it h t he

ruling Saxon duc al family : t ruly the sup por ts of the Refo rmation

church.53 I n t he Wi tt en b er g a lt ar pi e ce a s ti ll m or e r ad ic a l r ec on ce p ti on

g ive s p ri de o f p lac e t o t he L as t S up pe r, w it h s id e p an els il lus tr at ing

b ap t is m a nd t he P ow e r o f t h e K ey s. T he p r ed el la s ho ws D oc t or M ar t in

preaching.

Th er e i s e vi de nc e t hat t he r ef or me rs we re i nt im at el y i nv ol ve d i n

c re at ing a t le ast s om e of t he se n ew de sig ns. C ran ac h’s f am ou s an d

i n f l uen ti al po l em i ca l w o o d cu t s eri es, T h e P a s s i o n o f C h r i s t a n d A n t i c h r i s t ,

w as p ub li sh ed w it h t ex ts p ro vi de d b y M el an ch th on , w ho s ee ms a ls o

to have been invo lved in the eme rgen ce o f C ra na ch ’s g re at n ar ra ti ve

a nt it he si s, t h e L aw a nd t h e G os pe l .54 T hi s e vo ca t io n o f t he P ro t es ta nt

51 K o ep p li n a n d F a lk , Cranach, v ol . I , p p. 1 77 –8 1. F ri ed lan d er a n d R o se n be r g, Cranach,p p . 1 8 7– 9 0, 3 1 2– 1 3.

52 K o ep p li n a n d F a lk , Cranach, v ol . I I, p p. 3 54 –5 . F ri ed lan d er a n d R o se n be r g, Cranach,p p . 3 1 2 – 1 3.

53 T h e We i m a r a l t a r p i ec e i s i l l us t r a te d i n F r i ed l an d er a n d R o se n be r g, Cranach, n o . 4 3 4 .54 G es et z u nd G en ad e. C ra na ch , L ut he r u nd d ie B il de r (Torgau, 1994) . A ll t we nt y- s ix

w o od c ut s o f t h e P a ss i o n al C h r is t i u n d A n t i ch r i st i a r e i l lu s tr a te d i n G e ra l d F l em in g , ‘ O nt he O ri gi ns o f t he P as si on al C hr is ti u nd A nt ic hr is ti a nd L uc as C ra na ch t he E ld er ’sC o nt ri b ut io n t o R e fo r ma t io n P o le m ic s i n t h e I c on o gr a ph y o f t h e P a ss i on a l’ , Gutenberg

Jahrbuch (1973) , p p . 3 5 1 – 68 .




d oc tr in e o f s al va ti on e me rg ed f ro m t he C ra na ch w or ks ho p b et we en

1526 and 1530. The re is an ink sk etch of 1526 in Cranach’s hand,

f ol lo we d b y two d iv er ge nt p an el p ai nt in gs , b ef or e t he d es ig n t ak es i ts

m a tu r e f o rm .55 I ts m os t e nd ur in g e xp re ss io n i s a s a t it le -p ag e f ra me ,

r e wo rk e d t o e xp re ss t h e n ar r at iv e f lo w i n t he n ec e ss ar y v er t ic al f or ma t,

a nd t o m ak e s pac e i n t he b lank c ent ra l p ane l f or t he t it le t ex t. I n t hi s

m a n i f e s t a t i o n t h e L a w a n d t h e G o s p e l m o t i f w ou l d h a v e a n e x t e n d e d l i f e

i n P ro te s ta nt p ri nt i n s ev er a l p ar ts o f E ur op e .56

T he i mp ac t o f L ut he ra n ar t w as p rof ou nd, t ho ug h a ny se nse o f i ts

s oc ia l r ea ch m us t b e c ar ef ul ly q ua li fi ed . C hu rc h a rt l ik e t he Wi tt en be r g

a l t a r p i e c e w o u l d h a v e b e e n a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e p u b l i c , t h o u g h v i e w e r s m a y

h ave b ee n s tr uc k m or e b y t he no ve lt y o f t he a pos tl es r ep re se nt ed b y

c on te mp o ra ry c it iz en s o f Wi tt e nb er g ( w it h L ut he r a s J un ke r J or g) t h an

b y i t s t h e o l o g i c a l o r i g i n a l i t y . D e s i g n s l i k e t h e L a w a n d t h e G o s p e l l i v e d a

d ou bl e l if e a s p an el p ai nt in gs a nd i n b oo ks . S om e p op ul ar t h em es , s uc h

a s C h r i s t i n t h e V i n e y a r d , a r e f o u n d b o t h i n s a t i r i c a l w o o d c u t s a n d i n t h e

n ew g en re of t he L ut he ra n e pi ta ph p ic tur e. Ye t e ve n h er e o ne m us t

p ro ce ed w it h c au ti on . A rt is ti c m ot if s l ik e t he L aw a nd t he G os pe l t ha t

f o u n d t h e i r w a y i n t o p r i n t e d b o o k s t h r o u g h t i t l e - p a g e d e s i g n s s t i l l t e n d e d

t o a pp ea r o nl y in t he m or e e xp en si ve b oo ks , s uc h a s B ib le s o r b ib li ca l

commentaries.57 T he y a re l es s e vi de nt i n t he r ea lm o f c he ap p ri nt . O ur

a pp re ci a ti on o f R ef or ma ti on a rt m ay i nc re a se o ur u nd er s ta nd in g o f t h e

r an ge o f v is ua l e di fi ca ti on a va il ab le f or m em be rs o f t he n ew c hu rc h t o

a r t i c u l a t e t h e i r n e w i d e n t i t y . I t i s h a r d t o s e e i t a s a p r i m a r y i n s t r u m e n t o f

conversion.

55 T he s ke tc h o f 1 52 6 i s i ll us tr at ed i n F ri ed lan d er a n d R o se n be r g, L u ca s C r a n ach, p . 2 4 .F o r t h e p a ne l s, G e s et z u n d G e na d e.

56 A nd re w P et te gr ee , ‘ “ Th e L aw a nd t he G os pe l” . T he E vo lu ti on o f a n E va ng el ic alP i c t o r i a l T h e m e i n t h e B i b l e s o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n ’ , i n O r l a i t h O ’ S u l l i v a n ( e d . ) , T h e B i b l ea s B o ok . T h e R e fo r ma t io n (London, 2000) , p p . 1 2 3 – 3 5.

57 Ibid., p l a t e s 1 3 , 1 7 , 1 8 .




6 Industry and intellect

We c om e , a t l as t, t o t he b oo k. F or m an y w h o h a v e a dd re ss ed t hi s s u b je c t,

t hi s is i nd ee d t o c om e t o t he h ear t o f t he q ue st io n, f or t he b oo k l oo ms

l ar ge i n a ll e xp la na ti on s o f t he a pp ea l o f t he e va ng el ic al c au se : a v ie w

s ha re d , i t m us t b e s ai d, b y t h e r ef or me r s t he m se lv es . To t he e xt en t t ha t

P ro te st an ti sm w as t he r el ig io n o f t he w or d, t he w or d w as m ad e p ri nt .

L u t h e r a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s r e j o i c e d ; t h e r e a d i n g p u b l i c d e v o u r e d t h e n e w

l i t e r a t u r e . T h e r e c a n b e l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t t h e b o o k d i d m u c h t o s h a p e t h e

R ef or ma ti on ; i t m us t a ls o b e a ck no wl ed ge d t ha t t he R ef or ma ti on d id

m uc h t o r es ha pe t he b oo k.

O ur p ur po se h er e m us t b e t o a ck no wl ed ge t hi s r ol e, b ut a ls o t o p la ce

it in cont ext . As must b y now be clear, the b ook did not func tion as

a na ut on om o us a ge nc y, b ut w it hi n t he c on te xt c re at e d b y t he i nt e rm in -

g lin g of a wh ol e r an ge o f co mm uni ca ti on m edia . T he wo rld o f or al

c o mm u ni c at i o n i m pa c te d o n p r in t , j u st a s p r in t p r e se n te d n e w p o ss i b il -

i ti es f or t he d ev el op me nt o f p re ac hi ng , d ra ma a nd s on g. P ri nt c ul tu re

a ls o b ro ug ht i ts o wn p ar ti cu la r d yn am ic . T he R ef or ma ti on e ru pt ed

w he n t he b oo k w as a lr ea dy a m at ur e t ec hn ol og y, t ri ed a nd t es te d a ft er

s e ve n ty y e ar s o f e x pe r i me n ta t i on a n d r e fi n em e nt . N e ve r th e le s s t h is w a s

s ti ll a d ev el op in g i nd us tr y. T he f ul l p ot en ti al o f p ri nt a s a m ed iu m o f

c om m un ic at io n h ad e me r ge d o nl y g ra du al ly a s a ut h or s a nd p ub li sh e rs

t e st ed i ts r el ev an ce t o t he w or l d o f e du ca t io n, s c ho la rs hi p a nd g ov er n-

m en t. T he i nd us tr y a nd a ss oc iat ed t ra de s o f t he p ri nt w or ld h ad r e-

s po nd ed t o t he s e c ha ll en ge s i n v er y p ar ti cu la r w ay s. I n t he y ea rs

b ef or e t he R ef or ma ti on t he w or ld o f p ri nt h ad c re at ed b ot h a p an -

E u r o p e a n n e t w o r k o f c o m m e r c e a n d e x c h a n g e , a n d a s e r i e s o f v e r y p a r t i -

c ul ar l oc al m ar ke t s, e ac h o rg an iz ed i n q ui te d iff er en t w ay s. T he se e vo lv in g

l oc al m ar k et s – w it h d iff er en t p at t er ns o f p ro du ct i on , s al es a nd r eg ul a-

t io n – al so c re at ed q ui te d iff er en t c on te xt s f or t he e me rg enc e o f t he

Reformation.

128



The European book world

I n t he f ir st e ra o f t he p rin te d b ook , t ho se w ho d ab bl ed i n t he w or ld of

p r in t e xp e ri e nc ed a ll t h e e xc it e me nt , r is k a nd h ea rt b re ak o f a d yn am ic ,

b u t e x p e r i m e n t a l t e c h n o l o g y . L a t e m e d i a e v a l s o c i e t y w a s a l r e a d y a w o r l d

f ul l o f b o ok s, a n d t he y w e re n o l o n g er t he e xc lu s i v e m o no po l y o f

c hu rc hm en a nd s ch ol ar s. T hi s w as a r ic h a nd h ig hl y t ex tu re d w or ld ,

s er ve d b y a h ig hl y d ev el op ed c om me r ci al c op yi ng t r ad e. M os t t ow ns o f

a ny s iz e, p ar ti cu la rl y t ho se t ha t s up po rt ed u ni ve rs it ie s, c at he dr al s o r

c e nt r es o f g ov er nm e nt , h ad c om me r ci al c op y s ho ps : t he l ar ge st c e nt re s,

s u c h a s P a r is , h a d e v o l v e d s y s t e m s t h a t c a m e c l o s e t o p r e - i n d u s t r i a l m a s s

production.1 I n a w or ld w he re b oo ks w er e i n s uc h h eav y d ema nd t he

p ot en ti al o f t he n ew p ro du ct io n m et ho d, t he t ec hn ol og y o f m ov ea bl e

t yp e, w as i mm ed ia t el y c le ar. L ar ge f or tu ne s w er e l ai d o ut i n t h e s ea rc h

f or s ol ut io ns t o t he m os t i nt ra ct ab le p r ob l em s ( su c h a s t he d ev el op m en t

o f a n i nk o f s uff ic ie nt v is co si ty t o a dh er e t o t he p ap er, b ut n ot t o b lo tc h

o r r u n ) . P r i n t b e n e f i t e d f r o m t h e o b s e s s i o n o f i t s f i r s t a d v o c a t e s , b u t a l s o

f ro m t he f ac t t ha t i t s o q ui ck ly c ap tu re d t he i ma gi na ti on o f t he r ic h a nd

i n f l u e n t i a l . P r i n t w a s s e e n a s a p r e s t i g e v e n t u r e , w i t h w h i c h t h o s e u s e d t o

t h e e xe r ci se o f c ul tu r al p at r on ag e w ou ld w an t t o b e a ss oc ia te d . A s n ew s

o f t h e n e w t e c h n o l o g y s p r e a d , a n d p r e s s e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d i n m o r e p a r t s

o f E ur op e , m an y o f t h e f ir st p ri nt e nt e rp ri s es b en e fi te d f ro m t hi s s or t o f

p at ro na ge : i nj ec ti on s o f s pe cu la ti ve c ap it al , f ro m w hi ch t he re w as n o

i m me d ia t e h o p e o f r e t ur n .

I t i s w el l k no wn t ha t t he f ir st b ook s w er e h eav ily in fl ue nc ed b y t he

e s t a b l i s h e d m a n u s c r i p t t r a d i t i o n . T h i s i s e v i d e n t b o t h i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n

o f m a teri al o n the p ag e an d in the des ig n o f t he fi rst ge ner ati o n of

m ov ea bl e t yp es . T he d es ir e t ha t t he f in is he d a rt ef ac t s ho ul d r ep li ca te

a f in e m an us cr ip t a s c lo se ly a s p os si bl e i s a ls o e vi de nt i n t he p ra ct ic e o f

l ea vi n g s pa c es o n t he b ar e s he et s o f p ri nt ed t ex t f o r t he a dd it io n

o f i ll um inat ed c ap it al s a nd h an d r ub ri ca ti on o f t he t ex t. B ut t he ne w

t e c hn o lo g y r i sk e d s h ip w r ec k w h e n t h is i m it a ti v e t r a di t io n e x te n de d t o o

f ar. I t w as a ll w el l a nd g oo d t o h av e b oo ks i mi ta te m an us cr ip ts i n t he ir

p h ys ic a l a pp e ar a nc e. W ha t m ad e l es s s e ns e w as t ha t p ri nt s ho ps s ho ul d

a tt em pt t o r ep li cat e t he w or ld o f m an us cr ip ts i n t he o rg an izat io n o f

p ro du ct io n, w it h m ul ti pl e s ma ll p re ss es a lm os t e ve ry wh er e t he re h ad

b ee n a m ed ia ev al c op y s ho p : i n e ve ry r eg io na l c ap it al , e ve ry e pi sc op al

s e e . I t t o o k t i m e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d i f f e r e n t d y n a m i c s o f p r i n t : t h a t o n c e

a ri st oc ra t ic v en tu re c ap it a l h ad r e ce de d a nd t h e e nt e rp ri s e n ee de d t o b e

1 R ic ha rd H . R ou se a nd M ar y A . R ou se , M a nu s cr i pt s a n d t h ei r M a ke r s : C o mm e rc i al B o okP r od u ce r s i n M e di e va l P a ri s , 1 2 00 – 1 50 0 (London, 2000).

Industry and intellect 129





b oo k se ll er s a nd m er c ha nt s u nd er t oo k t he d iff ic ul t t as k o f b ri ng in g t h e

t ex ts t o p ot en ti al p ur ch as er s w ho m ig ht b e d is pe rs ed o ve r a w id e g eo -

g ra ph ic al a re a. T he c om pl ex e co no mi cs o f t he n ew b us in es s w er e n ot

u nl ik e t ho se o f l on g- di st a nc e t r ad in g v en tu re s , w hi c h o ft en i nv ol ve d a

s i mi l ar l y l a rg e c a sh i n ve s tm e nt a g ai n st s p ec u la t iv e p r o fi t : f o r w i th b o ok s

t oo , t h os e w ho m is ju dg ed d em an d m ig ht h av e t o c ar ry d is as tr ou s l os se s

i n a f i c k l e m a r k e t . I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t m a n y o f t h o s e w h o

i nv es te d i n t he p ub li sh in g o f b oo ks i n t hi s f ir st e ra o f p ri nt w er e o ft en

m en w h o h ad l ar g e e xp e ri e nc e i n o th er b ra nc he s o f t ra de . I t s om et i me s

r e q u i r e d d e e p p o c k e t s t o s u s t a i n e v e n l a r g e f i r m s t h r o u g h m a r k e t f l u c t u -

a ti on s : i t w as a n e co no mic c yc le t ha t f av ou re d t he e me rge nc e o f t he

l ar ge r p ri nt in g d yn as ti es t ha t d id i n f ac t c om e t o p la y a n i nc re as in gl y

l ar ge r ol e i n t h e d ev el op i ng p r in t w or ld .

I n t hi s u nc er ta in c li ma te , t ho se i nv ol ve d i n t he p ro du ct io n o f b oo ks

c ou ld no t b e su st ai ne d b y t he e xc it em en t o f e xp lo ra tio n a lo ne ; t he y

b eg an t o l o ok , as di d a l l t rad es i n the m ed i ae val g u i ld w o rl d , f or a

m ea su r e o f p r ot e ct io n f or t h os e p r ep ar ed t o r is k e nt re p re n eu ri al i nv es t -

m e n t i n e x p e n s i v e p r o j e c t s . T h i s w a s t h e o r i g i n o f t h e s y s t e m o f p r i v i l e g e ,

w he reb y a p ri n t er o r a u t ho r w ou l d a p pl y f or t he e xc lu s i ve r ig h t t o

p ub li sh a b oo k o r c la ss o f l it er at ur e f or a s ta te d p er io d o f y ea rs .3 Such

p r i v i l e g e s w e r e b o t h h i g h l y s o u g h t a f t e r a n d k e e n l y d e f e n d e d . T h e p o w e r

t o g r a n t p r i v i l e g e b e c a m e a n i m p o r t a n t a t t r i b u t e o f t h e g o v e r n i n g p o w e r :

i nd ee d, f or k in gs , b is ho ps a nd c it y m ag is tr at es , t he d is pe ns at io n a nd

e n f o r c e m e n t o f s u c h p r i v i l e g e s n o w b e c a m e t h e i r m a j o r r o l e i n n u r t u r i n g

t he p ub li sh in g i nd us tr y, r at he r t ha n b ei ng p at ro ns i n t he s en se o f

i n ve s t in g t h e ir o w n m o ne y.

T h e s y s t e m o f p r i v i l e g e d e v e l o p e d q u i c k l y i n m o s t p a r t s o f E u r o p e t h a t

h ad a m at ur e p ri nt in g i nd us tr y, a nd i t w as a s ys te m t ha t w or ke d w el l,

a ll ow in g p ub li sh er s t o i nv es t t he l ar ge s um s o ve r t he l on g p er io d t ha t a

b ook might be in the p ress, with out the fear that the work woul d be

u n d e r c u t o r t h e m a r k e t s p o i l e d b y p i r a t e e d i t i o n s . P e n a l t i e s f o r b r e a c h o f

p r iv il eg e w er e o ft en d ra co ni an . I n F ra nc e , t he c la ss ic f or mu la w as t h at

t h e o f f e n d e r w o u l d b e p u b l i s h e d b y c o n f i s c a t i o n o f t h e b o o k p u b l i s h e d i n

b re ac h o f a p ri vi le ge a nd a n u n sp ec if ie d f i ne . T h is w as s om e ti me s

r e in fo rc e d w it h t h e p ro vi si on t ha t t h e inj ur e d p ar t y m ig ht a ls o r ec o ve r

a l l h i s ‘ e x p e n s e s , d a m a g e s a n d i n t e r e s t ’ .4 O c c a s i o n a l l y a p r i n t e r b r e a k i n g

3 T h e c l as s ic s t ud y i s E l iz a be t h A r ms t ro n g, B e fo r e C o py r ig h t : T h e F r en c h B o ok - Pr iv i le g eS y s tem 1 4 9 8 – 15 2 6 (Cambridge, 1990).

4 ‘ C on f is c a ti o n e t a m en d e a r bi t ra i re , d e sp e ns , d o mm a ge s e t i n te r es t s’ . T h e p r iv i le g e w a so f te n p r in t ed i n s u mm a ry o n t h e r e v e rs e o f t h e t i tl e -p a ge , w h er e i t w a s l e as t s u sc e pt i bl et o b e in g r e mo v ed .




a p riv il eg e m ig ht b e t hr eat en ed w it h t he c on fi sc at ion o f h is p ri nt in g

e qu ip me nt , o r e ve n c or po ra l p un is hm en t. B ut i n f ac t p en al ti es f or

b re ac h o f p ri vi le ge s ee m n ot t o h av e b ee n f re qu en tl y i nv ok ed , b ec au se

t he s ys te m w as l ar ge ly s el f- re gu la ti ng . I n t he s ma ll g os si py w or l d o f t he

p ri nt s ho ps it wa s n ot e as y t o di sg ui se on e’s ow n w or km an sh ip , an d

p r o f e s s i o n a l s o l i d a r i t y w o u l d n o t e x t e n d t o s u p p o r t i n g a n i n t e r l o p e r w h o

v io l at ed t he r e gu l at or y f ra me wo rk . I n f ac t, a ll t he e st ab li s he d m em be rs

o f a p r i n t f r a t e r n i t y h a d a s t r o n g m u t u a l i n t e r e s t i n e n s u r i n g c o m m e r c i a l

s ta bi l it y. I t i s a n i mp o rt an t r em i nd er t ha t m os t p re ss ur e f or t he r eg ul a-

ti o n of the pri n t i n dus try ca me , as on e cou ld e xp ect i n any p art o f

m ed ia ev al g ui ld s oc ie ty, f ro m w it hi n. W he n l at er i n t he c en tu ry, a nd

u nd er p re ss ur e f ro m t he R ef or ma ti on , g ov er nm en ts b eg an t o e xp lo re

s y s t e m s o f t e x t u a l c e n s o r s h i p , t h e y w e r e a b l e t o b u i l d a r o u n d t h i s a l r e a d y

eff i ci ent s y s tem o f i n d u stri a l s el f - reg u l ati o n .

T h e s y s t e m o f p r i v i l e g e w a s d e s i g n e d t o r e d u c e r i s k i n a n i n d u s t r y s t i l l

f e e l i n g i t s w a y t o w a r d s t h e f u l l p o t e n t i a l o f t h e n e w t e c h n o l o g y . T h i s w a s

a s ys te m t ha t p er mi tt ed , a bo ve a ll , t he p ub li ca ti on o f b ig b oo ks . M os t

b o o k s i n t h e p r e - R e f o r m a t i o n p e r i o d w e r e l a r g e : l o n g a n d o f t e n c o m p l e x

t e x t s , p u b l i s h e d m o s t l y t o s e r v e e s t a b l i s h e d m a r k e t s t h a t h a d b e e n m a j o r

c o n s u m e r s o f m a n u s c r i p t b o o k s . T h e s e i n c l u d e d l e g a l t e x t s a n d c u s t o m -

a ri es ; t re at is es o n m ed ic in e ; s ch oo lb oo ks a nd w or ks o f t he ol og y ; e di -

t io ns o f t h e c la ss ic al a ut ho rs . I n t he f ir s t g en e ra ti on b oo k s w er e p ri nt e d

al mo st e xc lu si ve ly i n l ar ge f or ma ts, t hat i s i n f oli o : t he se w er e b ook s

i nt en de d t o b e c on su lt ed i n a f ix ed l oc at io n, s uc h a s a l ib ra ry. T he l as t

y ea rs o f t he f if te e nt h c en tu r y, h ow e ve r, s aw i nc r ea se d e xp er i me nt at i on

w it h s ma ll f or ma ts : b oo ks i nt en de d t o b e c ar ri ed a bo ut . T he se b oo ks

w er e, i n t he n at ur e o f t hi ng s, l es s e xp en siv e t han t he lo ft y f ol io s, an d

p ub li sh ed w it h a d iff er en t s or t o f c li en te le i n m in d : t he y s ig na ll ed t ha t

p ub l is he rs w er e b eg in ni ng t o c on ce i ve o f a l ar ge r pu bl ic f or b oo ks t ha n

t he e s ta bl is he d c on su me rs o f t he m an us cr i pt a ge .5 T he l as t d ec ad es o f

t he f if te en th c en tu r y a ls o s aw g ro wt h i n t he r ea lm s o f c he ap , e p he me r al

p ri nt . T he p ot en ti al o f t he n ew t ec hn ol og y f or p ur el y e ph em er al p ri nt

h ad b ee n r ec og ni ze d f ro m t he f ir st y ea rs o f t he d ev el op me nt o f t he n ew

t e c hn o lo g y. S i ng l e- s h ee t i n du l ge n c e c e rt i f ic a te s w e re a m on g st t h e f i rs t

w o r k o f t h e G u t e n b e r g p r e s s , a n d s u c h w o r k w a s n o d o u b t a s t a p l e o f t h e

5F o r t h e c r uc i al c o nt ri b ut io n t o t h is d e ve l op me n t o f t h e f a mo u s A l di n e p r es s o f Ve n ic e ,s e e H . G e or g e F l et c he r, I n P r ai s e o f A l du s M a nu t iu s . A Q u in c e nt e na r y E x hi b it i on (NewYork, 1995) . M a rt i n D a vi s , A l du s M a nu t iu s. P r in t er a n d P u bl is h er o f R e na i ss an c e Ve n ic e(London, 1995).




l o c a l j o b b i n g p r e s s e s i n t h e f i r s t i n c u n a b u l a a g e .6 H o w e v e r , b y t h e e n d o f

t he c en tu ry c he ap p ri nt w as b eg in ni ng t o e xp an d i ts r an ge . T he p er io d

a f t e r 1 4 9 0 sa w t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f w h a t m i g h t l e g i t i m a t e l y b e c a l l e d n e w s

pamphlets.7 T he se w er e v er y o ft en i n t he f ir st i ns ta nc e o ff ic ia l p ub l ic a-

t io ns , i ss ue d t o j us ti fy r oy al a ct io ns t o t he l ar ge r p ol it ic al n at io n. T he

f ac t t ha t t he se t ex ts w er e o ft en t ak en up an d r ep ub li sh ed fo r p ur el y

c om me r ci al r ea so ns s ug g es ts t ha t t h er e w as a l iv el y m ar ke t f or t h is s or t

o f n ew s, a m ar ke t t ha t t he R ef or ma ti on w ou ld a ls o e xp lo it v er y e ff ec t-

i ve ly. M an y o f t h es e n ew s p am p hl et s w er e s ho r t, a nd i n q ua rt o f or ma t,

o f te n d e co r a te d w i th a n e y e- c at c h in g t i tl e - pa g e w o od c ut : a t tr i bu t e s t h at

w e w i l l c o m e t o a s s o c i a t e w i t h t h e R e f o r m a t i o n Flugschriften. T h e p u b l i -

c at io n o f t he se n ew s p am ph le ts a ls o s ig na ll ed i nc re as ed u se o f t he

v er na cu la r, a f ea tu re a ls o e vi de nt i n a n i nc re as in g n um be r o f l ar ge r

b oo k s. T he se i nc lu de d g en re s t ha t h ad s uc c es sf ul ly m ad e t h e t ra ns it io n

f ro m m an us cr i pt t o p ri nt , s uc h a s t h e p op ul ar c hi va lr ic r om an ce s. T he

p ub li cat io n o f su ch wo rk s i n i nc re asi ng num be rs w as a si gn t hat t he

p u bl i sh i ng i nd us t ry h a d r e co g ni ze d t h e c o mm er c ia l p o ss i bi l it i es o f

r e ad er s o ut si de t he s ch ol ar ly c om mu ni ty, p ar ti cu la rl y t he g ro wi ng

m a rk e t i n r e c re a ti o na l r e ad i ng .

T h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e b o o k m a r k e t t o w a r d s t h i s m a t u r i t y o f c o m m e r c i a l

p r ac t ic e a nd d iv er si fi ca ti on o f g en re i nc lu de d m an y f ea tu re s t h at w er e

c om m o n t o t he E u r op e an b o o k w or l d a s a w h ol e . T h e s h ap e a n d

p hy si ca l a pp ea ra nc e o f a L at in b ook p ub lis he d i n B as le w ou ld h av e

m u c h i n c o m m o n w i t h o n e p u b l i s h e d i n V e n i c e o r P a r i s . A l l w e r e s u b j e c t

t o s im il ar m ar ke t d is ci p li ne s o f p ri ce a nd d is tr ib ut io n. N ev er th el es s,

e mb ed de d w it h in t hi s c om mo n p at te r n w er e m an y s ig n if ic an t r eg io na l

variations.8 I n p a rt i cu l ar, t h e i m po r t an t r e st r u ct u ri n g a nd c o ns o li d at i on

o f t h e i n d u s t r y t h a t o c c u r r e d b e t w e e n 1 4 9 0 a n d 1 5 2 0 d i d n o t h a p p e n i n

t he s am e w ay t hr ou gh ou t E ur op e. I n s om e o f E ur op e’s m aj or c ul tu ra l

z o n e s , t h i s p e r i o d s a w t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f o n e d o m i n a n t c e n t r e o f p r i n t :

i n F ra nc e, P ar is ; i n t he N et he rl an ds , A nt we rp . I n t he r el at iv el y s ma ll

b oo k w or ld o f E ng la nd , b y t he b e gi nn in g o f t h e s ix te en t h c en tu ry p ri nt

w as e xc lu si ve ly c on ce nt ra te d i n t he c ap it al , L on do n, a s it ua ti on t ha t

w ou ld b e m ai nt ai ne d w it h l it t le v ar ia ti on t hr ou gh ou t t h e c e nt ur y.

E ng la nd w as a ls o u nu su al i n t ha t i t p la ye d l it t le p ar t i n t h e i nt er n at io na l

6 A l b e rt K a p r, Johann Gutenberg. The Man and his Invention (Aldershot, 1996) , p p. 1 89 –9 7,238–40.

7S e g u in , ‘ L’ i n fo r m a ti o n a l a fi n d u X Ve s iec l e e n F r an c e’ . J e an - Pi e rr e S e gu i n, L’infor-m a t i o n e n F r a n c e d e L o u i s X I I a H e n ri I I (G e n e va , 1 9 6 1 ).

8 T h es e i s su e s a r e e x pl o re d w i th d e ta i le d s t at i st i ca l a n a ly s is i n P e tt e gr e e a n d H a ll , ‘ T heR e fo r ma t io n a n d t h e B o ok : A R e co n si d er a ti o n’ .




t ra de i n L at in b oo ks , a t ra de w hi ch w as a c or ne rs to ne o f t he d om in an t

p os it io n e st ab li sh ed b y b ot h P ar is a nd A nt we rp , a nd b y B as le f or t he

S w i s s C o n f e d e r a t i o n . E l s e w h e r e , t h e o t h e r m a j o r l a n g u a g e r e g i o n s o f t h e

e m e rg i ng E u ro p e an p r in t w o rl d e v ol v ed w i th o ut a d o mi n an t c e nt r e . T h i s

w as t ru e o f b ot h S pa in a nd I t al y, w h er e Ve ni ce a nd R om e w er e i mp or t -

a nt w i th ou t s wa mp in g o th e r c e nt r es o f p ri nt c ul tu re i n t h e p en i ns ul a. I t

w a s t r u e m o s t o f a l l o f t h e G e r m a n - s p e a k i n g l a n d s o f t h e E m p i r e . H e r e a

n u m b e r o f m a j o r c i t i e s a l l m a i n t a i n e d r o b u s t p r i n t i n g c u l t u r e s : C o l o g n e ,

N ur em b er g , L e ip z ig , V ie n na a nd A ug sb ur g a ll e s ta b li s he d i mp o rt a nt

r ol es a s r eg io na l n od al p oi nt s, w hi le C ol og ne a ls o p la ye d a s ig ni fi ca nt

p a r t i n t h e i n te r na t io n al L a ti n t r a de . T h e d i st i n ct i ve d e ve l o pm e nt o f t h e

G er ma n c ul tu ra l a re a n o d ou bt o we d s om et hi ng t o p ol it ic al c ir cu m-

s ta nc e s, p ar t ic ul ar ly t he l ac k o f a s tr on g c en tr a l p ol it ic a l a ut h or i ty ; t he

r o b u s t l o c a l i s m o f G e r m a n e c o n o m i c l i f e a n d s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s o n o

d ou bt f ou nd i ts e ch o i n t hi s v er y f ra gm en te d p ri nt w or ld . T he c on se -

q ue nc es w er e f el t p ar ti cu la rl y i n a d iff er en t, a nd v er y m uc h l es s r ig id ,

c ul tu re o f r eg ul at i on . I t w as f ar m or e d iff ic ul t t o s up p re ss r iv al p ub li c a-

t io ns i f a n a lt e rn at iv e c en tr e o f p r od uc ti o n l ay j us t o ut si de t h e p ol it i ca l

j ur i sd ic ti on ( t hi s a pp li ed a l so t o s om e e xt en t i n I ta ly ).

T hi s h ad i mp or ta nt i mp li ca ti on s f or t he r ol e o f p ri nt c ul tu re i n t he

R ef or ma ti on . I t i s u nd ou bt e dl y v er y i mp or t an t f or t he p a rt ic ul ar r ol e o f

t h e b o o k i n t h e G e r m a n R e f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e e v a n g e l i c a l m o v e m e n t w a s

f i r s t i n c u b a t e d i n t h e o n e p a r t o f t h e E u r o p e a n b o o k w o r l d l e a s t s u s c e p -

t ib le t o t he s ys te m o f c ont ro ls t hat h ad e me rg ed t o p ro te ct and s hap e

b oo k p ub li sh in g i n t he i nc un ab ul a a ge . L oc al s ys te ms o f p ri vi le ge a nd

r eg u la ti on w er e r es pe ct ed i n G e rm an y w h en t he y b en ef it e d t he p r in te rs

( a s w as t he c as e e ls ew h er e) . B ut f ac e d w it h t he o ve r wh e lm in g c om me r -

c ia l o pp or tu ni ty p os ed b y t he e va ng el ic al e xc it em en t o f t he 1 52 0s ,

G er ma n p ub li sh er s c ou ld s ei ze i t i n a f ar m or e u ni nh ib it ed w ay t ha n,

f or i ns ta nc e, t he p ri nt er s o f P ar is an d L on do n. I t w ou ld p ro ve t o b e a

cru ci al d i s ti n cti on .

Boomtown Wittenberg

W hi le i t i s a c om mo np la ce t ha t t he b oo k m ad e t he R ef or ma ti on ( al be it

o n e t h i s s t u d y i s i n t e n d e d t o t e s t ) , i t i s e q u a l l y c e r t a i n t h a t t h e R e f o r m a -

t io n c ha ng ed t he b oo k. Th is w as n eve r m or e t he c as e t ha n in t he fi rs t

g e n e r a t i o n , a n d i n L u t h e r ’ s h o m e t o w n o f W i t t e n b e r g . I n t h i s w e h a v e t o

r ec o gn iz e, a s i n t he R ef or ma ti on i ts el f, t h e p re do mi na nt r ol e o f L ut he r.

M a r t i n L u t h e r w a s a w r i t e r o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y p o w e r a n d v e r s a t i l i t y – f r o m

t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f h i s p u b l i s h e r s t h i s s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c w o u l d p r o v e

t o b e a l m o s t a s i m p or t an t a s t he f i r st . Ye t i n a l l t h e m o u n t ai n o u s




l it er at ur e o n L ut he r’s p ub li sh ed w or ks i t i s r ar el y a ck no wl ed ge d h ow

s hr ew dl y L ut he r s ha pe d h is w ri ti ng f or t he m ar ke t p la ce . F or a t he ol o-

g ia n t ra in ed t o a m or e f or ma l t rad it io n o f t ec hni ca l de ba te t hi s w as

a lr ea dy e xt ra or di na ry. I n f ac t L ut h er e mb ra c ed t he t e ch no lo g y o f p ri nt

w it h a q ui te u ni qu e u nd er st an di ng o f i ts y et u nr ec og ni ze d p ot en ti al ,

w or ki ng c lo se ly w it h p ri nt er s a nd p ub li sh er s t o n ur tu re t he m ar ke t t o

s er ve t he n ee ds o f t he n ew m ov em en t .

I n t he p r oc es s L ut h er a nd h is p ub li sh e rs p r op e ll e d Wi tt en be r g t o t h e

f r o n t r a n k o f G e r m a n p u b l i s h i n g c e n t r e s – a p h e n o m e n o n t h a t d e f i e d t h e

c o mm e r ci a l l o gi c o f t h e c i ty ’s r a th e r i s ol a te d e a st e r n l o ca t io n , s o me w h at

o ff t he m ai n n od al p oi nt s o f t he E ur op ea n t ra de n et wo rk . Wi tt en be rg

h a d n o p r i n t i n g i n d u s t r y a t a l l b e f o r e 1 5 0 2 , t h e y e a r o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f

the u n i vers i ty.9 A lt ho ug h f ro m t hi s d at e a s uc ce ss io n o f s ma ll p ri nt er s

s et tl ed i n t he c it y, n on e a tt em pt ed a ny th in g m or e a mb it io us t ha n t he

p ub li ca ti on o f r ou ti ne s ch oo lb oo ks f or t he u se o f t he s tu de nt s a nd

p r o f e s s o r s . I n t h e y e a r s b e f o r e 1 5 1 7 W i t t e n b e r g ’ s p r i n t e r s r e m a i n e d v e r y

m uc h i n t h e s ha do w o f n ea rb y L e ip zi g, w h ic h h ad d ev el op e d a t hr i vi ng

c om mu ni ty o f p r in te r s. L ei pz ig w as a ls o, b ec au se o f i ts m ed ia ev al t ra de

f ai r, a m aj or c en tr e o f t he b oo k t ra de i n n or th a nd e as te rn G er ma ny. I t

w as t he re fo re t o L ei pz ig t ha t L ut he r i ns ti nc ti ve ly t ur ne d t o b ri ng h is

e ar li est w or ks t o t he ma rk et , f or a ll t ha t L ei pzi g, t he p ri nc ip al c it y of

E rn es ti ne S ax on y, w as n ot a ll ow ed p ub li cl y t o e mb ra ce t he R ef or ma -

t i o n : a c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t w o u l d i n t h e l o n g e r t e r m p r o v e f a t a l t o i t s l o c a l

p r im a c y i n t h e p u bl i sh i ng t r ad e .

T h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s s u c c e s s o f t h e S e r m o n o n I n d u l g e n c e s (1 5 1 8 ) a l erted

Wi tt en be r g’s b us in e ss e l it e t o t he p ot en ti al p r of it s t ha t w ou ld f lo w f ro m

L ut he r’s n ew p ub li c p ro fi le : p ro fi ts t ha t w ou ld , u nl es s t he p ri nt in g

i nd us t ry was r ap id ly e xp an de d, f al l t o p ri nt er s i n L ei pz ig , E rf ur t a nd

elsewhere.10 On e of t he f ir st o f t he ne w ar ri val s w as M el ch io r Lo tt er,

w ho i n 1 51 9 w as i nd uc ed ( in f ac t b y a p er so na l a pp ea l f ro m L ut he r) t o

e st ab li sh i n Wi tt en be rg a b ra nc h o f h is p ro sp er ou s L ei pz ig o pe ra ti on .

T he e st ab li sh ed f ir m o f J oh an n R ha u- Gr un en be rg a ls o p ro fi te d f ro m

L ut he r’s p at ro na ge , t ho ug h t hi s v et er an o f t he l es s s op hi st ic at ed a ge

b e fo re t he R ef or ma t io n w ou l d i nc r ea si ng ly i nc ur L ut he r ’s w ra th f or h is

9 F or w ha t f ol lo ws , H an s Vo lz , ‘ Di e A rb ei ts te il un g d er Wi tt en be rg er B uc hd ru ck er z uLuthers Lebzieten’, G u t en b erg J a h r bu ch (1957), p p . 1 4 6 – 5 4 . H e l m u t C l a u s , ‘ W i t t e n b e r ga l s D r u ck e r s ta d t ’, i n R ech t l eh r en i s t n i ch t d i e g er i n g s t e W o h l t a t . W i t t en b er g a l s B i l d u n g s z en -t r u m, 1 5 0 2 – 20 0 2 (Wittenberg, 2002) , p p. 7 5– 20 1. J oh n F lo od , ‘ Th e B oo k i n R ef or ma -t io n G er ma ny ’, i n J ea n- Fr an co i s G il mo nt ( e d. ), T he Reformation and the Book(A l d er s h o t, S t A n d r ew s S t u d ie s i n R e f o rm a t io n H i s t or y, 1998) , p p . 2 1 – 1 0 3.

10 Josef Benzing, L u th er b ib l i og r a p h ie. Ver z ei ch n is d er g ed r uck t en S ch r if t en M a r ti n L u t h er s b i sz u d e s s e n T o d (B a d en -B a de n , 1 9 6 6 ), n o s . 9 0 – 1 0 4.




s h o dd y w o r km a ns h ip .11 T he y ea r 1 52 3 w it ne ss ed t he a rr iva l o f t he

f am ou s H a ns L u ff t, w ho s e w or ks h op w ou l d g ro w t o b e o n e o f t he

c or ne r st on es o f t h e Wi tt e nb er g i nd us tr y f or t he n ex t s ix ty y ea rs . A lo ng -

s i d e t h e s e n e w c o m e r s i t i s h i g h l y i n d i c a t i v e t h a t t h e n e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f

b oo k p ub li sh i ng a ls o a tt ra c te d t h e i nt e re st o f s om e o f t he m os t s ub st an -

t ia l m em be rs o f Wi tten be rg ’s b us in es s e li te : m en l ik e T ho ma s D oring

a n d L u ca s C r an a ch .12 A lt ho u gh n ow k no wn a lm os t e xc lu si ve l y f or h is

p ai nt in g, C ra na ch h ad i n f ac t b ui lt h is f or tu ne t hr ou gh a w id e r an ge o f

e co no mi c v en tu re s : h e h el d a l oc al m on op ol y i n b ot h s we et w in es a nd

s p i c e s f o r h i s a p o t h e c a r y t r a d e ( n o m e a n p r i v i l e g e f o r a u n i v e r s i t y t o w n ) .

T he w i l y C ra na ch qu i ck ly s aw m on ey i n bo o k s . He a l rea dy h ad an

e s ta bl is he d p la ce i n t he b us in es s t h ro ug h h is l ar ge p ai nt in g w or k sh op ,

a n d i t s e f f e c t i v e m o n o p o l y o n t h e d e s i g n a n d e x e c u t i o n o f a n y w o o d c u t s

r eq ui re d b y p ub li sh e rs f or i ll us t ra ti on s o r t it l e- pa ge d ec or at i on . I t i s

i n de e d t o C r an ac h ’s w o rk s ho p t h at w e o w e o n e o f t h e d i s t in c ti v e f e at u r es

o f e ar ly Wi tt en be r g i mp ri nt s , t he ir b e au ti fu l t it le -p ag e b or de r f ra me s.

D is ti ng ui sh ed b ot h f or t he ir c la ri ty o f l in e a nd s op hi st ic at ed c on ce p-

t io n, t he se t it le -p ag e b or de rs b ec ame p ar t o f t he di st in ct ive li ve ry o f

Wi tten berg pu bl ica t io ns, a nd p la ye d no sm al l p ar t i n t he ir s uc ce ss i n

t he m ar k et p la ce .13

C ran ac h w as al so ab le t o e xp lo it h is l on gs tan di ng f ri en ds hi p w it h

L u t h e r t o e n s u r e t h a t h i s b u s i n e s s r e c e i v e d a g o o d p r o p o r t i o n o f L u t h e r ’ s

n e w c o m p o s i t i o n s t o b r i n g t o t h e m a r k e t . I n a l e t t e r t o S p a l a t i n o f 1 5 2 5 ,

L u t h e r r e p o r t e d t h a t h e w a s h a n d i n g o v e r t o C r a n a c h t h e m a n u s c r i p t o f

his C hr i stl i che Schr i f t an W o l f g an g Rei ssen bu sch t o p r i n t i n t h e h o p e t h a t h e

m i g ht get so me p ea ce f ro m ot he r p rin te rs c lam our in g f or h is m an u-

s cri pts .14 W he n t he m ar ke t t hr ea te ne d t o b ec om e o ve rh ea te d i n t he

m id -1 52 0s , C ra na ch w it hd re w f ro m d ir ec t i nv ol ve me nt i n t he p ri nt

s ho ps , t ho ug h h e s ti ll r et ai ne d a f ir m i nt er es t i n t he t ra de t hr ou gh h is

r ol e i n t he p r od uc t io n o f w oo dc u ts .

C r an a ch ’s e x p lo i ta t io n o f h i s a dv a nt a ge o us p o si t i on i n Wi t te n b er g ’s

b usi ne ss e lit e w oul d no do ub t h av e b ee n m or e r es en te d h ad no t t he

m a r k e t i n t h e s e e a r l y y e a r s b e e n s o e l a s t i c . B e t w e e n 1 5 1 8 a n d 1 5 2 3 s o m e

6 00 e di ti on s w er e p ub li sh e d i n Wi tt en b er g , a n a st on is hi ng f ig ur e w h en

11 A s f or i ns ta nc e i n L ut he r’s l et te r t o S pa la ti n o f A ug us t 1 52 1, w he re h e c om pl ai ne d o f R h au ’s c a re l es s w o rk m an s hi p a n d p o or t y pe f ac e s . S e e P r es e rv e d S m it h , T he L if e a nd L e tt e rs o f M a rt i n L u th e r ( B os t on , 1 9 11 ) , p . 1 2 4.

12 O n C r an a ch s e e J o hn F l oo d , ‘ L uc a s C r an a ch a s P u bl i sh e r’ , G e r ma n L i fe a n d L e tt e rs, 48(1995) , p p . 2 4 1 – 6 3.

13 C r a n a c h i m D e t a i l . B u c h s c h m u c k L u c a s C r a n a c h s d e s A l t eren u n d s ei n er W er k st a t t (Witten-berg, 1994).

14 F l oo d , ‘ C ra n ac h a s P u bl i sh e r’ , p . 2 4 4.




F ig ur e 6 .1 . T he l iv er y o f t he n ew l it er at ur e. T he c ha ra ct er is ti c a ndd is ti nc ti ve t it le -p ag e d es ig ns d ev el op ed i n t he C ra na ch w or ks ho p

h el pe d m ak e t he R ef or ma ti on Flugschriften i n s ta n tl y r e co g ni za b le t o

t h e ir a u d i en c e .




o ne t hi nk s t ha t t en y ea rs e ar li er t he a nn ua l o ut pu t o f b oo ks w ou ld n ot

h a v e r e a c h e d d o u b l e f i g u r e s . S o m e o f t h e s e b o o k s w e r e a l s o p u b l i s h e d i n

e di ti on s f ar l ar ge r t ha n no rm al . T he c us to ma ry s iz e of an e di ti on is

g e n e r a l l y e s t i m a t e d a t b e t w e e n 1 , 2 0 0 a n d 1 , 4 0 0 c o p i e s . B u t f o r L u t h e r ’ s

To t he C hr is ti an N ob il it y o f t he G er ma n N at io n i n 1 52 0 M el ch io r L ot t er

p ub lis he d a f ir st e di ti on of so me 4 ,0 00 c op ie s : a p ub li sh er h ad to be

e xt re me ly c on fi de nt o f h is m ar ke t t o j us ti fy a n o rd er o f t hi s s iz e.15 Yet

d e m a n d f o r L u t h e r ’ s w o r k s h a d a l r e a d y s h o w n t h a t s u c h c o n f i d e n c e w a s

w e l l j u s t i f i e d . M a n y o f L u t h e r ’ s n e w w o r k s s o l d o u t i n a m a t t e r o f d a y s ;

t he m os t p op ula r w ent t hr ou gh m an y r ep ri nt s i n t he c our se o f a f ew

months.

F or p ub li sh er s t hi s w as a n e xp er ie nc e u np re ce de nt ed i n t he b ri ef

h is to ry o f t he p ri nt in g i nd us tr y. F or L ut he r’s w or ks o ff er ed b ot h a

g ua r an te e o f s uc ce ss a nd a n e xc e pt io na ll y r ap i d r et ur n o n i nv es t me nt

c ap it al . P re vi ou sl y, p ub li sh er s m ig ht r ec ko n o n p ub li sh in g e no ug h

c op ie s t o s up pl y t he m ar ke t f or t wo o r t hr ee y ea rs , a nd t he y k ne w f ro m

b i t t e r e x p e r i e n c e t h a t m a n y b o o k s t o o k f a r l o n g e r f o r t h e p r i n t r u n t o b e

e xh au st e d. A l ar g e a mo un t o f c ap it al w as n ec e ss ar il y t ie d u p i n b ot h t he

p ro du ct io n p ro ce ss ( es pe ci al ly i n t he p ro vi si on o f p ap er ) a nd i n w ar e-

h ou si ng s to ck . T he c os t of t ra ns po rt ing b oo ks t o a w ide ly s cat te re d

m ar ke t a lso i nt rod uc ed a l ar ge d iff er ent ia l b et we en t he p ri ce p ai d t o

t he p ri nt er an d t he r et ai l p ri ce p ai d b y t he p ur ch ase r. Th es e w er e t he

h ar sh e c on om ic r ea li ti e s t ha t d ic ta te d t h at l ar ge r p r oj ec t s ( pa rt ic u la rl y

t he g ra nd er L at in e di ti on s w it h a E ur op e- wi de s al e) c ou ld o nl y b e

u n de r t ak e n b y t h e m o re s e cu r el y c a pi t al i ze d h o us e s.

T h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y d e m a n d f o r L u t h e r ’ s w r i t i n g s c o m p l e t e l y s u b v e r t e d

t h e se c a ut i ou s e c on o mi c s. T h e v i rt u ou s e c o no m ic c o nj u nc t io n t h at g a ve

g ua r an te ed , q ui ck p ro fi ts a pp li ed e ve n t o t h e m os t c om pl e x p ub l is hi ng

project und er t ak en i n t h es e y ea rs , L ut h er ’s t r an sl at io n o f t h e N ew Te s-

ta m en t.16 T hi s am bi t iou s f o l i o w a s on a s ca l e n ot y et a tt em pt ed i n

Wi tt en be rg , a nd t o s ee t he p ro je ct t hr ou gh L ut he r h ad t ur ne d t o t hr ee

o f t he i nd us tr y’s m os t s ub st an ti al f ig ur e s : M el ch io r L ot t er, T ho ma s

Dor in g a nd L uc as C ra na ch . T he l at te r t wo p re su ma bl y s up pl ie d t he

c ap it al a nd L ot t er t he p ri nt i ng e xp er t is e ; C ra na c h’s w or k sh op a ls o e xe -

c u t e d t h e f u l l - p a g e w o o d c u t i l l u s t r a t i o n s ( t w e n t y - o n e i n a l l ) t h a t b e c a m e

s uc h a d is ti nc t iv e f ea tu re o f t hi s a nd s ub se q ue nt e di ti on s. T he p ro je ct

15 S ee L ut he r’s l et te r t o L an g, Wi tt en be rg , 1 8 A ug us t 1 52 0, q uo te d i n S mi th , L if e a nd Letters, p . 8 6 .

16 Heimo Reinitzer, B i b l ia d e u ts c h. L u th e rs B i be l u b e rs e tz u ng u n d i h re T ra d it i on (Wolfenbut-tel, 1983) . J oh n F lo od , ‘ Ma rt in L ut he r’s B ib le T ra ns la ti on i n i ts G er ma n a nd I nt er -n a ti o na l C o nt e xt ’ , i n R i ch a rd G ri ff i th s ( e d. ) , T h e B ib le i n t he R en ai ss an ce (Aldershot,S t A n d re w s S t u d ie s i n R e f o rm a t i on H i s to r y, 2001) , p p. 4 5– 7 0.




w as fi ve mo nt hs i n t he p ri nt in g h ous e, at on e p oi nt b ei ng p ri nt ed o n

t hr ee p re ss es s im ul ta ne ou sl y t o e ns ur e t ha t i t d id n ot m is s t he a ut um n

F ra nk fu rt f ai r, w he re i t w as e ag er ly a wa it ed : a nx io us t im es e ve n f or i ts

w el l- he el ed s po ns or s. T he y n ee d n ot h av e w or ri ed . T he S ep te mb er

Te s ta m en t w a s a n i m me d ia t e s u cc e s s, a n d a n ot h e r e d it i on w a s i m me d i-

a te ly s et i n t ra in . T hi s w as t he b eg in ni n g o f a n e xt r ao rd in ar y p ub l is hi ng

p he no me no n t ha t s wi ft ly e mb ra ce d a ll o f G er ma ny, a nd f ro m 1 52 3

e xt en de d t o b oo ks o f t he O ld Te st am en t, p ub li sh ed i n p ar ts a s L ut he r

a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s f i n i s h e d t h e w o r k o f t r a n s l a t i o n . B y t h e t i m e t h e w o r k

w as f in al ly c om pl et e i n 1 53 4 G er ma ny ’s p ub li sh er s h ad b rought out

s om e 2 00 e di ti on s o f t he N ew Te st am en t a nd p ar ts o f t he O ld .17

T h i s s u c c e s s w a s a l l t h e m o r e r e m a r k a b l e b e c a u s e t h i s w a s n o t a c h e a p

b oo k : a b ou nd c op y o f t he L ut he r Ne w Te st am en t w ou ld c os t up t o a

g u ld e n, a s u bs t an t i al s u m e v e n f o r a c o mp a ra t iv e ly p r os p er o us f a mi l y.18

B ut t hi s w as a pp ar e nt l y n o d is in c en ti ve . F or m an y c it iz en s, i nd ee d, t h at

p r i c e m a y h a v e i n c r e a s e d t h e a l l u r e : t h e m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l t h e o u t l a y , t h e

m or e t an gi bl e t he c om mi tm en t t o t he n ew G os pe l p ri nc ip le s. S om e

p ur ch a se r s w en t t o c on si de ra bl e a dd it io na l e xp e ns e t o b in d a nd e mb e l-

l is h t he n ew ly p ur ch as ed B ib le i n a m an ne r b ef it ti ng i ts s ta tu s i n t he ir

n ew r el ig io us l if e. F or Wi tt en be r g’s p ub li sh er s s uc h g od ly p ri nc ip le s

w er e t he r ou t e t o c on si de ra bl e p r os pe ri ty, w he n o ne c on si de rs t ha t o ve r

1 00 , 00 0 c op ie s o f L ut h er ’s N ew Te st am e nt a re r ec ko ne d to h a ve b e en

p r in t e d i n Wi t te n b er g a l on e d u ri n g t h e r e fo r me r ’s l i fe t im e .19

L u t h e r r e j o i c e d a t t h e s u c c e s s o f h i s w r i t i n g s , t h o u g h t h e y b r o u g h t h i m

n o d ir ec t f in an ci al b en ef it , a nd t he i ns is te nt c la mo ur f or n ew t ex ts

o c ca s io n al l y s t ra i ne d h i s p a ti e nc e . A t o n e p o in t t h e p r in t er s a p pr o ac h e d

L u t h e r w i t h t h e o f f e r o f a n a n n u a l h o n o r a r i u m i n r e t u r n f o r t h e e x c l u s i v e

r i g h t t o p u b l i s h h i s ne w w r i t i n g s : t h e p r o f f e r e d s u m w o u l d h a v e d o u b l e d

h i s a n nu a l i n co m e.20 T h e r e fo r me r p r e fe r re d t o m a in t ai n h i s i n de p en d -

e nc e, t ho ug h h e w as c er ta in ly a wa re o f h is p ow er i n t he m ar ke t p la ce .

L ut h er d id h is b es t t o s us ta in t he t ra de b y d iv id in g h is w ri ti ng s b e tw e en

t h e d iff er en t p ri nt in g h ou se s ; n ec e ss ar il y, s in ce t o b e d ep r iv ed o f a cc e ss

t o t h e s e p r o j e c t s c o u l d s p e l l f i n a n c i a l r u i n . S u c h w a s t h e f a t e o f M e l c h i o r

17 L i s te d i n R e i n it z e r, B i b l ia d eu t sch, p p. 1 16 –2 7.18 T hi s w as t he e qu iv al en t o f t he c os t o f a p ig r ea dy f or s la ug ht er. T he u nb ou nd s he et s

w ou ld h av e c os t 1 0½ g ro sc he n, j us t u nd er h al f t hi s s um ( 1 g ul de n = 2 4 g ro sc he n) .F l oo d , ‘ M ar t in L u th e r’ s B i bl e T r an s la t io n ’, p . 5 1 . O f c o ur s e t h e c o mp l et e B i bl e w o ul dh a v e b e e n m u c h m o r e e x p e n s i v e . I n 1 5 4 3 J o a c h i m v o n A l v e n s l e b e n p a i d 5 g u l d e n f o r ab ou nd c op y o f L ut he r’s 1 54 1 B ib le , t he e qu iv al en t o f 5 p er c en t o f a p as to r’s a nn ua li n co m e (Ibid.).

19 F l oo d , ‘ B oo k i n R e fo r ma t io n G e rm a ny ’ , p . 6 9 .20 T h e p r in t er s o ff e re d 4 0 0 g u ld e n p e r a n nu m . L u t h er ’s a n nu a l s a la r y w a s 3 0 0 g u ld e n.




L o t t e r , w h e n i n 1 5 2 5 h e a l l o w e d h i s n o t o r i o u s t e m p e r t o g e t t h e b e t t e r o f

h im , an d h e b eat a b oo k bi nd er ’s a pp re n ti ce s o b ad ly t ha t t he b oy ’s l if e

w a s e n da n ge r e d.21 A lt ho ug h h e e sc ap ed wi th a h eav y f ine , t he m or e

s e ri ou s p un i sh me nt w as t h e w it hd r aw al o f L ut he r ’s p at r on ag e. R at h er

t ha n f ac e c er ta in r ui n t he d is gr ac e d p ri nt e r s oo n l ef t Wi tt en b er g.

T h i s i n c i d e n t o n l y s e r v e d t o u n d e r l i n e L u t h e r ’ s v i t a l i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e

e n te r p ri s es t h a t w e re s w if t ly t r an s fo r mi n g t h e l o ca l e c o no m y. O n e m u st

b e a r i n m i n d t h a t t h e p r i n t i n g p h e n o m e n o n a l s o c r e a t e d a h o s t o f j o b s i n

a n c i l l a r y t r a d e s : b o o k b i n d e r s , b o o k s e l l e r s a n d w h o l e s a l e m e r c h a n t s s u p -

p l y i n g t h e m a r k e t i n o t h e r p a r t s o f G e r m a n y . T h e g r o w t h o f p r i n t i n g a l s o

c r e a t e d a h e a l t h y d e m a n d f o r p a p e r , a s h o r t a g e o f w h i c h c o u l d s h i p w r e c k

t he b e st -o rg a ni ze d b us in es s. ( On e i s n ot s ur p ri se d t o l ea rn t ha t t h e e ve r

p ru de n t C ra na ch h ad a ls o i nv es te d i n a l oc al p ap er m il l. ) Wi tt en b er g’s

e co no my a ls o b en ef it ed f ro m t he r ap id e xp an si on o f t he u ni ve rs it y, a s

s tu de nt s f lo ck ed f ro m a ll p ar ts o f G er ma ny a nd b ey on d, a tt ra ct ed b y

L ut he r’ s r en ow n a nd t he g ro wi ng r e pu ta ti on o f t h e u ni ve r si ty ’s p r of es -

s or s. I n s om e y ea rs s tu de nt s m ad e u p a t hi rd o f t he t ow n’s p op ul at io n,

a nd i nn ke e pe r s, l an dl or ds a nd t ra de s me n a ll b en e fi te d f ro m t he i nf lu x.

T he p ac e o f e c on om ic g ro wt h i ne vi ta bl y b r ou gh t s om e p a in fu l a dj us t-

m e nt s. R en t s a nd t he p ri ce o f f oo d a nd c on su ma bl e s i nc re as ed dramat-

i c a l l y , d o u b l i n g i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e f i r s t f o r t y y e a r s o f t h e c e n t u r y .22 This

s o r t o f i n f l a t i o n d e a l t a c r u e l b l o w t o a n y l o c a l r e s i d e n t s w h o h a d n o t h i n g

t o s e l l t o t h e n e w c o m e r s . T h e r e w e r e f r e q u e n t c o m p l a i n t s a t t h e o p u l e n t

l if es t yl e o f t h e s tu de n ts , m an y o f w ho m c am e f ro m p ro sp e ro us b u rg he r

families.

B ut t he se w er e t he p ro bl em s o f s uc ce ss . Wi tt en be rg ’s n ew c el eb ri ty

t ra ns fo rm e d b ot h i ts s ta tu s a nd i ts e co no m y a nd t he n ew w ea lt h d ra wn

i nt o t he t ow n w as s oo n e vi de nt i n t he c it y’s p hy si ca l a pp ea ra nc e. N ew

h ou se s w er e b ui lt f or t he f as t- gr ow in g p op ul at io n, a n d t he t ow n’s

p ri nc i pa l s tr ee t s w er e s ub st an t ia ll y r e mo de ll ed a s t h e m os t p r os pe ro us

c i ti ze ns i nv e st ed i n r eb ui ld in g t o c r ea te h ou se s t ha t p r op e rl y r ef le ct ed

t he ir ne w e con omi c s tat us. O ne c an s ti ll s tan d i n f ro nt o f t he p ar ish

c h u r c h o n t h e m a i n s q u a r e a n d l o o k a c r o s s a t M a r k p l a t z 1 , t h e f i n e f o u r -

s to re y h ou se i n t he n ew R en ai ss an ce s ty le w it h w hi ch L uc as C ra na ch

a d v e r t i s e d t h e s u c c e s s o f h i s m u l t i - f a c e t e d b u s i n e s s c a r e e r . I n b o o m t o w n

Wi tt en be rg n on e h ad m or e r ea so n t o p ra is e t he s uc ce ss o f t he G os pe l

t ea ch in g th an t hos e wh o cat ere d t o t he bu oy an t tr ad e in bo ok s an d

learning.

21 V ol z , ‘ A r be i t s te i l un g ’ , p . 1 4 8 .22 H e l m ar J u n g ha n s , W i t t enb er g a l s L u t h ers t a dt (Gottingen, 1979) , p . 1 0 7 .






Jean Girard and Jean Michel.24 B o th , h o we v er, w e re h i gh l y c o mp e t en t

c ra ft sm en , a nd t he y w er e a bl e t o b ri ng t o t he m ar ke t a l ar ge n um be r o f

v er na cu la r t ex ts , m an y of t he m t he s mal l p ol em ic al p am ph le ts w it h

w h ic h C al vi n a nd h is c ol l ea gu es p ur s ue d i n t he se y ea rs t h e u nl i ke ly g oa l

o f t he c on ve r si on o f F r an ce .

I n t h e n e x t t e n y e a r s G e n e v a ’ s p r i n t i n d u s t r y u n d e r w e n t a n e n o r m o u s

e xp an si on , a s n ew p ri nt er s a rr iv ed t o s we ll t he n um be r o f t ho se a ct iv e

i n t he c it y. T hi s t ra ns fo r ma ti on c an b e a tt r ib ut ed t o t hr e e m ai n f ac to rs .

O ne , u n do u bt ed ly, w as C al vi n’s g ro wi ng r en ow n a s a n a ut ho r a nd

preacher.25 I n t he ye ar s a ft er h is r et ur n t o G ene va in 1 54 1 C al vi n h ad

c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e r e p u t a t i o n e a r n e d b y t h e s u c c e s s o f h i s Institutes w i t h a n

e xt r ao rd in ar y o ut po ur i ng o f o ri gi na l w ri ti ng . M an y o f t he s e n ew w or k s

w e re i n te n de d p r in c i pa l ly f o r h i s o w n G e n ev a n c h u rc h , o t h e r s w e re s m al l

p am ph le ts d es ti ne d f or i mp or ta ti on i nt o F ra nc e. B ut w ha t i s m os t

s tr ik ing i s t he s he er r an ge o f C al vi n’s li te rar y a ct iv it y, f ro m w or ks o f

L a ti n c o nt r o ve r sy , d e fe n di n g d o ct r in e s a n d r e fo r me r f r ie n ds , t o b i bl i c al

c om me nt ar ie s, s er mo ns , w or ks o f p as to ra l c om fo rt a nd v ic io us a nt i-

C at ho li c p ol em ic . A s w it h L ut he r, w he n o ne c on si de rs t he t ot al it y o f

C al vi n’s w or k, o ne do es no t k no w w he th er t o a dm ir e m or e h is e xt ra -

o r di n ar y v e rs a ti l it y o r h i s a s to n is h in g p r od uc t i vi t y. I n m o st y e ar s C a lv i n

p ub li sh ed a s m an y a s f ou r o r f iv e n ew ly c om po se d w or ks ; t hi s i n a dd -

i ti on t o h is fr eq uen t r ev isi on s of t he In sti tu tes (a wo rk of more than

4 0 0 , 0 0 0 w o r d s i n i t s f i n a l v e r s i o n ) , a n d h i s b i b l i c a l c o m m e n t a r i e s , e d i t e d

b y f ai th fu l s ec re ta ri es f ro m t he l ec tu re s g iv en i n t he A ud it or iu m. To -

g ether the se add up to a form idabl e ou tput . I n the years aft er 154 4

C al vi n’s n ew c om po si ti on s s eld om f el l b el ow 1 00 ,0 00 w or ds ; i n t he

e ar ly 1 55 0s , w he n t he m aj or c om me nt ar i es w er e m os tl y p ub l is he d, h e

s om e ti me s p ub li sh ed d ou bl e t hi s , o r m o re .26 I f o ne t ak es i nt o a cc ou nt

t h e f r e q u e n t r e p r i n t s a n d n e w e d i t i o n s , t h e n C a l v i n ’ s l i t e r a r y w o r k s a l o n e

w o ul d h a ve b e en e n ou g h t o s u st a in a c o ns i de r ab l e p r in t in g c o mm u ni t y.

Ye t C alv in w as al so r es po ns ib le f or o rc he st ra ti ng t wo o th er m aj or

p ub l is hi ng p r oj ec ts t h at w ou ld s ta nd a lo ng si de h is o wn w ri ti ng s a s t he

24F r a n c i s H i g m a n , ‘ F r e n c h -S p e a k i n g R e g i o n s ’ , i n G i l m o n t , T h e R e f o r m a t i o n a n d t h e B o o k ,p p . 1 1 0 – 1 2 . G . B e r t h o u d , ‘ L e s i m p r e s s i o n s g e n e v o i s e s d e J e a n M i c h e l ( 1 5 3 8 – 1 5 4 4 ) ’ , i n

J. -D. Candaux and B. Lescaze (eds.), C i n q s i e cl es d ’ i m p r i m er i e g en ev o i s e (2 v o l s . , G e n e v a ,1980) , v ol . I , p p. 5 5– 88 . A t hi rd p ri nt er, M ic he l d u B oi s, w as a ct iv e i n G en ev a f or t hes i ng l e y e ar 1 5 40 – 1.

25 F o r C a l v i n a s p r e a c h e r s e e c h a p t e r 3. O n C a l v in ’s w o r k a s a u t h or s e e n o w J e a n -Fr a n co i sGilmont, J ea n C al vi n e t l e l iv re i mp ri me (Geneva, 1997) . T he i nd is pe ns ab le w or k o f r e fe r en c e f o r e d it i on s o f C a lv i n’s w o rk i s J e an - Fr a nco i s G i lm o nt a n d R u do l ph e P e te r,B i b l i o t h eca C a l v i n i a n a . L es o eu v r es d e J ea n C a l v i n p u b l i e e s a u X V I e s i e cle ( 3 v o l s . , G e n e v a ,1991–2000).

26 Gilmont, C a lv i n e t l e l i vr e i m pr i me , p p . 3 7 1 – 6 .




b ed ro ck o f t he G en ev an i nd us tr y : t he F re nc h B ib le a nd t he G en ev an

p sal ms . Th e f ir st e di ti on o f t he Ol ive tan t ran sl at io n o f t he B ib le w as

p ub li sh ed a t N eu chat el i n 1 53 5, a nd t hi s wa s a lr ead y a c ons id er ab le

pu bl i shi n g s u cces s .27 B ut C al vi n f ou nd t he t r an sl at io n u ns at is f ac to ry,

an d sh or tly af te r h is re tu rn to G ene va h e em bar ke d on th e wo rk o f

r e v i s i o n . W h e n c o m p l e t e d i n 1 5 5 1 , t h e r e v i s e d t e x t b e c a m e t h e s t a n d a r d

f or t he F re nc h P ro te st a nt m ov em en t , a pp ea ri ng i n n um er o us G e ne va n

e di ti on s i n a v ar ie ty of f or ma ts . C alv in w as l es s d ir ec tl y i nv ol ve d i n

p r e pa r in g t r a ns l at i on s o f t h e m e tr i ca l p s al m s , b u t h i s e n co u ra g e me n t o f

d e B ez e h e lp ed e ns ur e t ha t t hi s v it al l it ur gi c al t ex t w as a ls o a va il ab l e f or

t h e b u yi n g p u bl i c.

With the vast torre nt of work s pouring from t he pens of Gene van

a ut ho rs – n ot j us t C al vi n b ut V ir et , F ar el a nd o th er s w er e a ll e ng ag ed

i n t h e v e r n a c u l a r c a m p a i g n o f t h e 1 5 4 0 s – G i r a r d ’ s o p e r a t i o n w a s c l e a r l y

t oo s ma ll t o c op e w it h t he v ol um e o f w or ks a va il ab le , a nd t he s ur gi ng

d em an d f ro m t he r ea de r sh ip . T he t ur n in g p oi nt c am e a t t he e n d o f t h e

d e ca d e w i t h t h e a r r i v al o f J e a n C r es p in a n d R o b e rt E s ti e nn e .28 B o t h m e n

w er e f ro m d is t in gu is he d b ac k gr ou nd s : C re sp in s te mm e d f ro m a p at ri -

c ian f am i l y i n A rr as , E st ien ne w as a m e mber o f o n e o f the l ea d i ng

p r in ti ng d yn as ti es i n P ar is . T he ir e st ab li sh me n t o f n ew p ri nt in g f ir ms

( C re sp in i ni ti al ly i n p ar t ne rs h ip w it h C on ra d B ad iu s, s on o f t h e f am ou s

P ar is p ri nt er J os se B ad iu s) b ro ug ht t o G en ev a t he s op hi st ic at io n a nd

c ap it al r es ou rc es o f t he m et ro po li ta n c en tr e o f F re nc h p ri nt c ul tu re .

T he ir a rr iv al w as t he b eg i nn in g o f a m as si ve e mi gr at io n o f p ri nt w or k er s

f ro m F ra nc e t o G en ev a. I n t he n ex t t en y ea rs a t l ea st 1 30 s et tl ed i n t he

c it y, b ri ng in g a h ug e n ew i nj ec ti on o f e xp e ri en ce a nd e xp er t is e.

I t w as a v i t al a s p e ct o f t h i s n e w e m i g r a t i o n t h a t t h e n e wc o m e r s

b r ou gh t w it h t h em n ot o nl y s up er i or e xp er t is e, b ut c on si de ra b le c ap it a l

r e so ur c es . Wi th in a f ew y ea rs o f t he ir a rr iv al b ot h C re sp i n a nd E st ie nn e

w er e a bl e t o e st ab li sh b us in es se s o n a l ar ge r s ca le t ha n a ny th in g p re vi -

o us ly k no wn i n t he c i ty. B ot h r an f ou r p r es se s ( t he m ax i mu m p er mi t te d

b y t he c it y c ou nc il ) a nd d is po se d o f a f ar w id er r an ge o f t yp ef ac es t ha n

t h e m or e m od e st ly f in an ce d o pe ra t io n o f G ir ar d. C al vi n w as d el ig h te d,

a nd g av e t he ne wc om er s h is e nt hu si as ti c s up por t. T he ou tp ut of t he

G en ev an p re ss es m ov ed i nt o a n ew o rd er : f ro m a n a ve ra ge o f n in et ee n

e di ti on s e ac h ye ar i n t he 1 54 0s t o so me th in g o ve r do ub le t hi s i n t he

f o ll o wi n g d e ca d e s. T h es e b a re f i gu r es t o s o me e x te n t d i sg u is e t h e e x t en t

27 B . T. C h am b er s , B i b li o gr a ph y o f F r en c h B i bl e s. F i ft e en th - a n d S i xt e en t h- C en t ur y F r en c h-L a ng u ag e E d it io n s o f t h e S c ri p tu re s (Geneva, 1983) , n o 6 6 .

28 Jean-Francois Gilmont, B i bl i og r ap h ie d e s e d i ti o ns d e J e an C r es p in , 1 5 50 – 15 7 2 ( 2 v ol s. ,Verviers, 1981).




o f t he t ra ns fo rm at io n, s in ce t hi s la tt er p er io d i nc lu de d a f ar h ig he r

nu mb er o f su bs tant ia l p ro je ct s t hat m ig ht oc cup y t he p re ss f or u p t o

s i x m o n t h s a t a t i m e .

T h e e x i l e m o v e m e n t h a d t r a n s f o r m e d G e n e v a ’ s p r i n t i n g i n d u s t r y , a s i t

h ad t he e co no my of t he c it y a s a wh ol e. I mmi gr at io n, it n ow ap pe ars,

n ea rl y d ou bl ed t he p op ul at i on o f t he c it y i n t he s pa ce o f t we n ty y ea rs .29

S uc h a n i nf lu x c au se d e no rm ou s s oc ia l d is ru pt io n. T he c it y b ec am e

o v er c r ow d ed a n d f r ac t i ou s , t h e i n di g en o us p o pu l at i on i n ev i ta b ly r e se n t-

f ul a t t he t hr ea t p os ed b y t he n ew co me rs t o t he ir j ob s a nd h ou si ng . B ut

t he i mp ac t o n t he l oc al e co no my w as dr am at ic , no t l eas t b ec aus e s o

m an y o f t he im mi gr an ts w er e ab le t o b ri ng w it h t he m c on si de ra bl e

c a p i t a l r e s o u r c e s . H o w t h i s s h o u l d h a v e b e e n s o i s s o m e t h i n g o f a p u z z l e .

T he F re nc h a ut ho ri ti es t ri ed t o k ee p a c lo se e ye o n t ho se w ho h ad f le d

a b r o a d , a n d d e c r e e d t h e s u m m a r y c o n f i s c a t i o n o f a n y p r o p e r t y t h e y h a d

l ef t i n F ra nc e. T he c ri ti ca l f ac to r s ee ms t o h av e b ee n t ha t t he G en ev an

e x i l e w a s v e r y g r a d u a l . T h i s e n a b l e d t h o s e p l a n n i n g t o l e a v e F r a n c e t o d o

s o o nl y a ft er c ar ef ul p la nn in g. T he p ri nt er E st ie nn e i s a c as e i n p oi nt –

t he t ra ns fe r o f h is b us in es s t o G en ev a w as p re pa re d o ve r t he c ou rs e o f

f ou r ye ars . This wa s vi tal if t he e xile s hop ed to r ealiz e anyt hing ap -

p ro ac hi ng t he r ea l v al ue o f t he ir a ss et s. W he n t he e xi le m ov em en t

r es ul te d f ro m a s ud de n p ol it ic a l p e rt ur b at io n ( as i n t he N et h er l an ds i n

1 56 7 or F ra nc e a ft er t he St B ar th ol om ew ’s D ay m as sa cr e) so mu ch

p ro pe rt y w ou ld c om e o n t he m ar ke t t ha t p ri ce s p lu mm et ed . P ot en ti al

p u r c h a s e r s w e r e k e e n l y a w a r e t h a t t h o s e a n x i o u s t o d i s a p p e a r w e r e n o t i n

t he p os it io n t o d ri ve a h ar d b ar ga in . O ne s ol ut io n i n s uc h a c as e w as t o

l e av e b eh i nd m em be rs o f t h e f am il y n ot d ir e ct ly i mp l ic at ed , w h o c ou ld

carry on th e t ra de unt il a mo re p rop it io us t im e t o s el l up an d r eal iz e

assets.30

T h e a r r i v a l o f t h e i m m i g r a n t r e f u g e e s i n t h e 1 5 5 0 s c e m e n t e d G e n e v a ’ s

s up r em ac y i n t he w or ld o f F r an co p ho ne P ro te st a nt p r in t, a m ar k et t ha t

w a s e x pa n di n g r a p id l y a s C a lv i n’ s i n fl u en c e m a de i t se l f i n cr e as i ng l y f e lt

b a ck i n h i s h o m el a nd . H e re , h o we v e r, t h e c o mp a ri s on s w i th Wi t t en b er g

b eg in t o r ec ed e, f or t he G en ev an p ri nt in g i nd ust ry w as mu ch mo re

s tr on gl y r eg ul at ed t ha n t he G er ma n m ar ke t o f t he p re vi ou s d ec ad e, i n

t e rm s o f b ot h p ro du ct i on a nd d is tr ib u ti on . D es pi t e t he b uo y an t g ro wt h

29 Naphy, C a l vi n a n d t h e C o ns o li d at i on o f t h e G e ne v an R e fo r ma t io n, p . 2 1 .30 F o r e c ho e s o f s u ch a r ra n ge m en t s, s e e A . L. E . Ve r he y de n , ‘ U ne c o rr e sp o nd a nc e i n edite

addressee p a r l e s f a m i l l e s p r o t e s t a n t e s d e s P a y s - B a s a leurs coreligionnaires d’Angleterre( 1 1 n o v . 1 5 6 9 – 2 5 f ev . 1 5 7 0 )’ , B u l l et i n d e l a C o m m i s s i o n R o y a l e d ’ H i s t o i r e, 1 16 (1951) , p p .9 5– 29 2. T he s e l et te rs , c on fi sc at ed b y t he a ut ho ri ti es b ef or e t he y c ou ld r ea ch t he iri nt en de d r ec ip ie nt s i n E ng la nd , a ls o e vo ke m ov in gl y t he p er so na l a nd e mo ti on alh a rd s hi p s f a ce d b y f a mi l ie s d i vi d ed i n t h is w a y.




i n o ut pu t i n t h e d ec ad e a ft er 1 55 0, b ri ng in g t he b oo k s t o t he ir p ot en ti a l

r e ad er s r em ai ne d d ee pl y p ro bl e ma ti c. O nl y g ra du al l y d id t he G e ne va n

p r i n t e r s e v o l v e t h e n e t w o r k o f u n d e r g r o u n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d t r a v e l -

l i ng s a le s me n ( c ol p o rt e ur s ) n e ce s sa r y t o f u rn i sh a s uc c e ss f ul c o mm e r ce

i n f or bi dd en b oo ks . T h e o rg an iz at io n o f t hi s t ra de w as l ar ge ly t he

w or k o f L au re nt d e N or ma nd ie , a m em be r o f C al vi n’s i nn er c ir cl e

w ho se e xt e ns iv e b us in es s i nt er es t s a nd o rg an iz at io na l f la ir w e re l ai d

o ut g en er ou sl y i n t he s er vi ce o f t he Re fo rm at io n. Th e f ul l e xt en t of

L au re nt d e N or ma nd ie ’s o pe ra ti on s i s r ev ea le d t o h is to ri an s b y t he

s ur vi va l o f h is a cc ou nt b oo ks , w h ic h p re se nt a m et ic ul ou s r e co rd o f h is

t r a n s a ctio n s w it h s up pl ie rs , t r av el li ng s al es me n a nd b oo ks el le rs i n

Fra n ce.31 T he c ol po rt eu rs w er e o ft en p ro vi de d w it h s to ck o n c re di t

a ga in st p ay me nt o n t he ir r et ur n ; s om e, o f c ou rs e, w ou ld n ev er r et ur n.

T he i nv en to ry o f r em ai n in g s to ck a ft er d e N or ma nd ie d ie d i n 1 56 9 a ls o

r e ve al s t he p he no m en al s iz e o f h is o pe ra t io n. M or e s ys t em at ic d is tr i bu -

t io n t h ro ug h F ra nc e w as a cc o mp li sh e d p ar t ly t h ro ug h d e N or ma nd i e’s

o wn b oo ks ho ps i n L yo n, O rl ea ns , P ar is a nd M ea ux . H i s p ap er s

a ls o r ev ea l c on ne ct i on s w it h o th e r b oo k se ll er s i n M on ta ub an , R ei ms ,

O r le a ns , P a u, M e t z, S i st e r on , L y on a n d H a in a ul t .

L au re nt d e N or m an di e’s m ar ke ti n g o pe ra t io n w as o ne a sp ec t o f t h e

G e ne va n c h ur c h’s e x tr a or d in ar y c a pa c it y f or o r ga ni za t io n. A no t he r

a sp ec t, p er ha ps l es s a tt ra ct ive , l ay in t he c lo se c on tr ol o f p rod uc ti on

w i th i n G e ne v a. A s c o nf e ss i on a l d i vi s io n s h a rd e ne d i n t h e s e co n d g e ne r -

a ti on o f t he R ef or ma t io n, m os t p r in ti ng c en tr e s a tt e mp te d t o i ns ti tu t e a

s ys te m o f c en so rs hi p b y p r io r i ns pe ct io n, r at he r t h an m er e ly p un is hi n g

t h os e g ui lt y o f b e in g r es po ns i bl e f or a d is ap pr ov ed t e xt a ft er i t h ad g on e

o n s al e ( wh en i t w as s el do m p os si bl e t o r ec ov er a ll t he c op ie s p ri nt ed ).

T h e m o re r i go r o us p r oc e ss o f i n sp e ct i o n o f m a nu s cr i pt s b e fo r e t h e y w e n t

t o p re ss s el do m w or ke d e ff ec ti ve ly i n p ra ct ic e. T he i nt er es ts o f t he

p ri nt er s k ee n t o e xp lo it a c om me rc ia l o pp or tu ni ty w ou ld a lw ay s b e i n

c on fl ic t w it h t he r el uc ta nc e o f t he d es ig na te d c en so rs t o f in d t im e f or w ha t

c ou ld b e a t e di ou s a nd h u md ru m t as k. I n G en ev a, h ow ev er, t he s ys te m

w as r ig or ous ly e nf or ce d. C alv in se t t he t one , a nd m os t o f h is c oll ea gu es at

s om e p oi nt t oo k a t ur n i ns p ec ti ng t h e p ro ff er ed t ex ts . T he i ns pe ct io n w as

o ft en c lo se : A ca ce d ’A lb ia c’s v er se t ra ns la ti on o f t he b oo k o f J ob w as

a l l o w e d t o p r o c e e d i n 1 5 5 2 onc e h e h a d r e m o v e d t h r e e v e r s e s m a rk e d f o r

e x ci s io n o n t h e m a nu s cr i p t.32 O t h e r t e x t s w e r e b a n n e d o u t r i g h t .33

31 S c h l ae p f e r, ‘ L a u re n t d e N o r ma n d i e ’, p p . 1 7 6 – 2 30 .32 Gilmont, C a lv i n e t l e l i vr e i m pr i me , p . 3 2 7 .33 I n ge b or g J o st o ck , ‘ L a c e ns u re a u q u ot i di en : l e c o nt rol e d e l ’ i m p r i m e r i e a Genev e , 1 5 6 0 –

1 6 0 0 ’ , i n A n d r e w P e t t e g r e e , P a u l N e l l e s a n d P h i l i p C o n n o r (e d s . ), T h e S i x t een t h C en t u r y




I t i s h ar d t o s ee t ha t t he o pe ra ti on o f t hi s s ys te m a ct ua ll y o pe ra te d t o

t he c h ur ch ’s l o ng -t er m a dv an ta ge . T he y ea rs o f t he m os t r ig or o us r e gu -

l at i on ( af te r 1 56 0) c or re s po nd ed t o t h e m os t r ap id de c li n e i n G e ne v a’ s

m ar ke t s ha r e i n t h e F re n ch P ro te st an t b oo k w or ld .34 T he re w er e o th e r

s t ru c t ur a l r e as o ns f o r t h is d e cl i n e, b u t t h e w i ll i ng n e ss o f p r in t er s l o ca t e d

e l s e w h e r e t o p r i n t t e x t s b a r r e d i n G e n e v a c e r t a i n l y p l a y e d i t s p a r t . I n t h e

l as t r es or t t he m os t e ff ec ti ve f or m o f r eg ul at io n w as t he p ow er w ie ld ed

b y C al vi n, w h en h e b es to we d h is o wn w or k s o n f av ou re d p ri nt e rs . L ik e

L ut he r b ef or e h im , C al vi n w as ab le t o us e h is s tat us as s tar au th or t o

s ha pe t h e G en ev an b o ok w or ld , n ot l ea st t hr ou gh t h e p er so na l s up p or t

h e g a v e t o s e t t i n g u p t h e t w o p o w e r f u l p r i n t i n g c o m b i n a t i o n s o f C r e s p i n

an d E st ie nn e. Th rou gh t hi s i ni tia ti ve C al vi n w as ab le t o e ns ur e t hat

G en ev an p ri nt m at ch ed t he b es t i n E ur op e i n t er ms o f t yp og ra ph ic al

s ty le a nd q ua li ty. T hi s p la ye d a l ar ge p ar t i n G en ev a’s c on qu es t o f t he

m ar ke t i n t he y ea rs a ft e r 1 55 0.

G e ne v a’ s o t he r o u ts t an d in g a c hi e ve m e nt w a s t o e s ta b li s h t h r ou g h i t s

c la nd es ti ne n et wo rk o f d is tr ib ut io n a n ew m ar ke t m od el f or t he a ge o f

c on fe ssi on al c on fl ic t. F or Wi tt enb er g t hi s h ad h ar dl y b ee n a n i ss ue ;

de ma nd f or Lu th er ’s b oo ks h ad b ee n i nt en se , an d ac ce ss t o t he p ur -

c h as e r h a rd l y c o ns t r ai n ed . G e ne v an p r in t f u nc t i on e d i n a v e ry d i ff e re n t

m a r k e t p l a c e , a w o r l d i n w h i c h c u r i o u s r e a d e r s w e r e f o r b i d d e n u n d e r t h e

h ar sh es t p en al ti es t o p os se ss t he se b oo ks . T he p he no me na l s uc ce ss

a ch ie ve d b y t he G en ev an b oo ks el le rs i n s ub ve rt in g t he se c on tr ol s, i n

e ff ec t s et ti ng u p a d is tr ib ut io n n et wo rk i n p ar al le l t o t he o pe n m ar ke t

i n b oo ks a c ro ss E ur op e, c re at ed a m od el t ha t w ou l d b e r ep li c at ed

e ve ryw he re w he n t he t ra de i n P ro te st an t b oo ks w as i nh ib it ed i n t he

s e co nd h al f o f t h e s ix te en t h c en tu r y.

The book in the market place

T h u s f a r w e h a v e c o n s i d e r e d t h e e c o n o m i c s o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t b o o k w o r l d

l ar ge ly f ro m t he p oi nt o f v ie w o f t he m aj or c en tr es o f p ro du ct io n. We

h av e s ee n t ha t t he s ta r a ut ho rs o f Wi tt en be rg a nd G en ev a w er e e no r-

m ou sl y i nf lu en ti al i n s ha pi ng t he p ro du ct io n o f R ef or ma ti on b oo ks

F r en c h R e li g io u s B o ok ( A l de r sh o t, S t A n dr e ws S t ud i es i n R e fo r ma t io n H i st o ry, 2001),p p . 2 1 0 – 3 8.

34T he f ig ur es f or m ar ke t s h ar e c om e f ro m t he d at a c o ll ec te d f or t he S t A nd re ws F re nc hb o ok p r oj e ct . O n t h e p r o b le m s f a c e d b y t h e G e ne v an b o ok i n du s tr y d u ri n g t h i s p e ri o d,s e e H a ns J o ac h im B r em m e, B u c hd r uc k er u n d B u ch h a n dl er z ur Z ei t d e s G la ub en sk a mpfe(Geneva, 1969).






( A )

( B )

F i g u r e 6 . 2

. T h e p r i n t e r ’ s w o r k s h o p .

T h e f a m i l i a r i l l u s t r a t i o n f r o m

A m m a n n ’ s S t a ¨ n

d e b u c h

( A ) s h o w s t h e f i n i s h e d s h e e t s

b e i n g s t a c k e d ,

b u t n o t b e i n g h u n g u p t o d r y .

A s t h e m o r e r e a l i s t i c i l l u s t r a t i o n ( B ) o f 1 6 4 2 s h o w s , t h i s m u s t h a

v e r e q u i r e d a

l o t o f s p a c

e .



p r i n t e r r e s p o n s i b l e b y t a k i n g a c o p y r o u n d t h e p r i n t s h o p s . T h e s i g n a t u r e

s tyl e of t he g ui lt y p ar ty w oul d usu al ly b e ob vi ou s t o h is c om pe ti to rs.

T h e y , i n d e e d , m i g h t t a k e t h e i n i t i a t i v e i n d e n o u n c i n g h i m , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f

t he d is ap pr ov ed p ro je ct b re ac he d t he ir c op yr ig ht , o r i f t he y h op ed t o

g ai n ( pe rh ap s b y i nh er it in g a v al ua bl e p ri vi le ge ) f ro m a c om pe ti to r’s

destruction.

T he se p r ac ti ca l r ea li t ie s d id m uc h t o i nh ib it t h e p ub li ca ti o n o f d is ap -

p ro ve d b oo ks . I f a p ri nt er w er e t em pt ed , o r i nd uc ed , t o e ng ag e i n s uc h

a n e n t e r p r i s e , t h e n i t w a s f a r b e t t e r t o p r i n t s m a l l b o o k s , w h i c h w o u l d b e

i n a nd o ut o f t he s ho p i n t he m in im um t im e, l ea vi ng n o i nc ri mi na ti ng

e vi de n ce . T he r e i s v ir t ua ll y n o d oc um en te d c as e o f b oo k s o f a ny s iz e o r

l e n g t h b e i n g b r o u g h t o u t i n c o n d i t i o n s o f s e c r e c y . A l l s u c h p r o j e c t s w e r e

p ub li sh ed a br oa d, l ik e t he e ar ly E ng li sh P ro te st an t B ib le s o r t he w el l-

o rg an i ze d G e ne va n i nd us tr y. E ve n f or t h e m os t e p he me r al w or k i t w as

b e st t o u se a c om mo n t yp ef a ce , n o d ec or a ti ve i ni t ia ls , a nd d is g ui se a ny

i n di v id u al i ti e s o f s t yl e o r t y po g ra p h ic a l a r ra n ge m e nt .

B e s t o f a l l , h o w e v e r , w a s t o f i n d s a f e t y i n n u m b e r s . I t w a s f a r h a r d e r t o

p u r s u e i n d i v i d u a l p r i n t e r s , a n d s i n g l e t h e m o u t f o r p u n i s h m e n t , o n c e t h e

m as s o f m at er ia l o n t he m ar ke t b ec am e o ve rw he lm ing . I n t hi s w ay a

p am ph le t s ur ge , s uc h a s t ha t i n G er ma ny i n t he 1 52 0s a nd F ra nc e a nd

t h e N e t h e r l a n d s i n t h e 1 5 6 0 s , c r e a t e d a d y n a m i c q u i t e e x c e p t i o n a l i n t h e

n or ma ll y o rd er l y w or ld o f p r in t. T he r e w er e s ti ll r is ks : i n t he se t im es o f

e xt r em e p ol it ic a l v ol at il it y, w ho k ne w w ha t r et r ib ut io n t h e a ut h or i ti es

m i gh t e x ac t i f p o li c y s h i f te d , o r c o nt r o l w a s r e - e st a b li s he d . B u t s i xt e e nt h -

ce ntur y peop le k new the powe r and safet y of t he crowd, and in this

r e sp ec t m em be rs o f t he p ri nt in g f ra te rn it y w er e n o d iff er en t.

‘ Pa mp h le t m om en t s’ c r ea te d a v er y p ar t ic ul ar m ar ke t : n ot u nl ik e t h e

b u b b l e o f a r i s i n g s t o c k m a r k e t , wh e n a p a r t i c u l a r s t o c k o r c l a s s o f s t o c k s

b e c om e s s u dd e nl y f a sh i o na b le .35 T he n ew l it er a tu re s p ar k s c ur i os i ty,

b r in g in g m o re o nt o t he m ar k et ; t he c ol l ap se o f t h e n or m al m ec h an is ms

o f c on tr ol i nd uc e o th er m or e c au ti ou s p ro du ce rs t o e nt er t he m ar ke t ;

t he w or ld i s s ud de nl y f ul l o f b oo ks . E ve nt ua ll y t he m ar ke t r ea ch es

s at ur at io n, b ut in t he m ean ti me t he p ro fi ts t hat c an b e m ad e ar e ve ry

large.

T he e co no mi cs o f t he s ix te en th -c en tu ry b oo k t ra de h av e n ev er y et

b e e n s y st e m at i ca l ly s t ud i ed . We h a ve r e l ie d t h us f a r o n v e ry f r ag m en t ar y

i nf or ma ti on . I nv en to ri es o f t he s to ck o f d ec ea se d p ri nt er s a nd o f t he

v al ue of ot he r b oo k c ol le ct io ns g ive an id ea o f w hol es al e val ue .36 To

35 John Cassidy, D o t. c on . T h e G r ea t es t S t or y E v er S o ld (London, 2002).36 R u nn a ll s , ‘ L a v i e, l a m o rt e t l e s l i vr e s d e l ’ im p ri m eu r- l ib r ai r e p a ri s ie n J e an J a no t ’.




F ig ur e 6 .3 . (cont. )




F ig ur e 6 .3 . (cont.)




F ig ur e 6 .3 . L ev el s o f a no ny mi ty. U nl ik e t he C ae n a nd Wi tt en be rg

b o ok s i l lu s tr a te d e a rl i er, t h e p r in t er o f t h is d a ng e ro u sl y s e di t io u s b o ok

a d op t s t he p l ai n es t s o rt o f t y pe f ac e s w i th n o i n cr i mi n at i ng d e co r at i ve

i n i ti a l s o r i d e n ti fy i ng p r i nt e r ’s d e v i ce .




d e t e r m i n e p r i c e s p a i d b y p u r c h a s e r s w e n o r m a l l y r e l y o n s t a n d a r d m u l t i -

p li er s o f t he se w ho le sa le f ig ur es . I n a ll t hi s d at a t he re a re c le ar i nd ic a-

t io ns t ha t s mal l b oo ks w er e d is pr op or ti on at el y p ro fi ta bl e. I n 1 56 6 a

b oo k p e dl ar w or ki ng i n O ve ri js se l p ai d a p ri nt e r o ne g ul de n t o p ri nt f or

h i m o n e t h o u s a n d c o p i e s o f t h r e e B e g g a r s o n g s , a u n i t c o s t o f o n e f i f t i e t h

o f a st ui ve r p er c op y. I f h e e xc ha ng ed e ach c op y f or t he s ma ll es t c oi n

a va il ab l e t hi s w as s ti ll a n e no rm ou s p ro fi t.37 T hi s a ls o h in ts a t t he o th er

l ar ge p ro fi ts a va il ab le f or p ri nt er s w ho s ol d s ma ll b oo ks , l ik e v ol um es

c on ta in in g a f ew p sa lm s, f or o ne o r t wo s tu iv er s a p ie ce .

T he re w er e o th er b ene fi ts t o t he p ro du ce r fr om t he t ra de i n sm al l

b oo ks . N ot o nl y w as t he p ro fi t p ot en ti al ly v er y h ea lt hy, t he r et ur n o n

i nv est me nt ( of p ap er and w ag es) w as v er y r ap id : a sm al l p am ph le t o r

b r o a d s h e e t r e p r e s e n t e d n o m o r e t h a n a d a y ’ s w o r k . S o m e t i m e s , a s i n t h e

e x a m p l e c i t e d a b o v e , t h e e n t i r e e d i t i o n w a s p a i d f o r b y t h e c l i e n t , w h i c h

meant that the printer bore no ne of the risk. In 1522 and 1523 the

C at h ed ra l C ha pt e r a t U tr e ch t c om mi ss i on ed a l oc al p ri nt e r t o p ub li sh

o n t h e i r b e h a l f a n a d v e r t i s e m e n t f o r t h e l o c a l i n d u l g e n c e t r a d e ( n o d o u b t

t o r es t or e i ts p op ul ar it y a ft er L ut he r’ s r e ce nt c r it ic is m s) . Fiv e h u nd r ed

c op ie s w er e o rd er ed f or t he e qu iva le nt o f 1 05 s tu ive rs .38 It i s qui te

p os si bl e i n t h is c as e t h at t he se s ma ll p ub l ic at io ns w er e i nt e nd ed n ot f or

s al e b ut t o b e d is tr ib ut ed f re e o f c ha rg e, a nd t hi s p ra ct ic e w as f ar f ro m

u nc o mm on i n t h e a ge o f p ol em ic al p ri nt . A s P ro te st a nt s e me r ge d f ro m

t h e s ha do w s, t h ey s ig na ll ed t he ir i nc re as in g c on fi d en ce b y d is tr i bu ti ng

b r oa ds he et s o r p am ph le ts a ro un d t he b ui ld in gs a nd h ou se s o f t h e t ow n,

o f t e n a t n i g h t . T h e m o s t f a m o u s e x a m p l e w a s t h e p l a c a r d o f 1 5 3 4 , w i th

i ts p r ov oc at iv e d en un c ia ti on o f t he M as s w hi ch s o i nf la me d F ra nc i s I .39

T hi s p roc ess o f ‘ so wi ng ’ b oo ks t hr oug h t he st re et s, as it wa s k no wn,

b e c a m e a n e p i d e m i c d u r i n g t h e c r i s i s o f t h e D u t c h R e v o l t . I n M a y 1 5 6 6

a h an db il l prin te d i n V ia ne n a pp e ar e d o ve r ni gh t i n t h e f ou r c hi e f t ow ns

o f B ra b an t.40 T he l ev el o f o rg an iz at io n r ev e al ed b y t hi s s im ul ta ne ou s

d i s t r i b u t i o n w a s a l s o a p o t e n t d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e g r o w i n g p o w e r o f t h e

C alv ini st o pp osi ti on : t his , o f c our se , w as al so p ar t o f t he p oi nt b ei ng

made.

T h e p r ac t i ce o f a t te m p ti n g t o i n fl u en c e p u bl i c o p in i on b y a no n ym o us

l e af le ti ng c l ea rl y c on t in ue d t h ro ug ho ut t he R e fo rm at i on c e nt ur y. I n

37 A l a s t a i r D u k e , ‘ P o s t e r s , P a m p h l e t s a n d P r i n t e r s . T h e W a y s a n d M e a n s o f D i s s e m i n a t i n gD is s id e nt O p in i on o n t h e E v e o f t h e D u tc h R e vo l t’ , D u t ch C r o ss i n g , 2 7 (2003) , p . 3 1 .

38 Ibid., p . 3 0 .39 R ob er t H ar i, ‘ Le s p la ca rd s d e 1 53 4’ , i n G . B er th ou d ( ed .) , A sp ec ts d e l a p ro pa ga nd e

religieuse (Geneva, 1957) , p p . 7 9 – 14 2 , w i t h a f a cs i mi l e o f o n e o f t h e f e w s u rv i vi n g c o pi e s.40 D u ke , ‘ P os t er s , P a mp h le t s’ , p . 3 3 .




1 5 9 0 C l a u d e d e R u b y s , a n a u t h o r w h o s u p p o r t e d t h e C a t h o l i c L e a g u e i n

t he ir c am pa ig n a ga in st t he s uc ce ss io n o f H en ry o f N av ar re a s k in g o f

F r a n c e , p u b l i s h e d a r e s p o n s e t o a t r a c t w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n d i g n a n t

t it le - pa ge , h ad b ee n ‘ sp re a d i n d ay s p as t t hr ou gh t h e s tr e et s o f L yo n, by

t ho se c on sp ir in g t o d el iv er t he t ow n i nt o t he p ow er o f t he h er et ic s’ .41

I nt er es ti ng ly t he o ff en di ng b oo k w hi ch h ad i ns pi re d t hi s o ns la ug ht ,

Mi chel H u ra ul t’s Anti-Espagnol , w as a f ai rl y s ub st an ti al w or k o f a lm os t

f if ty p ag es . It may hav e be en a s ign of des per at ion for t he Le ague’s

o pp one nt s in Ly on t ha t t he y h ad r es or te d t o di st ri but in g t he wo rk i n

t hi s w ay, b ut i t i nv ol ve d a s ub st an t ia l f in an ci a l o ut la y.

T he p ri nt in g a nd d is tr ib ut in g o f l ib el lo us p am ph le ts e vo ke d t he

l o ng -e s ta bl is h ed p r ac t ic e o f p ur s ui ng p e rs on al dis p ut e s b y d is p la yi n g

h a nd b il l s ( u su a ll y h a nd w ri t t en ) i n p u bl i c p l ac e s .42 T he re wa s al so a f ar

m o re m u nd a ne t r af fi c i n p r in t ed b r oa d sh e e ts , u s ua l ly c o mm i ss i on e d b y

l o ca l a u th o ri t ie s t o r e la y g o ve r n me n t p r oc l am a ti o ns a nd a dv e rt i se r e gu -

l at i on s. B ec au se s uc h c om m is si on s w er e w ho ll y p ai d f or b y t h e c ou nc il ,

s u c h w o rk – r el i a b le, r eg u l a r an d e as y – w a s m u ch s o u g ht a f te r b y

p ri nt e rs . T he t ot al s iz e o f t hi s t r ad e i n o ff ic ia l b ro ad sh e et s w as p r ob ab ly

q uite l ar ge . We wil l nev er kn ow wit h an y c er tai nt y sin ce t he r at e of

s ur vi va l o f s uc h m un da ne p ub li ca ti on s i s e xt re me ly l ow. O nc e a p ro c-

l am at io n w as m ad e o r a n o rd in an ce e xp ir ed , t he r em ai ni ng s to ck w as

dis posed of, t he pap er used to p ad the binding of book s or for more

m u nd a ne d o me s ti c p u rp o s es . I n s u ch c i rc u ms t an c e s r a re d i sc o veries of

e x am p l es o f t h es e b r o ad s he e t p u bl i c at i on s a r e e x tr e me l y v al u ab l e.43

T he p ro gr e ss o f t hi s s ha do w y m un da ne e ve r yd ay t ra de i s n ot w it ho ut

r el e va nc e f or o ur i nv es ti ga ti o n o f r el i gi ou s p ri nt in g . I n o rd in ar y t im es

w or k f or o ff ic i al b od ie s w as t he l if eb lo od o f m an y p ri nt s ho ps , p ar t ic u-

l ar ly t he s mal le r r eg io na l f ir ms . T he l oss o f su ch t ra de mi gh t b e fa tal

t o t he ir b us in es s ; i t c er ta in ly p ro vi de d a s tr on g e co no mi c i nc en ti ve t o

a vo id i nv ol ve m en t i n p ub li sh i ng b oo k s t h at m ig ht b ri ng o ff ic i al d is ap -

p ro va l. O n t he o th er h an d, w he n t he se c on st ra in ts w er e l oo se ne d,

p ri nt er s c ou ld t ur n t he ir a tt en t io n v er y q ui ck ly t o o th er f or ms o f

ephem eral pri n t.

T he m ar ke t i n c he ap p ri nt i n f ac t e pi to mi ze s v er y w el l t he t wo s id es

o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n tu r y p r i n t w o r l d . I n t i m e s o f c al m t h is w a s a

41 [ C la u de d e R u by s ], R es p o n s e a l ’ A n t i -E s p a g n o l , s em e c e s j o u r s p a s s e z p a r l e s r u e s e t c a r r e f o u r sd e l a v il le d e Ly on , d e l a p ar t d e s C o n ju re z, q ui a vo ye nt c on sp ir e d e l iv re r l ad ic te v il le e n l a

puissance des heretiques (L y o n , 1 5 9 0 ).42 Fox, O r a l a n d L i te r at e C u lt u re, p p . 2 9 9 – 3 44 .43 S ee , f or i ns ta nc e , t he m ar ve ll ou s c ol le ct io n o f t he A rc hi ve s M un ic ip al es o f T ro ye s

( no w d ep os it ed i n t he T ro ye s B ib li ot heq ue M un ic ip al e) : T ro ye s A M, l ia s se L ay e tt e2 0 , R e g . P 1 .




w e ll - o rg a ni z ed , r e gu l at e d i n du s tr y w i th w e ll - de v e lo p ed m e ch a ni s m s o f

f in an ci n g, m ar ke ti n g a nd c on t ro l. I t s er ve d a s te ad il y g ro wi ng m ar ke t ,

w it h g oo ds o f h ig h q ua li ty i n a r an ge o f g en re s a nd s ty le s. I t w as o ne o f

t h e o r n a m e n t s , a s w e l l a s a n i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e s i n e w s , o f

s ix te e nt h c e nt ur y s oc ie t y. O n t he o th e r h an d, t he i nd us tr y p os se ss ed a

b r oo d in g, l at e nt c ap ac it y f or e xp l os iv e g ro wt h i n c on di ti on s o f u nu su al

e c o n o m i c o r p o l i t i c a l o p p o r t u n i t y . I t w a s p r e c i s e l y t h i s c o m b i n a t i o n t h a t

i n sp i re d t h e p r in t in g p h e no m en o n o f t h e R e fo r ma t io n .




7 Pamphlets and persuasion

On t he basis of th e for ego ing discu ssion we can no w b e re asonab ly

s a t i s f i e d t h a t t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f b o o k s i n t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s d e e p l y

s hap ed b y t he or ga ni za ti on of t he m ar ke t – b ot h t he s tr uc tur e o f t he

p ri nt ing i ndu st ry, i n a se ri es o f di sc re te and q ui te d ist inc t n at io na l

m ar ke ts , a nd a s op hi s ti ca te d t r an sn at io na l s ys te m o f d is tr i bu ti on a nd

m ar ke ti ng . T he se in dus tr y is su es c ondi ti on ed t he b oo k w or ld at al l

l eve ls : t he m ar ke t i n sc ho lar ly b ook s, as m uc h as t he p ro duc ti on an d

s al e o f p am ph le ts . O ur p ur po se n ow m us t b e t o t ry a nd l oc at e t he b oo k

i n t h e c ul tu re o f p e rs ua si on .

T he re c an b e l it tl e d ou bt t ha t b oo ks h ad a v as t a nd i mp or ta nt r ol e t o

p l a y i n s h a p i n g t h e n e w r e l i g i o u s c u l t u r e s o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . B o o k s

w er e b ou gh t i n va st q uant it ie s, an d r el ig io us b oo ks d om ina te d t he

m ar ke t a t a ll l ev el s : a t b ot h e nd s o f t he s pe ct ru m a nd a lm os t a ll p oi nt s

i n b et we en . F ro m t he l ea rn ed L at in b ib li ca l c om me nt ar ie s o f C al vi n,

B re nz a nd O ec ol am pa di us , t o t he ‘ go dl y b al la d’ , w it h a w ho le h os t o f

B ib le s, c at ec hi sm s, w or ks o f d ev ot io n a nd Flugschriften i n t he m idd le

r an ge s, t he m ar k et i n r el ig io us b oo ks d om in at e d t he s ix te e nt h- c en tu ry

b oo k w or ld . N on e d ou bt e d t he ir i mp ac t i n f or m in g o pi ni o n – c er ta in ly

n ot L ut h er a nd h is c ol le ag ue s, w ho w ro te s o i nd ef at ig a bl y a nd l av is he d

p ra is e u po n t he ‘ ne w’ i nv e nt io n ; c er ta in l y n ot t he C at h ol ic a ut ho ri ti es

w h o t ri ed t o l im it t h ei r c ir cu la t io n b y c en so rs hi p a nd p r os cr ip t io n. B ut

i n s om e se nse s t he b oo k h as s uff er ed p re cis el y b ec ause i ts i nf lue nc e

se ems so ob viou s. In t he c ont ext of this p resent inve stigati on it is,

h ow eve r, ne ce ss ar y t o p aus e an d as k m or e di re ct ly w hat p ar t b oo ks

p la ye d i n s ha pi ng o pi ni on – a nd i nd ee d a t w ha t p oi nt i n t he p ro ce ss o f

c on ve r si on a nd o pi ni o n f or m in g t h ey w er e m os t l ik e ly t o b e i nf lu en ti al .

Wi th q ue st io ns o f t hi s o rd e r, w e g et i nt o d ee pe r w at e rs .

T he q ue st io ns a re , a t f ir st s ig h t, d ec ep ti v el y s im pl e . W hy d id p eo pl e

b uy b oo ks ? T he a ns we r, o r a t l ea st t he ass um pt io n, t ha t h as und er -

p in ne d a ll u se o f s ix te en th -c en tu ry t ex ts i n s ch ol ar sh ip i s t ha t p eo pl e

b ou gh t t he m t o r ea d t he m. T he y w er e v al ue d p ri ma ri ly f or t he w or ds

t he y c on tai ne d, f or t he a rg um ent s t he y l ai d ou t. Th is i s c er tai nl y t he

156



r easo n au th or s w rot e. T he y w rot e t o p er su ade ; an d w he n t he ir a rg u-

m en ts f ound r es on anc e, t he y as sum ed t hat t he ir b oo ks h ad h it t he ir

t ar ge t . Ye t i f w e s ub je c t t hi s b as ic a ss um p ti on t o a ny l ev el o f s cr ut i ny i t

b eg in s t o s ee m a t t he v er y l ea st , q ue st io na bl e ; n ot l ea st b ec au se i t i n n o

w ay c on fo rm s t o o ur o wn e xp er ie nc e o f e ng ag em en t w it h t he w or ld o f

p r i n t . I m y s e l f h a v e m a n y b o o k s I h a v e n o t r e a d – a n d w i l l n e v e r r e a d , i n

t he s ens e of c on se cut ive r ead ing , c ove r t o c ove r ; t ha t i de al r eadi ng

p roc ess i s o ne I r ese rv e l ar ge ly fo r f ic ti on a nd r ec re at io nal r ea di ng ,

or books I am oblige d to read for specific profes sional r easons (fo r

i ns ta nc e , f or r ev ie w ). B ut c on se c ut iv e, n ar r at iv e r ea di ng i s n ot m y n or -

mat ive experi ence of book s. Quite a lot of reading mater ial passes

t hrough my h ands and is eithe r stored or discar ded unrea d – this is

p ar ti cu l ar ly t he c as e i f w e e xp an d o ur u nd er s ta nd in g o f t he p ri nt w or l d

t o include all that p rint mater ia l that comes our way as magazines,

n ew sp ap er s o r l ea fl et s, s om e o f w hi ch w e p ur ch as e, s om e o f w hi ch w e

c o m e b y f r e e .

I f w e s i m p l y c o n f i n e o u r t h o u g h t s t o b o o k s a n d p r i n t m a t e r i a l t h a t w e

p a y f o r – i n o t h e r w o r d s i n w h i c h w e h a v e i n v e s t e d s o m e s o r t o f h o p e o r

e x p e c t a t i o n – t h e r e a r e a l a r g e v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s w h y w e p u r c h a s e b o o k s

w h i c h h a v e l i t t l e o r n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h r e a d i n g t h e m . W e b u y a s a b a d g e

o f i de nt it y ( th e p rog ra mm e at a sp or ts fi xt ur e) or a s a m eme nt o ( th e

o pe ra p r og ra mm e) . We b uy b oo ks a s a m ar k o f p ro f es si on al s ta t us ( th e

r ow o f t ex ts i n t he l aw ye r’ s o ff ic e) , t o s ig na l s oc ia l a sp ir a ti on ( St e ph en

Hawking’s A B ri ef H is to ry o f T im e) , o r a s a f as hi o n s ta te me nt ( Ha wk i ng

a ga in ). We b uy f or r ea ss ur a nc e ( b oo ks o f r e fe r en ce ) , t hr ou gh a s en se o f

o bl ig at i on , t o h on ou r s om eo ne w e a dm ir e. We b uy o ut o f i dl e c ur io si t y ;

w e b uy a s g if ts . S om et ime s w e b uy s im pl y b ec aus e p eo pl e l ik e us b uy

books.

M any t ime s w e b uy b ook s o f w hi ch w e a lr ead y k no w t he c ont ent s ;

s ome tim es w e e ve n b uy b ook s, f or any n um be r of t he r eas on s s tat ed

a bo ve , t ha t w e h av e a lr ea dy r ea d. T hi s i s t he c as e e ve n t ho ug h p eo pl e

m uc h l es s f re qu e nt ly re- re ad b oo ks t ha n i n p re vi o us b oo k -r ea di ng g en -

e r a t i o n s : a m o n g a d u l t s1 t h e h a b i t o f r e p e a t r e a d i n g h a s n o w b e e n l a r g e l y

d is pl ac ed b y o th er mo de rn m edi a su ch as f il m a nd t el ev is ion w he re

r ep ea t v ie wi ng p la ys a n i mp or ta nt ( an d m uc h e nj oy ed ) p ar t o f t he r e-

c r e a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e . O t h e r t i m e s w e b u y b o o k s t h a t w e w i l l n e v e r r e a d

at all. We still may value them greatly – we have quite an intimate

r el at io ns hi p w it h m an y u nr ea d b oo ks . B ut t he e ss en ti al p oi nt i s t hi s :

t h e r e a r e a w h o l e h o s t o f r e a s o n s w e b u y b o o k s o t h e r t h a n a s t h e p r i m a r y

c h an n el t o t h e i n fo r m at i on t h ey c o nt a in .

1 T h ou g h n o t o f c o ur s e a m on g c h il d re n .

Pamphlets and persuasion 157



I t h i n k i t i s r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o a c c e p t t h a t i n o u r o w n a g e t h e b u y i n g o f

b o o k s i s a c u l t u r a l l y c o m p l e x d e c i s i o n , e v e n i f , b e c a u s e a b o o k r e p r e s e n t s

a r e la ti ve ly i ns i gn if ic an t f in an ci al o ut la y, i t i s o ft en n ot u su al ly d ee pl y

cons idered. How much of this can – or shoul d – be applied to our

u nd er st an di ng o f s ix te en th -c en tu ry b oo k c ul tu re ? I t i s i mm ed ia te ly

c l e a r t h a t b o o k s t h e n e x i s t e d i n a w h o l l y d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t . B o o k s

w er e m uc h l es s c om mo n, a nd m uc h m or e e xp en si ve r el at iv e t o d is po sa bl e

i n c o m e . C e r t a i n l y , f e w e r p e o p l e o w n e d b o o k s , a n d t h o s e t h a t d i d o w n e d

s m a l l e r c o l l e c t i o n s . A p u r c h a s e , i t m i g h t b e t h o u g h t , w a s f a r l e s s l i k e l y t o

b e f ri vo lo us o r w hi ms ic al : t he p ur ch as in g o f b oo ks w ou ld b e a f ar m or e

f o c u s e d a n d p u r p o s e f u l d i s p o s a l o f l i m i t e d s u r p l u s i n c o m e .

T he re i s, o f c ou rs e, a g re at d ea l o f t ru th i n t hi s. S ys te ma ti c s tu dy o f

m a ny s i xt e e nt h -c e n tu r y l i br a r y c o ll e c ti o ns s h ow s t h at t h ey o f te n h a d a n

e xt re me ly t ig ht o cc up at io na l o r t he ma ti c f oc us . B ut t ha t d oe s n ot y et

m e an t h at w e c an a ss um e t h at b o ok s w er e p ur c ha se d w ho ll y, o r p ri ma r-

i l y , t o b e r e a d . T h e g r e a t e r e x p e n s e i n v o l v e d c o u l d m e a n t h a t b o o k s w e r e

f re qu e nt ly v al ue d f or t he ir p re st i ge a s o bj ec ts : i n t h is c as e t h e m er e f ac t

of owners hip m arked out the owner as a man of status. This was

c er tai nl y t rue o f t he m anu sc ri pt ag e, b ut c on ti nu ed t o a n e xt ent in to

t he a ge o f p ri nt . I t h as b ee n n ot ed , f or i ns ta nc e, t ha t w he n a n i nv en to ry

o f a h ous e’s c on te nt s and f ur ni tur e w as c omp il ed b y a no ta ry i n t he

s ix te e nt h c en tu r y, B oo k s o f H ou rs w er e l is te d n ot w it h o th er b oo ks , b ut

w it h d ev ot io na l p ai nt in gs , t ap es tr ie s a nd c ru ci fi xe s o wn ed b y t he d e-

c ea se d. I n o th er w or ds , ‘ wi th in t he d om es ti c s pa ce i n w hi ch t he y w er e

f ou nd , d ev ot io na l w or k s a pp e ar t o h ave f un c t io n ed a s m u ch a s r e l ig i ou s

o bj ec ts a s t he y d id a s r el ig io us b oo ks ’.2 T hi s p oi nt h as a m or e g en er al

a pp li ca ti on e ve n i n t he l ar ge r p ri va te c ol le ct io ns . M uc h o f m y r ec en t

r e s ea r ch h a s b e en u n de r t ak e n i n F r en c h m u ni c ip a l l i br a r ie s , c o ll e c ti o ns

o ft en e sp ec ia ll y r ic h i n o ld b oo ks d at in g f ro m t he c on fi sc at io ns o f t he

p ro p er t y o f C at h ol ic r el ig io us h ou se s a t t he t im e o f t he F re nc h R e vo lu -

t i o n . S o m e t i m e s w e a r e a l l o w e d t o v i e w s e v e r a l h u n d r e d a t a t i m e ( a r a r e

l u x u r y i n t h i s c o n s e r v a t i o n - c o n s c i o u s a g e ) ; w h e n w e d o , w e a r e i m m e d i -

a t e l y s t r u c k b y t h e e n o r m o u s v a r i e t y a n d l u x u r y o f s i x t e e n t h - a n d s e v e n -

t e en th -c en t ur y b in di ng s. M an y p as se d i nt o t he h an ds o f t he ir p r ev io us

r el ig io us o wn er s t hr ou gh p io us d on at io n ; t he y t hu s r ep re se nt o bj ec ts

f ro m m an y t ho us an ds o f p ri va te l ay me n’s l ib ra ri es . T he y w er e c le ar ly

l ov ed a nd c he ri sh ed , e mb el li sh ed f ar b ey on d t he v al ue o f t he o ri gi na l

c os t o f t he t ex t. W ho c an s ay w ha t p ar t o f t he f in is he d a rt ic le i ts o wn er

m os t v al ue d ?

2 P a ul N e ll e s, ‘ T hr e e A u di e nc e s f o r R e li g io u s B o ok s i n S i xt e en t h- C en t ur y F r an c e’ , i nA n d r e w P e t t e g r e e , P a u l N e l l e s a n d P h i l i p C o n n e r , T h e S i x t een t h C en t u r y F r en ch R el i g i o u sBook (A l de r s h ot , S t A n d r ew s S t u d ie s i n R e f o rm a t io n H i s t or y, 2001) , p . 2 6 6 .




I t c ou ld b e s ug ge st ed t ha t – l ea vi ng a si de s uc h c on sc io us e mb el li sh -

m en t – f or t he m os t p ar t t he p ur ch as e o f b oo ks i n t he s ix te en th c en tu ry

s te er ed a m id dl e w ay b et we en t he e xt re me s o f t he m an us cr ip t a ge a nd

m o de r n c o ns u me r s o ci e ty . B o ok s h a d b e co m e s u ff i ci e nt l y c o mm o n t h at

t he y w ou ld n o l on ge r f ig ur e a mo ng t he m os t p ri ze d p os se ss io ns ; t he y

w er e s uff ic i en tl y e xp e ns iv e t ha t t he i r p ur c ha se w ou ld a lw ay s b e a c on -

s id er ed a ct . T hi s c on t ai ns a g ra in o f t ru th . I n s ix te e nt h- ce n tu ry i nv en -

t o r i e s o f p r i v a t e h o u s e s , b o o k s ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f p r e c i o u s w o r k s l i k e

t he B oo ks o f H ou rs m en ti on ed a bo ve , o r a f am il y B ib le ) w er e s el do m

g iv en a n i nd iv id ua l v al ua ti on , t ho ug h t he ir a gg re ga te v al ue m ig ht b e

s ig ni fi c an t. B ut w ha t o f p am ph le t s ? T he s e w er e s uff ic ie nt l y c he a p t h at

t h e p ur ch a se c ou ld b e a r el at iv el y u nc o ns id er e d o r i ns ig n if ic an t o ut la y.

I n t he se c i rc um st an c es t he r an ge o f m ot iv at io ns w e h av e p os t ul at ed f or

t h e m od er n b oo k p ur ch a se r m ay i nd e ed c om e i nt o p la y.

The crowd made text

W hy d id p eo pl e b uy p am ph le ts i n t he s ix te en th c en tu ry ? T hi s w as t he

first age in wh ich a wide variety of ch eap p rinted matt er was wide ly

a v a i l a b l e ; p r i n t b e g a n , i n c o n s e q u e n c e , t o i m p a c t o n a f a r w i d e r r a n g e o f

s oc ia l g ro up s. T he b es t a va il ab le e vi de nc e s ug ge st s t ha t t he c he ap es t

p a m p h l e t s ( t h a t i s , b o o k s t h a t c o m p r i s e d u p t o o n e f o l d e d s h e e t o f p a p e r ,

e i g h t p a g e s i n q u a r t o a n d s i x t e e n i n o c t a v o ) c o s t t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f o n e o r

t wo p en c e i n m os t c ur r en ci es . T hi s b ro ug ht b oo k s w el l w it hi n t he r an ge

o f m os t p eo pl e w it h a ny l ev el o f d is po sa bl e i nc om e. I n t he s am e p er io d

a n a r t i s a n m i g h t e a r n 8 d f o r a d a y ’ s w o r k , s o t h e p u r c h a s e o f a p a m p h l e t

r e pr es e nt ed t he c os t o f t hr e e o r f ou r h ou r s’ wo rk . A p am ph le t m ig ht b e

e xc ha ng ed f or a c hi ck en o r a p ou nd o f w ax .3 T hi s m ak e s t h e p oi nt t h at

b oo k s w er e a ff or da bl e , b ut e xp re ss e s t h e p oi nt i n a s li gh tl y m is le ad i ng

w ay. F or t o c as t c om pa ri so ns i n s uc h t er ms a lw ay s c ar ri es t he i mp li ca -

t ion that large b ook s were purch ase d by t hose with larg e d i sp o sa b le

i n c o m e s , a n d s m a l l b o o k s b y t h o s e w i t h l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s .4 I n f a c t , t h e r e

i s a g re at d ea l o f e vi de nc e t ha t s ma ll b oo ks w er e b ou gh t b y p eo pl e w ho

c o ul d a l so a ff o rd l a rg e b o ok s .

T hi s i s c er tai nl y t ru e o f t he f ir st g en er at io n o f t he Re fo rm at io n i n

F ranc e an d t he N et he rl and s, w he n P ro te st an t p ri nt w as f or bid de n.

B oo ks w er e s ol d i n s ma ll f or ma ts b ec au se t he y w er e m or e e as il y t ra ns -

p or te d an d c onc ea le d, no t b ec aus e t he p ur ch ase rs w er e m en o f lo w

3 Edwards, P ri n t i ng , P r o p ag a n d a a n d M a r ti n L u t h er , p . 1 6 .4 ‘ [ T h e c o s t w a s ] n o t i n s i g n i f i c a n t , b u t c e r t a i n l y w i t h i n r e a c h o f t h e “ c o m m o n m a n ” , t h e

p a m p hl e t s ’ i n t e nd e d a u d i e nc e . ’ Ibid.




income.5 In f a c t , t h e p r o c e s s o f c l a n d e s t i n e d i s t r i b u t i o n a d d e d g r e a t l y t o

t he p r ic e .6 T hi s i s a s pe ci al m ar ke t. B ut t he re i s p le nt y o f e vi de nc e t ha t

c an b e f ou nd t ha t e ve n w he n c ir cu la ti on w as n ot i nh ib it ed , p am ph le ts

a ls o f ou nd a r ea dy m ar k et a mo ng c la ss es o f r e ad e rs w h o w er e a ls o b uy in g

m o re e x pe n si v e b o ok s .

T hi s i s a c on cl us io n t o w hi ch w e w ou ld b e d ra wn b ot h b y t he s im pl e

m at he ma ti c s o f p r od uc ti o n, a nd b y t he e vi de nc e o f s ur vi vi ng c op ie s. I t

h as b ee n e st im at ed t ha t t he p am ph le t w ar s of t he 1 52 0s g en er at ed at

l e as t 6 ,0 00 s ep ar at e p ub l ic at io ns i n t he G er ma n- sp e ak in g l an ds . I f w e

e st im at e, c on se rv at iv el y, a n a ve ra ge e di ti on s iz e o f 1 ,0 00 c op ie s, t hi s

i mp l ie s a m ar ke t s ud de nl y f lo od ed w it h a ro un d 6 m il li on b oo k s. G iv en

a n a ss um ed r at e o f m al e l it er ac y o f a ro un d 3 0 p er c en t t hi s m us t i mp ly

m u l t i p l e p u r c h a s e s b y t h o s e w h o c o u l d r e a d – M a r k E d w a r d s s u g g es t s a

f i g u r e o f t w e n t y p a m p h l e t s f o r e v e r y l i t e r a t e m e m b e r o f t h e E m p i r e .7 (Of

c ou rs e t h is a ss um e s t ha t t ho se w ho p ur ch a se d b oo ks w er e b y a nd l ar ge

p e o p l e w h o c o u l d r e a d t h e m . )8 I n t h e t w o y e a r s 1 5 8 9 a n d 1 5 9 0 t h e P a r i s

p re ss es t ur ne d o ut a ro un d 2 m il li on c op ie s o f p am ph le ts i n s up po rt o f

t he C at ho lic L eag ue : t hi s i n a c it y w it h a t ot al p op ul at io n o f 5 00 ,0 00

w hi ch f or much of t he time was under siege and cut off from a wider

market.9 I f t he se f ig ur es i nd ic at e a p at te rn o f r ep ea t p ur ch as in g, t hi s i s

c o n f i r m e d b y p a t t e r n s o f s u r v i v a l . M a n y o f t h e s e l i t t l e b o o k s s u r v i v e n o w

b ou nd t og et he r i nt o c ol le ct io ns , a nd m an y o f t he se c ol le ct io ns w er e

q u it e o b vi o us l y m a de u p c o nt e mp o r an e ou s ly , b y t h e ir f i rs t o w ne r s . T h is

i s t ru e p ar ti cu la rl y o f t he s ma ll o ct av o p am ph le ts i n w hi ch p ub li sh er s

i ss ue d F re n ch r oy al e di ct s t hr ou gh o ut t he s ix te e nt h c en tu ry. L aw ye rs

a n d o t h e r s w i t h a n i n t e r e s t i n c e r t a i n c l a s s e s o f l a w b o u n d t h e m t o g e t h e r

a s a n i m p r o m p t u , c u s t o m i z e d r e f e r e n c e b o o k . B u t t h i s i s a l s o t h e w a y i n

w h ic h m an y p am ph le ts s ur vi ve , i nc l ud in g t he Flugschriften o f t he fi rs t

R ef or ma ti on g en er at io n. W hy w er e t he y c ol le ct e d i n t hi s d ig ni fi e d w ay ?

5 B oo ks w er e o ft en c on ce al ed u p s le ev es . I n 1 52 6, f or i ns ta nc e, a s ho em ak er f ro mM aa s tr ic ht w ho w as i n d is pu te w it h a C ar me li te d re w a b oo k ‘ ey tt er s ij ne n m ou we ’.W B ax , H e t P r ot e st a nt i sm i n L u ik e n M a as t ri c ht , 1 5 05 – 15 5 7 ( T h e H a gu e , 1937) , p . 8 0 .

F or o th er e xa mp le s s ee A . J oh ns to n, ‘ Ec le ct ic R ef or ma ti on : Ve rn ac ul ar E va ng el ic alP a mp h le t L i te r at u re i n t h e D u tc h - Sp e ak i ng L o w C o un t ri e s, 1 5 20 – 15 6 5’ ( U ni v er s it yo f S o u t ha m p to n P h . D . d i s s e rt a t io n , 1986) , p . 2 4 .

6 T h e b e s t e s t i m a t e i s t h a t a n a d d i t i o n a l 1 0 0 p e r c e n t m a r g i n o v e r t h e u s u a l r e t a i l m a r k - u pw o ul d h a v e b e en c o ns i de r ed r e as o na b le t o c o mp e ns a te f o r t h e a d di t io n al d a ng e rs a n dd i ff i c u lt i e s o f s u p p ly . B r e m me , B u ch d r u ck er u n d B u ch h a n d l e r z u r Z e i t d e r G l a u b e n s k a mpfe,p p . 4 1 –5 .

7 Edwards, P r in t i n g, P r o p a ga n d a a n d M a r ti n L u t h er , p . 3 9 .8 O f w h ic h m o re b e lo w.9 Denis Pallier, R echer ch es s u r l ’ i mp r i mer i e a P a ri s p e n da n t l a L i gu e ( 1 58 5 – 15 9 4) (Geneva,

1975).




T he a ns we r h er e m ay l ie p ar tl y i n t he c ul tu ra l e xp ec ta ti on s o f t he ir

o wn er s . M an y p ur c ha se rs o f Flugschriften m ay h av e b ee n b uy in g c he ap

p rin t, o th er t han p ur el y ut il it ar ia n t ex ts, f or t he f ir st t ime . B ind in g

c o l l e c t i o n s t o g e t h e r w a s a w a y o f m a k i n g t h e o b j e c t r e s p e c t a b l e : m a k i n g

i t m or e l ik e t he ir c onc ep t of a b oo k. I n t hi s w ay t he n ew l it er at ur e w as

r e pa ck a ge d t o m ak e i t m or e f it f or a l ib r ar y. T he B ib li o th equ e Ma z a ri n e

i n P ar is h as s ev er al t ho us an d s ix te en th -c en tu ry p am ph le ts b ou nd t o-

g et he r i n t his w ay, i n gr oup s o f t we nt y o r mo re . Th e o rg an iz at io n i s

t h em at ic , o r c hr on ol o gi ca l, o r b ot h . T he se recueils r ep re se nt n ot j us t a

c o n v e n i e n t m e t h o d o f s t o r a g e , b u t a n a t t e m p t t o o r g a n i z e t h e b a r r a g e o f

i d ea s c r ea t ed b y t h e R e fo r m at i on .

S om et im e s, i t i s c le ar, t he se b un dl es o f t it le s w er e p ut t og et h er i n t h e

p ri nt er ’s s ho p. T hi s i s t ru e, f or i ns ta nc e, o f t he q ua rt o p ol it ic al m an i-

f es to s of t he l ea de rs hi p i ss ue d b y C ond e o n b eh al f o f t he Hu gu eno t

ch urche s at the outbre ak of th e Fre nc h Re ligious Wars. Th ere are

a ro un d t we nt y d iff er e nt t it le s, a nd a ll c ou l d h av e b ee n p ur ch a se d i nd i-

v id ua ll y ; i n f ac t a ro un d 9 5 p er c en t o f s ur vi vi ng c op ie s a re b ou nd i nt o

s e t s t h a t i n c l u d e m o s t o r a l l t h e t i t l e s , t h o u g h t h e r e i s n o s t a n d a r d o r d e r ,

a nd t he d iff er en t recueils are made up of diff er en t c om bi na ti on s o f t h e

sever al edi tions p ut out by the printer.10 A na ly si s o f t he s ur vi vi ng

e xa mp l es s ug g es ts t ha t t he p ri nt e r/ bo ok se l le r p ro ba b ly h ad b as ke ts o f

e ac h t it le , w hi ch h e r ep le ni sh ed w it h n ew e di ti on s a cc or di ng t o n ee d,

a n d f r o m w h i c h h i s a s s i s t a n t s m a d e u p c o p i e s o f t h e w h o l e c o l l e c t i o n s a s

a nd w he n r e qu ir ed b y p ur ch a se r s. We s ee a p re ce de nt f or t hi s b oo k sh op

p rac ti ce i n t he p re -Re fo rm at io n B oo ks o f Ho ur s, w he re p ur ch ase rs

w oul d e xp ec t t o b e ab le t o a dd, ac co rd in g t o t ast e, a m ix tur e o f sm al l

t ex ts w hi ch w ou ld b e p la ce d a ft er t he b as ic H ou rs : p er ha ps a l if e o f S t

M ar ga re t, o r a p op ul ar t ext l ik e t he Fi ft ee n S ay ing s o f ou r L ord on t he

Cross. T hi s w ou ld c re at e a c us to mi ze d, i nd iv id ua l c ol le ct io n f or u se i n

w o rs h ip a n d d e vo t io n .

I n t h e c a s e o f t h e C o n d e a n c o l l e c t i o n , t h e m o t i v e s f o r p u r c h a s e w o u l d

b e q ui te v ar ie d. T he re w er e m an y r ea so ns w hy s up po rt er s ( or o pp on -

e nt s) m ig ht w an t t o o wn a c om pl et e s et o f t he p ro no un ce me nt s o f t he

H ug ue no t l ea de rs hi p a t t he o ns et o f t he f ig ht in g. B ut o n b ot h s id es o f

10 T h e G i bi e r t r ac t s a r e l i st e d i n L o ui s D e sg r av e s, E l ie G i bi e r i m pr im e ur a Orle a n s ( 1 53 6 – 1588) (Geneva, 1966) ; t h e d i ff e re n t e d i t io n s o f t h es e p o pu l ar w o rk s a r e m o re p r ec i se l yidentified in Jean-Francois Gilmont, ‘La premier e d i f f u s i o n d e s M em o i r e s d e C o n d e parEl o i G i bi e r e n 1 5 62 – 15 6 3’ , i n P. A q ui l on a n d H .- J . M a rt i n ( e d s . ), L e l i v r e d a n s l ’ E u r o p ed e l a R en ai ss an ce . A ct es d u X XV II Ie C ol lo qu e i nt er na ti on al d ’e t u de s h u ma n is t es d e To u rs(Paris, 1988) , p p. 5 8– 70 . A r ev is ed a nd u pd at ed v er si on o f t hi s a rt ic le a ls o a pp ea rs i n ar e c e n t v o l u m e o f G i l m o n t ’ s c o l l e c t e d p a p e r s : L e l i v r e e t s e s s e c r e t s (Louvain-la-Neuve andGeneva, 2003) , p p . 1 9 1– 2 16 .






T hi s e xp re ss io n m us t n ot b e m is un de rs to od . I d o n ot s ee k t o i mp ly

t h at t he se w or ks e ma na t ed f ro m t he c ro w d. O n t he c on tr a ry, t h ey w er e

o ve rw he lmi ng ly t he w or k o f e du ca te d m en – o ft en t he s am e au th or s

t ur ni ng ou t a g re at num be r o f v er y s im il ar w or ks. W ha t I a m s ee ki ng

t o d e m o n s t r a t e i s t h a t p a m p h l e t s c o l l e c t i v e l y t o o k o n a d i f f e r e n t l i f e f r o m

t h e ir s t at u s a s i n di v id ua l t e x ts . I t w a s t h e s u pe r a bu n da n c e, t h e c a sc a de o f

t it le s, t ha t c re at ed t he i mp re ss io n o f an ov er wh el mi ng t ide , an un-

s to pp ab le m ove me nt o f o pi ni on. C er ta inl y, t hi s w as t he r ea ct io n of

c on te mp or ar ie s. I n o ff ic ia l c om me nt o n t he p am ph le t c am pa ig ns o f

t h e R ef or m at io n i t i s p r ec is el y t he s he er q ua nt i ty o f s uc h m at e ri al s ud -

d enl y sw amp in g t he m ar ke t t ha t s ee ms t o h av e b ee n mo st w or th y of

r ema rk , n ot w hat a ny o f t he m i ndi vi du al ly we re s ayi ng. At te mp ts t o

s um ma ri ze t he ir a rg um en ts t en d t o r el y o n t he b ro ad es t i mp re ss io ns

a nd s el do m q uo te i nd iv id ua l w or ks . P am ph le ts a nd t he ir p ur ch as er s

h ad t og et he r c re at ed t he i mp re ss io n o f i rr es is ti bl e f or ce . T hi s i s w hy

t he ir p ub lic at io n wa s i mp or ta nt e ve n i f t he y h ad no th in g ne w t o sa y,

a nd w hy t he y w er e p ur ch ase d b y p eo pl e w ho al re ad y k ne w t hat t he y

a gr ee d w it h w ha t t he y c on ta in ed . T he ir f or ce l ay i n t he p ow er – o r t he

a p pe a ra n ce – o f c o ll e c ti v e, i r re s is t ib l e m i gh t .

Pamphlet moments

T he s ix te en th c en tu ry g av e b ir th t o m an y t ho us an ds o f s ma ll r el ig io us

b oo k s. M an y w er e p ar t o f t he e ve ry da y l if e o f e st ab li s he d c h ur ch es , a nd

w e w il l t ur n t o t he se t yp es o f b oo ks i n d ue c ou rs e ; t he y c er ta in ly p la ye d

a n i m po r ta n t p a rt i n c r e at i ng a n d r e i nf o rc i ng r e li g i ou s a l le g ia n ce . B u t a t

s pe ci fi c m om en t s i n t he s ix te e nt h c en tu r y p am ph le t l it er at ur e p la ye d a

p ar t i n t he p ri mar y t as k of c re at in g ne w c hur ch es : i t ac com pa ni ed a n

u ps ur ge o f f re sh t hi nk i ng , a nd e nc ap su la te d s om e o f t he c or e m es sa ge s o f

t he ne w m ov em ent s. T he re ar e t wo su ch m om ent s t hat r eq ui re ou r

s pe ci al a tt en ti on . T he f ir st , o bv io us ly, i s t he p er io d o f t he f ir st w av e o f

e va ng el ic al p am ph le te er in g i n t he 1 52 0s . T he s ec on d i s f ou nd i n t he

p er io d o f v io le nt c on fr on ta ti on b et we en t he n ew R ef or ma ti on i ns ur -

g en cy a nd C at ho li c r eg im es i n n or th er n E ur op e i n t he 1 56 0s . I n b ot h,

t he re c an b e l it tl e do ub t t ha t p am ph le ts p lay ed a vi ta l r ole i n s hap in g

events.

I n s om e c ri ti ca l r es pe c ts t h e R ef or ma ti on d at es n ot f ro m t he p ub l ic a-

t ion of the nin ety-five t he ses in October 1517, but from Luther’s

d e c i s i o n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r t o p u b l i s h a d e f e n c e o f h i s v i e w s i n G e r m a n .

T he t he se s o n i nd ul ge nc es h ad b ee n p en ne d f ir st i n L at in . W hi le t he y

r ema in ed e xc lu si ve ly i n t he r eal m o f sc ho la rly de ba te L ut he r c oul d

d ef en d h is r ig ht , a s a s ch ol ar a nd a n a ca de mi c, t o a dv an ce s pe cu la ti ve




i de as . H e h ad c er ta in ly r ec og ni ze d t he s en si ti vi ty o f t he i nt er es ts t ha t

m ight be stirred up by his propositions ; the copy he had dutifully

d e sp a t ch e d t o A l b re c ht o f B r an de n bu rg w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y a c o v e r i n g

l e t te r o f a p p ro p ri a te o b se q u io u sn e ss .13 T he d eg re e o f p ub li c i nt er es t

i ni t ia ll y a st on is he d h im , a nd h e w as p ar t ic ul ar ly u nn er ve d b y t he d ec i-

s i o n o f t h e N u r e m b e r g p r i n t e r C o n r a d S c h e u r l t o p u b l i s h t h e t h e s e s a l s o

i n G e r m a n . L u t h e r ’ s l e t t e r t o S c h e u r l o f M a r c h 1 5 1 8 w h e r e h e a d d r e s s e s

t he s e i ss ue s i s w or t h q uo ti ng a t l en gt h :

G re et in gs . I r ec ei ve d b ot h y ou r G er ma n a nd L at in l et te rs , g oo d a nd l ea rn ed

Sc h e u r l , t o ge t h e r w i t h t h e d i s t i n gu i s h e d A l b r e c h t D ur e r ’ s g i f t , a n d m y T h e s e s i n

t h e o r i g i n a l a n d i n t h e v e r n a c u l a r . A s y o u a r e s u r p r i s e d t h a t I d i d n o t s e n d t h e m

t o y o u , I r e p l y t h a t m y p u r p o s e w a s n o t t o p u b l i s h t h e m , b u t f i r s t t o c o n s u l t a f e w

of m y n ei ghb ou rs a bo ut t he m, tha t t hu s I m ig ht e it he r d est ro y t he m if c on -

d em ne d o r e di t t he m w it h t he a pp ro ba ti on o f o th er s. Bu t n ow t ha t t he y a re

p r i n t e d a n d c i r c u l a t e d f a r b e y o n d m y e x p e c t a t i o n , I f e e l a n x i o u s a b o u t w h a t t h e y

m ay b ri ng f or th : n ot t ha t I a m u nf av ou ra bl e t o s pr ea di ng k no wn t ru th a br oa d –

r at he r t hi s i s w ha t I s ee k – b ut b ec au se t hi s m et ho d i s n ot t ha t b es t a da pt ed t o

i ns tr uc t t he p ub li c. I h av e c er ta in d ou bt s a bo ut t he m m ys el f, a nd s ho ul d h av e

s p o k e n fa r d iff er en tl y an d m or e d is ti nc tl y h ad I kn own wh at w as g oi ng to

happen.14

W ha t p r ec is el y d id L ut h er m e an , w he n h e w or ri ed t ha t ‘ t hi s m et ho d’w a s n o t t h e b e s t f o r s p r e a d i n g t h e t r u t h ? W a s h e e x p r e s s i n g t h e v i e w t h a t

t h e m e d i u m o f p r i n t w a s n o t a p p r o p r i a t e f o r s u c h p u b l i c d e b a t e ; o r t h a t

t he t ra ns la ti on o f a w or k i nt en de d s ol el y f or a n a ca de m ic a ud ie n ce w as

n o t t h e b e s t w a y o f m a k i n g h i s c a s e t o s u c h a p u b l i c ? P r o b a b l y t h e l a t t e r ,

b e c a u s e w h e n h e w r o t e t o S c h e u r l L u t h e r h a d a l r e a d y d e c i d e d t o w r i t e a

s e pa ra te w or k i n G e rm an a dd re ss in g t he c on tr o ve r sy o ve r i nd ul ge nc e s.

The S e rm o n o n I n du l ge n ce s app ea re d b ef or e t he e nd of t he m on th , an d

w as a n i mm ed ia te s uc ce ss .15

T he s er mo n r ep ay s c lo se a tt en ti on , n otl e a s t b e c a u s e i t i s c l e a r t h a t L u t h e r h a d t h o u g h t c a r e f u l l y a b o u t t h e s t y l e

a nd s tr u ct ur e a pp ro pr ia te t o e xp la in t h es e i ss ue s t o a w id er p ub l ic . T he

m a t e r i a l i s o r g a n i z e d c o n c i s e l y i n t w e n t y a r t i c l e s , t h e s t y l e h o m e l y a n d a t

t i m e s c o l l o q u i a l , t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n o f h i s c r i t i c s b l u n t a n d d i r e c t . L u t h e r

h ad c le ar ly a lr ea dy d is co ve re d t ha t t al en t f or c ol ou rf ul i nv ec ti ve t ha t

w ou ld b e s uc h a l ea di ng c h ar ac t er is ti c o f t h e Flugschriften e r a, a nd l it t le

w o u l d c h a n g e i n t h e y e a r s t o c o m e . L u t h e r w a s a n a t u r a l p o l e m i c i s t , t h e

13 Q u ot e d i n S m it h , T h e L if e a nd L et te rs o f M ar ti n L ut he r , p p . 4 2 – 3 .14 Ibid., p p . 4 3 – 4 .15 I t w e n t t h r o u g h t w e n t y - f i v e e d i t i o n s i n t h r e e y e a r s , a n d w a s p u b l i s h e d i n a l a r g e n u m b e r

o f l o ca t io n s t h ro u gh o ut t h e G e rm a n- s pe a k in g l a nd s . B e nz i ng , Lutherbibliographie, n os .90–104.




i m p a c t o f h i s p o p u l a r w r i t i n g s u n d e r p i n n e d b y h i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n t e l l e c t

a nd a c lar it y o f t ho ug ht b or n o f h is r ea l c omm and of t he t he olo gi ca l

issue s. It was t his ability to encapsu late the core of the case in clear

c om pr eh ens ib le l ang uag e, w hi le d ec oup li ng i t fr om t he t ec hni ca l

t h e ol o gi c al m o or i ng s , t h at m a rk s o u t h i s s p ec i al g e n iu s .

March 1518 was a se minal mome nt in othe r ways. In January t he

c h a p t e r o f t h e D o m i n i c a n o r d e r i n S a x o n y h a d g a t h e r e d i n F r a n k f u r t - a n -

d e r - O d e r a n d , a s o n e m i g h t h a v e e x p e c t e d , m o u n t e d a r o b u s t d e f e n c e o f

Te tz el , t he i nd ul ge nc e s el le r a t t he e ye o f t he s to rm . F lu sh ed w it h t hi s

s u c c e s s T e t z e l h a d m o v e d t o h a v e t h e 1 0 6 a r t i c l e s o f h i s d e f e n c e p r i n t e d ,

a nd s eve ra l h und re d c op ie s we re d is pa tc he d f or sa le i n Wi tt en be rg .

H er e, h ow ev er, t he s tu de nt s o f t he u ni ve rs i ty m ad e s ho rt w or k o f t h em .

T h e b o o k s e l l e r w i t h T e t z e l ’ s s t ock w a s j e e r e d i n t h e m a r k e t p l a c e a n d h i s

b oo k s w er e s ei ze d a nd b ur ne d.16 L ut h er d is ap p ro ve d, b ut i t w as c le ar

e v e n f r o m t h i s e a r l y d a t e t h a t t h e c o n f l i c t w o u l d b e f o u g h t w i t h w e a p o n s

o th er t han w or ds . Two y ear s la te r L ut he r w oul d t ak e a le af f ro m t he

s tu de nt s’ b oo k, a nd c e re m on ia ll y b ur n t he P ap a l B ul l c on de mn in g h is

heresies.

T he ‘ pa mp hl et m om en t’ o f t he L ut he ra n R ef or ma ti on w ou ld l as t a

f u r t h e r e i g h t y e a r s . B e t w e e n 1 5 1 8 a n d 1 5 2 6 t h e G e r m a n E m p i r e e x p e r i -

e n c e d a q u i t e u n p r e c e d e n t e d t o r r e n t o f p u b l i c a t i o n s : p e r h a p s a s m a n y a s

6 m il li on c op ie s o f a ro un d 6 ,0 00 s ep ar at e e di ti on s. F or t he f ir st t im e,

t oo , t hi s w as a m ar ke t d om in at ed b y s ma ll b oo ks : b y b oo ks i n G er ma n,

m o st p u bl i sh e d i n t h e c o mp a r at i ve l y u n fa m il i ar f o rm a t o f q u ar t o, r a th e r

t h an t he s ch o la rl y L at in a nd t he m or e s ta t el y f ol io . C on te mp o ra ri es h ad

a c l ea r s e ns e t h at s o me t h in g q u it e s p ec t a cu l ar l y n e w h a d e r u p te d i n to t h e

p re vi ou sl y m ea su re d w or ld o f l ea rn in g. O ne c an no t k no w h ow m uc h

s h e e r c u r i o s i t y d r o v e m a n y p u r c h a s e s a n d h o w m u c h s h e e r o p p o r t u n i s m

g o v e r n e d t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h o s e i n t h e p u b l i s h i n g i n d u s t r y w h o s w i t c h e d

t h ei r p ro du ct io n t o f ee d t h e n ew p ub l ic a pp e ti te f or r e li gi o us p r in t. B ut

we do know that any printe rs who, for local p olitical reasons, were

e xc lu de d f ro m t h e n ew m ar k et s, r es en t ed i t b it t er ly. I n d iv id e d S ax on y

t h e Wi tt en be r g p ri nt e rs f lo ur is he d, w hi le t h os e i n L ei pz ig , w h er e D uk e

G eo rg e r em ai ne d s tu bb or nl y l oy al t o t he o ld f ai th , w er e f or bi dd en t o

p u b l i s h h e r e t i c a l b o o k s . I n 1 5 2 4 t h e t o w n c o u n c i l p e t i t i o n e d t h e d u k e o n

b eh al f o f t he s uff er in g p ri nt er s. T he m em be rs o f t he l oc al p ub li sh in g

i nd us t ry h ad s ug g es te d t ha t t he y w er e i n d an ge r o f l os in g ‘ h ou se , h om e

a nd a ll t he ir l iv el ih oo d’ i f t he y w er e n ot a ll ow ed

16 James Atkinson, M a rt i n L u th e r a n d t h e B i rt h o f P r ot e st a nt i sm (London, 1968) , p . 1 5 3 .




t o p ri nt o r s el l a ny th in g n ew t ha t i s m ad e i n Wi tt en be rg o r e ls ew he re . F or t ha t

w h i c h o n e w o u l d g l a d l y s e l l a n d f o r w h i c h t h e r e i s d e m a n d t h e y a r e n o t a l l o w e d

to h ave or s ell . Bu t w ha t t he y h av e i n ov er abu nda n ce [ Ca th ol i c t re at is es ] i s

d e s i r e d b y n o o n e a n d c a n n o t e v e n b e g i v e n a w a y .17

E ve n al low in g f or t he t ra di ti on of h ear tr en di ng h yp er bo le t hat is

c ha ra ct er is ti c o f a ll s pe ci al p le ad in g b y t ra de sm en ’s g ui ld s i n t he s ix -

t ee nt h c en tu ry, t hi s s ee ms a f ai r s ta te me nt o f t he f ac t o f t he c as e. I n t he

y e ar s a f te r L u th e r ’s q u ar r el s f i rs t b e c am e a p u bl i c i s su e , t h e e v an g el i ca l s

ut te rl y do mi nat ed t he b ook ma rk et . L ut he r h im se lf ac co unt ed fo r a

r em ar k ab ly h ig h p r op or ti on o f t he w or k s p ub l is he d. M an y o f h is p ub li -

c at i on s w er e i ns ta nt b es ts el l er s, s el li ng o ut i n a m at te r o f d ay s o r w ee k s :

m a ny w e nt t h r ou g h m u lt i p le e d i ti o ns . M a rk E d wa r ds e s t im a te s t h at t h e

t ot al q ua nt it y o f L ut h er ’s w or k s a va il ab l e d ur i ng h is l if et im e m us t h av e

e xc ee de d 3 m il li on c op ie s : t he l ar ge st p ro port io n o f t hi s w as u nd ou bt -

e dl y d ur in g t he p am ph le t f ur y o f t he 1 52 0s .18 L u th e r ’s w o rk s b e n ef i te d

f ro m t he p ar t ic ul ar c ac h et o f h i s c el eb ri t y s ta t us , b ut e va ng el ic al s w h o

t oo k u p h is c au se i n p ri nt a ls o f ou nd a r ea dy a ud ie nc e. B et we en 1 51 8

a nd 1 52 5 E dw ar ds h as c ou nt e d 1 ,4 65 G er m an e di ti on s o f t he w or k s o f

M ar tin L ut he r, b ut b et we en t he m t he se ve nt ee n ne xt m os t p op ula r

e va ng el ic al a ut ho rs a cc ou nt f or a no th er 8 07 e di ti on s. O ve r L ut he r’s

l if et i me e va ng el i ca l a ut ho rs w ri ti ng i n s up p or t o f h is t ea ch i ng s a cc ou nt

f or a no th er 2 .5 m il li on c op ie s o n t h e m ar ke t .

A t o n e l e v e l t h e s e f i g u r e s m a y s e e m t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g

p ri ma c y o f L ut he r, b ut t h e s up p or t o f t he se o th e r a ut h or s w as u nd ou b t-

e dl y o f h ug e i mp or ta nc e t o t he s uc ce ss o f t he R ef or ma ti on m ov em en t.

P a r t l y t h i s w a s f o r t h e o b v i o u s r e a s o n t h a t t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e s e o t h e r

f ig ur e s r ep r es en te d t he a ct iv e e ng ag e me nt o f m en w h o w er e t h em se lv es

i n f l u e n t i a l i n o t h e r m a j o r c i t i e s ; t h e i r p u b l i s h i n g a c t i v i t y w a s b u t o n e p a r t

o f a w i d e r p u b l i c e n g a g e m e n t o n t h e p a r t o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n . B u t i t a l s o

m at te r ed g re at ly t ha t L ut h er w as n ot p r es en t ed a s a s in gl e l on e ly v oi c e,

b ut a s p a rt o f a c om mu ni ty. L ut h er ’s c ri ti ci sm o f t he e st ab li sh e d c hu rc h

w as s o f un da me nt al a nd o ut sp ok en t ha t i t w as e as y f or p ol em ic al e n-

e mi e s t o p re se nt h im a s a n i so la te d f ig ur e : t he w it ne ss o f o th e r e va ng el -

i c al p am ph le t ee rs g av e t he l ie t o t hi s c ha rg e . H ow i mp o rt an t t hi s c ou ld

be is evide nt from a pam phlet publish ed by Lazar us Spengler, the

N ur em be rg c it y s ec r et ar y, a nd o ne o f t he s ma ll b ut s ig ni fi ca nt n um be r

o f l ay p am ph le te er s w ho w ro te i n f av ou r o f t he R ef or ma ti on . S pe ng le r

w as t he a no ny mo us a ut ho r o f t he p am ph le t, W hy D r M ar ti n’ s t e ac h in g

17 Q u ot e d i n E d wa r ds , P ri n t i ng , P r o p ag a n d a a n d M a r ti n L u t h er , p . 1 4 .18 Ibid., p . 3 9 .




s ho ul d n ot b e r ej ec te d a s u nc hr is ti an b ut r at he r b e r eg ar de d a s C hr is ti an. In

e n u m e r a t i n g s i x r e a s o n s w h y L u t h e r s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s a t r u e C h r i s -

t ia n t ea ch er, S pe ng le r i s a n i mp or ta nt w it n es s f or t he a pp e al o f t he e ar ly

e va ng el ic al m ov em en t ( al th ou gh , c le ar ly, h e w as h im se lf p ar t o f t he

b ou rg e oi s e li te ) . F or S pe ng le r, ‘ No t ea ch in g o r p re ac hi ng h as s e em ed

m or e s tr ai gh t fo rw a rd ly r ea so na b le , a nd I a ls o c an no t c on ce i ve o f a ny -

t hi ng t ha t w ou ld m or e c lo se ly m at ch m y u nd er st an di ng o f C hr is ti an

o rd er as L ut he r a nd h is f ol lo we rs ’ t ea ch in g a nd i ns tr uc ti on ’ ( my e m-

p ha si s) . L ut he r, t he n, w as p ar t o f a c om mu ni ty o f b el ie f, a nd S pe ng le r

g o e s o n t o e m p h a s i z e t h i s p o i n t w i t h a h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e m a r k : ‘ U p t o

t hi s p oi nt I h av e a ls o o ft en h ea rd f ro m m an y e xc el le nt h ig hl y l ea rn ed

p e o p l e o f t h e s p i r i t u a l a n d w o r l d l y e s t a t e s t h a t t h e y w e r e t h a n k f u l t o G o d

t h at t h ey l iv ed t o s ee t he d ay w he n t he y c ou ld h ea r D oc to r L ut he r a nd

hi s tea chin g .’19

H o w a r e w e t o i n t e r p r e t t h i s r e m a r k ? H o w h a d S p e n g l e r ‘ o f t e n h e a r d ’

s uc h f av ou ra bl e t hi ng s o f L ut he r ? F ro m t he p ul pi t ? F ro m c as ua l c on -

v er sa ti on wi th f ri end s in t he Nur emb er g r uli ng e li te or i n t he m ar ke t

p l a c e ? F r o m p a m p h l e t s ? T h i s i s p e r h a p s i m p o s s i b l e t o k n o w – t h e m o s t

p l a u s i b l e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s l i k e l y t o i n v o l v e a d e g r e e o f m u t u a l r e i n f o r c e -

m e nt b e t we e n t h e se v a ri o us m e di a . B u t f r om w h at e ve r s o ur c e , S p e ng l er

h ad g at h er ed s om e v er y p r ec is e i mp r es si on s o f L ut h er. H e a dm ir e d t h e

f ac t t ha t L ut he r s po ke o ut a cc or di ng t o t he d ic ta te s o f h is c on sc ie nc e,

a nd w it h no p ros pe ct o f m at er ia l g ai n ( th is w as c on tr as te d w it h t he

c on du ct o f t h e i nd ul ge nc e p e dl ar s) . H e b e li ev ed t ha t L ut he r’ s p os it i on

a s m on k, t ea ch er a nd d oc to r r eq ui re d h im t o s pe ak h is c on sc ie nc e o n

i s s u e s o f s a l v a t i o n . F i n a l l y , L u t h e r h a d b a s e d h i s t e a c h i n g o n t h e G o s p e l

s et f or th i n S cr ip tu re : h e h ad o ff er ed t he Rei n E van gel i u m.

S pe ng le r i s a n i mp or ta nt w it ne ss, i f h ar dl y a r ep re se nt at iv e of t he

‘ com mo n m an’ . O th er l ay au th or s t end ed t o o ff er m or e g ene ra liz ed

and often quite emoti ve praise of Luther as a holy man, ‘a light of

C hr is te nd om ’, e ve n t he g re at p ro ph et o f a n ew a ge . B ot h H an s S ac hs

a nd L au x G em ig ge r h ad ab sor be d L ut he r’s di re w ar ni ng s ab ou t t he

i mm in en ce o f t he e nd -t im e. F or G em ig ge r, ‘ Lu th er w as s en t b y G od

t o t e a c h u s G od’s w or d a nd g oo d m or al s a nd t o d ri ve o ut t he A nt ic hr is t

h er e o n e ar th .’20 He re is Luther as hol y man, the Lut her of the first,

p ow er fu ll y e vo ca ti ve p or tr ai ts b y L uc as C ra na ch : t he s im pl e m on k,

a po st le o f t rut h. Ye t, a s w e h ave s ee n ab ove , t hi s w as o nl y p ar t of t he

t ruth. Sach s and others might be power ful ly affecte d by a vision of

t he p ro ph et c ry in g i n t he w il de rn es s ; f or m en o f t he r ul in g c la ss es l ik e

19 Q u o te d i n ibid., p . 5 3 .20 Ibid., p . 5 2 . O n S a c h s , s e e R u s s e l l , P o p u l a r P a m p hl et eer s, p p. 1 65 –8 0.




S pe ng l er i t w as p r ec is el y t he o pp os it e c ha ra ct e ri st ic s t ha t m ad e L ut h er

plausible : his uni mpeachable cl aim to be part of a community of

l ea rn in g, a m an o f e st ab li sh ed a ut ho ri ty w it hi n t he o rd er ed h ie ra rc hy

o f l ear ne d m en . Ye t b ot h, w he n t he y se t p en t o p ap er t o r eg ist er t he ir

s up po rt f or L ut he r, a pp ar en tl y d re w o n t he s am e r ep er to ir e o f t ex ts .

S ac hs c er ta in ly r ea d To the Christ ian Nobility of t he G erman Peopl e,

Luther’s gr eat h ymn to t he Ge rman ruling c lasse s, an d imb ib ed a

w i de - r an g in g a g en da o f s o ci a l c h an g e a nd r e fo r m. S p en g l er w a s b r ut a ll y

s c a t h i n g a b o u t ‘ f a i r y - t a l e p r e a c h e r s ’ w h o h a d d i s q u i e t e d t h e c o n s c i e n c e s

o f t he p eo pl e w it h t he ir p rai se of e xt er na l c er em oni es . B ot h di pp ed

eage rly int o th e eclectic mixture of message s emanat ing from the

f er me n t o f d eb at e r ai se d b y t he p ub li c s ca nd al o f L ut he r’ s g re at m at te r.

T h e p e r i o d 1 5 1 8 – 2 4 w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n G e r m a n y b y a v e r y p e c u l i a r

c o n v e r g e n c e o f c u l t u r a l a n d s o c i a l m e d i a . L u t h e r d o m i n a t e d t h e c o n v e r -

s at io n o f t he l ear ne d ; h e al so d om ina te d t he n ew s ag en da . I t wa s i m-

p or ta nt i n t hi s r es pe ct t ha t L ut he r’s t ea ch in g w as h ea rd n ot o nl y a s t he

e ch o o f d ist ant c on tr ove rs ie s, i n f ar -o ff Wi tt en be rg a nd Ro me , b ut

r ic ho ch et ed r ou nd t he E mp ir e. T he p ub li c i nt er es t s ti rr ed b y L ut he r

w as g re at ly e nh an ce d b y h is p ub li c a pp ea ra nc es : i n H ei de lb er g f or t he

m e et in g o f t he A ug us ti ni an C ha pt e r, t he c on fr on t at io n w it h C aj et an i n

A ug sb ur g, t he L ei pz ig D is pu ta ti on , t he D ie t o f Wo rm s. M an y w ou ld

h ave se en L ut he r, o r k now n s ome on e w ho h ad ; ma ny c it ize ns o f t he

G er man c it ie s w oul d h ave f el t e ng ag ed b y t he c ont ro ve rsi es in a v er y

d i r e c t w a y . T h e t w i s t s a n d t u r n s o f L u t h e r ’ s c o n f l i c t c a n b e f o l l o w e d a s a

s e r i e s o f p e a k s a n d t r o u g h s i n t h e p o l e m i c a l s t o r m , a s e r i e s o f p u b l i s h i n g

s en sa ti on s f ol lo wi ng q ui ck ly o ne a ft er a no th er : t he S er mo n o n I nd ul -

gences , t he g re at ma ni fe st os o f 1 52 0, L ut he r’s a dd ress a t the Diet of

Wo r ms . T h is a l on e w e nt t h r ou g h t w e nt y -f i ve e d it i on s .21 I t w as i mp or t -

an t t oo t hat t he se c on tr ove rs ie s w er e e xp er ie nc ed n ot o nl y t hr ou gh

p ri nt ed m at te r i mp or te d f ro m Wi tt en be rg , b ut t ak en u p a ls o b y l oc al

a u t h o r s a n d l o c a l p r i n t e r s . T h r o u g h t h i s p r o c e s s L u t h e r ’ s t e a c h i n g c o u l d

b e in te rp re te d a nd m ade r el ev ant t o l oc al c ir cu ms tan ce s a nd l oc al

controversies.

Th is p oi nt i s r ei nf or ce d i f w e as k w hat , m ost of al l, p eo pl e m ad e o f

L ut he r’s t ea ch in g. A t o ne l ev el , a s w e h av e i nd ic at ed i n o ur d is cu ss io n

o f p r e a c h i n g , t h e e c l e c t i c i s m o f t h e e a r l y e v a n g e l i c a l m o v e m e n t w a s p a r t

of it s appeal. But withi n t his context of a general engag ement wit h

c o nt e m po r ar y i s su e s a nd g r ie v an c es , L u th e r a l so b e ne f it e d f r om a b r ut a l

s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f h i s c e n t r a l t h e o l o g i c a l m e s s a g e . F o r L u t h e r ’ s s u p p o r t e r s

21 Benzing, Lutherbibliographie, n o s. 9 0 5– 3 0.




what seems to h ave made the great est impac t was the excoriati ng

c rit ic is m o f t he c or rup tio ns o f t he p rie st hoo d ( and p ar tic ul ar ly t he

p a p a c y ) a n d t h e d o c t r i n e o f S c r i p t u r e a l o n e . T h e c o n c e p t o f j u s t i f i c a t i o n

b y f ai th c ou ld , f or m en o f e du ca t io n, h av e t he s am e t r an sf or mi ng e ff ec t

a s i t h ad f or L ut he r h im se lf . M ar ti n B uc er w ou ld d at e h is c on ve rs io n

f ro m h ea ri ng L ut h er e xp ou nd j us ti fi ca t io n a t t he H ei d el be rg D is pu ta -

t io n, an d r ead ing L ut he r o n j ust if ic at io n h ad a s imi lar i mp ac t o n t he

p ai nt e r A lb re c ht D ur er. B ut f or m os t l ay pe op le j us ti fi ca ti on w as t oo

d iff ic ul t t o f at ho m. I n t hi s r es pe ct t he e xp er ie nc e o f t he G he nt b ak er

L ie ve n de Z om er e i s h ig hl y r eve ali ng . De Zo me re ow ne d a t l ea st t wo

b o o k s b y L u t h e r ( a n d c l a i m e d t o o w n m a n y m o r e ) . W h e n h e h a d h e a r d

o f t h e Baby l o n i an C ap ti vi ty, L u th e r ’s c l as s ic e x po s it i o n o f j u st i fi c at i o n, h e

h a d g o n e t o s e e a l o c a l c l e r i c , w h o h a d r e a d h i m ‘ e en q u a t e e r n e ’ . B u t h e

h ad g iv en u p b ec au se ‘ de m at e ri e t e h oo gh e w as ’ .22

T hi s e xp e ri en ce w as p ro b ab ly n ot u nc o mm on – e ve n i f n ot e ve r yo ne

w o u l d h a v e g o n e a s f a r a s t h e e n t h u s i a s t i c b a k e r i n s u p p l y i n g t h e m s e l v e s

w it h s uc h a w ei gh ty a nd e xp en si ve t om e ( th e Baby l on i an C ap ti vi ty was

s om ew ha t o ut o f t he m ai ns tr e am o f L ut he r’ s p am p hl et l it er at ur e ). T he

d oc t ri ne o f S cr ip tu re a lo ne , i n c on t ra st , w as p ow e rf ul n ot o nl y b ec au se

o f i ts r ad ic al r he t or ic al s im p li fi ca ti o n, b ut b ec au se i t w as r ei nf or c ed i n

virtually every medium : th rough preaching, th rough the ima ge of

L ut h er, b oo k i n h an d, i n t he p or t ra it w oo dc u ts , t hr ou gh t h e p am p hl et s

o n t he s tr ee t s, a nd f in al ly o f c ou rs e t h ro ug h t h e p ub li c at io n o f t h e B ib le

i ts el f. Th e ap pe ar anc e o f t he S ep te mb er Te st am ent i n 1 52 2 w as a n

i ns ta nt an eo us p ub li sh in g s en sa ti on . I t h ad b ee n w el l p re pa re d b y t he

p am p hl et a nd p re ac h in g c am pa ig n f or R e i n E v an g e li u m, and w as i ts el f

t h e t r i u m p h a n t v i n d i c a t i o n o f t h i s p r i n c i p l e . I n t u r n , t h e t e x t o f L u t h e r ’ s

B ib le q ui ck ly m ad e i ts el f f el t i n t he p am ph le t l it er at ur e. I n t he s em in al

s t u d y p u b l i s h e d b y B e r n d M o e l l e r , o n e c a n s e e t h e r a p i d c o n q u e s t o f t h e

m a rk e t b y L u th e r ’s t r an s la t i on r e fl e ct e d i n t h e N e w Te s t am e nt c i ta t i on s

i nc lu de d i n p am ph le ts p ub li sh ed b et we en 1 52 2 a nd 1 52 5. A lr ea dy i n

1 52 2, 2 3 p er c en t o f t h e p am p hl et s e xa mi ne d c it e L ut h er ’s t ra ns la ti on

( p r e s u m a b l y t h o s e p u b l i s h e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e y e a r ) . T h i s r i s e s t o 4 4 p e r

ce nt in 1523, and 72 p er cent in 1524. Even a signifi cant number of

L u th e r’ s C a th o li c o p p on e nt s c i t e h i s t r an s la t i on .

I f w e a r e s e e k i n g a n e x p l a n a t i o n w h y j u s t i f i c a t i o n b y f a i t h d i d n o t f i n d

m or e r es on an ce , t h en t h e c on t ra st i s i ns tr uc ti ve . L ut he r’ s t ea ch in g o n

j us ti fi ca t io n r el ie d e xc lu si ve ly o n h ig h- re gi s te r m ed ia : e it he r h is o wn ,

m or e c om pl ex w ri ti ng s, or t he m ed iat io n of t he se t ext s t hr ou gh t he

22 P. Fredericq, C o r p u s d o cu m en t o r um h a er eti ca e p r a v it a t is n eer la n d i cae ( 5 v o ls . , G h en t /T h eHague, 1889–1902) , v o l . I V , p . 1 1 3 .








p r op er l y i n st ru ct e d i n t he o lo gy , a p prov e d b y a l ea rn ed u ni ve rs it y, or o th er s

a d mi t te d t h er e to b y t h e l o ca l o r di n ar y.23

I n t he r ea lm of t he b ook , t he b usy, v ib ran t w or k of Ne th er land ish

p ub l is hi ng w as s ub je ct e d t o c lo se r eg ul at io n. N o o ne w as t o p ri nt w or k sb y f or bi dd en a ut ho rs , n or t o ‘ pa in t o r h av e p ai nt ed , b uy o r s el l, h av e,

h ol d, k ee p o r h ol d a ny p ic tu re s, p ai nt in gs o r s ca nd al ou s f ig ur es o f t he

V ir gi n M ar y, o r t he s ai nt s c an on iz ed b y t he h ol y c hu rc h, o r t he c le ri ca l

e s ta te ’ . T he e di ct i s p ar t ic ul ar l y r ev ea li ng a bo ut t h e r an ge o f l it er at u re

a nd p ub li sh ed w or ks t hr ou gh w hi ch i t w as b el ie ve d t ha t t he h er et ic al

d o ct r in e s c o ul d b e i n cu l ca t ed :

S e ei n g t h at t h e f o re s ai d s e ct s a n d e r ro r s h a ve p r oc e ed e d p r in c ip a ll y b y t h e h u g e

d i v e r s i t y o f b o o k s p u b l i s h e d b y f o r b i d d e n a n d h e r e t i c a u t h o r s , s o w e o r d a i n t h a tn o o ne o f w ha te ve r q ua li ty, s ta te , n at io n o r c on di ti on , s ha ll p ri nt o r c au se t o b e

p r in t ed a n yw h er e i n o u r l a nd s , a n y b oo k s, r e fr a in s , b a ll a ds , s o ng s , l e tt e rs , p r og -

n os ti ca ti on s, a lm an ac s o r a ny o th er m at er ia l o ld o r n ew c on ce rn in g H ol y

Sc r i pt u r e o r o t h er ma t te r, w i t ho u t p r i or p e r mi s s i on .24

P re -p ub li ca t io n i ns pe ct io n b y t he o lo gi an s o f t he u ni ve r si ty w as p re -

s c r i b e d f o r a l l p r i n t e d m a t t e r . I n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s t h e p r o b l e m o f c o n t r o l

w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y a c u t e , b e c a u s e o f t h e s i z e a n d d i v e r s i t y o f t h e l o c a l p r i n t

i nd us tr y. A ut ho ri ti es i n F ra nc e a nd E ng la nd f ac ed a l es s c ha ll en gi ngp ro sp ec t : i n F ra nc e t he d om ina nt Pa ri s b oo k t rade w as b ot h h eav il y

r e g u l a t e d a n d h e a v i l y d e p e n d e n t o n t h e g o o d w i l l o f t h e v a r i o u s o r g a n s o f

g o v e r n m e n t ( c r o w n , P a r l e m e n t a n d u n i v e r s i t y ) f o r w o r k . L i t t l e u n o r t h o -

d o x p u b l i s h i n g o f a n y s o r t w a s a t t e m p t e d i n P a r i s b e f o r e t h e m i d - c e n t u r y

c ri si s s ev er el y w ea ke ne d t he p ow er o f t he s ta te . I n E ng la nd t he s ma ll

L o nd o n p u bl i sh i n g f r at e r ni t y w a s r e la t iv e l y e a sy t o c o nt r o l.

A s a r es ul t o f q ui ck , d ec is iv e a ct io n, t he R ef or ma ti on i n a ll o f t he se

p la ce s w as l ar ge ly c on tr ol le d a nd s ub du ed : w it h s om e d iff ic ul ty a ndc on se qu en t i nc r ea se d b ru ta li ty i n t h e N et h er l an ds , w it h g re at e r e as e i n

F r an c e a n d E n gl a nd . T h e a u th o ri t ie s f e lt t h e n e ed f o r c o ns t an t v i gi l a nc e

i n c as e h er esy s ho ul d r ai se i ts h ead, p ar ti cul ar ly i n F ra nc e, w he re it

m ig ht i nsi nu at e i ts el f i nt o t he b od y p ol it ic t hr ou gh t he su pp or t f or a

pu rpo rted l y n o n - co n f ess i o n al ev a n gel i ca l a g en da by i n f l uen ti a l f i g u res a t

court . But public supp ort for t he Re formation was, from the first,

r en de re d i mp os si bl e. T he c r uc i al m ed iu m o f t h e p ul p it w as d en ie d t he

r e f o r m e r s . T h o s e w h o p r o c l a i m e d s u p p o r t f o r t h e R e f o r m a t i o n i n p u b l i cr is ke d t he f ul l f or ce o f t he l aw.

23 J.N. Bakhuizen van den Brink and W.F. Dankbaar (eds.), D o cu m ent a R ef o rm a t o ri a(Kampen, 1960) , p p. 7 6– 81 .

24 Ibid.




F or t h e p ur p os e o f t hi s p re se n t i nv es ti ga t io n t hi s d iff er en t, a nd v er y

d iff ic ul t, c on te xt f or t he d is se mi na ti on o f t he e va ng el ic al m es sa ge i s

e sp ec ia ll y i nt er es ti ng . D ep ri ve d o f t he r an ge o f p ub li c m ed ia t ha t h ad

c au se d t he e xp l os io n o f p ub l ic i nt er e st i n t he R ef o rm at io n i n G er ma ny,

c ou ld t he G os pe l m es sa ge s ur vi ve ? T he d iff ic ul t, d an ge ro us y ea rs o f

c la nd e st in e e va ng el is m i n f ac t p ro vi de u s w it h a n e ff ec ti ve l ab o ra to ry i n

w hi c h t o t e st t h e e ff ec ti v en es s o f t he b oo k w it h ou t t he s up p or t o f p ub l ic

p re ac hi ng . C oul d t he R ef or ma ti on t hr iv e, ‘ by p ri nt a lo ne ’ ? C oul d i t

j us ti fy t he o bv io us s en se o f i ts p ot e nc y f el t b y t ho se C at ho li c a ut h or i ti es

t ha t s ou gh t t o r ep re ss i t ?

I t m u s t i m m e d i a t e l y b e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h i s m o r e h o s t i l e e n v i r o n m e n t

c h an ge d t h e b oo k . T he e va ng e li ca l b o ok i n F ra nc e a nd t h e N et he rl a nd s

e s ch e w ed t h e c o nf i de n t, s e lf - ad v er t is i ng q u ar t o f o rm a t o f t h e Flugschrif-

ten , e m bl a zo n ed w i th t h e w o od c ut t i t le - p ag e e m be l l is h me n t s c h ar a c te r -

i st ic o f t he g en re . E va ng el ic al p ub li sh in g i n F re nc h a nd D ut ch i n t he

y e a r s a f t e r L u t h e r ’ s m o v e m e n t w a s p r o s c r i b e d a d o p t e d a w h o l l y d i f f e r e n t

l i v e r y . B o o k s w e r e a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y p u b l i s h e d i n t h e m o r e d i s c r e e t ( a n d

m or e e as il y c on ce al e d) o ct av o. T he y c on ta in e d v ir tu al l y n o v is ua l e m-

b e ll is hm e nt s. T he t it le -p ag es w er e m ad e u p a lm os t w h ol ly o f t e xt , w it h

n o u se o f d ec or at iv e b or de rs o r p ri nt er s’ d ev ic es . T he y v er y o ft en c on -

c e al e d t he ir c on t en t b eh in d a n u nc o nt ro ve rs ia l a no dy ne t it le . N on e o f

t he works of Lut her publish ed in French (or English) befor e 1540

g iv e a ny h in t o f h is a ut ho ri al r es po ns ib il it y. S om e w er e s o e ff ec ti ve ly

disgui sed that the conne cti on wit h Luther h as only recentl y bee n

revealed.25 In t he Nethe rlands Luther ’s writings were some time s

b ro ug ht b ef or e t he r ea di ng p ub li c e mb ed de d i n o th er w or ks th at p ur -

p o r t e d t o b e t h e w r i t i n g s o f a l o c a l , o s t e n s i b l y o r t h o d o x a u t h o r .26 A t l e a s t

o ne o f t he se t ex ts , t he L a s um me d e l ’e sc ri pt u re s ai nc t e en j o yed co n s id er-

a bl e s ucce ss i n t hr ee d iff er en t l an gu ag e c ul tu re s, F re nc h, D ut ch a nd

Italian.27

25 The L i v r e t r e s u t i l e d e l a v r a y e e t p a r f a i t e s u b j e c t i o n d e s c h r e s t i e n s ( 1 5 2 5 ) , w h i c h t u r n s o u t t o

b e a t ra ns la ti on o f On t he l ib er ty o f a C hr is ti an m an o f 1 52 0. F ra nc is H ig ma n, ‘ Le st r a du c t i on s f r a n ca i s e s d e L u t h er ’ , i n J . -F. G i l mo n t (e d . ), Palaestrina typographica (Aubel,1984) , p p . 1 1 –5 6 , r e pr in t ed i n F r an c is H i gm a n, L i r e e t d e c o uv r ir . L a c i rc u la t io n d e s i d e esa u t e m p s d e l a R e forme (Geneva, 1998) , p p . 2 0 0 – 3 2.

26 A . G . J oh ns to n, ‘ Lu th er an is m i n D is gu is e : t he c or te i ns tr uc cy e o f C or ne li s v an d erHeyden’, N ed er la n d s a r ch ief v o o r K er k ges ch ied en is, 6 8 (1988) , p p. 2 3– 9 .

27 F r a n c i s H i g m a n , P i e t y a n d t h e P e o p l e . R e l i g i o u s P r i n t i n g i n F r e n c h , 1 5 1 1 – 1 5 5 1 (Aldershot,S t A n dr e ws S t ud i es i n R e fo r ma t io n H i st o ry, 1996) , S 26 –2 8. K no wn i n D ut ch a s Des u mm a d e r g o d li k er s c ri f tu r en ( 15 23 ), i n L at in a s O eco n o mi ca ch r i st i a n a ( 15 27 ) a nd i nI t a li a n a s E l s u mm a ri o d e la s a nc t a S c ri p tu r a ( 1 53 4) , t hi s v er y p op ul ar t ex t w as i n f ac t a ne x t ra c t f r o m L u t h er ’s Vo n w el t li ch er O b r i gk ei t .




E ve n w it h t he se l ay er s o f d is gu is e, t he p ub l ic at io n a nd d is se m in at io n

o f s u c h l i t e r a t u r e c a r r i e d w i t h i t a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e o f d a n g e r . P o s s e s -

s io n o f a f or bi dd en t ex t w as t ak en a s p ri me f ac ie e vi de nc e o f h er et ic al

bel iefs, and for the sma ll numbe r of local print ers prep ared to risk

i n vo l ve m en t t h e p e na l ti e s w e re s e ve r e i f t h e c a re f ul l y a no n ym i ze d b o ok s

c ou ld b e t ra ce d b ac k t o t he m . M os t e va ng e li ca l b oo k s, i n c on se qu en c e,

were p rinted ab road and smuggle d back to th eir r eader s ; a part ial

e x c e p t i o n w a s t h e s u r v i v a l o f c l a n d e s t i n e P r o t e s t a n t p r i n t i n g i n A n t w e r p ,

a lt h ou g h t hi s c am e t o a s ha tt e ri ng e nd w it h t h e e xp os ur e a nd e xe c ut io n

o f t wo p ri nt er s in vo lve d in t he t rade i n t he e ar ly 1 54 0s. E ve n so , t he

q ua nt it ie s o f b oo ks i nv ol ve d w er e s ma ll c om pa r ed t o t h e v as t b oi st e ro us

p ri nt w or ld o f G er ma n R ef or ma ti on p ri nt . A cc or di ng t o o ne s ch ol ar,

e ve n w it h t he p ar ti ci pat io n o f A nt we rp o nl y ar ou nd 1 70 P ro te st ant

w or ks w er e p ub li sh ed i n D ut ch b et we en 1 52 0 a nd 1 54 0, a nd f or E ng -

l an d t he f ig ur es w ou ld h av e b ee n c on si de ra bl y s ma ll er ( mo st , i n f ac t,

w e r e a l s o p r i n t e d i n A n t w e r p ) . R e c e n t b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l a n a l y s i s o f F r e n ch

P ro t es ta nt p ri nt in g g iv e s a s im il ar f ig ur e t o t ha t f or t h e D ut c h w or l d.28

I n w hat m ig ht ot he rw ise b e t hou gh t q ui te a n e ffe ct ive ly m an ag ed

p o l i c y o f c o n t r o l , t h e a u t h o r i t i e s m a d e w h a t i n r e t r o s p e c t s e e m s a s e r i o u s

e r ro r. T h is w a s t o i n cl u de a m on g t h e c a no n o f f o rb i dd e n t e x t s v e rn a cu l ar

t ra ns la ti on s o f t he S c ri pt ur e . I n F r an ce t hi s r e pr e se nt e d a s ig na l v ic to r y

f o r c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r c e s , b u t a n e q u a l l y s e r i o u s b l o w t o t h e P a r i s p u b l i s h -

i n g i n d u s t r y , t h u s e x c l u d e d f r o m a l i v e l y a n d g r o w i n g p a r t o f t h e m a r k e t

i n q ua li ty b oo ks . T he r ea so ni ng b e hi nd t h e d ec is io n o f t h e P ar le me nt o f

P ar is t o b an s uc h v er na c ul ar t ra ns la ti on s i s e as il y c om pr e he ns ib l e, p ar -

t ic ul ar ly w h en i n G e rm an y t he a tt ac k o n C at ho li c i ns ti tu t io ns h ad b ee n

p re ss ed f or wa rd u nd er t he b eg ui li ng s lo ga n o f ‘ Pu re G os pe l’ . B ut t he

e f f e c t o f s u c h a b a n w a s t o m a k e t h e S c r i p t u r e t e x t e v e r m o r e e m p h a t i c -

a ll y e va ng el i ca l p ro pe rt y. T he r es ul t w as t ha t, i n E ng la nd , F ra nc e a nd

t he Ne th er lan ds, t he de ve lo pm ent o f ne w t rans la ti ons of S cr ip tur e

b ec am e an e nt er pr ise w hol ly do mi nat ed b y e va ng el ic al s, e ve n i f t he

i n t e r e s t i n p o s s e s s i n g s u c h a t e x t e x t e n d e d f a r b e y o n d t h e c i r c l e s o f t h o s e

w h o f ul l y e nd or se d t h e P ro t es ta nt a ge nd a. I t m us t b e r em e mb er ed h er e

t ha t al l Eu rop ean c ul tu re s h ad a l iv el y t ra di ti on o f ve rn ac ula r B ib le

t r an s la t io n s t h at p r e -d a te d t h e R e fo r ma t ion ; i nd ee d, f or t he m os t p ar t

i t lo ng p re -d at ed t he i nve nt io n of p ri nt .29 Only in England had the

28 Higman, P ie ty a nd t he P eo pl e. T he d at a p re se nt ed i n H ig ma n’s b ib li og ra ph y w il l b ea ug me nt ed b y t he w or k o f t he S t A nd re ws F re nc h B oo k p ro je ct .

29 John Sharpe and Kimberley van Kampen (eds.), T he B ib le a s B oo k. T he M an us cr ip t Tradition (London, 1998) . F or G er ma ny, J oh n F lo od , ‘ Ma rt in L ut he r’s B ib le ’. F orF r a n ce , C h a m be r s , B i bl i o g ra p h y o f F r en ch B i b l es.




a ss oc i at io n w it h h e re sy ( in t h is c as e t he L ol la rd s) s ti fl ed t h e p ub l ic at io n

o f v er na cu la r S cr ip tu re i n t he f ir st a ge o f p ri nt . B y f ru st ra ti ng t he c on -

t i n u a t i o n o f t h e s e v e n t u r e s , C a t h o l i c a u t h o r i t i e s i n F r a n c e a n d e l s e w h e r e

i n e ff ec t r es ig n ed t hi s c ri ti ca l p ar t o f a n i mp o rt an t s ha re d t ra di t io n.

B ib le t ra ns la ti o n b ec a me a c or ne rs t on e o f t h e r ep r es se d e va ng e li ca l

m ov em e nt s o f w es t er n E ur op e . I t a ls o b ec am e a n e c on o mi c l if el i ne f or

p ri nt er s s tr ug gl in g w it h t he f ar m or e t ax in g e co no mi cs o f m an ag in g a

b usi ne ss d ep en de nt on c land est in e di st ri but io n n et wo rk s. I n b ot h

Ge ne va in the 1540s and Emde n in the 1550s (t he ce ntr e of Dutc h

c la nd es ti ne e va ng el ic al p ri nt a ft er t he b re ak -u p o f t he A nt we rp o pe r-

a ti on ), B ib le p ub li ca ti on b ec am e a l uc ra ti ve b ul wa rk o f a n e xp an di ng

b us in es s. T hr ou gh t he 1 54 0s a nd 1 55 0s t he o ut pu t o f r ep ro ve d t ex ts

i n cr e as e d s t ea d il y ; n e t wo r ks o f d i st r ib u ti o n b e ca m e m o re s o ph i st i ca t e d,

a nd h ar d er t o d is r up t . A m ar k o f i nc r ea si ng c on fi de n ce a nd d ef ia nc e o f

a ut ho ri t y i s t h at t he se h e re ti ca l w or k s p ub l is he d a br oa d b eg an , p ar t ic u-

l ar ly i n t he c as e o f G en ev an p ub li ca ti on s, t o a do pt q ui te r ec og ni za bl e

p r in te r s’ d ev ic e s. T he n ee d t o i de nt i fy t h e b ra nd t o p o te nt ia l p ur ch a se r s

g ra du al l y b eg an t o o ut we i gh t h e d an ge r s t o t h os e d et e ct e d i n p os se ss i on

o f t he m. B y 1 55 1, t he F re nc h c ro wn ’s e ff or ts t o c on tr ol t he s pr ea d o f

h e r e t i c a l p r i n t h a d a n o t e o f d e s p e r a t i o n . A n e w e d i c t a g a i n s t h e r e s y ( t h e

E di ct o f C hat ea ub ri an t ) a tt e mp te d t o o ut la w a ny c on ta ct w it h G e ne va :

We e xp re ss ly f or bi d a ll o ur s ub je ct s t o w ri te , t o s en d m on ey o r o th er wi se t o

f av ou r t ho se w ho h av e g on e o ut o f t he k in gd om t o r es id e i n G en ev a o r i n o th er

c o u n t r i e s n o t o r i o u s l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e U n i o n o f t h e C h u r c h . . . A l l c a r r i e r s o f

l et te rs c om in g f ro m G en ev a w il l b e a rr es te d a nd p un is he d i f i t i s f ou nd t ha t t he

s a id l e tt e rs a r e d i re c te d t ow a rd s t h e e n d o f d i ve r ti n g o u r s u bj e ct s a w ay f r om t h e

t r u t h . . . A l l g o o d s w h e t h e r m o v a b l e o r i m m o v a b l e o f t h o s e w h o h a v e r e t i r e d t o

G e n e v a t o l i v e a n d r e s i d e sep a r a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s f r o m u n i o n w i t h t h e C h u r c h , a r e

d e cl a re d c o nf i sc a te t o u s .30

These detailed provisi ons hint at the increasin g difficulty of

c ont ro ll ing a t rad e t ha t h ad so f ul ly i nf il tr at ed t he no rma l ar te ri es of

c o m m e r c e . B y t h e e n d o f t h e d e c a d e h e r e t i c a l b o o k s w o u l d b e s o l d w i t h

i ns ol e nt d ef ia nc e o n t h e s tr e et s , o n m ar ke t s ta ll s a nd i n b oo k sh op s. T he

e va ng e li ca l e xc it e me nt o f 1 52 0s G er ma ny w as a bo ut t o b e r ei gn it e d.

B ef or e t ur ni ng t o l at e r e ve nt s , i t i s w or th p au si ng t o a ss es s t he i mp ac t

o f t hi s g en er at io n o f c la nd e st in e l it er at ur e . H ow e ff ec t iv el y h ad b oo k s

b ee n a bl e t o f un ct io n a s p ro xi es f or e va ng el is m i n a c li ma te o f h os ti li ty

a n d r e p r e s s i o n ? T h e e v i d e n c e i s m i x e d . O n t h e o n e h a n d , o f f i c i a l e f f o r t s

30E . a nd E . H aa g, L a F r an c e p r ot e st a nt e : p i e ces j u s ti f i cat i v es ( r e p ri n t e d n, G e ne v a, 1966),p p . 1 7 –2 9 . D u ke , L e wi s a n d P e tt e gr e e, C a lv i n i sm i n E u r o pe D o cu m en t s, p . 6 4 .




t o c o n t r o l t h e i n f i l t r a t i o n o f e v a n g e l i c a l i d e a s i n p r i n t h a d h a d a d e g r e e o f

s u c c e s s , a t l e a s t f o r t h e f i r s t t w e n t y y e a r s . T h e r e a f t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f

w el l -o rg an iz e d c en tr e s o f p ri nt i ng o ut si de t he b or de rs o f a s ta te ’s p ol it -

i ca l j ur is di ct io n h ad g re at ly c om pl ic at ed t he t as k. O n t he o th er h an d,

b oo ks, t ho ug h t he y c oul d i nsp ir e a nd m ot iva te a l im it ed nu mb er o f

d et er m in ed a ut od id ac ts , s ti ll p r ov ed m os t e ff ec ti ve w he n t he y p la ye d a

s u p p o r t i n g r o l e a m o n g o t h e r m e d i a o f e v a n g e l i c a l a g i t a t i o n . B o o k s c o u l d

b e p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t i n h e l p i n g t o s u s t a i n t h e f a i t h o f t h o s e w h o h a d

c om m it t ed t he ms e lv es t o a g ro up , w ho m et t og et h er f or m ut ua l s up p or t

( u s u a l l y B i b l e r e a d i n g ) a n d s o m e t i m e s w o r s h i p . T h e s e c o n v e n t i c l e s w e r e

a p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n t o t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , n o t l e a s t b e c a u s e t h e y f u n c t i o n e d

v er y e ff ec t iv el y a s d is tr i bu ti on p oi nt s f or h er et ic al l it e ra tu re . T he f ir st

l e a d e r o f t h e R e f o r m e d c o n v e n t i c l e i n A n t w e r p , G a s p a r v a n d e r H e y d e n ,

r ec e iv ed c on si gn me nt s o f b oo ks f ro m E md en , w h ic h h e t he n s ol d o n t o

m em be rs o f t he g ro up . H e a sk ed t he E md en c hu rc h f or s pe ci fi c t it le s

t ha t m ig ht a dd re ss p r es si ng l oc al p ro bl e ms ( li ke t he c om p et it io n p os ed

b y A na ba pt is ts ) a nd f or m or e c op ie s o f t he p sa lm s – t hou gh h e t ho ug ht

t ha t f or s ma ll b oo ks t he s e w er e t oo e xp en s iv el y p ri ce d .31

D es pi te t he se c on st ra in ts t he l ea de rs o f t he e xi le c hu rc he s w er e u n-

d ou bt ed ly m or e c om fo rt ab le w it h b oo ks b ei ng u se d i n t he m or e m an -

a ge d e nv ir on me nt s o f t he c on ve nt ic le s t ha n f ac in g t he u np re di ct ab le

c on se qu en ce s o f s ol i ta ry r ea di n g. T he p ro xy e va ng el i sm o f c la nd e st in e

l it er at ur e k ep t t he R ef or ma ti on a li ve , b ut a t a p ri ce , s in ce m an y s el f-

t ra in ed a de pt s a rr iv ed a t v ie ws t ha t c ou ld n ot b e c on ta in ed w it hi n t he

d ev el op in g o rt ho do xi es o f t he n ew m ov em en t . I n t hi s r e sp e ct t he e xi le

c hu rc he s p la ye d a v it al r ol e, i n t ha t p ot en ti al c on ve rt s, e xc it ed t o t he

p os si b il it ie s o f t h e n ew t ea ch in g, m ig ht t hr ou gh a p e ri od a br oa d e xp er i -

e n c e t h e f u l l p e d a g o g i c i m p a c t o f t h e s e m o t h e r c h u r c h e s : t h e p r e a c h i n g ,

c at ec hi sm al i nst ruc tio n, t he w or sh ip s er vi ce . T he n ar ra ti ve s of t he

F re nc h a nd D ut ch c hu r ch es a re f ul l o f t h e l if e h is to r ie s o f f ut u re l e ad er s

a nd m ar ty rs w ho c am e t o a m at ur e u nd er st an di ng o f t he ir f ai th i n t hi s

w ay. J ea n L e M aco n w as a m an w ho , l ik e C al vi n b ef or e h im , h ad t ur ne d

from the stu dy of the law to seek enlightenme nt in Ge neva and

L au sa nn e. H e r et ur ne d to F ranc e to take up t he minist ry t o the new

C al vi ni st c hu rc h i n P ar is .32 G il le s Ve rd ic kt f ro m E lv er se l e i n F l an de rs

came from a m ore h um ble ar tisan backgr ound. Havin g first been

b ro ug ht t o t he k no wl edg e o f t he t ru th b y h is b ro th er, h e t ra ve ll ed t o

31 Pettegree, E m d e n a n d t h e D u t c h R e v o l t , p p . 5 9 – 6 0 . D u k e , L e w i s a n d P e t t e g r e e , Calvinismi n E u ro p e D o cu m en t s, p . 1 3 5 .

32 H i s to i r e eccl e s ia st iq ue d e s e glises re forme e s a u r oy au me d e F ra nc e ( 3 v o ls . , P a ri s , 1 8 83 – 9) ,v o l . I , p p . 1 1 7 f f .




Emden and Zurich to compl ete his theo logica l e du ca ti on , b ef or e

r e tu rn i ng a s m in is te r t o t he c hu r ch i n B ru ss e ls .33 T he re is no do ub t a n

e l em e nt o f s t yl i zi n g p e da g og y i n t h e se m a rt y r n a rr a ti v es , b u t t h e p r oc e ss

of first enl ightenm ent, deepe ned by perio ds of study and tr aining

a br oad , i s p la us ib ly r ec on st ruc te d. S uc h e ve nt s c re at ed t he c or e of

c om mi tt ed b el ie ve rs t ha t p re pa re d t he F re nc h a nd D ut ch e va ng el ic al

c o m m u n i t i e s f o r t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h a t w o u l d e m e r g e i n t h e d e c a d e s t h a t

followed.

Two tribes

T h e s i x y e a r s f r o m 1 5 5 9 w i t n e s s e d a n a s t o n i s h i n g t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f o r t h e

e v an g e li c al c a us e i n n o rt h er n E u ro p e . F i rs t , a n d w i th r e ma r k ab l e s p ee d ,

P ro te st ant r eg im es w er e e st ab li sh ed i n t he t wo B ri ti sh k in gdo ms : i n

E ng lan d t hr oug h t he ac ci de nt of dy nas ti c s uc ce ss ion , i n S cot la nd

t h ro ug h a b ri ef a nd r em ar k ab l y b lo od le ss m il it ar y i ns ur re c ti on . M ea n-

w h i l e b o t h F r a n c e a n d t h e N e t h e r l a n d s e m b a r k e d o n a p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d

o f p o l i t i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s i n s t a b i l i t y . I n F r a n c e t h e d e a t h o f f i r s t H e n r y I I

a n d t h e n h i s e l d e s t s o n p l u n g e d t h e p o l i t i c a l e l i t e i n t o d e s t r u c t i v e f e u d i n g

a n d g a ve e n co u ra g e me n t t o t h e g r ow i ng C a lv i ni s t c o ng r eg a t io n s. I n t h e

N e th e rl a nd s a s i mi l ar l y u r ge n t p r ob l em o f u n co n tr o ll e d r e l ig i ou s d i ss e nt

g av e a n a dd ed e dg e t o n ob le g ri ev an ce s a ga in st t he a bs en te e S pa ni sh

k in g, P hi l ip I I .

I n b ot h F ra nc e a nd t he N et he rl an ds t he p ol it ic al c ri si s w as f ue ll ed

b y an a pp ar en tl y uns to pp ab le t ide o f p ub li c ag it at ion e xp re sse d i n a

v ar ie ty o f m ed ia . T ho se a tt em pt in g t o d ef en d t he p ol it ic al s ta tu s q uo

c o mm e nt e d w i th i n c re a si n g f r us t ra t io n a n d h o p el e ss n es s o n t h e e x t ra o r-

d in ar y u ps ur ge o f p am ph le ts , b ro ad sh ee ts , s cu rr il ou s r um ou rs a nd

s on gs . T he y d ep lo re d b ot h t he u bi qu it y o f t hi s l it er at ur e a nd i ts t on e.

M e a n w h i l e , f o r a s l o n g a s t h e p u l p i t s w e r e c l o s e d t o t h e m , t h e p r e a c h e r s

o f t h e n ew m ov em en t t au gh t e ls ew h er e : i n p ri va te h ou se s a nd b ar ns , i n

f ie ld s a nd c hu rc hy ar ds . A s t he m ov em en ts g re w i n c on fi de nc e, t he se

m ee ti n gs w er e i ne vi ta bl y a cc o mp an ie d b y t he l ou d t ri um ph an t s in gi ng

o f p s al m s .

H ow do w e j udg e t he c on tr ib ut ion o f b ook s t o t hi s v as t t ur bu le nt

m o v e m e n t o f p r o t e s t a n d r e l i g i o u s r e n e w a l ? F i r s t l y , i t m u s t b e r e m a r k e d

t h at t h is s ec on d p am ph le t m om en t w as b ot h l on g p re p ar ed a nd i nt en se .

F ac ed w it h t he n ew o pp or tu ni ti es p ro vi de d b y t he w ea ke ni ng o f t ra d-

i ti on al a ut ho ri ty, t he d is si de nt c hu rc h m ov em en ts w er e a bl e t o b ui ld

33 A d ri a en v a n H a em s te d e, H is to ri e d es M ar te la re n d ie o m d e g et ui ge ni s d er e va ng el ic hew a ar h ei d h u n b l oe d g e st o rt h e bb e n ( r e pr i nt e d n, U t re c ht , 1 9 80 ) , p p . 6 3 4– 8 .




quick ly on the foundat ions crea ted by th e preparat ion in exile. In

t he c as e o f F ra nc e, s om et hi ng o ve r o ne -t hi rd o f a ll P ro te st an t w or ks

p ub li sh ed i n F re nc h d ur in g t he s ix te en th c en tu ry a pp ea re d i n t he s ix

y ea rs 1 56 0– 65 , t he p er i od i mm e di at el y b ef or e, d ur in g a nd a ft er t h e f ir st

R el ig io us Wa r. I n t he c as e o f t he N et he rl an ds , t he p ea k o f p ro du ct io n

w as r ea ch ed i n 1 56 6, a y ea r o f i nt en se p ub li sh i ng a ct i vi ty w he n p ol it i ca l

a gi ta ti o n g av e w ay t o a f le e ti ng o pp o rt un it y f or c hu r ch b ui ld in g.

A ls o r em ar ka bl e a bo ut t he se y ea rs i s t he s pe ed w it h w hi ch t he p ub -

l is hi ng i nd us tr y e vo lv ed t o m ee t t he n ew o pp or tu ni ti es o f t he t im es . I n

t he c as e o f b ot h F ra nc e a nd t he N et he rl an ds t he t ra di ti on al c en tr es o f

e xi l e p ub li c at io n w er e q ui ck l y s up e rs ed ed b y n ew c en tr e s o f p ro du ct i on

n e a r e r t o h o m e . W i t h e v e n t s m o v i n g s o s w i f t l y , b o t h E m d e n a n d G e n e v a

w er e i nc on ve ni en tl y d is ta nt f or t he m os t c on te mp or ar y l it er at ur e ; i n

b ot h c as es , t oo , t he l oc al g ov e rn me nt s h ar b ou re d m is gi vi ng s a bo ut t he

i nc re as in gl y r ad ic al s en ti me nt s e xp re ss ed i n m uc h o f t he l it er at ur e.

B es id es , t he s tr en gt h o f d em an d, t he s iz e o f t he p ot en ti al m ar ke t, a nd

t he t e mp o ra ry b an is hi ng o f c on tr o ls m ea nt t ha t l oc al p ub l is he rs w er e a ll

e a g e r t o e s t a b l i s h a s h a r e i n t h e m a r k e t . I n F r a n c e t h i s l e d t o t h e c r e a t i o n

o f n e w c e n t r e s o f P r o t e s t a n t p r i n t i n g i n F r a n c e : i n C a e n f o r t h e p o p u l o u s

No rm andy c hu rc he s, i n Or le ans f or t he p ol it ic al m an ife st os, and i n

L yo n. I n t he N et he rl an ds i t s ti mu la te d a r ev iv al o f P ro te st an t p ri nt i n

A nt we rp . S ev er al o f t h es e p ri nt e rs t oo k a dv an t ag e o f t he n ew f re ed om s

t o a pp r op ri at e t it le - pa ge d ev ic es t h at i de nt if ie d t he ir w or k a s p ar t o f t he

g r o wi n g l i te r at u r e o f t h e C a lv i ni s t c o ng r eg a ti o ns .

T h is w a s b o th s h am e le s s a n d c o mm e r ci a ll y m o ti v at e d . C a en p r i nt e rs

c ho s e d ev ic es t ha t i mi ta te d ( so m et im es e ve n c op ie d ) t h os e o f t h e p op u-

l ar G en ev an s up pl ie rs o f t he s ta pl es o f C al vi ni st w or sh ip , s uc h a s J ea n

C re sp in . M ea nw hi le H ar me n S ch in ke l o f D el ft w en t a s f ar a s t o c om -

m i s s i o n a r e - c u t c o u n t e r f e i t o f t h e p r i n t e r ’ s m a r k o f t h e E m d e n p u b l i s h e r

Gille s Ctema tius, to this point chief purveyo r of v er na cul ar D ut ch

l it er at ur e t o t he R ef or me d c om mu ni ti es .34 T hi s w as c om me rc ia ll y

brutal , p articul arly to those publ ishers in the exi le t owns wh o h ad

s us t ai ne d t he c au se i n m uc h m or e d iff ic ul t t r ad in g c ir cu ms ta nc es o ve r

t he p re vi ous t wo de ca de s. B ut it wa s und ou bt ed ly e ffe ct ive . I n t he

c ro w de d b oo k sh op s a nd s tr ee t s ta ll s t he d es ir ed h er et i ca l b o ok s w ou ld

b e c l e ar l y i d en t if i ed v i su a ll y, w i th o ut t h e p r in t er s h a vi n g t o t a ke t h e f i na l

s te p o f a dd in g t he ir o wn n am es a nd a dd re ss es . I n b ot h F ra nc e a nd t he

N e t h e r l a n d s t h e c i v i l p o w e r s f e l t t h e y w e r e b e i n g d r o w n e d i n a t o r r e n t o f

34 H . d e l a F o n t a i n e V e r w e y , ‘ M e e s t e r H a r m a n S c h i n c k e l , e e n D e l f t s e b o e k d r u k k e r v a n d e1 6 d e e e u w ’, O u d D e lf t , 3 (1964) , p p . 5 – 7 8 , h e r e p . 3 7 .




s e di t io u s p r in t , m u ch p r o du c ed l o ca l ly, a n d e x tr e me l y r e sp o ns i ve t o t h e

t w is t s a n d t u rn s o f f a st - mo v i ng e v en t s.

W ha t c an w e s ay o f t he r ol e, t on e a nd c on te nt o f t he p ri nt ed p ol em ic

o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m i n t h i s n e w p e r i o d o f o p p o r t u n i t y ? F i r s t , w e c a n o b s e r v e

t h a t p r i n t f u n c t i o n e d i n t h i s e n v i r o n m e n t a s i t f u n c t i o n e d b e s t : a s p a r t o f

a b r oa d, c ro ss - me di a m ov em en t o f p ub li c a gi ta ti o n a nd d eb at e, a nd i n

c i rc u m st a nc e s w h er e t h e c o ns t ra i nt s o n p r o du c ti o n, s a le a n d p o ss e ss i o n

o f t h e l it e ra t ur e w er e w ea ke n ed , o r i nd ee d r en de r ed l ar ge l y p ow e rl es s.

N e ve r t he l es s , t h e re w e re s i gn i fi c a nt d i ff e re n ce s , b o th f r om t h e f i rs t g e n-

eration Flugschriften c am pa i gn a nd b et we en t h e e xp er i en ce s o f F r an ce

and Ge rmany. Both F renc h and Dut ch print ing kep t to t he octavo

f o rm a t e s ta b li s he d a s n o rm a ti v e d u ri n g t h e e x il e p e ri o d. T h is w a s f a mi l -

i a r t o t h e r e a d e r s h i p , a n d w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a s t h e m o s t c o n v e n i e n t f o r m a t

f or u se ( no t l ea st i n c on gr e ga ti o na l g at he r in g s) . A r ar e e xc ep ti on t o t hi s

r u le w e re t h e p o li t ic a l m a ni f es t os o f t h e H u gu e no t l e ad e r sh i p p u bl i sh e d

i n O rl ea ns , i n q ua rt o : p re su ma bl y h er e t h e i nt e nt io n w as t o a pp ro pr ia t e

t he a ss oc ia ti on s o f t he m or e ‘ off ic ia l’ f or ma t. I n b ot h F ra nc e a nd t he

N e th e rl a nd s a l so t h e c o rp u s o f p a mp h l et l i te r at u r e w a s c h ar a c te r iz e d b y

f ar m or e i nt er mi ng l in g o f r el ig io us a nd p ol it ic al i ss ue s. T hi s w as p ar tl y

b ec au se , f ai rl y o bv io us ly, t he r el ig io us q ue st io n w as n ow t he c en tr al

p ol it ic al i ss ue . T he r ep ea te d p le as f or t ol er at io n w er e o nl y r el ev an t i n

t h is d e ve l op e d p o li t ic a l c o nt e x t, w i th f i xe d a n d a n ta g on i st i c c o nf e s si o ns

c om pe ti ng f or s up re ma cy. I n t he N et he rl an ds t he p le as f or t ol er at io n

w e r e b a l a n c e d w i t h p r o t e s t a t i o n s o f l o y a l t y t o t h e a b s e n t e e k i n g , a l o y a l t y

t h a t w a s e v e r m o r e t h r e a d b a r e a s t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o o k o n a n i n c r e a s i n g l y

r ad ic al t ur n t hr ou gh t he s um me r a nd a ut um n o f 1 56 6. T hi s p ol it ic al

literature wa s, as Al as ta ir Du ke p oi nt s ou t, a r el at iv el y ne w p he no m-

enon.35 Unt il th is poi nt there se ems to have been litt le desir e to ai r

p o li t ic a l g r ie v an c es i n p r in t , p e r ha p s b e ca u se s uc h i s su e s w e re n o rm a ll y

r e s o l v e d b y b a r g a i n i n g a m o n g t h e p o l i t i c a l e l i t e b e h i n d t h e s c e n e s . I t w a s

a c t u a l l y a s i g n o f w e a k n e s s w h e n s u c h a g i t a t i o n m o v e d f r o m t h e s h a d o w y

c or ri d or s o f t h e r oy al p al a ce i nt o t h e p op u la r p r in ts , w it h c on se qu e nc es

t h at s oo n c am e t o a pp al t he a ri st oc ra t ic l ea de rs hi p o f t he r ev ol t.

I n F ra nc e, t he l ea de rs of t he o pp os it io n m ov em ent r ec og ni ze d no

such restraint. The depth of hosti lit y and mutual dete st ation th at

m ar k ed r el at io ns b et w ee n t h e c on te nd in g p ar ti es w as a lr e ad y e vi de nt

i n t he b ru ta l p ol em ic t ha t f ol lo we d t he d ea th o f H en ry I I i n 1 55 9. T he

35 D u ke , ‘ P os t er s , P a mp h le ts a n d P r in t er s ’. A l as t ai r D u ke , ‘ Di s si d en t P r op a ga nd a a n dP ol it ic al O rg an is at io n a t t he O ut br ea k o f t he R ev ol t o f t he N et he rl an ds ’, i n P hi li pB e n e d i c t , G u i d o M a r n e f , H e n k v a n N i e r o p a n d M a r c V e n a r d ( e d s . ) , Reformation, Revolt a n d C i v i l W a r i n F r a n ce a n d t h e N et h er l a n d s , 1 5 5 5 – 1 5 8 5 (Amsterdam, 1999) , p p . 1 1 5 – 3 2 .




p ri nc ip al t ar ge ts w er e F ra nc is, Du ke o f G ui se , an d h is b ro th er, t he

Car di nal of Lorr aine, wh ose blood connecti on to the young kin g

( th ro ug h h is w if e, M ar y Q ue en o f S co ts , t he ir n ie ce ) a ll ow ed t he m t o

s e iz e c on tr o l o f g ov er nm en t . O ut r ag e a t t he p ow e r o f t he G ui se m er ge d

w it h o pp os it io n t o t he p ol ic y o f r ep re ssi on. T hi s c onve rg enc e w as

e pi to mi ze d b y t wo p op ul ar a nd no to ri ou s p am ph le ts of t he d ay, t he

Es ta te s o f Fr an ce O pp re ss ed b y t he G ui se, a fo re ns ic d est ruc tio n o f t he

G ui se r eg im e, a nd a v it up er at iv e a tt ac k o n t he c ar di na l, Th e Ti ge r o f

France. T hi s w as t he w or k o f t he y ou ng H ug ue no t j ur i st F ra nco i s H ot -

m a n , a n d s o u g h t t o d e f e n d t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n t h e i l l - j u d g e d C o n s p i r a c y o f

A m b o i s e , a f a i l e d c o u p a g a i n s t t h e G u i s e t h a t l e d t o t h e w h o l e s a l e a r r e s t s

a nd e xe c ut io ns o f t ho se i mp li ca t ed . O nc e a ga in w e s ee a h ig hl y t r ai ne d

m in d, a m an c ap a bl e o f s om e o f t he m os t t ho ug ht f ul t he o re ti ca l w ri ti ng

o n F r e n c h gove r nm en t, e ng ag in g w it h g us to i n t he s tr ee t f ig ht i ng o f t he

p r in t w o rl d .36

Th e H ug ue no t l ead er, t he Duk e of C on de, was also arre sted and

c ond emn ed t o de at h f or h is p ar t i n t he c ons pi rac y. H is l if e w as sa ve d

o nl y b y t he s ud de n d ea th o f F ra nc is I I i n D ec em be r 1 56 0. T hi s s ec on d

p ro vi de nt ia l r oya l de at h r ai se d Hu gu eno t a gi ta ti on t o a n ew p eak o f

f eb ri l e e xc it e me nt . T he t on e o f t h es e m o nt hs o f t r iu m ph a nd a nt ic ip a-

t i o n i s w e l l c a p t u r e d b y t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f C a l v i n a n d d e B e z e . B o t h

fel t tha t Go d had placed the destiny of France i n their hands : the

c on ve rs io n o f t he ir h om el an d l ay b ef or e t he m.37 T he f ol lo wi ng y ea r

w as a t im e o f a st o ni sh in g o pt im i sm , a ct i vi sm a nd r el en tl es s p re ss ur e o n

b ot h t he g ov er nm en t a nd t he C at ho li c p op ul at io n. T he o ut pu t o f t he

pre sses reac he d a new peak, with over 300 edit ions of Protest ant

w or ks , a t hi rd o f w hi ch a dd re ss ed d ir ec tl y t he c ri ti ca l i ss ue o f f re ed om

o f w or sh ip . M ea nw hi le i n m an y c it ie s p u bl ic d em on st ra t io ns b ro ug ht

c ivi l a ut hor it y ne ar t o c ol la pse ; e ve ryw he re n ew a de pt s sw el le d t he

congregations.

T hi s i s n ot t o s a y t h at a ll p ar ts o f t he m ov em en t w er e m ar ch in g i n s t ep .

In part ic ular, if one e xamines more closely t his growing torre nt of

l it er at ur e , i t i s p os si bl e t o e xp er i en ce a c er t ai n d is so na nc e b e tw ee n t he

p ri nt ed wo rd an d o th er e xp re ssi ons o f P ro te st ant a ct iv ism i n t he se

y ea rs . T ru e, s om e o f t he r el ig i ou s t ra ct s a do pt e d a c er ta in m il i ta ry t on e

in t he choice of title s (B as to n d e l a f oy , G la iv e d e G ol ia th) . T he re w as

al so p op ul ar d em and fo r r ep ri nt s o f so me o f t he m or e r um bu st io us

36 Kelley, Franco is Hotm an , p p. 1 12 –1 6.37 S ee C al vi n’s l et te r t o S tu rm o f D ec em be r 1 56 0, a nd d e B ez e ’s c e le b ra t or y v e rs e a f te r

t he d ea th o f F ra nc is I I, b ot h r ep ro du ce d i n D uk e, L ew is a nd P et te gr ee , CalvinismDocuments, p p . 8 0 – 1 .




a n t i c l e r i c a l t r a c t s f r o m t h e f i r s t a g e o f r e f o r m . B u t t h e r e w a s a l s o c o n s i d -

e r a b l e a p p e t i t e i n t h e c h u r c h e s f o r s e r i o u s l i t e r a t u r e e x p l o r i n g t h e e s s e n -

t ials of fait h : works b y Calvi n, Viret and othe rs, but also new short

c on te mp o ra ry w or k s s uc h a s t he S om m ai r e r e cu e i l d e s s i g ne s s a c re z.

T he re i s s om e d is ta nc e b e tw ee n t he se s ob e r e vo ca ti on s o f P ro te st a nt

p ie ty a nd t he a tm os ph er e of t he st re et s. N or w as t hi s b ri dg ed b y t he

p o li t ic a l m a ni f e st o s o f t h e c h ur c h l e ad e rs h ip , w i th t h e ir p r o te s ta t io n s o f

d u t y a n d o b e d i e n c e s h o u l d f r e e d o m o f w o r s h i p b e c o n c e d e d . F a c e d w i t h

t he h on ey ed w or ds o f d e B ez e a nd h is c ol le ag u es , C at h er in e d e’ M e di ci

m i g h t w i t h j u s t i c e h a v e c o n f r o n t e d t h e m w i t h r e p o r t s f r o m R o u e n , L y o n

a nd e ls ew he re o f t he i nc re as in gl y f re qu en t a nd v io le nt c on f rontations

b e t w e e n b a n d s o f c o m m i t t e d s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e r i v a l c h u r c h e s .38 P r i n t , i t

seems , does not in this case tell the whole story. Whil e book s and

p am ph le ts ma de t he c ase f or p eac e b as ed o n m ut ua l t ol er at io n, t he

c on gr e ga t io ns , i ns pi re d b y t he ir p re ac he r s a nd t he ir o wn s un g a t te st a-

t io ns o f v ic to ry a nd c om mu ni ty, p re ss ed f or t he a bo li ti on o f t he h at ed

Mass.

T h e s p i r i t o f t h e t i m e s i s i n s o m e r e s p e c t s m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y c a p t u r e d b y

t h e l i t e r a t u r e p u b l i s h e d i n t h i s p e r i o d i n d e f e n c e o f t h e o l d c h u r c h . F o r –

a nd t h is i s a f un da me nt a l d iff er e nc e b et w ee n t h e f ir st g en e ra ti on o f t h e

German Flugschriften a n d t h i s l a t e r p e r i o d – i n t h i s c o n f l i c t , d e f e n d e r s o f

C a t h o l i c i s m m a d e g o o d a n d e f f e c t i v e u s e o f t h e p r e s s . I n F r a n c e t h i s h a d

b e e n t h e c a s e f r o m t h e f i r s t y e a r s o f L u t h e r ’ s p r o t e s t , a s m e m b e r s o f t h e

clergy took up their pens to defend t he doctrine s and pract ices of

t h e c h u r c h f r o m L u t h e r ’ s c r i t i c i s m s . M o s t w e r e d o c t o r s o f t h e S o r b o n n e ,

a n d m a n y f o u n d a n e f f e c t i v e v e r n a c u l a r v o i c e t o g o a l o n g s i d e t h e i r L a t i n

w ri ti ng s. Th ei r p ub li ca tio ns p rov ed t he i ns pir at io n fo r t ho se w ho

n ow c am e f or wa rd t o d ef en d t he ir c hu rc h i n i ts t im e o f m ax im um p er il

i n t he 1 56 0s . T he se C at ho li c a ut h or s, f or t h e m os t p ar t l e ar ne d t he ol o -

g ia ns , w er e o pp re ss ed b y t he s en se o f a d ou bl e d an ge r : t he H ug ue no t

h er es y o n t he o ne s id e, a nd o n t he o th er a s en se t ha t a w ea ke ne d c ro wn

w ou ld c on ce d e t oo m uc h . T he y r al li ed t he ir c on gr eg a ti on s i n w or k s o f

p a ss i o na t e b r av u ra a n d e x co r ia t i ng r h et o r ic .

T he se F re nc h C at ho li c d ef en ce s o f t he c hu rc h, w hi ch h av e r ec en tl y

b e en t he s ub je ct o f m or e a tt e nt io n f ro m s ch ol ar s, d em o ns tr at e h ow w el l

the defenders of the old church had learned the power of the new

r h et o ri c o f r e li gi ou s p ol em ic .39 I n t he se wo rk s t he re i s l it tl e a tt em pt

t hr ou gh p at ie nt a dv oc ac y t o w in b ac k t ho se t em pt ed b y t he n ew f ai th ;

38 Benedict, R o ue n d u ri n g t h e Wa r s o f R e li g io n, p p . 4 9 – 7 0 .39 L u c R a c a u t , H a t r ed i n P r i n t . C a t h o l i c P r o p a g a n d a a n d P r o t es t a n t I d en t i t y d u r i n g t h e F r en ch

Wa r s o f R el i gi o n (A l de r s h ot , S t A n d re w s S t u d ie s i n R e f o rm a t i on H i s t or y, 2002).




t he re i s li tt le e xp lo rat io n of c om mo n gr ou nd w it h t ho se w ho , w hi le

d el ud e d i n d oc tr in e , n ev er th e le s s s ha re c om mo n c on ce r ns f or t h e r es -

t or at io n of t rue r el ig io n. R at he r t he H ug ue no ts ar e m er ci le ssl y de -

n ou nc ed a s f ol lo we r s a s a p e rv er t ed , d ef or m ed p ar o dy o f r el ig io n . T he

int ention is not to win conve rt s, but t o warn Cath olics of th e awful

c on se qu en ce s o f f li rt in g w it h s uc h a c or ru pt t r av es ty o f w or s hi p.

O ne o f t he n ew g en er at io n o f C at ho li c a ut ho rs , A nt oi ne d u Va l, s et

o ut t he i nt en ti on s o f t hi s l it er at ur e w it h a dm ir ab le c la ri ty : ‘ We h av e

c ol le ct ed t hi s l it tl e b oo k t o g ua rd a nd a rm y ou a ga in st t he m [ th e P ro t-

e st an ts ]. B y r ea di ng i t, y ou w il l l ea rn t he ir f al se d oc tr in e, t he ir l if e and

d i ab o l ic a l j a rg o n, t o b e c o nt r a ry t o t h e ir p r e te n c e a n d f a ls e d i sc o ur s e. ’40

T o t h i s e n d t h e s e l e a r n e d a u t h o r s d e p l o y e d a v a r i e t y o f a r g u m e n t s a n d

l ib el s t ha t e mp h as i ze d t he i rr ed ee ma b le m en da ci t y o f H ug ue no t w or -

s hi p, and t he t hr ea t t ha t i t p ose d t o t he F re nc h st at e. Th e H ug ue no t

a s s e m b l i e s ( w h i c h o f t e n , b e f o r e t h e y w e r e o f f i c i a l l y p e r m i t t e d , t o o k p l a c e

a t n ig ht o r i n c on c ea le d p la ce s ) w er e t h e c ov er f or s ex ua l o rg ie s. Wo rs e,

t he b ab ie s t h at r es ul te d f ro m t h es e i ll ic i t c ou pl i ng s w er e t h en k il le d a nd

c on su me d d ur in g t he E uc ha ri st : t hi s w as a n i nv en ti ve v ar ia ti on o f t he

m e d i a e v a l b l o o d l i b e l a g a i n s t t h e J e w s . A n o t h e r c o m p a r i s o n t h a t d r e w o n

t he m ed ia ev al p as t w as t ha t o f t he A lb ig en si an h er es y, p ut d ow n w it h

g re at v io le n ce i n t h e t hi rt e en th c en tu ry. J ea n G ay, a ut ho r o f t h e Histoire

d e s s c i s m e s e t h e r e s i e s d e s A l b i g e o i s , u r g e d t h a t t h e t i m e w a s r i g h t f o r a n e w

c ru sa de . H ug ue no t d is av ow al s o f s ed it io n w er e r ep ud ia te d w it h c on -

t e m pt , t h ei r R e fo r ma t io n c h ar a c te r iz e d a s a d e fo r m at i on t h at t u rn e d a l l

o rd er t op sy -t ur vy. T he y w er e a cc us ed o f t he f ic kl e and c hang ea bl e

w hi ms o f w om en . I n s ho rt , P ro te st an ti sm w as t he s ou rc e o f d iv is io n,

c ha os a nd d is or de r. I f F ra nc e w as t o b e s av ed , i t m us t b e e xp el le d.

T h i s w a s p o w e r f u l s t u f f , g i v e n a d d e d f o r c e b y t h e f a c t t h a t m a n y o f t h e

e ff ec t s a ll eg ed w er e d em on st ra bl y t r ue . T he o ns e t o f P ro t es ta nt is m h ad

p lu ng ed F ra nc e i nt o c ha os . W he th e r r ea de rs b el ie ve d t he m or e e xo ti c

c l a i m s a s t o w h a t t o o k p l a c e i n t h e s e c r e c y o f c o n g r e g a t i o n a l w o r s h i p i s a

m or e d iff ic ul t q ue st io n . W ha t i s c er ta in ly w it h ou t d ou bt i s t ha t b y 1 57 2

m an y C at ho li cs s o l oa th ed P ro te st an ts t ha t t he y t ur ne d o n t he m w ith

e ag e r f ur y w he n o pp o rt un it y p re se nt e d i ts el f o n S t B ar t ho lo me w ’s D ay.41

B et w ee n 1 56 0 a nd 1 56 5 t h e p ol em i ca l b at t le b et w ee n C at h ol ic s a nd

P r o te s ta nt s w a s w a ge d w i th a n u n pr e c ed e nt e d f e ro c it y i n F r an c e. N e ve r

b ef or e i n t he R ef or ma ti on c en tu ry h ad t wo c on te nd in g p ar ti es m ad e

t he ir c as e t o t he r ea di ng p ub li c w it h s uc h f or ce , o r w it h e vi de nt l ac k o f

40 A nt oi ne d u Va l, M i r ou e r d e s C a lv i ni s te s, s ig . A 3r. Q uo te d i n R ac au t, H at re d i n P ri nt ,p p . 4 2 –3 .

41 Diefendorf, B e n e at h t h e C r os s .




m u t u a l s y m p a t h y . T h e s e r e f l e c t i o n s h a v e p r o m p t e d a l i v e l y d i s c u s s i o n a s

t o w he th er t hi s l it er at ur e o ve rr ea ch es t he b ou nd ar ie s o f a p ol em ic al

d eb at e : w he th er, i n f ac t, t hi s li te rat ur e sh oul d b e c har ac te ri ze d i n

m od er n t er ms a s p ro pa ga nd a. T hi s i s a d is ti nc ti on t ha t i s i mp or ta nt t o

m a i n t a i n , f o r a l l t h e l o o s e u s e o f t h e l a t t e r t e r m i n g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n s o f

t h e R e fo r m at i on p e r io d , f o r p o le m i c p o ss e ss e d q u al i ti e s o f e n ga g em e nt

a n d p e r su as i on t h at a r e a b se n t i n p r op a ga n da . M i ri a m U s he r C h ri s ma n

e n ca p su l at e s t h e d i st i nc t io n t h us :

P ol em ic c an b e d ef in ed a s a c on tr ov er si al a rg um en t, a d is cu ss io n i n wh ic h

o pp os it e v ie ws a re p re se nt ed a nd m ai nt ai ne d b y o pp on en ts . I t c on no te s a t wo -

w ay p ro ce ss , a d ia lo gu e, a lt ho ug h i t m ay be a d ia lo gu e b et we en t he d ea f.

P ro pa ga nd a l ac ks t ha t q ua li ty o f i nt er ch an ge . I t i s o ne -s id ed , a s ys te ma ti c a t-

t em pt t o p ro pa ga te a p ar ti cu la r o pi ni on o r d oc tr in e. I ts p ur po se i s to i n fl u en c e

m e n’ s o p in i on s a n d a t ti t ud e s a n d t h us t h ei r a c ti o ns a n d b e ha v io u r.42

T h i s i s w e l l p u t , a n d p o i n t s u p a c l e a r d i f f e r e n c e i n t o n e a n d i n t e n t i o n

b e tw e en t h e g en er at i on o f L ut h er a nd t ha t o f t he R el ig io us Wa rs . W hi le

m uc h o f t he p ol em i ca l w ri ti ng o f L ut h er ’s d ay w as r um b us ti ou s i n t on e,

m ak in g l ib er al u se o f r id ic u le a nd a d h o mi n em a t ta c k s, i t s t il l v i go r o us l y

m ai nt ai ne d t he p r os pe c t o f r e co nc i li at io n, o r a t l e as t a p e rs on al c h an ge

o f m i n d . I t c o u l d n o t b e o t h e r w i s e i n a c h u r c h w h e r e s o m a n y o f t h e f i r s tg en er at io n of m ini st er s w er e fo rm er Ma ss p ri est s. B y t he 1 56 0s t he

c on fl ic ts i n n or th er n E ur op e w er e b ei ng f ou gh t o ut i n a v er y d iff er en t

c ont ex t. Di vi si on s b et we en Pr ot est ant an d C at ho lic w er e n ow e n-

t r e n c h e d . R e c o n c i l i a t i o n w a s a r e a l p r o s p e c t o n l y f o r a h a n d f u l o f i d e a l i s t

i nt el le ct ua ls . F re nc h p ol em ic is ts e ng ag ed t he b at tl e f or s ou ls i n f ul l

k no wl e dg e t ha t t h e d iff er e nc e s b e tw ee n c on tr as ti ng v is i on s o f t h e t ru e

c h ur c h w e re u n br i dg e a bl e .

I n t hi s c on te xt t he l it er at ur e o f t he c onf li ct t oo k o n a n ew ur ge nc y.Much of the writing emana ting from the period coul d well be ac-

c om mo da te d w it hi n t he m od el d ev el op ed b y N or ma n D av is t o d ef in e

t he n ot io n o f p ro pa ga nd a. I n d is cu ss in g t he t ot al it ar ia n s ta te s o f t he

t we nt ie th c en tu ry, D av is a dv an ce s t he f iv e l ea di ng c ha ra ct er is ti cs o f

pro pa g a n d a :

1 T he r ul e o f s im p li fi ca ti on : r ed uc in g a ll d at a t o a s im pl e c on fr on ta ti on

b e tw e en ‘ G oo d a nd B ad ’, ‘ F ri e nd a nd F oe ’ .

2 T he r ul e o f d is fi gu r at io n : d is cr ed i ti ng t he o pp o si ti on b y c ru de s me a rs

a n d pa ro d ies .

42 M ir ia m U sh er C hr is ma n, ‘ Fr om P ol em ic t o P ro pa ga nd a’ , A rc h iv f u r R e fo r ma t io n s-

geschichte, 73 (1982) , p . 1 7 3 .




3 Th e r ul e o f t ran sf us io n : m ani pu la ti ng t he c ons en su s v al ue s o f t he

t ar ge t a ud ie nc e t o o ne ’s o wn e nd s.

4 Th e r ul e o f una ni mi ty : p re se nt ing o ne ’s vi ew po int a s i f i t w er e t he

u n a n i m o u s o p i n i o n o f a l l r i g h t - t h i n k i n g p e o p l e : d r a w i n g t h e d o u b t i n g

i nd iv id ua l i nt o a gr e em en t b y t he a pp e al o f s ta r- pe r fo rm er s , b y s oc ia l

p r es s ur e , a n d b y ‘ p sy c ho l o gi c al c o nt a g io n ’ .

5 T he r ul e o f o rc he st ra ti on : e nd le ss ly repe at in g t he s am e m es sa ge s i n

d i ff eren t v a ri ati o n s a n d co m bi na ti o ns .43

S om e o f t hi s, o f c ou rs e, c ou ld b e a pp li ed t o m uc h o f t he l it er at ur e o f

p er s ua si on d is cu ss ed i n t hi s b oo k . E ff ec t iv e c om m un ic at io n i n a n a ge

b ef or e m as s l it e ra cy i ne vi ta bl y r eq u ir ed t he c on st an t u se o f r ep et it i on

( Da vi s’s r ul e o f o rc he st ra ti on ) ; o ne w ou ld n ot a ss oc ia te t hi s w it h t hes am e t e ch ni qu e a pp li ed i n m od er n n ew s m an ag em e nt . B ut t he p re se n -

t at io n o f r el ig io us c ho ic e a s a s im pl e c on fr on ta ti on b et we en g oo d a nd

e vi l w as a t ec hn iq ue o f w hi ch b ot h s id es w er e g ui lt y. T he P ro te st an ts

a ch ie ve d m uc h w it h t he d ia le ct ic u se o f p ai re d o pp os it es , f ro m L ut he r

o n , t h o u g h t h e d e v i c e s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n t a k e n t o n e w l e v e l s i n t h e a g e

o f r e l i g i o u s w a r . T h u s P r o t e s t a n t s c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e i r a r c h - f o e , t h e D u k e

o f G u i s e : ‘ T h i s o n e h a s c h a n g e d G o d i n t o S a t a n , C h r i s t i n t o B e l , p e a c e

i nt o w ar, t he ble ss in g i nt o t he w ra th o f G od , a l eg it im at e g ov er nm en ti n to t y ra n ny ’ .44 T he C at ho li c a ut ho r R ob er t C en ea u p ut i t m or e s uc -

c i nc tl y : ‘ Ei th er all C alv in ist o r t ot al ly f ait hfu l, in sh or t e it he r t ot all y

w h it e o r b la ck ’ .45

Th is w as a r he to ri c t hat l eft l it tl e r oo m f or r ec on ci lia ti on , and i n

F ra nc e t h er e w ou ld b e n on e. S uc ce s si ve b ur st s o f f ig ht in g i nt e rs pe r se d

b y m as sa cr es a nd f or ce d c on ve rs io ns l ef t B al ka ni ze d c om mu ni ti es .

C a th o li c s a n d P r ot e s ta n ts l i ve d la rg e ly i n s ep ar at e t ow ns a nd v il la ge s,

i n m u tu a l d i st r us t a n d h o st i li t y.46

E l se w he r e t h e n e w c o nf e s si o na l s t at e ss el do m f ou nd r oo m f or a t ol er at ed m in or it y. P ro te st an t a nd C at ho li c

a li ke s ou gh t s an ct ua ry f ro m b ru is i ng c on fe ss i on al b at tl es i n s ta te s t ha t

i nc re as in g de ri ve d a s ens e of t he ir o wn i de nt it y f ro m t he ir r el igi ous

a l l e g i a n c e . T h e w a y w a s p r e p a r e d f o r t h e n e x t p h a s e o f c h u r c h b u i l d i n g :

a d e e p e n i n g o f t h e r e l i g i o u s c u l t u r e t h r o u g h t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f i n d i v i d -

u al C hr is t ia ns w it h t he i r o wn s ta te c hu r ch .

43 N o r ma n D a v i es , E u ro p e : A H i st o ry (London, 1997) , p . 5 0 0 .44 Advertissement a la royne mere du roy ( 1 5 6 1 ) , s i g . B 3 v . Q u o t e d i n R a c a u t , H a t r e d i n P r i n t ,

p . 4 5 .45

R o b e rt C e n e a u, R es p o n s e ca t h ol i q u e, s i g. A 7 r. Q u ot e d i n R a ca u t, H a tr e d i n p r in t , p . 4 4 .46

Conner, H u g u en o t H ea r tl a n d .




8 New solidarities

B y 1 58 0 E ur op e ’s c on fe ss io n al b ou nd ar i es w er e e ss e nt ia ll y f ix e d. T he

B r i t i s h k i n g d o m s o f E n g l a n d a n d S c o t l a n d w e r e s e c u r e u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l

o f P r ot e st a nt m o na r ch s ; i n F r an c e a C a lv i ni s t m i no r it y w a s e n tr e n ch e d,

b u t i t w a s c l e a r t h e n a t i o n w o u l d n e v e r b e c o n v e r t e d . I n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s

t he P ro te st an t n or th w ou ld n ev er b e r ec ov er ed b y S pa in ; t he s ou th er n

p ro vi nc es w ou ld g ra du al ly a ss um e a d is ti nc t C at h ol ic i de nt it y. I n G e rm an y

t h e o l d e s t L u t h e r a n s t a t e s w e r e n o w e n t e r i n g t h e i r t h i r d g e n e r a t i o n s i n c e

t h e a d op t io n o f a P r ot e st a nt c h ur c h o r de r. T h e S c an d in av i an k i ng d om s

h ad al so s et tl ed t o l if e w it h a L ut he ra n s tat e c hu rc h. O nl y i n e as te rn

E ur op e w ou ld t he t id es s hi ft i n a s ig ni fi ca nt m an ne r, a s t he H ab sb ur g

v ic to r ie s o f t he 1 62 0s a ll ow ed t he s up p re ss io n o f t he p re vi ou sl y d om in -

a n t P r o t e s t a n t e s t a t e s o f H u n g a r y a n d B o h e m i a . T h a t w a s f o r t h e f u t u r e .

F or t he mo me nt t he r eal it y o f a c onf es si onal ly di vi de d E ur op e w as a

g e ne r al l y a c ce p te d f a ct o f E u ro p e an l i fe a n d p o li t ic s .

I t wo ul d b e w ron g, h ow ev er, t o b el ie ve t ha t t hi s r el at ive s ta bi li ty,

s o c le ar i n r et ro s pe ct , h ad c al me d t he p as si o ns r ai se d b y t h e f ir s t R ef o r-

m a ti o n c o nf l i ct s . O n t h e c o nt r a ry, r e la t io n s b e tw e e n t h e f a it h s r e ma i ne d

f ra ct io us a nd u ns ta bl e, c ol ou re d a bo ve a ll b y f ea r. O n t he P ro te st an t

s id e, t hi s w as u nd er s ta nd ab l e e no u gh . I n 1 58 0 m e mo ri es o f t h e t e rr ib le

m as sa cr es of P ar is ( 15 72 ) an d A nt we rp ( 15 76 ) w er e s ti ll f re sh , a r e-

m in de r o f C at ho li c p er fi dy, a nd t he i mm in en t d an ge r t ha t h ar d- wo n

f re ed om s c oul d s ti ll b e d as he d a wa y. Th e mi li tar y c am pai gn i n t he

N et he rl ands s ti ll h el d ma ny p er il s f or t he i ns ur ge nt p ro vi nc es , an d

u lt im at el y f or E ng lan d an d F ra nc e’s H ug ue no ts a s w ell . B eh ind a ll

t he se d an ge rs l ay t he d is ta nt a nd r el en tl es s f ig ur e o f t he S pa ni sh k in g,

P hi li p I I, a m on ar ch w ho se m il it ar y r es ou rc es h ad n ev er s ee me d m or e

o ve rw he lm in g o r m or e d an ge ro us . W he re h is a rm ie s c ou ld n ot r ea ch ,

t h en c on sp i ra cy a nd a ss as si na ti o n t hr e at en ed a n ew p oi so no us t ur n t o

t h e c on fe ss i on al b at tl e ; s in ce t he a ss as si na ti on s o f t he F re nc h R el ig io us

Wa rs a nd n um e ro us p lo ts a ga in st t h e E ng li sh q ue en , n on e o f E ur o pe ’s

c r o w n e d h e a d s c o u l d f e e l e n t i r e l y s e c u r e , a n d s e v e r a l w o u l d i n d e e d m e e t

v io le nt d ea th s. O n t he C at ho li c s id e, t oo , i nt er na ti on al p ol it ic s w er e

185



c om pl ic at ed b y c on st an t a nx ie ty : t ha t a rm ie s w er e o ve re xt en de d b y

t he do ub le c onf li ct ag ai nst h er et ic a nd Tu rk , p er hap s e ve n t hat t he

P ro te st an t t id e h ad n ot r ea ch ed i ts f lo od . I n G er ma ny, t he a tt em pt t o

c a rr y t h e s t ra t eg i c al l y v i ta l a r ch b i sh o pr i c o f C o lo g ne i n to t h e P r o te s ta n t

c am p w as a r em in de r t ha t t he P ea ce o f A ug sb ur g w as a f ra gi le b as is f or

l on g- t er m h ar mo ny. F or G er ma ny ’s L ut h er a n s ta t es t h er e w as a ls o t he

c re ep in g, i ns id io us t hr ea t o f C al vi ni sm , t he e ne my w it hi n, a c on fl ic t

w h ic h s ti rr ed s om e o f t h e g re at es t t he o lo gi ca l p as si o ns o f t h e l at t er p ar t

o f t h e s i xt e e nt h c e nt u ry .

T he se w er e u nc er ta in t im es , t ho ug h i n t he d ai ly r ou nd o f p ar is h l if e

t h e p a c e o f c h a n g e h a d f i n a l l y b e g u n t o r e c e d e . C h u r c h e s n o w f i x e d a n d

s e c u r e l y e s t a b l i s h e d c o u l d b e n d t h e i r e f f o r t s t o w a r d s t h e c a r e a n d C h r i s -

tian educat ion of their flo ck. This was an age wh en many national

c hu rc he s at tai ne d a s or t of e qu il ib riu m. A t t he s am e t im e, t he w or ld

b ey on d t he p ar is h c on ti nu ed t o p ro vi de d ar k a nd o mi no us r em in de rs

o f t he fr ag ili ty o f G od’s p ro vi de nt ial b le ssi ngs . I n 1 57 2 t he G en er al

A ss em bl y o f t h e c hu rc h o f S co tl an d o rd er e d a n at io na l f es t iv al o f a to ne -

m en t, a p ro pi ti ar y c er em on y t o mar k t heir hor ror at th e news of the

S t B ar t ho l om ew ’s D ay m as sa c re .1 T he f oll ow in g de cade t he g od ly i n

E ng la nd w er e c on t ri bu ti ng t o c ol l ec ti on s f or t he d ef e nc e o f G en ev a, t he

f ou nt ai nh e ad , n ow t h re at e ne d w i th m il it ar y r ui n.2 N ot hi ng c ou ld b e

t ak e n f or g ra nt e d, a br oa d o r a t h om e , w he re p es ti le nc e o r b er ea ve me nt

c ou ld s tr ik e a t a ny t im e t o t es t t he f ai th .

T he re w er e m an y r ea so ns , t he re fo re , w hy t he p ro se ly ti zi ng z ea l o f

E u r o p e ’ s P r o t e s t a n t s d i d n o t l o s e i t s u r g e n c y . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , m i n i s t e r s ,

m ag is tr at es a nd e ng ag ed c it iz en s r ed ou bl ed t he ir e ff or ts t o c re at e a C hr is -

t i a n p e o p l e , a C h r i s t i a n p a r i s h a n d a C h r i s t i a n f a m i l y . T h e r e l a t i v e p o l i t -

i c al s ta bi l it y m ad e p os si bl e, i n p ar ti cu la r, a n ew c o- op e ra ti on b e tw ee n

c h u r c h a n d s t a t e i n w h a t m a n y r e g a r d e d , q u i t e r i g h t l y , a s a s h a r e d e n t e r -

p ri s e. A C hr is ti an p eo pl e w as a n o rd er l y p eo pl e , a nd a g od ly m ag is tr a te

c ou ld e xp ec t o be di en ce . T hi s p ar tn er sh ip o f c hu rc h a nd s ta te h as b ec om e

a c or ne r st on e o f i nt e rp re t at io n s o f t he i mp le me nt a ti on o f t h e R ef or ma ti on

p ro g ra mm e i n t he s ec on d h al f o f t he c en tu ry, p ar ti cu la r ly f or Germany,

w h er e t hi s p r oc e ss h as b ec om e k no w n a s c on fe ss i on al iz at io n.3 There

1 David Calderwood, T h e H i s t o r y o f t h e K i r k o f S c o t l a n d , e d . , f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l m a n u s c r i p tp re se rv ed i n t he B ri ti sh M us eu m, b y T ho ma s T ho ms on ( Ed in bu rg h, p ri nt ed f or t heWoodrow Society, 1842–9) v o l . I I , p p . 2 2 7 – 3 0 .

2 S im on A da ms a nd M ar k G re en gr as s ( ed s. ), ‘ Je a n M al li et , “ Me mo ir es e t p ro ce du re sd e m a n eg oc ia ti on e n A ng le te rr e” ’, i n I an A rc he r ( ed .) , R e li g io n , S o ci e ty a n d P o li t ic si n S i xt e en t h C e nt u ry E n gl a nd , C am br id ge , C am de n S oc ie ty, 5 th s er. , 2 2 (2003) , p p.137–96.

3 F o r t h e l i te r at u re o n c o nf e ss i on a li z at io n s e e H e in z S c hi l li n g ( e d. ) , D i e r e fo r mi e rt e K o n- fessionalisierung in Deutschland. Das Problem der ‘Zweiten Reformation’ (Gutersloh, 1986).






T he r ef or me rs i nv es te d e no rm ou s h op es i n t he p ow er s o f r el ig io us

e du ca ti on . S ys te ma ti c i ns tr uc ti on o f t he c om mu ni ty w as t o p ro ce ed

t hr ou gh t h e u se o f c at ec hi s ms : i ns tr uc t io ns i n t he f un da me nt al s o f f ai th

b y w a y o f q u e s t i o n a n d a n s w e r . T h e r e f o r m e r s w e r e i n c l i n e d t o c l a i m t h e

c at ec hi sm , i f n ot a s a n o ri gi na l i nv en ti on o f t he R ef or ma ti on , t he n a t

l ea st a s a n a sp ec t o f t he e ar ly c hu rc h p ie ty r ec ov er ed a ft er c en tu ri es o f

d is us e. W ha t w e s et b ef or e y ou , a nn ou nc e d C al vi n i n t he p re fa c e t o t he

G e ne va c at e ch is m, i s w ha t w as u sed a mo n g C h ri s ti a ns i n a n ci e n t t i me s

b ef or e t h e d ev il r ui ne d t h e c h ur ch .6 T hi s c la im h as t o b e q ua li f ie d. T he

m edi ae val c hu rc h r ec og ni ze d t he p ri nc ip le o f c at ec he si s, a nd i n t he

f if te e nt h c en tu ry i n p ar t ic ul ar t h e c on sc i ou sn es s o f t h e r el ig io us n ee ds

o f t he l ai ty l ed t o t he c om po si ti on o f a l ar ge n um be r o f m an ua ls l ay in g

o u t t h e e s s e n t i a l s o f f a i t h . S o m e w e r e i n t e n d e d a s m a n u a l s o f i n s t r u c t i o n

f or t he c le rg y ; o th er s, l ik e L’ AB C d es s im pl es g en s b y J ea n G e rs on , w er e

i n t e n d e d t o b e r e a d b y , o r t o , t h e l a i t y . B u t , a s t h i s e x a m p l e s u g g e s t s , t h e

t yp ic al p re -R e fo rm at io n c at ec h is m w as d ec la ra t or y : t he R ef or ma ti on

c at ec h is m, c on st r uc te d a lw ay s i n t he f or m o f q ue st io n a nd a ns we r, w as

i n de e d i n p e da g og i c t e rm s l a rg e ly n e w.

I n i ts de ve lo pe d f or m t he c at ec he sis o f t he Re fo rm at io n e ra r ep re -

s e nt ed t he s yn er gy o f t wo s tr an ds o f e du ca t io na l p ra ct ic e : t h e m ed ia ev al

r e l i a n c e o n r o t e l e a r n i n g , s t i l l i n d i s p e n s a b l e f o r a l l e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n ,

a nd t he R en ai ss an ce d is co ve r y o f t he d ia lo gu e . T he d ia lo gu e , b y i nt ro -

d u c i n g t w o o r m o r e c h a r a c t e r s , c r e a t e d a d r a m a t i c s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e

l ess ons c ou ld e me rg e t hr ou gh t he c ut and t hr us t o f q ue st io ni ng an d

an sw er ing . Th is , as w e h ave s ee n, w as a de vi ce t he r ef or me rs q ui ck ly

a do pt ed f or t he ir p ol em ic al t ra ct s, w he re t he d ia lo gu e b eca me an im-

a g i n ed co n v ers a ti o n betw een tw o o s ten s i bl y equ a l pa rtn ers .7 T hi s f i cti o n

ad de d f or ce t o t he p er sua si ve p ow er o f t he a rg ume nt s p lac ed i n t he

m ou th o f t he e xp on en t of t he e van ge li cal c as e wh en h e, i ne vit ab ly,

p r e v a i l e d . F o r t h e c a t e c h i s m , t h i s f o r m w a s r e a d i l y a d a p t e d t o t h e i n c u l -

c at io n o f r el ig io us e ss en ti al s. H er e, b y i nt er sp er si ng s im pl e q ue st io n

p ro mp ts w it h l ar ge r c om me nt s o r c on ve rs at io na l o bs er va ti on s p ut i n

t h e m o u t h s o f t h e t e a c h e r , t h e m a t e r i a l c o u l d b e a b s o r b e d f a r m o r e e a s i l y

t ha n b y m er e r ep et it io n o f a n e xt en de d t ex t. T he i nt er ve nt io ns o f t he

t e ac he r a ls o p ro vi de d o pp or t un it ie s f or s um ma r y, o r t o r eo ri e nt at e t he

p up i l t ow a rd s a n ew t h em e o r s ub je ct .

S uc h a t l ea st w as t he t h eo ry. I n p ra ct ic e , s om e c at e ch is ms w er e s o l on g

a nd c om pl ex t ha t t he y w ou ld h av e s tr ai ne d t he c ap ac it ie s o f t he a pt es t

6 I a n G r ee n , T he C h ri s ti a n’ s A B C. C a te c h is m s a n d C a te c h iz i ng i n E n gl a nd , c . 1 5 30 – 17 4 0 (Oxford, 1996) , p . 1 3 .

7 E r i k a R u m m e l , S ch emi n g p a p i st s a n d L u t h era n F o o l s. F i v e R ef o r m a t io n S a t ir es (New York,1993).




p up i l. T he c on ce p ts a nd t er mi no l og y a ls o m ad e l it tl e c on c es si on t o t h e

l ik el y k no wl e dg e o f t h e y ou ng . N ev er t he l es s, t h e e xt ra or di na ry e ne rg y

d e v o t e d t o t h e c o m p o s i t i o n a n d t e a c h i n g o f c a t e c h i s m s s h o w s h o w m u c h

h op e t he r ef or me rs i nv es te d i n t hi s m et ho d o f i ns tr uc ti on . I n t hi s, a s i n

s o m uc h e lse , L ut he r l ed t he w ay. H is t wo c om po si ti ons o f 1 52 9, t he

Deu d sch C atechi sm u s and K l ei n e C atechi sm u s w e r e m i l e s t o n e e v e n t s i n t h e

h is to ry o f c h ur ch f or m at io n. W he r ea s t he f ir st , l on ge r c at ec h is m o ff er s

a n e xt e nd e d d ef e nc e o f t he d ev el op i ng d oc t ri ne o f t he n ew c hu rc h, a nd

m a y h a v e b e e n i n t e n d e d p r i m a r i l y f o r p a s t o r s , t h e s m a l l e r c a t e c h i s m h a s

t h e e le ga nt s im p li ci ty a nd s in gl e- mi n de d f oc us o n t h e e s se nt ia ls o f f ai th

t hat w oul d c ha rac te ri ze t he b est of P ro te st an t wr it in g i n t hi s g en re .

L u th e r’ s e x am p l e s t im u la t ed a n e n or m ou s o u tp o ur i ng o f c o mp o s it i on a l

e ne rg y, a s l oc al p as to rs t hr ou gh o ut G e rm an y t ur ne d t h ei r a tt en t io n t o

t h e n e e d s o f t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r c o m m u n i t i e s . T h i s w a s l a u d a t o r y , b u t r i s k e d

a b e w i l d e r i n g c o n f u s i o n o f v o i c e s : a t o n e p o i n t i n t h e c e n t u r y t h e r e w e r e

a t l ea st f if ty c at ec hi sm s c ir cu la ti ng i n t he s in gl e c it y o f H am bu rg . T he

s ec on d h al f o f t he c en tu ry b ro ug ht a n a tt em pt t o e nf or ce g re at er u ni -

f or mi ty b y t ea ch in g o nl y f ro m L ut he r’s S ho rt C at ec hi sm , w hi ch t hu s

a cq ui re d c an on ic al s ta t us . I n 1 58 0 n ew o rd in an c es i n S ax on y r eq u ir ed

t hat a p or tio n o f L ut he r’s c at ec hi sm s ho ul d b e r ea d e ve ry S und ay i n

church.

I n t he R ef or me d c hu rc he s t he e mp ha si s f ro m t he b eg inn in g l ay o n

s ec ur in g a g re at e r u ni fo rm it y o f p r ac ti ce . C al vi n’s G e ne va C at e ch is m

a ch ie ve d f ro m t he f ir st a d om in an t p os it io n i n t he F ra nc op ho ne t ra d-

i ti on. Pu bl is he d i n 1 54 1, i t r ep re se nt ed t he p ro du ct o f fi ve ye ar s of

e xp e ri me nt at i on a nd d ee p t h ou gh t a bo ut th e n ee ds o f t he c om mu ni ty

a n d t h e c a p a c i t i e s o f t h o s e t o b e i n s t r u c t e d .8 T h e q u e s t i o n s , a n d s o m e o f

t h e a ns we r s, a re r e la ti ve ly s ho rt , a nd t h e m at er i al i s o rg an iz ed t o a rt ic u -

l at e t he e ss en ti a ls o f f ai th w it h c la ri t y a nd a cc or di n g t o a c l ea r s tr u ct ur e .

T he c at ec h is m i s s ti ll a f or mi da bl e s iz e, a nd a lt h ou gh C al vi n h ad c le ar ly

r ec og ni ze d t hi s p ro bl em , d iv id in g t he m at er ia l i nt o f if ty -f iv e ‘ Lo rd ’s

D ay s’ f or t ea ch i ng t hr ou gh o ut t he y ea r, t he n ee d f or s om et h in g s ho rt e r

a nd m or e a cc e ss ib le f or t ho se n ew t o t he f ai th w as i nc re as in gl y o bv io u s.

A p op ul ar s ol ut io n w as a t ie re d s tr uc tu re o f c at ec hi sm s, o f i nc re as in g

l en gt h and c omp le xi ty, suc h as t hat ad op te d b y t he Du tc h c hur ch i n

L ondo n i n 1 55 0. H er e t he c hu rc h u se d b ot h a l on g c at ec hi sm , so me

p ar ts o f w hi ch w oul d b e e xp ou nde d b y t he m ini st er i n c hu rc h e ve ry

w ee k, an d a sh or te r c at ec hi sm f or t he u se o f t he c hi ldr en . I n a ddi ti on

8 P e te r Y. d e J o ng , ‘ C al v in ’s C o nt r ib u ti o n t o C h ri s ti a n E d uc a ti o n’ , C a l v in T h eo lo g i ca l Journal , 2 (1967) , p p . 1 6 2– 2 01 . T h om a s F . To r ra n ce , T h e S c ho ol o f F ai th . T he C at ec h -

i sm s o f t h e R e fo r me d c h ur c h (London, 1959).

New solidarities 189



t he re w as a s uc ci nc t di ge st of f or ty q ue st io ns an d ans we rs, E en k or te

o n de r so e ck i ng h e d e s g h el o of s, f or t ho se t o b e a dm it te d t o t he c hu rc h. Th e

L on do n c at ec hi s ms p ro ve d e xt re me l y p op ul ar i n t he e me rg in g D ut ch

C al vi ni st c hu rc h, t ho ug h t he y ( li ke t he L on do n p sa lm t ra ns la ti on s)

w oul d l at er b e su pe rs ede d, i n t hi s c as e b y t he gr ow ing p op ul ar it y o f

t he H ei de lb e rg C at e ch is m. T hi s p ow e rf ul w or k , t he c re at io n o f a g ro up

o f t he ol og ia ns s et t o t he t as k b y t he C al vi ni st E le ct or P al at in e, q ui ck ly

a ch ie ve d a d om in an t p os it io n a mo ng G er ma n a nd D ut ch C al vi ni st s.

I n t he se la ng ua ge s a nd i n t ra ns la ti on it b ec am e t he m os t p ub li sh ed

c a te c h is m o f t h e s i xt e e nt h c e nt u ry .

M ost Pr ot es ta nt c hur ch es h ad b y t he l ast de ca de s of t he si xt ee nt h

c e n t u r y m o v e d t o w a r d s u s e o f a s i n g l e o f f i c i a l o r l i m i t e d r a n g e o f c a t e c h -

i s m s ; t h e e x c e p t i o n w a s E n g l a n d , w h i c h s a w a n e n o r m o u s o u t p o u r i n g o f

c at ec h is ma l w ri t in g t ha t c on t in ue d u na b at e d i nt o t h e e i gh te e nt h c en -

tury.9 T he z ea l a nd e ne rg y o f t he E ng li sh c le ri ca l a ut ho rs , r ec en tl y t he

s ub j ec t o f a n e xh au st iv e i nv es t ig at io n b y I an G r ee n, a ll ow u s t o a na t o-

m iz e w ha t t h es e a ut ho rs s aw a s t he p ur po s es a nd b e ne fi ts o f c at ec h is m.

T he f ir st a nd p la in es t i nt en ti on w as t o e st ab li sh t he b as is o f r el ig io us

k no wl ed ge w it ho ut w hi ch a n i nd iv id ua l c ou ld n ot h op e f or s al va ti on .

T hi s w en t s tr ai gh t t o t he h ea rt o f t he P ro te st an t p ro je ct . F or w it ho ut

k n o w l e d g e o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s o f t r u e b e l i e f m a n c a n n o t h a v e f a i t h , a n d

w it ho ut fa it h h e c anno t b e sa ve d: ‘ Jus ti fyi ng fa it h p re su pp ose th t he

k n o w l e d g e o f G o d a n d C h r i s t , o f t h e p r e c e p t s o f t h e Wor d , a n d p r o m i s e s

o f t h e G o s p e l ’ , i n t h e e l e g a n t s u m m a t i o n o f J o h n B a l l .10 B e y o n d t h i s v i t a l

t he o lo gi ca l c or e , c at e ch iz in g e na bl ed m em be r s o f t he c hu r ch t o a tt ai n a

d ee pe r u nd er s ta nd in g o f t h e S cr ip t ur es a nd w ha t t oo k p la ce d ur i ng t he

c hu rc h s er vi ce , a nd i t s pe ci fi ca ll y p re pa re d t he m f or t he s ol em n d ut y

o f r ec e iv in g t he E uc h ar is t. I t e na bl ed t h em t o d is ti ng ui s h t ru e r el ig io n

f ro m f al se ( a p ar ti cu la rl y i mp or ta nt r ol e i n n ew o r e me rg en t c hu rc he s

f ac in g c om pe t it io n f r om o th er s ec t s) ; i t p ro mo te d C hr is t ia n v ir t ue , a nd

d i ss u ad e d m e mb e r s f r om v i ce .

Wi th s o m uc h at st ak e i t i s n o w on de r t hat t he c hur ch es r ese rv ed s o

l a r g e a s p a c e f o r c a t e c h i s m : i n t h e f o r m a l w o r s h i p s e r v i c e , i n s c h o o l s a n d

at h om e. I n c hur ch m an y P ro te st an t t rad it ion s r ese rve d t he s ec ond

a ft er no on s er vi ce o n a S un da y f or t he c at ec hi sm , a nd o ft en m id -w ee k

s e r v i c e s a s w e l l . I n s c h o o l s , c a t e c h i s m s p r o v i d e d a b a s i c t o o l o f e d u c a t i o n

f r o m t h e f i r s t y e a r s o f e d u c a t i o n , o f t e n g r a f t e d o n t o t h e m o s t s i m p l e f o r m

o f t ex t, t he AB C b ook . Th is c om pe ndi um of a p ri nt ed al ph ab et w it h

s i m p l e p r a y e r s w a s a s t a p l e o f a l l P r o t e s t a n t c h u r c h e s , a n d h u g e n u m b e r s

9 Green, C h r i s ti a n ’s A B C .10 Ibid., p . 2 6 .




w ere pu bl i s hed .11 I n E n g l a n d t h e A B C w i t h t h e C a t e c h i s m w a s a j e a l o u s l y

g u a r d e d a n d h u g e l y l u c r a t i v e p a r t o f t h e p a t e n t o f t h e p r i n t e r o f t h e b o o k

o f m ar ty rs , J oh n D ay e. I nd ee d, i t w as p ro ba bl y t he q ui ck p ro fi ts f ro m

t h e s e s m a l l b o o k s t h a t a l l o w e d h i m t o u n d e r t a k e a s c o m p l e x a n d l e n g t h y

p r oj e ct a s t h e m a rt y ro l og y.

C at ec hi zi ng in t he h om e w as a m or e di ffi cu lt i ssue . M an y a ut ho rs

e n v i s a g e d a p l a c e f o r t h e i r b o o k s i n t h e g o d l y h o m e , b u t h e r e t h e y f a c e d

s ti ff c om pe t it io n f or t he l im it ed t im e a va il ab le f or h om e p ed ag o gy, n ot

l ea st fr om t he B ib le , t he b ook o f b oo ks. I n a ny an al ys is o f t he wa y i n

w hi c h t he v al ue s o f a g od ly s oc ie ty w er e i nc ul c at ed , t he B ib l e m us t h av e

a s pe ci al p la ce ; i nd ee d, i t i s h ar d i n an y sur ve y t o do r eal ju st ic e t o i ts

p ri ma cy a nd i nf lu en ce . B ut t hi s w as a r em ar ka bl e a nd m an y- fa ce te d

b oo k, a su cc es s i n so m any of t he c at eg or ie s of p ri nt t ha t s ix te en th -

c en tu ry r ea de rs f ou nd s o f as ci na ti ng . I t w as a t ra ve lo gu e a nd a w or k o f

h i s t o r y ; a w o r k o f l i t e r a t u r e a n d p o e t r y ; i t p r o v i d e d t h e m o d e l f o r m u c h

o f t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l d r a m a o f t h e a g e ; i t w a s a w o r k o f p r o p h e c y i n a n

a ge o bs es se d b y p ro ph ec y ; i t w as a t re as ur e t ro ve f or b ot an is ts , g ra m-

m ar ia ns an d e tym ol og ist s, a nd a fo un da ti on t ex t fo r s tud ent s of t he

a nc ie n t l an gu ag e s ; i t w as a w or k o f j ur is pr ud en ce , p er h ap s t h e s ix te e nt h

c e nt ur y ’s m os t i nf lu en ti a l l eg al t ex t ; i t w as c e rt ai nl y t h e c en tu ry ’s m os t

i nf lu e nt ia l w or k o f p ol it ic a l t ho ug ht . I t p ro vi de d r ol e m od el s f or r ul er s

a nd p r ie st s, f or f at he r s a nd m ot h er s, f or s ol di e rs a nd m ar ty r s.

I n t hi s b oo k t he p ri nt c ul tu re o f t he s ix te en th c en tu ry w as d is pl ay ed

i n a ll i ts t ec hn i ca l s op hi st i ca ti on . I t c ou ld b e a h an dy p oc ke t -s iz ed b oo k

i n t i n y p r i n t , o r a g l o r i o u s l y i l l u s t r a t e d f o l i o . T h e n a r r a t i v e i l l u s t r a t i o n s i n

t he Ol d Te st am en t b ro ug ht t o l if e so me o f t he g re at est st or ie s o f t he

C hr is ti an t ra di ti on ; e ve n i n t he au st er e p ur ge d e dit ion s o f t he l at er

P r o t e s t a n t t r a d i t i o n t h e t e x t o f t e n c a m e a c c o m p a n i e d b y m a ps, technical

d ra wi ng s, a nd i ng en io us d ia gr am s o f b el ie f a nd u nb el ie f.12 It is not

t oo much to say th at in th is one volume is ep it omized muc h of wh at

s i xt e e nt h - ce n t ur y b o ok c u lt u r e h a d t o o ff e r.

T h e s i xt e e nt h c e nt u ry p l ac e d t h i s c o m pe n di o us a n d m a ny - si d ed w o rk

d ir e ct ly i n t h e h an ds o f u np re c ed e nt ed n um be rs o f p eo pl e. T hr ou gh o ut

t h e c e n t u r y a n d i n a l l E u r o p e a n v e r n a c u l a r s t h e r e w e r e p u b l i s h e d a t l e a s t

5 ,0 00 w ho le o r p ar ti al e di ti on s o f t he B ib le , a t ot al o f a t l ea st 5 m il li on

c op ie s. M any w er e in s ma ll f or ma ts , an d u se d t o de st ruc tio n ; ot he rs

11 R . P e t e r, ‘ L’ a b ece d a ir e g e ne v oi s o u c a tec h i s m e elem e n t ai r e d e C a l v in ’ , R ev u e d ’ H is t o i reet d e P h i lo s o p h ie r el i gi eu s es, 4 5 (1965) , p p. 1 1– 45 .

12 C a t h er i n e D e l a no -S m it h a n d E l i z ab e t h M o r le y I n g r am , M a ps i n B i bl e s, 1 5 00 – 16 0 0. A nIllustrated Catalogue (Geneva, 1991). R o s i er, T h e B ib le i n P ri nt . H e i mo R e i n it z e r, Bibliad eu t sch . L u t h er s B i b elu b er s et z u n g u n d i h r e T r a di t i on (Wolfenbuttel, 1983).




w er e a m ost c he ris he d f ami ly p oss es si on, p ass ed do wn t hr oug h t he

generations.

T h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m a n d t h e B i b l e w a s c l o s e a n d i n t i m a t e

f ro m t he f ir st y ear s o f L ut he r’s m ov em ent ; i t r em ain ed c en tr al t o t he

r he t or ic o f t he m ov em en t a nd i ts i de ol og y o f s cr ip t ur al r en e wa l. N ev er -

t h e le s s, t h e C a th o l ic c h ur c h es , d e sp i t e i n it i al u n ce r t ai n ty, n e ve r w h ol l y

r es ig ne d t he ir i nt er es t i n v er na cu la r S cr ip tu re . I n C at ho li c G er ma ny

t he re w as n eve r a b an o n t he ve rnac ul ar Sc rip tur e, t hou gh C at hol ic

t ra ns la ti on s o ft en d re w s o h ea vi ly o n L ut he r t h at i t i s a rg ua bl e t ha t t he y

di d m or e t o s pr ea d k now le dge o f L ut he r’s ve rsi on t han t o i mp ed e i t.

It was a similar case in the Francopho ne worl d, wh ere t he Louvai n

B ib le m ad e m uc h u se o f t he t ra ns la ti on s o f L ef ev re a nd O li ve t an . T hi s

L ou va in B ib le w as i ts el f d er iv ed f ro m t he f ir st C at ho li c B ib le p ri nt ed

i n P ar is a ft er t he b an o n v er na cu la r S cr ip tu re i n F ra nc e w as r el ax ed i n

1 5 6 6 . T h i s w a s t h e w o r k o f R e n e B e n o is t , w h os e t r an s la t io n w a s a l mo s t

e nt ir e ly b as e d o n t he G en ev a B ib le .13

Th e B ib le , c le ar ly, p laye d a vi tal r ol e i n t he g od ly h om e. S o t oo di d

m u s i c . O n e r a t h e r p e r v e r s e i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e P r o t e s t a n t

m et ri ca l p sa lm s i s t he s pe ed w it h w hi ch t he y e vo lv ed a d om es ti c r ec re -

ational cou nt er pa r t, w it h a rr an ge me nt s o f t he p sa lm t e xt s f or f ou r- pa rt

singing.14 T hi s i s i n s om e r es pe ct s r at he r i ro ni ca l, f or a l ar ge p ar t o f t he

m u s i c a l t h e o l o g y o f t h e p s a l m s w a s e m b e d d e d i n t h e i r s i m p l i c i t y o f l i n e ,

g iv in g p r ec e de nc e t o a ud ib i li ty a nd t he c la ri ty o f t h e l yr ic . I n t hi s l ay t he

c o nt r a st w i th t h e c o mp l e x p o ly p h on i es o f m e di a ev a l r e li g i ou s m u si c . Ye t

a lm os t e ve ry m aj or m us ic ia n p ra ct is in g i n F ra nc e i n t he s ec on d h al f o f

t he s ix te e nt h c en tu ry ( so me f or ty i n a ll ) t ri ed t he i r h an d a t h ar mo ni zi ng

a t l e a s t s o m e o f t h e p s a l m s . T h e c o m p o s e r C l a u d e G o u d i m e l c o m p o s e d

t wo c om pl et e c yc le s ; C la ud e d e J eu ne p ub li sh ed c om pl et e s et s o f h ar -

m on iz at io ns i n t hr ee p ar ts a nd i n f our. C at ho lic c om po se rs s uc h as

R ol an d d e L as su s w er e a ls o n ot i mm un e t o t he c ha rm s o f t he p sa lm s.15

S o m e o f t h e s e c o m p o s i t i o n s w e r e i n t e n d e d f o r p e r f o r m a n c e , a n d s u r v i v e

i n t o t h e r e p e r t o i r e t o t h i s d a y . B u t w e k n o w t h a t m a n y w e r e i n t e n d e d f o r

do me st ic p ar lo ur s in gin g. T hi s i s c le ar no t l ea st fr om t he p ra ct ic e o f

p ri nt in g p ar t b oo ks w it h t wo v oc al l in es o n a s in gl e p ag e, t he m us ic a nd

13 Chambers, B i b li o gr a ph y o f F r en c h B i bl e s, n o s. 3 7 1– 4 . E m il e P a sq u ie r, U n c ur e d e P ar is pendant les guerres de religion : Rene B e no i st , l e p a pe d e s H a ll e s (Paris, 1913).

14 F o r e x a mp l es o f f o ur - pa r t a r ra n ge m en t s o f t h e p s a lm s f r om m a ny l a ng u ag e c u lt u re s s e eF r a n co i s L e s u re (e d . ), Re pertoire international des sources Musicales. Recueils imprime s

XVIe–XVIIe sie cle ( M u ni c h a n d D u is b ur g , 1960) , 1 5 63 / 8, 1 5 92 / 7 ( E ng l is h ) , 1 5 68 / 11 ,1 5 8 8 / 12 (G e r ma n ), 1 5 6 9 /9 – 1 1 , 1 5 7 7 /1 – 3 , 1 5 7 8 /3 – 4 (F r e n ch ).

15F r an c is H i gm a n, ‘ Mu s ic ’ , i n A n dr e w P e tt e gr e e, R ef o r ma t i o n W or l d ( L o n do n , 2 0 01 ) ,p . 4 99 .




t e x t p r i n t e d w i t h t w o h a l v e s , o n e u p s i d e d o w n , s o b o t h f a c e t o w a r d s t h e

m i d d l e o f t h e p a g e . T h i s w a s c l e a r l y t o b e u s e d b y t w o p e o p l e p l a c e d o n

o pp os it e s id es o f a t ab le r e ad in g f ro m t h e s am e c op y.

F ur th er i nc id en ta l e vi de nc e o f t he p op ul ar it y o f d om es ti c m us ic al

e nt er ta in me nt c an b e f ou nd i n a n e ar ly D ut ch p hr as e b ook , p u bl i sh e d

i n Lo nd on i n t he f ir st y ear s o f t he s eve nt ee nt h c en tur y.16 A ft e r b as ic

g ra m m ati ca l ex erci ses T h e D u tc h S c h oo l - Ma s t er o ff er s p hr a se s f or a v ar -

i et y o f b us in es s a nd s oc ia l s it ua ti on s, i nc lu di ng m us ic m ak in g. ‘ Wh at

s ha ll w e d o n ow ? ’, t he r ea de r i s p ro mp te d :

S h a l l w e s i n g a s o n g o f f o u r e p a r t s ?

I t i s w e l l s a i d ,

Yo u s h al l s i ng t h e b a se ,M a is t er N . s h al l s i ng t h e c o un t er t en or,

I w il l s in g t he t en or,

A nd m is tr es se N . s ha ll s in g t he t re bl e ?17

T h e e v e n i n g w e a r s o n . T h e s i n g i n g i n s p i r e s p l a y i n g ( ‘ t u n e y o u r L u t e ’ )

a nd d an ci ng ( ‘y ou d au nc e v er y w el l : g hy d an st s ee r w el ’) , b ef or e, e x-

h a u s t e d , t h e b o l d u s e r o f t h e m u s i c a l p h r a s e b o o k i s p r o m p t e d t o s u g g e s t

r et ir ing t o b ed : a se qu enc e w hi ch , p er ha ps u ni nt ent io na lly, se em s

t o c on fi rm t he c on si st or y’s d ar ke st f ea rs o f t he i ne vi ta bl e c on ne ct io nb e t we e n m u si c , d a nc i ng a n d l i ce n t io u sn e ss .

P ar t -b oo k p ri nt in g w it h m us ic al n ot at i on w as n ot i ne xp e ns iv e, a nd

p r e -s up p o se d a c l i en t el e b o th p r os p er o u s a nd m u si c al l y l i t er a te . I n de e d,

i f w e a r e t o c o n f r o n t t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e u t i l i t y o f t h i s g r e a t o u t p o u r i n g o f

e ne rg y o n t he e du ca ti on o f t he C hr is ti an p eo pl e, w e m us t r ec og ni ze a

c le ar d iff er e nt ia ti o n b et w ee n t he s or t o f e xp er i en ce o f r el ig io n o pe n t o

t h os e f ro m r e la ti ve l y p ro sp e ro us u rb an h ou se h ol ds , a nd o th er s. T he se

P ro te st an t f am il ie s w ou ld h av e a cc es s t o B ib le s, m us ic a nd l it er at ur e ;t h ei r c hi ld re n w ou ld b e i ns tr u ct ed i n s ch oo l s ; t h ey w ou ld h ea r s e rm on s

p r ea ch e d b y t he b es t- qu al if ie d a nd b e st -r em un e ra te d m in is te rs ; t he ir s

c am e c l os e t o t he e xp er i en ce o f C hr is t ia n e du ca ti on a nt ic ip a te d b y t h e

r ef or me rs . O ut si de t he se p ri vi le ge d g ro up s t he r an ge a nd d en si ty o f

m e d i a a p p l i e d t o t h i s p u r p o s e w o u l d b e m u c h r e d u c e d . H e r e t h e e x p e r i -

e nc e o f r el ig io n w ou ld b e l es s c om pl et e. B ut t he c ou nt ry p ar is he s w er e

n ot e nt ir el y n eg le c te d. H er e t he s er m on s, t h e c at e ch is m s er vi ce a nd t h e

e x p e r i e n c e o f c o m m u n a l s i n g i n g s t i l l d i d m u c h t o i n c u l c a t e t h e v a l u e s o f t h e n e w r e l i g i o n . E v e n i n t h e t o w n s , o f c o u r s e , t h e m o s t z e a l o u s i n s t r u c -

t io n c ou ld n ot g ua ra nt ee a gr ee me nt a mo ng t he c it iz en s w ho b ro ug ht

16 M ar te n L e M ay re , T h e D u tc h S c ho o l- M as t er ( L on do n, 1 60 6 ; f ac si mi le e dn , S ch ol arP re ss , 1 97 2) . I a m g ra te fu l t o J an e P et te gr ee f or d ra wi ng t hi s b oo k t o m y a tt en ti on .

17 Ibid., s ig . F 5r.




t he ir o wn i nc re as in gl y a ut on om ou s r ea di ng s t o w ha t t he y h ea rd i n t he

p ul p it , o r r ea d i n t h ei r b oo ks a t h om e. E mp ow er me n t o f a t he o lo gi ca ll y

i n fo r me d l a it y b r o ug h t i t s o w n d an g e rs .

Battles half won

I n s o m e p a r t s o f E u r o p e i t w a s c l e a r f r o m a c o m p a r a t i v e l y e a r l y d a t e t h a t

h op es o f a P ro te st an t v ic to ry w ou ld g o u nf ul fi ll ed . I n F ra nc e t he r ea l

p r o s p e c t t h a t t h e n a t i o n c o u l d b e c o n v e r t e d h a d d i s a p p e a r e d b y t h e e n d

o f t he f ir st r ou nd o f f ig ht in g i n 1 56 3. I ns te ad , t he C al vi ni st c on gr eg a-

t io ns h ad t o c on t en t t h em se lv e s w it h a l im it ed f re ed om o f w or sh ip , a nd

e v e n t h e se r i gh t s o f te n p r ov e d d i ff i c ul t t o d e fe n d a g ai n st u ns y mp a t he t ic

l oc al offi ci als , e gg ed o n b y a l ar ge ly h os ti le C at hol ic p op ula ti on.18

T hi s s en se o f e mb at tl em en t c ol ou re d t he r el ig io us e xp er ie nc e o f t he

H ug ue no t c hu rc he s a t e ve r y t ur n, a nd e nc ou ra ge d t he d ev el op me nt o f

a p a r t i c u l a r f o r m o f s o c i a l s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a t i o n : s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n t h e c o m -

m un it y a nd y et m ai nt ai ni ng d is ta nc e. S ev er al r ec en t s tu di es h av e d e-

s cr ib ed h ow F re nc h H ug ue no t c hu rc he s c ul ti va te d a n o st en ta ti ou s

d is ti nc ti ve ne ss t ha t w en t f ar b ey on d t he s ep ar at io n o f t he ir w or sh ip

p ra ct ic e. T he y b eg an t o d re ss i n s ob er, u no rn am en te d g ar me nt s t ha t

a ct ed a s a t a ng ib le , v is ua l d em o ns tr at io n o f t he s up er i or m or al c od e t o

w hi ch t he y h ad c om mi tt ed t he ms el ve s. A ll , o f c ou rs e, w er e u nd er t he

d is c ip li ne o f t h e l oc al c on si st or y, a d is c ip li ne t o w hi ch m an y s ub mi tt e d

w it h a w il li ng ne ss t ha t m od er n c om me nt at or s h av e f ou nd d iff ic ul t t o

f at h om . I f t he m or al d is ci pl in e e xe rc is ed o n b eh al f o f c hu r ch m em be rs

b y t h e c o n s i s t o r y r e i n f o r c e d t h e i r s e n s e o f t h e m s e l v e s a s a c h o s e n p e o p l e ,

t h i s w a s m a n i f e s t e d a l s o i n t h e c h o i c e o f n a m e s f o r n e w i n f a n t m e m b e r s

o f t he c hu rc h. I n i nc re as in g n um be rs t he y e sc he we d t r ad it io na l s ai nt s’

n a m e s i n f a v o u r o f A b r a h a m , I s a a c a n d D a n i e l f o r b o y s , J u d i t h , S u s a n n a

a n d S a r a f o r g i r l s .19 T h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a s e a l e d , a u t o n o m o u s w o r s h i p

c om m un it y e nc ou ra ge d o ve r t h e c ou rs e o f t im e a n i nc re a si ng t e nd en c y

t o c o n f i n e t h e i r s o c i a l , a n d e v e n b u s i n e s s , r e l a t i o n s t o o t h e r m e m b e r s o f

t h e c o m m u n i t y . I n P a r i s , w h e r e t h e s e n s e o f e m b a t t l e m e n t w a s e n h a n c e d

b y t h e d a n g e r o u s h o s t i l i t y o f t h e C a t h o l i c m a j o r i t y , t h i s b e c a m e p a r t i c u -

l ar ly p ro no un ce d d ur in g t h e d ec ad e b ef or e t he S t B ar th ol om e w’s D ay

m a s s a c r e . L e a d i n g m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y c o n t r a c t e d t h e i r c h i l d r e n

i n m ar ri ag e t o f el lo w c hu rc h m em be rs ; t he ir m ar ri ag e c on tr ac ts w er e

w it ne ss ed b y f el lo w m em be r s o f t he c hu rc h , w ho n at ur al l y a ls o s to od a s

18 P en ny R ob er ts , ‘ Re li gi ou s P lu ra li sm i n P ra ct ic e : T he E nf or ce me nt o f t he E di ct s o f P ac if ic at io n’ , i n K ei th C am er on , M ar k G re en gr as s a nd P en ny R ob er ts ( ed s. ), The

Adventure of Religious Pluralism in France (Bern, 2000) , p p. 3 1– 43 .19 Benedict, Rouen, p . 1 0 5 .




g od pa re nt s t o t he ir i nf an ts . T he se c on tr ac ts w er e d ra wn u p b y a s ma ll

g ro up o f P ro te st an t n ot ar ie s. E ve n b ey on d t he c h ur ch e li te , m em be rs o f

t h e c o m m u n i t y s h o w e d a p r o n o u n c e d t e n d e n c y t o d o b u s i n e s s t o g e t h e r ,

b or row m one y f ro m o ne an ot he r, s ta nd a s guara nt or s f or l oa ns , a nd

o t he r w is e a s si s t e a ch o t he r i n b u si n e ss d e al i ng s .20 T h e m o re p r os p e ro u s

m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m m u n i t y t o o k p o o r e r m e m b e r s o f t h e c h u r c h a s t h e i r

d o me s t ic s e rv a nt s ; e v en r e la t iv e l y u n pr o sp e r ou s m e mb e r s o f t h e c h ur c h

c ou ld s ig na l t he ir a ll eg ia nc e b y t ak in g t h ei r b us in e ss t o t ra de sm en f ro m

w i th i n t h e c o ng r eg a t io n .

O ne c an s ee h ow a ll a sp ec ts o f t hi s b eh av io ur w er e l ik el y t o i nc re as e

t h e s e n s e o f a l i e n a t i o n f r o m t h e m a j o r i t y C a t h o l i c p o p u l a t i o n . W i t h i n t h e

c h ur ch , e ve ry a sp e ct o f t h is l ar ge ly a ut on om o us e xi st en ce – t he s ep ar at e

w o r s h i p , t h e c o n s i s t o r y d i s c i p l i n e , t h e o s t e n t a t i o u s w i t n e s s t h r o u g h d r e s s

a nd de po rt me nt , e ve n t he s ens e of e mb at tl em ent – c ou ld b e f ra me d

t h eo lo gi ca ll y. T he y k ne w, b ec au se t h ey w er e c on st an t ly t a ug ht , t ha t a t

t he l as t da y o nl y a fe w c oul d b e sa ve d. T he i de nt it y o f t he s ai nt s m us t

h ave s ee me d v er y e vi de nt w he n t he m aj or it y of t he ir ne ig hb our s s o

o st en t at io us ly r ej ec t ed t h e G os pe l . O n t he C at ho li c s id e, t he d el ib er at e

a nd i nc re as in g ly o st e nt at i ou s i so la ti on o f t h e P ro te st a nt s i n t h ei r m id st

m u s t h a v e s e e m e d l i k e a d e l i b e r a t e p r o v o c a t i o n . O n l y i f o n e r e c r e a t e s t h e

a tm os ph er e o f t he se d iff ic ul t, d is pu ta ti ou s y ea rs c an o ne t ru ly u nd er -

stand why t he Cath olic populat ion of Paris fell on their Hugue not

n e i g h b o u r s w i t h s u c h f u r y a n d r e l i s h i n 1 5 7 2 ; a n d w h y s o m a n y o f t h o s e

w ho d ie d w er e do ne t o d eat h b y p eo pl e w ho k ne w t he m w el l, an d h ad

c le ar ly c om e t o h ol d t he m i n a ng ry c on te mp t .

A f t e r t h e m a s s a c r e m a n y o f t h e f o r m e r l y n u m e r o u s c h u r c h e s i n n o r t h -

e rn F ra nc e v ir tu al ly c ea se d t o e xi st . T he i ni ti al s ho ck o f t he m as sa cr es

w a s f o l l o w e d b y a w a v e o f a b d u r a t i o n s , w h i c h i n p u r e l y n u m e r i c a l t e r m s

d id m or e t o d ep op ul at e t he f la gg in g c on gr eg at io ns t ha n t he o ri gi na l

k il li ng s. M an y o th er s s ou gh t s af et y i n f li gh t, s we ll in g t he P ro te st an t

m a j o r i t y i n t h e t o w n s o f t h e s o u t h w h e r e t h e H u g u e n o t s h a d e s t a b l i s h e d

c on tr ol i n t he f ir st y ea rs o f t he w ar, a nd m ai nt ai ne d i t s in ce : p la ce s l ik e

M o nt a ub a n, M o nt p e ll i er a n d N ım e s. Ye t e ve n t he se c om mu ni ti es w er e

n o t f r e e f r o m t h e s e n s e o f e m b a t t l e m e n t tha t h a d s o s h a p e d t h e C a l v i n i s t

m i no r i ty i n P a ri s , R o ue n a n d e l se w he r e .21 F o r t h es e s o ut h e rn p r ov i nc e s

w er e f ar f ro m t he C al vi ni st f or tr e ss c on ve y ed b y t h e f an ci fu l c on ce p t o f

‘ th e U ni te d p ro vi nc es o f t he S ou th ’. T ru e, t he P ro te st an ts c on tr ol le d

m an y o f t he p ri nc ip al t ow ns of L ang ue do c, and m any o f t he r eg io na l

20 Diefendorf, B e n ea t h t h e C r os s, p p. 1 27 –3 6.21 Conner, H u g u en o t H ea r tl a n d .




n o b i l i t y h a d a l s o a d h e r e d t o t h e n e w r e l i g i o n .22 B u t B o rd eau x , To u l o us e

a n d A i x - e n - P r o v i n c e r e m a i n e d s e c u r e l y C a t h o l i c ; s o t o o d i d m a n y t o w n s

o f m ed iu m s iz e a nd m an y v il la ge s u nd er t he c on t ro l o f C at h ol ic n ob le s

a n d g a r r i s o n s . T h r o u g h o u t t h e l a t e r s t a g e s o f t h e F r e n c h w a r s t h i s r e g i o n

w a s c o n s t a n t l y a t t h e m e r c y o f m i l i t a r y b a n d s o f b o t h p a r t i e s , o r n e i t h e r .

T he C al vi ni st s o f M on ta ub an o r N ım e s , e v e n i f s e c u r e w i t h i n t h e i r o w n

w al l s, c ou ld n ot l iv e a l if e s ep ar a te f ro m t h ei r h in te r la nd , w he r e p oc ke t s

o f C at h ol ic s tr e ng t h c ou ld b e f ou nd i n d an ge r ou s p r ox im i ty. N or c ou ld

t he y b e s ur e t ha t t he l on g- th re at en ed r oy al c am pa ig n t o b ri ng t he m t o

o b ed i e nc e w o ul d n o t f i na l ly m a te r i al i ze .

T he s en se o f e mb at tl em en t, t he n, w as n ev er a bs en t i n t he r el ig io us

c on sc io us ne ss o f F re nc h H ug u en ot s, e ve n i n t he i r a re a o f g re at es t g eo -

g ra ph ic al s tr en gt h. Th is m ay e xp la in t he ir p ur sui t of a m or al c od e o f

u nu su al r ig ou r e ve n i n t he C al vi ni st t r ad it io n. T he H ug ue no t c hu rc h es

o f M ont aub an and e ls ew he re w age d w ar on o st ent at io n i n dr es s an d

m a ny a s pe c t s o f e n te r t ai n me n t c u lt u re b e lo v ed o f m a ny o t he r w is e g o dl y

ci ti z en s ; in p ar tic ul ar t he y p ur su ed a r em or se le ss c am pa ig n ag ain st

dancing.23 S om et im es t hi s m or al r igo ur c oul d s ee m al mos t w il ful ly

s e lf -d ef ea ti ng . E ve n o th e r C al vi ni st m in is te rs w er e s ho c ke d w he n t he

m i n i s t e r s o f M o n t a u b a n s o u g h t t o e x c l u d e f r o m t h e c o m m u n i o n t h e w i f e

o f P h il i pp e d u P l es s i s M o rn a y, i n fl u en t ia l s t at e s ma n a n d a u th o r a n d t h e

r ig ht -h an d m an o f H en ry o f N av ar re . M ad am e d u P le ss is M or na y h ad

o ff en de d t h e m in is t er s b y t h e o st e nt a ti on o f h er h ai rs t yl e, a c as e w h ic h

h i gh l i gh t s t h e d i ff i cu l ti e s f a ci n g a r e li g i ou s c u lt u re w i th t w o c o nt r a st i ng

c en tr es of g rav it y, l oc at ed i n t he ur ba n b ou rg eoi s c hu rc h, and i n t he

n o b i l i t y . T o t h e m i n i s t e r s o s t e n t a t i o n w a s t o b e d e p l o r e d ; t o t h e P r o t e s t -

a n t n o b i l i t y , f i n e c l o t h i n g , j e w e l l e r y a n d p l a t e w e r e n o t o n l y a t t r i b u t e s o f

t he ir s ta tu s, b ut p ar t o f t he n ec es sa ry c as h r es er ve w hi ch c ou ld b e ( an d

often wa s) li qu id at ed f or t he s er vic e o f t he c hur ch i n t im e o f e sp ec ial

need.24 H er e, t he M on ta ub an m in is t er s e xh ib it ed t ha t a lm os t p er ve r se

de li gh t i n c on fl ic t t ha t w as a ll t oo o ft en a l eadi ng c har ac te ris ti c o f a

s el f - reg a rdi n g g o d l y m i n o ri ty.

I n E ng la nd a nd t h e N et h er l an ds t he se i ns t in ct s t oo k r at he r l on ge r t o

e xh ib it t he mse lv es . I n t he N et he rl ands t he c hu rc he s h ad p la ye d s o

i nt egr al a r ol e i n t he e st ab li sh me nt an d su rvi va l o f t he i nde pe nd ent

22 R a ym o nd A . M e nt z er, J r. , B l oo d a nd B el ie f. F am il y S ur vi va l a nd C on fe ss io na l I de nt it ya m o n g t h e P r o v in ci a l H u g u en o t N o b i l i t y (We s t L a f a ye t t e , I n d ., 1994).

23 P hi li pp e C ha re y re , ‘ “T he G re at D iff ic ul ti es O ne M us t B ea r t o F ol lo w J es us C hr is t” :M o ra l it y a t S i xt e en th - Ce n tu r y N ım es ’, i n R ay mo nd A . M en tz er ( ed .) , S in and theC a lv i ni s ts . M o ra l C o nt r ol a n d t h e C o ns i st o ry i n t h e R e fo r me d T r ad i ti o n (K i r k sv i l le , M o . ,1994) , p p. 6 3– 96 .

24 S . A m an d a E u ri c h, T he E co no mi cs o f P ow er : T he P ri va te F in an ce s o f t he H ou se o f F oi x- Navarre-Albret during the Religious Wars (K i r k s v il l e , M o . , 1993).




n or t he r n s ta t e t h at i ni ti al l y c o- o pe ra ti on w it h t he l ay p ow er s h ad b e en

v er y c lo se . B ec au se t h e C al vi ni st c on gr eg a ti on a br o ad h ad p ro vi d ed s o

l ar ge a p ar t o f t h e f in an ce , m il it ar y s up pl ie s a nd e ve n m an po we r f or t he

i ns ur ge n cy, t he y w er e a bl e t o e xt ra ct a h ig h p r ic e f or t h ei r c o- op e ra ti o n.

As each of the Holland towns went over to the rebels , the church

d em an de d a nd r ec ei ve d t he b es t a nd m os t p ro mi ne nt c hu rc he s t o r e-

e st ab li sh t h ei r w or s hi p. T he m in is t er s g av e t h an ks t o p r ov id en ce f or t h e

t r an sf or ma ti on o f t he ir p ro sp ec t s. ‘ We c an n ev er t ha nk t he L or d s uff i-

c ie nt ly f or o pe ni ng s o l ar ge a d oo r t o h is H ol y Wo rd e ve ry wh er e, a nd

e sp ec ia l ly i n H ol la nd ’, e nt hu se d a m in is te r i n D el ft i n S ep te m be r 1 57 2.

N o r w e r e t h e y s l o w t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e r o l e o f t h e e m e r g i n g c i v i l p o w e r

i n p ro vi din g s up po rt and e nc our age me nt . ‘ I s ee t ha t w e h av e a mo re

g odl y g ov er nm en t t han e ve r F ran ce o r G er many h av e h ad’, w as t he

o pt im i st ic j ud ge me nt o f J an v an d er B ek e i n F eb ru ar y 1 57 3.25

In these ye ars of exuberant gr owth the chur ches fac ed an almost

u ns us t ai na bl e b ur de n o f e xp e ct at io n. T he g od ly c or e t ha t h ad r e tu rn ed

f ro m t he e xi le c hu rc he s w as sm al l c omp ar ed t o t he p op ul at io n o f t he

t owns th at had no w to be introduc ed to th e new Calvinis t wor ship

s er vi ce ; t he s up pl y o f w el l- qu al if ie d m in is te rs t o l ea d t he se c hu rc he s

w as p it if ul ly s ma ll. M in is te rs h ad t o b e r ec rui te d, h ou se d a nd p ai d.

T he p r ob le ms o f a pp oi nt i ng a p ro pe rl y q ua li f ie d m in is tr y r e ve a le d t h e

f ir st c ra ck s i n t he uni ty o f p ur po se t ha t h ad b ou nd t he c hu rc h a nd la y

a u th o ri t i es t h ro u gh t h e m i li t ar y s t ru g gl e . I n e vi t ab l y t h e m a gi s tr a te s e x -

p r e s s e d a s t r o n g i n t e r e s t i n w h o s e v o i c e w o u l d b e h e a r d f r o m t h e p o w e r -

f ul c it y p ul pi ts. Si nc e t he y p ai d t he s al ar ie s t he y w er e in a p osi ti on t o

p r e v a i l . B u t d i s p u t e s o v e r t h e r i g h t s o f n o m i n a t i o n i n a n u m b e r o f t o w n s

r e ve a le d d i ff e re n c es o v er q u it e f u nd a me n t al i s su e s . I n a c i vi l c h ur c h , t h e

m ini st er s c onc ede d t hat t he y c ou ld no t e xp ec t a c ont inu at io n of t he

a ut on om y t ha t t h ey h ad e nj oy ed i n t h e e xi le c hu rc he s . B ut t h e p ro gr es -

s iv e e r os i on o f t h ei r i nf lu e nc e o ve r s ch oo ls a nd p oo r r el ie f, a nd c on t ro l

o ve r i mp or ta nt c hu rc h c er em on ie s s uc h a s m ar r ia ge , l e d t o a r is in g t id e

o f a la rm . S ch oo ls a nd p oo r r el ie f c ou ld a t l ea st b e p re se nt ed a s a re as o f

m i x e d c o m p e t e n c e , b u t t w o i s s u e s p r o v e d t o b e p a r t i c u l a r l y d i v i s i v e : t h e

r ig ht s o f t he c hu rc h t o e xe rc is e c on si st or ia l d is ci pl in e, a nd t he f ai lu re t o

s u pp r e ss c o mp e t in g s e ct s .

O n t hi s l at te r i ss ue t he t ol er an t t ra di ti on o f t he D ut ch n or th c au se d

t he m in is te rs e nd le ss h ea rt ac he . A t t he h ei gh t o f t he m il it ar y d an ge r i n

1 57 4 t he y h ad s ec ur ed t he a bo li ti on o f t he M as s, b ut f ur th er t ha n t hi s

25 A nd re w P et te gr ee , ‘ Co mi ng t o Te rm s w it h V ic to ry. T he U pb ui ld in g o f a C al vi ni stc hu rc h i n H ol la nd , 1 57 2– 15 90 ’, i n P et te gr ee , D uk e a nd L ew is , C a lv i ni s m i n E u ro p e,p p . 1 6 1– 2 .




t he m agi st ra te s w ou ld n ot g o. D ut ch C al vi ni sm w as f or ce d t o vi e f or

m e mb e rs w it h a r an ge o f a lt e rn at i ve c h ur ch e s w ho se s ta tu s r an ge d f ro m

n e a r o p e n t o l e r a t i o n t o a l a r g e l y u n r e s t r i c t e d h a l f - s e c r e c y . E v e n t h e r i g h t

o f t h e C al vi ni st c h ur ch e s t o e st ab l is h t h e f ul l a pp ar at us o f c on si st or ia l

d i s c i p l i n e w a s a t s o m e p o i n t s i n d o u b t . E l e m e n t s i n t h e S t a t e s o f H o l l a n d

w is he d t o f or bi d t he e st ab li sh me nt o f c on si st or ie s a lt og et he r, a nd a l-

t ho ug h t hi s dr ast ic li ne w as no t m ai nt ai ne d, i t w as o nl y p er mi tt ed t o

e xe rc i se t he d is ci pl in e a mo ng t ho se w h o v ol un t ar il y d ec id e d t o b ec om e

f u l l m e m b e r s o f t h e c h u r c h : a n d t h e s e w e r e p e r i l o u s l y f e w . T h e s u p p r e s -

s io n o f vi ce i n s oc ie ty as a w ho le de pe nde d o n t he c o- op er at ion o f t he

m ag is tr at e s, w ho a t d iff er en t t im e s s ho we d s c an t r e ga rd f or m in is t er ia l

de mands for the regu lation of th e Sabbath , th e suppres sion of th e

t av er ns , a nd t h e r eg ul at i on o f e nt er t ai n me nt c ul tu re . I n p ar ti cu l ar, t he

R e f o r m e d m a d e l i t t l e h e a d w a y i n t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o s u p p r e s s t w o f o r m s o f

r ec r ea ti on p ar ti cu l ar ly d ea r t o t he u rb an b ou rg e oi si e, d an ci ng a nd t he

t he at re . E ve n t ho se c it y g ov er nm en ts w hi ch i n o th er m at te rs p ro ve d

r el at iv el y a me na b le t o t h e c hu rc h r ef us e d t o h ee d t he m in is te rs o n t he se

i ss ue s. H er e t he m ag is tr at es , i n t ur ni ng a d ea f e ar t o t he p ul pi t t ir ad es ,

w er e s pe a ki ng f or t he c on se ns us . T he L ei de n c i ty c ou nc il r ef us ed p oi nt

b la nk t o d is s ol ve t h e l oc al C h am be r o f R he to r ic , a nd e ve n i n D or dr e ch t

a nd D el ft , s tr on gh o ld s o f the c h u r c h , p e r f o r m a n c e s c o n t i n u e d , a s d i d t h e

national rederijker festivals.26

The church never lost its special place in Dutch societ y, but it

e m e rg e d f r om t h e se c o nf l i ct s w i t h a v e ry p a rt i cu l ar c h ar a c te r. A l th o ug h

t he l ar ge r p ar t o f t h e p op u la ti on e sc h ew ed t he c om p et in g c hu rc he s a nd

ad he re d, i n so me w ay, t o t he C al vin ist c on gr eg at ion s, o nl y a s mal l

m a j o r i t y b e c a m e f u l l c o n f e s s i n g , c o m m u n i c a t i n g m e m b e r s . I n t h e D u t c h

ve rnac ul ar t he se m em be rs (liedmaten ) were differe ntiat ed from the

b ro ad er c la ss o f s ym pa th iz er s (liefhebbers ) w ho at te nd ed s er vi ce s b ut

n e it h e r c o m mu n ic a te d n o r s u bm i t te d t h em s e lv e s t o c o ns i st o ri a l d i sc i p-

l in e. H er e t he se ar ch f or a n i nn er m in or it y – w hat o ne mi gh t c al l t he

p ur it an i ns ti nc t – f ou nd i ns ti tu t io na l f or m, a nd i n a w ay t ha t r e as on ab ly

s ui te d b ot h si de s. Th e c hur ch es h ad t he u se of t he b ui ldi ng s a nd an

o p p o r t u n i t y t o s h a p e D u t c h s o c i e t y , b u t t h e m o r e a u s t e r e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f

t he C al vi ni st v ie w o f t he Ch ri st ia n l ife c ou ld no t b e i mp os ed on t he

p op ul at io n a t l ar ge . F or a ll t he a ng ry r ec ri mi na ti on s a nd p ul pi t p r op h-

e ci e s o f s oc i al c ol la ps e, t hi s d iff er e nt ia ti o n w as m ai nt a in ed w it h a r ea -

s o n a b l y g o o d g r a c e . T h e s a m e c o u l d n o t b e s a i d f o r E n g l a n d , w h e r e t h e

i m pe r f ec t r e so l ut i o n o f t h e R e fo r ma t io n p r oc e ss c a us e d s e ri o us d i vi s io n s

i n t h e f ac e o f E ng li sh P ro te st a nt is m.

26 Ibid., p . 1 7 8 .




B y a dh er in g t o t he p ri nc ip le s o f t he e ar li er E dw ar di an r ef or m, a nd

p la ci ng b is ho ps a t t he c en tr e o f t he n ew c hu rc h s tr uc tu re , t he E ng li sh

a u th o ri t i es p r ec l u de d t h e d e ve l o pm e nt o f a f u ll R e fo r me d c h ur c h s t ru c -

t ur e ( an d e sp ec ia ll y t he e xe rc is e o f c on si st or ia l d is ci pl in e) . T he y a ls o

ensured that there would be a conve nient whippi ng boy for urge nt

P ro te st an ts d is ap po in te d i n t he n ew c hu rc h a nd i mp at ie nt f or f ur th er

p r o g r e s s t o w a r d s t h e c r e a t i o n o f a g o d l y s o c i e t y . T h e f i r s t m a j o r c o n f r o n -

t a t i o n w a s n o t l o n g a w a i t e d . T h e E n g l i s h c h u r c h h a d , i n d o c t r i n a l t e r m s ,

a dh er e d q ui t e c lo se ly t o t h e l od es to ne s o f t h e R ef o rm ed t ra di ti on . B ot h

C a l v i n a n d B u l l i n g e r g a v e i t t h e i r b l e s s i n g ; C a l v i n , i n p a r t i c u l a r , w a s t h e

u n qu e st i on e d t h e ol o gi c a l w r i te r o f c hoic e f or a ll q ua rt er s o f t he E ng li sh

c h ur c h t h r ou g ho u t E l iz a be t h ’s r e ig n .27 T he c on fl ic t, w he n i t e ru pt ed ,

c am e o ve r t he c om pa r at iv el y a di ap ho ro us i ss ue o f e cc l es ia st ic al d re ss :

f or t ho se d is ap po in te d i n t he n ew c hu rc h, t he d ec is io n t o e nf or ce t he

w ea ri ng o f t he ‘ p op i sh ’ s ur p li ce b ec am e a m e ta ph or f or a ll t h ei r d ou bt s

r eg ar di ng t he s in ce ri ty a nd z ea l o f t ho se w ho b or e d ir ec ti on o f t he n ew

c h ur ch . T he u nf or t un at e b is ho p s, c h ar ge d w it h e nf or ci ng t he q ue e n’s

i nj un ct io ns t o r eq ui re t he s ur pl ic e, o be ye d w it h va ryi ng d eg re es of

r el uc ta nc e. A s ig ni fi ca nt p or ti on o f t he c le rg y, e sp ec ia ll y i n L on do n,

r e fu se d t o c om pl y a nd w er e d ep ri ve d. T hi s i nc lude d a l ar ge n um be r of

t h e c hu r ch ’s m os t g if te d a nd d il ig en t p re ac he r s.28 F or a y ou ng c hu rc h

f ac ed wi th t he t as k o f e vang el iz in g a r ec al ci tr ant p op ula ti on i t w as a

h ae mo r rh ag e o f t al e nt t he y c ou ld n ot a ff or d.

The ve stiar ian cont roversy est ablishe d a pattern that woul d be

r e pe at e d a t d iff er en t t im es d ur in g E li za be th ’s r ei gn , t ho ug h t he i ss ue o f

c on tr ov er sy s hi ft ed w it h t he p as sa ge o f y ea rs . E ac h d is pu te w ou ld b e

a cc om pa ni ed b y i ne vi ta bl e c ha rg es o f b ac ks li di ng a nd t re ac he ry, b ad

f a i t h a n d o p p o r t u n i s m . T h e f a c t t h a t t h o s e a t t h e e y e o f t h e s t o r m b a r e l y

d iff er ed i n t e rm s o f t h ei r c or e b el ie f s d id n ot l es se n t h e l e ve l o f p er so na l

i nv ec t iv e. T hr o ug h a ll o f t h es e c on fl ic ts – F i el d’s Admonition, the sup-

p r es si on o f p ro ph e sy in g, W hi tg if t’s c am pa ig n t o i mp o se s ub sc r ip ti on –

t he c le ri ca l l ea de rs hi p o f t he g od ly s us ta in ed s om e h ea vy b lo ws . T he y

o ft en s ho we d i nd iff er en t j ud ge me n t i n t h ei r c h oi ce o f a b at t le fi el d, a nd

i n t e m p e r a n c e o f l a n g u a g e t h a t w o u l d a l i e n a t e p o t e n t i a l s u p p o r t e r s . T h a t

t he c au se o f t he g od ly w as s us ta in ed t hr ou gh a ll t he se c al am it ie s o we d

e ve ry th in g t o t he e me rg en ce o f a p ar ty a mo ng t he l ai ty t ha t i de nt if ie d

themselves with the caus e : the gentry patrons who sustain ed the

27 F r a n ci s H i g ma n , ‘ C a l vi n ’s Wo r k s i n T r a ns l a t io n ’ , i n ibid., p p . 8 2 – 9 9 . A n d r e w P e t t e g r e e ,‘ T h e R e c e p t i o n o f C a l v i n i s m i n B r i t a i n ’ , i n W i l h e l m H . N e u s e r a n d B r i a n G . A r m s t r o n g(eds.), C a l v i nu s S i n cer i o r is R el i gi o n i s V i n dex (K i r k s v il l e , M o . , 1997) , p p . 2 6 7 – 8 9.

28 P a t ri c k C o l l in s o n , T h e E l i z ab et h a n P u r i t a n M o v emen t (London, 1967) , p p. 5 9– 97 .




s u f f e r i n g c l e r g y a g a i n s t t h e h a r a s s m e n t o f t h e i r c l e r i c a l s u p e r i o r s , a n d t h e

o rd ina ry p ar is hi on er s w ho se p at ie nt ze al g ave t he p ur it an c au se i ts

ex tra ord i n ary res i l i en ce.

F or a c hu rc h t h at s et s uc h s to re b y r ec re a ti ng t he p r im it iv e s im pl ic it y

o f t he a po st ol ic c hu rc h, i t w as p er ha ps i ro ni c t ha t t he g re at es t p ro te c-

t io n o f t he g od ly c au se w ou l d p r ov e t o b e t h e B yz an t in e c om pl e xi ti es o f

c hu r ch p at ro na g e. M ag na t es a nd g en tr y w ho e xe rc i se d r ig ht s o f p re fe r-

m en t a s p ar t o f a q ua si -f eu da l l or ds hi p w er e a bl e t o u se t he se r ig ht s t o

p la ce m in is te rs i n f av ou r o f r ef orm i n s tr at eg ic p os it io ns ; t he b is ho ps

w e r e p o w e r l e s s t o p r e v e n t t h e m .29 T h e m i n i s t e r s a l s o o w e d m u c h t o t h e

g o d l y m a g i s t r a t e s , w h o h a d t h e i r o w n o b v i o u s r e a s o n s t o f a v o u r e l o q u e n t

p re ac h er s w ho t au gh t t he d ut y o f a n e ar ne st l if e o f r ep e nt an ce a nd h ar d

w or k. B ut t hi s w ou ld h av e c ou nt ed f or n ot hi ng h ad t he m in is te rs n ot

b ee n s us ta in ed b y t he a ct iv e s up p or t o f p ar ts o f t he ir c on gr e ga ti o ns t ha t

a sp ir ed t o a l if e o f w or sh ip , p ra ye r a nd d ev ot io n. I n s om e p ar is he s t he

g od ly c am e c lo se t o c re a ti ng a p la us ib l e r ep li c a o f t he G en e va n c on si s -

t or ia l s ys t em , w it h t he m in is t er e xe rc is in g t h e i nf or ma l p ow er o f excom-

m un ic at io n b y e xc lu di ng n ot or io u s s in ne r s f ro m t h e E uc ha ri st .30 This

w a s a l l w e l l a n d g o o d w h e n t h e b u l k o f t h e p a r i s h , a n d t h e p a r i s h o f f i c e r s ,

w er e w il li ng t o a cc ep t s uc h c ha ri sm at ic a ut ho ri ty. I t w as d iv is iv e a nd

r es ent ed i f t he m in is te r c ar ri ed w it h h im o nl y a s mal l p or ti on o f t he

p ar is h, w ho b eg an t o t hi nk o f t he ms el ve s a s a s ep ar at e g ro up , o st en ta -

t i ou s ly s h un ni n g t h e d e ge n er a te m a jo r it y. S o me t im e s t h is m i gh t l e ad t o

t he s or t o f s oc ia l e xc lu si vi ty t ha t w e h av e s ee n a s a c ha ra ct er is ti c o f t he

F re nc h Hu gue no t m ov em ent . O ne m an w ho r en ou nc ed h is f or me r

p ur it an l oy al ti es t es ti fi ed t ha t, i n h is fo rm er f rat er ni ty, t he na me of

bro ther was denie d to any wh o wer e not of ‘ their own fraction and

o pi ni on’ , and t hat t he g od ly, ‘ as m uc h a s t he y m ig ht c onv eni en tly’,

r e f u s e d t o e a t , d r i n k o r d o b u s i n e s s w i t h t h o s e n o t ‘ i n c l i n i n g t h a t w a y ’ .31

I n E ng la nd , t h e o pp or t un it ie s f or s uc h e xc lu si vi ty w er e r ar e. B y a nd

l a r g e t h e v a l u e s e s p o u s e d b y s u c h f o r w a r d P r o t e s t a n t s w e r e n o t i n t r i n s i c -

a ll y d iff er en t f ro m t ho se o f s oc ie ty a t l ar ge . A ll e ar ly m od er n c om mu -

n i ti e s r e p ro v ed l i ce n ti o us n es s and v ag ra nc y, a nd a ny th in g t ha t m ig ht

d is tu rb t he f ra gi le l oc al p ea ce .32 Th e g odl y w er e e xc ep tio nal o nly i n

29 C l a i re C r o s s, T he P ur it an E ar l. T he L if e o f H en ry H as ti ng s, T hi rd E ar l o f H un ti ng d on ,1536–1595 (London, 1966) . S i m o n A d a m s , ‘ F a v o u r i t e s a n d F a c t i o n s a t t h e E l i z a b e t h a nC ou rt ’ a nd ‘ A G od ly P ee r ? L ei ce s te r a nd t he P ur it an s’ , i n h is L ei c es t er a n d t h e C o ur t .E s s a ys o n E l i z ab et h a n P o l i t i cs (Manchester, 2002).

30 Collinson, E l i z a bet h a n P u r i ta n M o v emen t , p p. 3 46 –5 5.31 Patrick Collinson, English Puritanism (L o n d o n , H i s to r i c al A s s o c ia t i o n p a m p hl e t , 1983),

p . 1 9 .32 M a r ti n I n g r am , C hu r ch C o ur t s, S e x a n d M a rr i ag e i n E n gl a nd , 1 5 70 – 16 4 0 (Cambridge,

1987).




t he ir m or e a ct iv e i de nt if ic at io n w it h t he h ar sh p ro ph et ic v oi ce o f t he

p ul p it o ra t or s w ho d en ou nc ed t he p ar i sh c om m un it ie s a s s in k s o f w ic k-

e dn es s. B ut t h is l ac k o f m ea su r e, w hi ch l ed o cc as io na ll y t o o st en t at io us

s ym bo li c s ep ar at io n e pi to mi ze d b y t he a do pt io n o f n ew ly c on ce iv ed

C hr is t ia n f or e na me s ( su c h a s P ra is e G od , M uc h -m e rc y o r S in -d en y) ,

was mo re l ik el y t o b ri ng r id ic ul e t ha n s ym pa th y i n t he p ar is h c om mu -

nity.33 E ve n i n t he se e xt re me c as es , an d c ru ci al ly, t he G od ly d id no t

a d v a n c e b e y o n d t h i s s y m b o l i c i n t e r n a l d i s t a n c i n g : t h e y w e r e n o t s e p a r a t -

i st s, a nd n ev er t oo k t he c ru ci al s te p o f c re at in g a f or ma ll y c on st it ut ed

n e w c h u r c h . W h e n t h e P r o t e s t a n t s e t t l e m e n t i n E n g l a n d w a s i m p e r i l l e d ,

a nd w he n t h e t hr e at c am e f ro m w i th ou t, t he y q ui ck ly r e di sc ov e re d t h e

e ss en ti a l u ni t y t h at b ou nd t h em t o o th er f ri en ds a nd n ei g hb ou rs .

Godly kin and godly nation

T h e r e d e f i n i t i o n o f k i n w a s a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e r h e t o r i c o f t h o s e w h o

s ou gh t t o c re at e a n ew r e li gi o us i de nt i ty b y d is ta nc i ng t he ms el ve s f ro m

t he c om mun it y a rou nd t he m. We h av e h ea rd t ha t t he p ur it an g ro up

d e s c r i b e d b y a d i s e n c h a n t e d d e f e c t o r a b o v e d e n i e d ‘ t h e n a m e o f b r o t h e r ’

t o al l wh o d id no t a dh er e t o t he ir f ac ti on , a nd s uc h na mi ng b ec ame a

c o mm o n c h ar a ct e r is t ic o f a l l t h e f u tu r e s e pa r at i s t g r ou p s t h at e v en t ua l ly

r e pu di at e d t h e b ro ad c h ur ch o f t he E ng li sh s e tt le me nt . S uc h a pp r op r i-

a ti on o f k in sh ip i s a ll t he m or e i mp or ta nt w he n o ne c on si de rs t ha t t he

t r a d i t i o n a l s a c r a m e n t s p l a y e d a r e l a t i v e l y m o d e s t r o l e i n d e f i n i n g t h e n e w

P ro te st a nt f am il y. B ap t is m w as a n i mp o rt an t r it e o f b el o ng in g b ut t oo k

p l a c e o n l y o n c e , a n d w a s i n E n g l a n d a n d t h e N e t h e r l a n d s a v a i l a b l e t o a l l

c h il dr e n o f t he p ar i sh c om mu ni ty. I t d id n ot d ef in e c om mi t me nt t o t h e

c on fe ss in g c on gr eg at io n u nd er t he d is ci pl in e, a s h ad b ee n i nt en de d

i n t h e o ri gi na l R ef or m ed c hu rc h o rd er s. T he c h ur ch e s a ls o e xh i bi te d a

c on si de ra bl e d iff er en ce i n p ra ct ic e a s t o h ow f ar t he e xt en de d k in sh ip

r el at io ns hi p o f g od pa re nt in g s ho ul d b e p ra ct is ed : i n s om e R ef or me d

t r ad it io ns i t w as e ff ec t iv el y r ep r es se d. T he E uc h ar i st , r es cu e d f ro m t h e

p ol lu ti on o f t he R om an M as s, a ls o p la ye d a m uc h m or e m od es t r ol e i n

d ef in ing t he g odl y c om mu ni ty t ha n m ig ht h av e b ee n a nt ic ip at ed b y

t he r ef or me rs . I t w as i nf re qu en t, o ft en o nl y q ua rt er ly, a nd o nl y i n t he

ch urche s th at achieve d a real uni ty betw een the godly pe ople and

t he par ish (such as Scot land and t he Hu guenot towns of south ern

F ra nc e) c ou ld i t f un ct io n a s a r it e o f c om mu na l s el f- id en ti fi ca ti on . I n

33 N ic ho la s Ty ac ke , ‘ Po pu la r P ur it an M en ta li ty i n L at e E li za be th an E ng la nd ’, i nP e te r C l ar k , A l an G .R . S m it h a n d N i ch o la s Ty a ck e ( e ds . ), T h e E n g l is h C o m m on w eal t h ,1547–1640 (Leicester, 1979) , p p. 7 7– 9 2.




t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , a s w e h a v e s e e n , o n l y a t e n t h o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n a s p i r e d

t o f ul l c om m un ic at i ng m em be rs h ip o f t he c hu rc h : a g od ly c or e, b ut n ot

i n a ny w ay r ep re s en ta ti ve o f t he t ot al it y o f t he C hr i st ia n p eo pl e.

T he s ea rc h f or t he g od ly p eo pl e t hu s c ou ld n ot e nd w it h t he n ar ro w

s a c r a m e n t a l c o m m u n i t y o f t h e E u c h a r i s t . R a t h e r , i t r a d i a t e d o u t w a r d s i n

t w o d i r e c t i o n s : f i r s t l y , t o a c o m m u n i t y o f s a i n t s t h a t r e c o g n i z e d n o l i m i t s

o f l o c a l i t y , n a t i o n o r t i m e . T h i s w a s a c o n g r e g a t i o n t h a t u n i t e d t h e g o d l y

b ot h w it h t he sa int s de par te d an d w it h t hos e i n o th er g odl y nat io ns.

S i m u l ta n eo u s l y , ho w ev er, the P ro tes ta n t chu rches d ev el o ped a n a l tern a -

t ive v is ion of a g od ly p eo pl e, t ha t u ni te d a b roa d c ro ss -s ec ti on o f t he

p e o p l e w h o f e l t a b r o a d c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e c o m m o n p u r p o s e o f c h u r c h

a nd n at io n, i rr es pe ct iv e o f w he th er t he y a ls o a dh er ed t o t he c or e o f t he

c on fe ss in g c hu rc h. I t w as t hi s b ro ad er c hu rc h o f t he g od ly n at io n t ha t

w ou ld s us ta in t he c au se t hr ou gh t h e c ri se s t ha t m ar k ed t h e l as t d ec ad es

o f t h e s i xt e e nt h c e nt u ry .

C en t ra l t o t h e f ir st d ef in it io n o f C hr is ti an k in sh ip w as t he i de nt i fi ca -

t io n o f a c om mu ni ty o f s ai nt s i n t he c hu rc h b ef or e L ut he r : t he c re at io n

o f a c oll ec ti ve i nf er re d h er it ag e. Th is w ent f or wa rd in a t re me ndo us

b ur st o f c re a ti ve e ne rg y d ur in g t h e 1 55 0s , w he n P ro t es ta nt s d is co ve r ed

b ot h a n i nd iv id ua l h is to ri ca l t ra di ti on a nd a n ew g en re o f p ed ag og ic

w ri ti ng , t he m ar t yr ol og y. I n t he L ut h er an t ra di t io n t he l an dm ar k w or k s

w er e t h e his to r ic al w ri ti ng s o f J oh an n S le id an a nd t he M ag de bu rg C en -

turiators.34 S l e i d a n , a c a r e e r a u t h o r a n d d i p l o m a t , w a s i n 1 5 4 2 e n t r u s t e d

w i t h t h e t a s k o f c o m p i l i n g a n o f f i c i a l h i s t o r y o f t h e S c h m a l k a l d i c L e a g u e :

o ff i ci a l d o cu m en t s w e re p u t a t h i s d i sp o sa l , a n d h e c o rr e s po n de d w i de l y

t o c r ea te w ha t e me r ge d a s a c om pl e te h is to r y o f t h e R ef or ma ti on m ov e-

m en t f ro m t he t im e o f L ut he r’s p ro te st a ga in st i nd ul ge nc es . P er ha ps

s ur pr is in gl y, t he w or k w as no t w el l r ec ei ve d, e ve n b y t ho se w ho h ad

c om mis si one d it : i ts i mp li ed c ri ti ci sm of t he c on duc t of s ome o f t he

Protestant p ri nc es s at i ll w it h t he p ar ti san t rad it io n o f R efo rm at ion

polemic.35 B ut t hi s r el at iv el y d is pa ss io na te p re se nt at io n o f o ri gi na l

do cum en ts w as w ha t e ns ur ed t he w or k it s l ong -t er m s uc ce ss : e ve n

C a th o li c a u th o rs , w h il e t h ey d e p lo r ed S l ei d an ’s f u nd a me n ta l ly p o si t iv e

p re s en ta ti on o f L ut he r, m ad e u se o f h is r ep er t oi re o f d oc um e nt s i n t h ei r

o wn w or ks . T he M ag de bu rg C en tu ri at or s t oo k a d iff er en t a pp ro ac h,

a ll oc at in g o ne v ol um e t o e ac h c en tu ry o f t he c hu rc h’s h is to ry. A ga in

the Cent uriator s made copious use of primary do cuments ( ofte n

34 O n S le id an us s ee n ow A le xa nd ra K es s , ‘ Jo ha nn S le id an a nd t he P ro te st an t V is io n o f H i s t or y ’ (U n i ve r s i ty o f S t A n d re w s , P h . D . d i s s e r t a ti o n , 2004) . A .G . D ic ke ns a nd J oh nTonkin, T h e R ef o r m a t io n i n H i s to r i cal T h o u g ht (Oxford, 1985) , p p. 1 0– 19 .

35 D e sc r ib e d i n K e ss , ‘ Jo h an n S l ei d an ’ .








F i g u r e

8 . 1 .

T h e R e f o r m e d m a r t y r o l o g y .

T y p o g r a p h i c a l

u n i t y k n i t s t o g e t h e r t h e

m o d e r n m a r t y r s a n d t h e

s a i n t s

o f t h e e a r l y c h u r c h .



to rel y on the e xt en de d w eb o f G ene van c on ne ct io ns t o b ri ng h im

information.40

B ot h t he F re nc h a nd t he E ng li sh m ar ty ro lo gi es t oo k s ha pe a s e no r-

m ou s f ol io c om pi l at io ns o f e ss e nt ia ll y c on te mp o ra ry m at er i al . E ve nt s

t h a t w e r e s o f r e s h , a n d p e r s o n a l l y t o u c h e d t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n t h e p r o j e c t s ,

o bvi ous ly d om inat ed t he p ro ce ss of c om po si ti on . N eit he r h ad y et

ac hi ev ed t he h ar mo ni ou s s yne rgy o f c ont em po ra ry e ve nt s w it h t he

C hr is ti an h er it age o f t he s ai nt s t hr oug h a ll t he ag es – e xc ep t i n so f ar

a s t h e se c o nt e mp o r ar y n a rr a ti v es w e re c a re f ul l y p a tt e rn e d o n t h e n a rr a -

t ive s o f t he e ar ly C hr is ti an m ar tyr s. Th e f ir st t o offe r a p re se nt at io n

t h a t e x p l i c i t l y t i e d c o n t e m p o r a r y e v e n t s i n t o a n a r r a t i v e t h a t f l o w e d f r o m

t he e ar ly c hu rc h t o t he p re se nt w as t he le ast k no wn o f t he Re fo rm ed

m ar ty ro lo gi e s, t he D ut ch c om pi la ti on o f A dr ia en v an H ae m st ed e. Va n

H ae ms te de w as a m in is te r i n A nt we rp , a nd p re se nt a t a n um be r o f t he

e xe c ut io ns h e r ec or de d ; i n f ac t h is d ec is io n t o e mb ar k o n a p ro vo ca t iv e

p ub lic p re ac hi ng c am pa ig n m ay w el l h ave p ro vo ke d t he c lampdown

t ha t s aw a nu mb er o f h is c on gr eg at ion t ak en up a nd e xe cut ed.41 Van

H a e m s t e d e e s c a p e d t o E m d e n , w h e r e h e s e t a b o u t c o m p l e t i n g h i s w o r k .

T he r es ult w as a l ar ge ly u nk no wn l it er ar y m as te rp ie ce : a c om pl et e

h i s t o r y o f C h r i s t i a n m a r t y r d o m g o i n g b a c k t o t h e f i r s t C h r i s t i a n c e n t u r y .

I n s p e c t i n g o n e o f t h e f e w s u r v i v i n g c o p i e s o f t h e r a r e f i r s t e d i t i o n ( 1 5 5 9 ) ,

o ne n ot es a n e sp ec ia ll y s tr on g v is ua l s ym bo li sm i n t he o rg an iz at io n o f

t h e t e x t . A b o l d R o m a n t y p e p i c k s o u t t h e n a m e s o f t h o s e t r e a t e d i n t h e

t ex t ; p ro gr es s t hr ou gh t he p ag es t he n u ni te s t he f at he rs o f t he c hu rc h –

S te ph en a nd t he a po st le s, t he m ed ia ev al w it ne ss es , w it h t he h um bl e

s ai nt s o f B ru ss el s a nd B ru ge s : m en l ik e A dr ia en d e S ch il de r a nd G il le s

Ve rd ic kt . T he e xt e ns iv e u se o f c on te mp o ra ry d oc um e nt s, p ar ti cu l ar ly

t h e C o n f e s s i o n o f F a i t h p r e s e n t e d b y t h e v i c t i m s t o t h e i r e x a m i n e r s , a l s o

s e r v e s a p e d a g o g i c p u r p o s e . T h e s e b e c o m e a f o r m o f c a t e c h i s m , i n m u c h

the way that the accou nts of events at the stake evoke a model of

C hr is ti an d yi ng f or r ea de rs w ho n ot i nc on ce iv ab ly m ig ht o ne d ay f in d

t he m se lv es i n a s im i la r p li g ht .

Va n H ae ms te de ’s e xa mp le w as t ak en u p i n s ub se qu en t e di ti on s b y

F ox e a nd C re sp i n, b ot h o f w ho m b ui ld i nt o t h e l at er d ef in it ive editions

o f t he ir w or ks a n a cc ount o f t he f ir st C hr is ti an c ent ur ie s.42 All the

m a rt y ro l og i s ts a l so p l un d er e a ch o t he r ’s t e xt s f o r e x am p l es t h at b r oa d en

t he ir ac cou nt s o f c on te mp or ar y w it ne sse s ou tsi de na rr ow n at io na l

40 Jean-Francois Gilmont, J e an C re sp in . U n e d i te u r r e forme d u X V I e s i e cle (Geneva, 1981).41 A . J . J e l s ma , A d r i aa n v a n H a em s te d e e n z i jn m a rt e la a rs b oe k (T h e H a g u e, 1970).42 A nd re w P et te gr ee , ‘ Ha em st ed e a nd F ox e’ , i n L oa de s, Jo hn Fo xe a nd th e En glis h

Reformation, p p. 2 78 –9 4.




boundaries.43 It is a critical st ep in buildi ng a sense of a ch urch th at

e xt e nd s t o a ll o f c om m on f ai th i n d iff er e nt E ur op e an n at io ns .

T he s am e se nse o f a c om mon i de nt it y c an b e o bs er ve d in o ne o f t he

s t ra n ge s t e n te r pr i s es o f P r ot e s ta n t s e lf - id e nt i fi c at i o n, c a le n da r r e vi s io n .

A t o ne l eve l, t he e vang eli ca l r ep udi at ion o f C at ho li c f ea st day s an d

f es ti va ls w as d ea dl y s er io us , i f n ot a lw ay s p op ul ar. P ro te st an t c it ie s

s wi ft ly s tr ip pe d f ro m t he a nn ua l r ou nd a ll p ub li c h ol id ay s a ss oc ia te d

w it h t he n ow d is cr ed it ed s ai nt s : a r ef or m w hi ch g re at ly i nc re as ed t he

b ur de ns l aid on t he w or kin g p op ula ti on, a nd g re at ly r ed uc ed t he ir

o pp or t un it ie s f or c om mu na l e nt er t ai nm en t. T he g re at p ub li c d ra ma s

o f L ut he ra n G er ma ny m ig ht h av e b ee n i nt en de d i n s om e w ay t o c om -

p en sa te f or t he se g ap s i n t he f es ti ve y ea r ; t he C al vi ni st o ff er in g o f t he

m id -w e ek c at ec h is m s er vi ce d id n ot h av e t h e s am e a ll ur e .

N ot h in g d au nt e d, t he l ea de rs o f t he R ef or me d c hu rc h es p ro gr e ss ed

from the cl eansing of the Cath olic calendar to the promotion of a

n ew R ef or me d c ale nd ar. T he m in ist er s o f G ene va f or me d t he v an-

g ua rd o f t hi s m ov em en t, d ev is in g a s ch em e o f n ew c om me mo ra ti on s

t o t ak e t he p lac e o f t he ol d sa in ts ’ d ays i n t he c ale nda rs p ub li sh ed i n

t he p op ul ar a lm an ac s. T he d ay s o f c om me mo ra ti on n ow m ar ke d k ey

e ve nt s t ak en f ro m a m isc el la ny o f h is to ri cal ( eve n c las si cal ) e ve nt s,

i nt er sp er se d w it h t he m ar ki ng o f c ri ti ca l m om en ts i n t he u nf ol di ng o f

t h e n ew P ro t es ta nt m ov em e nt . T hu s J an ua r y n ot ed t he c ir cu mc is io n o f

C h r is t , N e bu c ha d ne z za r ’s s i eg e o f J e ru s al e m ( 1 0 th ) , a n d t h e c o nv e r si o n

o f S t P au l ; b ut a ls o t ha t o n 2 4 J an ua ry t he E mp er or C al ig ul a h ad b ee n

a ss as si na te d, a nd t he D uk e o f S om er se t e xe cu te d i n L on do n i n 1 55 2.

O n 1 8 F eb ru ar y t he c al end ar c al le d at te nt io n t o t he fa ct t ha t on t hi s

h is to ri c al ly b us y d ay t h e R om an s c el e br at ed t he f es t iv al o f f oo ls , N oa h

s e n t o u t t h e dove t h a t b r o u g h t b a c k t h e o l i v e b r a n c h , a n d M a r t i n L u t h e r

d i e d i n 1 5 4 6 .44

T he G en e va n c al en da r m ad e s ca rc el y a ny i mp ac t o ut si de t he F r en c h

C alv ini st c om mun it ie s, b ut i t w as no t uni qu e. I n G er man y, t he ye ar

1 5 59 w i tn e ss e d t h e p u bl i c at i on o f G o ly w ur m ’s K i r chen C al end ar , a m o r e

t ig ht ly f oc us ed c ol le ct i on o f t h ir te en p r e- Re fo rm at io n a nd f or ty -n in e

p o st - Re f o rm a ti o n m a rt y rs . T h e m o st c o nt r o ve r si a l a n d m o st s c at h in g ly

t r ea te d o f t he s e a lt er na ti v e c al en da rs w as t h at p ub li sh e d b y J oh n F ox e

as part of the 1563 B oo k o f M ar ty rs. F ox e’s c al en da r a do pt ed a m or e

t radi ti ona l s tr uc tur e, in t ha t i t k ep t t he t we nt y f ix ed fe st iva ls o f t he

c hu rc h y ea r t ha t i n E ng la nd h ad s ur vi ve d t he P ro te st an t r ev is io ns o f

43 Wa t so n , ‘ J ea n C r es p in ’ , c h . 6 . P e tt e gr e e, ‘ H ae m st e de a n d F o xe ’ .44 Eugen ie D ro z, ‘ Le c al en dr ie r g en ev oi s, a ge nt d e l a p ro pa ga nd e’ , i n h er C he m in s d e

l’he re s ie . Te x te s e t d o c um e nt s ( 4 v o ls . , G e ne v a , 1971) , v o l . I I , p p . 4 3 3 – 5 6 .




t he c hu rc h y ea r.45 T he s pa ce s b et we en t he a nc ie nt sai nt s’ d ays w er e

f il le d w it h t he n am e s o f t he r ec en t P ro te st an t m ar ty rs : C ra nm er, R i dl ey

a nd L at im er, b ut a ls o m or e o bs cu re i nd iv id ua ls . I n D ec em be r t he re

a p p e a r e d t h e n a m e s o f W i l l i a m T r a c y , ‘ a s c h o l e r ’ , ‘ a J e w ’ a n d ‘ T w o G r a y

f ri ar s’ . T he c al en da r w as r e sc u ed f ro m t h is r at h er b aff li ng p ar o ch ia li s m

b y c om me mo ra ti o ns f or c on ti ne nt a l r ef or me r s s uc h a s M el an ch t ho n,

B u c e r a n d P e t e r M a r t y r . J a n H u s a n d J e r o m e o f P r a g u e w e r e a l s o f o u n d

s pa ce , a nd t he E ng li sh L ol l ar ds w er e w el l r ep re s en te d.

F o r a l l t h e g e n e r o u s v a r i e t y o f t h e n e w c o m m e m o r a t i o n s , t h e c a l e n d a r

w a s s c a t h i n g l y r e c e i v e d . T h e C a t h o l i c c r i t i c H a r p e s f i e l d m o c k e d F o x e a s

t he n ew P op e f or h is e ne rg et ic a pp ro pr ia ti on o f t he r ig ht t o c re at e n ew

f ea st s ; o mi no us l y, f ew o f t he P ro te st a nt a dm ir er s o f t h e b oo k r us h ed t o

t he c al en da r’s d ef en ce . F ox e w as f or c ed t o a rg ue , r at h er l am el y, t ha t t he

c ale nd ar h ad on ly e ve r b ee n i nt en de d as a so rt o f i nd ex : ‘ for no o th er

purpo se , but to se rve the use only of t he r eade r, ins tead of a table ,

s he wi ng t he ye re a nd m on et h o f e ve ry m ar ty r’ .46 For t he edit ion of

1 57 0 h e d id i nd e ed r ep l ac e i t w it h a m o re c on ve nt io n al i nd e x.

T hi s d id n ot e nd P ro te s ta nt a tt e mp ts t o d ev is e a n ew c l ea ns ed s ys te m

o f c om me mo ra ti on s ; b ut t hi s w as n ot s om et hi ng t ha t c ou ld e as il y b e

i mp o se d o n a p op ul at i on f or w hi ch t he o ld f es t iv al s w er e f re ig ht ed w it h

d iv er se a ss oc ia ti on s o f f ar m or e t ha n r el ig io us s ig ni fi ca nc e. I n t he l as t

r es or t t h e m os t c ul t ur al ly s ig ni fi ca nt P ro t es ta nt i nv ol ve m en t i n t he r e-

s h a p i n g o f t h e c a l e n d a r w o u l d c o m e n o t t h r o u g h t h e i r o w n i n i t i a t i v e b u t

i n r es is ta nc e t o C at ho li c c al en da r r ef or m. T he n ee d f or s uc h a r ef or m

w as w id el y a ck no wl ed g ed . W hi le t h e R om an r eo rd er i ng o f t he c al en da r

y ea r h ad s er ve d C hr is te nd om w el l ( it w as t he E mp er or A ug us tu s w ho

h ad f in al ly f ix ed t he n am es o f t h e m o n th s a n d t h ei r l en gt h s) , i t w as b y t h e

s i xt e e nt h c e nt u ry c o m mo n k n ow l e dg e t h at t h e c a le n da r y e ar h a d d r if t e d

away from the true seasons. The error – the difference of the true

s um me r f ro m t he c al en da r d at e – w as n ow o f t he v er y s ig ni fi ca nt o rd er

o f e le ve n d ay s. B ut h ow s ho ul d t hi s d ri ft b e c or re ct ed ? Va ri ou s p ap al

c om m is si on s g ra pp le d w it h t he p ro bl e m, b ef or e t h e m at t er w as f in al l y

t ak en in h an d b y G re gor y X II I i n 15 81 . F or d ec ade s t he ol og ians h ad

w r es t l ed w i th t h e t e c hn i ca l ly d i ff i cu l t a n d t h eo l og i c al l y c h ar g e d i s su e o f

d et er m in in g t he t r ue a st ro no mi ca l y ea r, a nd b y n ow t h ey h ad b ot h t h ei r

m e as ur em en t s a nd a s ol ut i on . O n 1 M a rc h 1 58 2 G re go ry s ig n ed t h e B u ll

45 D a m i a n N u s s b a u m , ‘ R e v i l i n g t h e S a i n t s o r R e f o r m i n g t h e C a l e n d a r ? J o h n F o x e a n d h i s“ k al e nd a r” o f M a rt y rs ’ , i n S u sa n Wa b ud a a n d C a ro l in e L i tz e nb e rg e r ( e ds . ), B e l ie f a n d P r a cti ce i n R ef o rm a t i on E n g l an d (A l d er s h o t, S t A n d re w s S t u d ie s i n R e f o rm a t io n H i s to r y,1998) , p p . 1 1 3 – 3 6.

46 Ibid., p . 1 1 8 .




p r oc l ai mi ng t h e n ew G re go ri an c al en da r : a t m id ni gh t o n 4 O ct ob er t h e

c al en da r y ea r w ou ld l ea p f or wa rd t o 1 5 O ct ob e r.

T h e e f f e c t w a s , t o s a y t h e l e a s t , t r a u m a t i c . E u r o p e ’ s C a t h o l i c c o u n t r i e s

b y a nd l ar ge f el l i nt o l in e : S pa in , P or tu ga l a nd t he I ta li an s ta te s o n t he

s pe ci fi ed d ay, F ra nc e a nd F la nd er s a t t he e nd o f t he y ea r. B av ar ia a nd

t he A ust ri an l an ds c onv er te d i n 1 58 3, as d id Wur zb er g, M un st er a nd

M ai nz ( th ou gh e ac h d ro pp ed a d iff er en t s et o f t en d ay s) . B ut f or P ro t-

e st an t s ta te s t he G re go ri an c al en da r w as j us t o ne f ur th er e xa mp le o f

p ap al ar rog anc e an d p ow er. I n t he G er ma n c it y o f F rank fur t p eo pl e

r i ot e d a g ai n st t h e P o pe a n d m a th e m at i ci a ns . T h ro u gh o ut E u ro p e P r ot -

estant s ta te s g en er al ly r ej ec te d t he r ef or m ( as d id t he E as te rn O rt ho -

dox).47 F o r o v e r a c e n t u r y P r o t e s t a n t a n d C a t h o l i c E u r o p e w o u l d m a r c h

t o a d iff er e nt t im e.

I t i s h ar d t o t hin k o f a w ay i n w hi ch t he s ep ar at ion of C at ho li c a nd

P ro te st an t E ur op e c ou ld h av e b ee n m or e f or ce fu ll y e vo ke d. N ot o nl y

w er e t he se t wo s ep ar at e r el ig io us w or ld s : t he y a ls o k ep t t o a d iff er en t

t i m e . A j o u r n e y f r o m C a t h o l i c R e g e n s b u r g t o P r o t e s t a n t N u r e m b e r g , 7 0

k il om et r es a lo ng t h e r oa d, t oo k o ne n ot o nl y i nt o a d iff er e nt s ta te , b ut a

d iff er en t t im e. O ne c ou ld s et o ff o n 1 J an ua ry a nd a rr iv e o n 2 1 D ec em -

b er t he p re vi ou s ye ar. I t s ays a gr eat de al fo r t he i nt en si ty of r el ig iou s

p a s s i o n s t h a t t h e s e a b s u r d i t i e s w e r e n o t r e s o l v e d f o r t h e b e s t p a r t o f t w o

h un dr ed y ea rs . E ng la nd w as t he l as t m aj or P ro te st a nt s ta te t o a do p t t h e

G r e go r ia n c a le n da r, i n 1 7 52 .

T he i ll - st ar re d a tt e mp ts t o c re at e a n ew P ro t es ta nt c hu rc h y ea r o ff er

a n i mp o rt an t l es so n : t h at n ew f es ti va ls o f c om me m or at io n a nd r em em -

b r an ce c ou l d n ot b e i mp o se d, b ut c ou ld o nl y e me rg e o rg an ic al ly, w it h

t he p as sa ge o f y ea rs . I n E ng la nd t hi s p ro ce ss c an b e o bs er ve d p ro gr es -

s ive ly t hr oug h t he r ei gn o f E liz ab et h, w it h a p ro no un ce d i nc re as e i n

t emp o in the last decade of the rei gn, aft er the outbr eak of war with

S pa in . A si gn if ic ant s te p w as t he de cis ion t o e nc our ag e p ra ye rs an d

f es ti vi t ie s o n 1 7 N ov em b er, t he a nn iv e rs ar y o f t he q ue e n’s a cc e ss io n. I t

p r ov ed a s hr e wd a nd p op ul ar c h oi ce , d ev el op i ng i nt o a n at io na l a nn ua l

celebrat i o n , m a r k e d b y t h e r i n g i n g o f c h u r c h b e l l s a n d o t h e r c i v i c f e s t i v -

ities.48 C ro wn at io n d ay c el eb ra t io ns a re r ec or de d i n d iff er en t p ar t s o f

E ng lan d f ro m t he mi d- 15 70 s, b ut t he m ost f er ve nt h on our ing o f t he

a nn iv e rs ar y i s e xh ib it e d w he n t he E l iz ab et h an h er it ag e s e em ed u nd er

47 T he e xc e pt io n b ei ng t he n or th er n N et he rl an ds , w he re t he G re go ri an c al en da r w asi nt ro du ce d b y s ta ge s , f ir st i n B ra ba nt , Z ea la nd a nd H ol la nd b et we e n 1 58 2 a nd 1 58 3.G r o n i n g e n a l s o m a d e t h e c h a n g e , b u t t h e n r e v e r t e d t o t h e J u l i a n c a l e n d a r i n 1 5 9 4 ; o t h e rp r ov i nc e s h e ld o u t u n ti l 1 7 00 / 1.

48 D a v i d C r e s s y, B o nf i re s a n d B e ll s . N a ti o na l M e mo r y a n d t h e P r ot e st a nt C a le n da r i n E l iz a -b e th a n a n d S t ua r t E n gl a nd (London, 1989) , p p . 5 0 f f .




t h r e a t , a f t e r t h e A r m a d a , a n d i n t o t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e A r m a d a

i t se l f s e t o ff a f a nf a re o f c e le b r at o ry b o nf i re s , s e rm o ns a n d c o mm e m or a -

t i ve m e da l s. A n ni v er s ar y c o mm e m or a ti o ns w e re s o me w h at i n hi b it e d b y

the abs ence of a specific da y when the long campaign could most

a pp r op ri at el y b e m ar k ed , a d ef ic ie nc y r ep ai r ed i n 1 60 5 b y t he d is co ve r y

o f t h e G un po wd er P lo t o n 5 N ov e mb er. T hi s s ec on d e xa mp l e o f C at h -

o l i c m a l i g n a n c y a n d p e r f i d y p r o v i d e d a p e r f e c t o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e m e m b e r

t h e e a r l i e r e x a m p l e o f G o d ’ s p r o v i d e n t i a l p r o t e c t i o n . P r o t e s t a n t E n g l a n d

h ad a cq ui r ed a s ec on d N ov em b er f es ti va l t o i ns pi re n at io na l r ef le ct i on

on the ext raordinary gifts besto wed by a mercifu l God on a nat ion

b le ss ed , a nd o n t he m em or y o f a b le ss ed q ue en . T he e vo ca ti on o f t hi s

i n cr e a si n gl y i d ea l iz e d p a st b e c am e a u s ef u l p a rt i sa n w e ap o n i n t h e y e ar s

l ea di ng t o t he o ut br ea k o f t he C iv il Wa r. F or a n a ge u se d t o t ak in g t he

t em pe ra tu re o f c om mo n o pi ni on b y o bs er va ti on o f t he s ym bo li sm o f

p ub lic di sp lay, t he v igo ur or ot he rw ise o f t he se c el eb ra ti ons sp ok e

v ol um es . T he d ut i fu l r in gi ng f or C ha rl es ’s m ar r ia ge t o H en ri et t a M ar ia

i n 1 62 5 m ad e a s ob e ri ng c on tr as t t o t h e t ri um ph a nt p ea ls i n c el eb r at i on

o f h is r et ur n f rom Sp ai n in 1 62 3 without a C at ho li c b ri de . T he re w er e

renewed c el eb ra ti on s i n 1 62 8 w he n C ha rl es a cc ep te d t he P et it io n o f

Right.49

Th ese pub lic ce lebration s ar e a fitt in g climax t o our surve y of an

e me r gi ng P ro te s ta nt i de nt i ty. T hi s i de nt i ty w as m an y- si de d. I t c ou ld

b e n ar ro w i n f oc us , e xc lu si ve a nd l im it ed , w he n t he g od ly s ou gh t t an -

g ib le e xp re ss io n f or t he ir o wn h op es of e le ct io n. T hi s e xc lu siv e an d

e n cl o se d s o li d ar i t y c r ea t ed t e n si o ns , a s t h is p r o ce s s o f d e f in i ti o n i n ev i t-

a bl y i nv ol ve d i mp ug ni ng t he r el ig io us e xp er ie nc e o f t ho se n ot o f t he

b ro th er hoo d. B ut t he c re at io n o f a n ew P ro te st an t i de nt it y d id no t

u lt i ma te ly b yp as s t ho se f or w h om t he s tr en uo us e xe rt i on s o f t he h ot t er

G os pe ll er s w er e u nc on ge ni al , o r t oo d em an di ng . T hi s b ro ad er, m or e

i n cl u si v e P r ot e s ta n t i d en t it y p l ac e d l e ss e m ph a s is o n d o ct r i na l p r ec i si o n

o r p e r s o n a l t h e o l o g i c a l e d u c a t i o n . I t e v o k e d a s e n s e o f c o m m o n h e r i t a g e

t ha t d re w t og et h er t he m ar t yr s o f t he a ge s, a nd f el lo w b e li ev e rs i n o t he r

n at io ns . I t w as i nc ub at e d i n a n i nc re as in gl y c om pr e he ns iv e P ro te s ta nt

c ul tu re t ha t r ea ch ed i nt o e ve ry a sp ec t o f l if e : t he s ch oo l, t he h om e, t he

e v e r y d a y c o m m e r c e o f s o c i a b i l i t y . A n d i t w a s a t i t s m o s t p o t e n t w h e n t h e

P ro te st an t c au se s ee me d m os t u nd er t hr ea t, p ar ti cu la rl y i f t ha t t hr ea t

w as p ar t o f t h e d ar k d an ge r o f a n i nt e rn at io na l C at h ol ic c on sp ir ac y.

49 Ibid., p p . 7 6 , 9 3 – 1 0 9 .




9 The culture of belonging

We b eg an t hi s b oo k b y e mp ha si zi ng t ha t t he d ec is io n t o a dh er e t o t he

n ew e va ng el i ca l t ea ch i ng w as o ft en p ai nf u l, a nd p re gn an t w it h c on se -

q ue nc es . I t m ea nt b re ak in g o r r eo rd er in g a w ho le w eb o f a ss oc ia ti on s

a nd l oy al ti es , t o f am il y, f ri en ds, w or km at es a nd e ve n t he lo cal s ta te

p ow er. I t c ou ld m ea n s ep a ra ti ng o ne se lf f ro m c om fo rt ab l e r eg im es a nd

f am il ia r p ra ct ic es ; i t c al le d i nt o q ue st io n t he v al id it y o f c us to ms p ra c-

t is ed w it h r el is h f or a w ho le l if et im e, e ve n f or g en er at io ns . S om et im es

t h e R ef o rm at io n d em an de d a n i mp os s ib le c ho ic e b et w ee n c on fl ic ti n g

l oy al ti es . K ri st en N eu sc he l h as o ff er ed a n e vo ca ti ve p ic tu re o f t he d i-

l e m m a p o s e d t o t h e F r e n c h n o b i l i t y w h o o w e d f e a l t y t o t h e l e a d e r o f t h e

H ug ue no t p ar ty, L ou is d e C on de, at t he b egi nn in g of th e Re lig iou s

Wa rs . M an y w er e d ev ou tl y c om mi tt ed t o t he ir C at ho li c f ai th ; b ut a ll

o th er ac cu st om ed so ci al t ra dit io n u rg ed t he p re ce de nc e o f a d ut y of

l oya lt y t o t he ir s wo rn l or d. I ne vi ta bl y d iff er en t f am il ie s, o r d iff er en t

m em be r s o f t h e s am e f am il y, r es ol ve d t h es e d iff ic ul ti es i n c on tr as ti ng

w a ys . W h en C o nd e e m e rg e d a s l e ad e r o f t h e i n su r ge n t H u gu e no t p a rt y,

s o m e s e n t t h e i r e x c u s e s o r b o l d l y p r o c l a i m e d a h i g h e r d u t y t o c r o w n a n d

r e l i g i o n . O t h e r s d u t i f u l l y g a t h e r e d b e h i n d C o n d e ’ s s t a n d a r d a t O r l e a n s .1

S im il ar u np al at a bl e c ho ic e s f ac ed t h ou sa nd s o f m en a nd w om en w he r-

e ve r t he e va ng el ic al m es sa ge w as h ea rd a nd b ec am e e mb ed de d i n t he

l oc al c ul tu re ; m an y, e ve n a mo ng t ho se w ho h ea de d t he c al l t o a dh er e

t o t he n ew c on fe ss ion s, di d s o w it h g ra ve m isg ivi ng s a nd v er y m ix ed

emotions.

T he c ha ll eng e o f t he G os pe l w as t he re fo re f or m an y o f E ur op e’s

c i ti z en s h a rd l y t h e e l ev a ti n g a n d u p li f ti n g e x p er i e nc e t h at t h e r e fo r me r s

h ad a nt ic ip a te d. T he p r oc e ss o f s ep a ra ti on f ro m m uc h t ha t w as f am il ia r

– family, friends, workmates and even home – was a profoundly alienat-

i n g e x p e r i e n c e ; l i t t l e w o n d e r t h a t i t g e n e r a t e d b i t t e r n e s s a n d a n g e r . T h i s

a n g e r i s m o s t e v i d e n t i n y o u n g e v a n g e l i c a l m o v e m e n t s : t h e G e r m a n a n d

1 K ri s te n B . N e us c he l , Wo rd o f H on or : I nt er pr et in g N ob le C ul tu re i n S ix te en th -C en tu ryFrance (Ithaca, N.Y., 1989).

211



S wi ss c hu rc he s i n t he f ir st e va ng el ic al g en er at io n, a nd t he C al vi ni st

c hu rc he s o f t he 1 56 0s . I t f ou nd i ts m os t t an gi bl e e xp re ss io n i n i co no -

c l a s m , a s c i t i z e n s f o u n d c a t h a r s i s f o r t h e i r r e j e c t i o n o f t h e f a m i l i a r i n t h e

w a n t o n d e s t r u c t i o n o f a l l t h a t t h e c h u r c h e s o f t h e i r u p b r i n g i n g h e l d m o s t

p re ci ou s. I t w as a r ic hl y s ym bo li c r it e o f s ep ar at io n f ro m a r el ig io n b y

w hi ch m any n ow f el t t he y h ad b ee n ‘ dup ed ’ : a t mo me nt s o f de ci si on

o r h ei gh te ne d p ol it ic al t en si on P ro te st an ts t ur ne d o n t he s ta tu es a nd

p i c tu r es o f t h e C a th o l ic d e vo t io n w i th a p r ev i ou s ly u n im a gi n ab l e f u ry.2

F or o th er s t he d ec is io n t o r ep ud ia te t he o ld c hu rc h w as e as ed b y a n

a po ca ly pt ic s en se o f u rg en cy : a s en se t ha t t he se y ea rs o f s oc ia l t ur mo il

h e r a l d e d t h e f i n a l r e s o l u t i o n a n t i c i p a t e d i n t h e b o o k o f R e v e l a t i o n . T h i s ,

i t i s n ow p ro p os e d, w a s a l e ad i ng f e at ur e o f L ut he r’s p re ac hi ng o f

r ed em pt io n an d r ep en ta nc e, a nd p art ic ul ar ly p ow er fu l i n t he f eb ri le

a t m o s p h e r e o f G e r m a n y i n t h e 1 5 2 0 s .3 B u t , i n f a c t , t h i s s e n s e o f e s c h a t o -

l og ic al u rg en cy s ee ms t o h av e b ee n a r el at iv el y c on st an t f ea tu re o f t he

w ho le R ef or ma ti on c en tu ry ; c er ta in ly i t h as b ee n a rg ue d, i n d iff er en t

c on t ex ts , f or v ir tu al ly e ve ry s ign i fi c an t d e ca d e o f e v an g el i c al c h an g e f o r

t he d iff er en t p ar t s o f E ur op e.4 P er ha ps t he t ru th i s t ha t o ur s ix te en th -

c en tu r y f or e be ar s a lw ay s h ad a g re at l y e nh an ce d s en se o f t he f ra gi li ty o f

t h e h u ma n c o nd i ti o n, a nd t h is i n ev i ta b ly a d de d u r ge n cy t o a n y s i tu a ti o n

w h er e t he fu n da m en t al s o f b e li e f a nd r e li g i ou s p r ac t ic e w e re c a ll e d i n to

question.5

I n t hi s ag e of e nd ea vo ur, t he ur ge nt t one o f c on fl ic t and t he c al l f or

a ct iv is m w er e b es t c on ve ye d b y t he o ra l m ea ns o f a rt ic ul at in g t he n ew

t ea ch ing s : b y p re ac hi ng a nd b y so ng . S ong al so p rov ed a n e xt re me ly

e ff ec ti ve v eh ic le f or t he r id ic ul e t ha t w as a n e ss en ti al f ea tu re o f al l

s ix te en th -c en tu ry d ec is io n m ak in g t ha t i nv ol ve d a m ea su re o f p ub li c

p ar t ic ip at io n. E ve n f or t ho se w ho c ou ld n ot u nd er s ta nd t h e t h eo lo gi ca l

p r in c i pl e s t h at d e ma n de d s u ch d r as t ic a c ti o n a g ai n st t h e c u rr e nt c h ur c h

f ab ri c, t he s imp le r an ci ll ar y m ess ag es – t he c ont em pt f or t he c hu rc h

h ie r ar ch y, t he r ev i ling o f t he id le p ar as it ic al p ri es th ood – w er e e asi ly

e xp r es se d i n s on gs .6 S in gi ng a ls o e nc a ps ul at ed t he s pi ri t o f c om mu na l

2S o la n ge D e yo n a n d A l ai n L o tt i n, L es c as se ur s d e l ’e te 1 5 66 . L’ i co n o cl a sm e d a ns l e N o rd (Westhoek, 1986) . N at al ie Z em on D av is , ‘ Th e R it es o f V io le nc e’ , i n h er S o c ie t y a n d C u lt u re i n E a rl y M o de r n F r an c e (London, 1975) , p p . 1 5 2 – 8 7.

3 Oberman, Luther.4 D e n i s C r o u ze t , L es g ue rr ie rs d e D ie u : L a v io le nc e a u t em ps d es t ro ub le s d e r el ig io n, v er s

1 5 2 5 – v e r s 1 6 1 0 ( 2 v o l s . , P a r i s , 1990) . N o r m a n J o n e s , T h e B i r t h o f E l i za b et ha n E n g l an d .E n gl a nd i n t h e 1 5 6 0 s (Oxford, 1993).

5 B r u c e G o r d o n a n d P e t e r M a r s h a l l , T h e P l a c e o f t h e D e a d . D e a t h a n d R e m e m b r a n c e i n L a t e Mediaeval and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, 2000).

6 O n t h e p h en o me n on o f a n ti c le r ic a li s m s e e e s p ec i al l y n o w P e te r A . D y ke m a a n d H e ik oA . O b e r m a n , A n t ic l er ic a li s m i n L a te M e di a ev a l a n d E a rl y M o de r n E u ro p e (Leiden, 1994).




a c t i v i s m t h a t w a s s o i m p o r t a n t a p a r t o f t h e m o m e n t o f d e c i s i o n m a k i n g ,

a nd a lm os t a ll R ef or m at io n m ov em en t s e mb r ac ed s uc h a m om en t.

T h e r e c a m e a t i m e , h o w e v e r , w h e n t h e h e a t o f b a t t l e g a v e w a y t o m o r e

s ob er r ef le ct io n ; w he n t he d ec is io n t o a dh er e t o t he n ew c on fe ss io n, o r

r e m a i n w i t h t h e o l d , w a s m a d e . O n e c o u l d n o t b e a n g r y , a n d u r g e n t , f o r

ever. Now, as the r ubbl e of the ol d was swep t away, a mood of sob er

r ef le ct io n f il le d t he l ea de rs o f t he n ew c hu rc he s a s t he y r ec og ni ze d t he

s ca le o f t he t as k t ha t f ac ed t he m. N ow b eg an t he w or k o f c re at in g n ew

l o ya l ti e s a n d i n vo k in g n e w s o li d ar i t ie s .

T he e xt en t t o w hi ch t he n ew P ro te st an t c h ur ch es s uc c ee de d o r f ai le d

i n t hi s e nde av our h as b ee n t he s ub je ct o f m uc h sc ho la rl y de bat e. To

s om e e xt en t t hi s h as b ee n m is di re ct ed b y t he g lo om y r ef le ct io ns o f t he

r e fo rm e rs t he m se lv es . F or n ow , s ur ve y in g b ot h t hi s l it er at u re o f d eb at e

a nd t he u nd er st an di ng o f t he R ef or ma ti on p ro ce ss d ev el op ed i n t hi s

b oo k, o ne c an r ec og ni ze a n i ne vi ta bl e d isj unc ti on b et we en wh at t he

r efo rm er s ai me d f or and t he m an ne r i n w hi ch t he p ro ce ss o f c hur ch

b ui ld in g w or ke d. T he r ef or me rs s aw t he ir t as k i n t er ms o f t ea ch in g, i n

i nc ul c at in g t he e ss en ti al s, o r e ve n a m or e c om p le x u nd er s ta nd in g o f t h e

c or e o f b el ie f. F or w it ho ut k no wl ed ge t he re c ou ld b e n o f ai th , an d

w it ho ut f ai th t he re w as n o s al va ti on . I n t hi s e nd ea vo ur t he y e xp en de d

e no rm ou s e ne r gy, i n p re ac h in g, c at e ch iz in g, w ri ti ng , p ub li sh i ng a nd

d is tr i bu ti ng n um e ro us w or k s o f r el ig io us i ns tr uc t io n ; a nd f in al l y i n t h e

n e rv o us s ur v ey s of t he ir p op ul at io n t o g au ge t he e ff ec ti ve ne ss o f t hi s

res tl es s a cti v is m .7

H er e t he y w er e d es ti ne d f or d is ap po in tm en t, f or t he k in d o f u nd er -

s t a n d i n g p r o m o t e d b y t h e P r o t e s t a n t c l e r g y h a d n e v e r s t o o d a t t h e c e n t r e

o f t h e r e l i g i o u s e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e p e o p l e . R a t h e r , t h e l a i t y h a d b u i l t t h e i r

r e l i g i o u s l i f e r o u n d a c u l t u r e o f b e l o n g i n g : r i c h , c o m p l e x a n d a c t i v e . T h e

e s s e n t i a l s o f f a i t h w e r e m e d i a t e d – o r p o s s i b l y o n l y i n f e r r e d – a r o u n d t h e

c on st an t e na ct me nt o f t he r el ig io us l if e a s s ha ri ng : a p ar is h reli gi on , a

c i vi c c u l tu r e, a f a mi l ia l e x pe r i en c e e m br a c in g g e ne r at i on s p a st .8

I n o rd er t o s uc c ee d, t h e R ef or ma ti on h ad t o r ep la c e i ns ti tu t io ns a nd

a ss oc ia ti on s d am ne d b y e van ge li ca l c ri ti ci sm w it h a n ew c om pl ex o f

l o v e d , l i v e d s o l i d a r i t i e s . T h i s w a s e a s i e s t w h e n t h e p r o c e s s o f e v a n g e l i z a -

t i o n a l l o w e d t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f o l d i n s t i t u t i o n s t o s e r v e t h e n e w p u r p o s e .

I n s o m e p a r t s o f E u r o p e t h e p a r i s h c h u r c h w a s s i m p l y a c c o m m o d a t e d t o

7 T he c la s si c p re se nt at io n o f v is it at io n r ec or ds i s S tr au ss , L u th er ’s H ou se o f L ea rn in g .F or t he d eb at e i ns pi re d b y S tr au ss ’s b oo k a nd h is r es po ns e, s ee a ls o S tr au ss , ‘ Th eRe fo rma tio n a nd i ts P ub lic in a n A ge o f O rth od oxy ’, p p. 1 94 –2 14 . C. S. Di xo n,T he R ef or ma ti on a nd R ur al S oc ie ty . T he P ar is he s o f B ra nd en bu rg - An sb ac h- Ku lm ba ch ,1528–1603 (Cambridge, 1996).

8 Duffy, T h e S t ri p pi n g o f t h e A l ta r s.

The culture of belonging 213



t he n ew w or sh ip , t ho ug h s el do m w it ho ut c os t t o t he d ig ni ty o f t he o ld

M as s p ri es t i f h e r ea pp ea re d i n t he n ew g ui se o f a P ro te st an t m in is te r.

S om et im es a n o ld i ns ti tu ti on c ou ld b ec om e t he v eh ic le f or t he n ew

e v an g el i ca l s c ep t ic i s m. We h a ve o b se r ve d t h e e v an g e li c al a p p ro p ri a ti o n

o f t he D ut ch C ha mb er s o f R he to ri c, a nd t he r en ew ed P ro te st an t t ra d-

i ti on o f b ib li ca l d ra ma . C om mu ni ti es d ep ri ve d o f t he m uc h l ov ed

p as si on p la ys w er e o ff er ed a n i mm ed ia te a lt er na ti ve : n ot p er ha ps o ne

i nf us ed w it h t he f est iv e va lu es of c ar ni val t o q ui te t he s am e e xt ent a s

t he o ld m ys te ri es , b ut s ti ll a p ow er fu l e vo ca ti on o f c om mu na l v al ue s.

C o m m u ni ti e s c o u l d s t i l l s ta n d , s h o ul d e r t o s ho u l d e r, i n s h a re d

recreation.

T o a m o d e r n w a y o f t h i n k i n g , p e r h a p s t h e m o s t u n c o m f o r t a b l e a s p e c t

o f t he a rg um ent p re se nt ed h er e h as b ee n t he f re qu ent a nd g ene ral ly

p os it iv e e vo ca ti on o f c ol le ct ive a ct io n : t he p ow er o f t he c ro wd . To

m od er n s en si bi li ti es t he c ro wd i s a n i ns tr um en t o f i rr at io na li ty a nd

a na rc hy : t he a nt it h es is o f t he c oo l r at io na li ty o f d ec is io n m ak i ng w h ic h

w e e nv is ag e i n i de al iz ed f or m a s a n e ss en ti al a tt ri bu te o f o ur p er so na l

s o v e r e i g n t y . H e n c e t h e r e v e r e n c e w i t h w h i c h w e r e g a r d t h e s e c r e t b a l l o t ,

a n d t h e o v er w he l m in g ly n e ga t i ve a ss o ci a ti o ns o f m a ss a c ti v is m , f r om t h e

Fren ch R e vo lu ti on t o t he r al li es o f t he t we nt ie th -c en tu ry t ot al it ar ia n

states.9

T h e e a r l y m o d e r n w o r l d h a d a d i f f e r e n t , i f s t i l l c o m p l e x , p e r c e p t i o n o f

t he c ro wd . T he f ea r o f d is or de r w as s ti ll v er y r ea l, b ut c ro wd s g at he re d

t o o i n c e r em o ni e s o f a ff i rm a ti o n : f o r p r e ac h in g o r r e l ig i ou s p r oc e ss i on s ;

t o g r e e t n e w r u l e r s w h e n t h e y m a d e t h e i r c e r e m o n i a l e n t r y ; t o w i t n e s s a

p ub l ic e xe c ut io n – a c e re m on ia l a nd o ft en v er y s ol em n e xp ul s io n f ro m

the co m m u ni ty.

T he r ef or me rs r ec og ni ze d t ha t t he c al l f or r el ig io us r en ew al r ep re -

s en te d a c ha ll en ge t o m an y c om mu na l v al ue s : h en ce t he n ee d t o c re at e

a c ou nt e r- co m mu ni ty. T hi s w as t he p ow er o f t he e va ng el i ca l s er mo n, a

p ow e rf ul d em on st r at io n o f a n ew , e vo lv in g c om m un it y. T hi s w as a ls o

w hy d em on st ra ti on s a t e xe cu ti on s w er e s o t hr ea te ni ng , b ec au se i f t he

c ro wd w ou ld n o l on ge r a ff ir m t he j us ti ce o f t he p ro ce ed in gs , h ow ev er

s a v a g e , t h e n u l t i m a t e l y t h e y c o u l d n o t c o n t i n u e , f o r t h e l o c a l m a g istrates

h ad l it t le a ut ho ri t y i f t h ey l os t t h e c on fi de n ce o f t h e c om mu ni ty.10

9 G e or g e R u de, T h e C ro wd i n t he F re nc h R ev ol ut io n (Oxford, 1957) . C h ar l es M a ck a y,E x tr a or di n ar y P o pu l ar D e lu s io n s a n d t h e M a dn e ss o f C r ow d s (Amsterdam, 1845) . G u st a veL e B on , Th e Cr owd : A S tu dy o f th e Po pu la r Mi nd ( Mi ne ol a, N .Y. , 2 00 2) . F or t heb e g i nn i n g s o f a s p i r it e d c o u n t er -a r gu m e n t s e e J a m e s S u r o w i e ck i , T h e W i s d o m o f C r o w d s(New York, 2004).

10 D av id N ic ho ll s, ‘ Th e T he at re o f M ar ty rd om i n t he F re nc h R ef or ma ti on ’, P as t a nd Present , 1 2 1 (1988) , p p. 4 9– 73 .




T h e r e f o r m e r s g r e w a d e p t a t m a n i p u l a t i n g s y m b o l s b y w h i c h s u p p o r t -

e rs e xp re ss ed t he ir l oy al ty t o n ew c om mu ni ti es o f p ro te st o r b el ie f. I n

t h e R ef or ma t io n w or ld t he s ym b ol s o f o ld r el ig i ou s a ll eg ia nc e – s uc h a s

p il gr im s’ t ok e ns – w er e r e wo r ke d a nd r ea pp li ed . A m uc h u nd er s tu di ed

a sp e ct o f t he s ix te e nt h -c e nt ur y e va ng el ic al m o ve me nt i s t h e u se o f s uc h

b a dg e s o f b e l on g in g . T h e P r ot e st a nt m o ve m en t d i sc o ve r e d t h e p o we r o f

s uc h t ot em s r em ar ka b ly e ar ly, n ot l ea st i n t he L ut h er an m in in g t ow n o f

Joachimsthal, where abundant supplies of precio u s m e t a l s e n c o u r a g e d a

p r ec oc i ou s a nd m ul ti -f a ce te d m ed al c ul tu re .11 T he e ar li e st s ix te e nt h -

c en tu ry m in er s c el eb ra te d t he ir g oo d f or tu ne w it h s ta mp ed s il ve r i m-

p r es si on s o f t ra di ti on al r e li gi ou s s ub j ec ts , s uc h a s t h e V ir gi n a nd s ai nt s .

T he se r es em bl ed v er y c lo se ly t he s ma ll t ok en s b ou gh t b y p il gr im s t o

m a r k t h e e n d o f t h e i r j o u r n e y t o R o m e , C o m p o s t e l l a o r S t A n d r e w s . T h e

c it iz en s o f J oa ch im st ha l w er e a ls o m uc h a dd ic te d t o p la gu e m ed al s : a

d es ig n w it h a s er pe nt o n o ne s id e a nd t he c ru ci fi ed C hr is t o n t he o th er.

B y c oi nc id en ce t he o ut pu t o f t he m in es o f J oa ch im st ha l p ea ke d i n t he

15 30 s, at p rec is el y t he ti me wh en t he to wn co nsol idat ed it s t ur n t o

L ut h er a ni sm . T he n ew c ir cu m st an ce s i ns pi re d n ew m ed al t ra di ti on s :

p or t ra it s o f L ut he r, H us a nd t he S ax on E le ct or s , o r r e pr es e nt at io ns o f

b ib li c al t he me s e sp ec ia l ly b e lo ve d i n t he n ew P ro te st an t c hu rc he s , s uc h

a s A br ah am a nd I sa ac , o r C h ri st w i th t h e S am ar it a n w om an .

T h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f J o a c h i m s t h a l w e r e o b v i o u s l y v e r y p a r t i c u l a r , b u t

t h e p a s s i o n f o r t o t e m i c b a d g e s o f b e l o n g i n g p r o v e d p o w e r f u l i n s e v e r a l o f

t he n ew P ro te st an t c hu rc he s. T he se f ou nd t he ir m os t p ow er fu l m an i-

f es ta ti on i n t he Du tc h Re vo lt , f ro m t he p oin t at w hic h t he d is sid en t

n ob il i ty, r es po nd in g t o a w id el y r ep or t ed c on te mp t uo us r e ma rk b y a n

a dv is or o f t he r eg en t , M ar ga re t o f P ar ma , c ra ft e d i ns ig ni a o f B eg ga rs t o

s ym bo l iz e t h ei r n ew b ro t he r ho od . H er e t h ey s ub ve r te d t h e e st ab li s he d

e st ee m o f t h e O rd er o f t he G ol de n F l ee ce , t he h ig he st h on ou r b es to we d

b y t he H ab sb ur gs on t he l oya l Ne th er la ndi sh no bi lit y. I t w as b ot h a

m a g n i f i c e n t g e s t u r e o f d e f i a n c e a n d a s y m b o l i c c h a n g i n g o f t h e g u a r d .12

T he B eg ga rs ’ p ro te st i na ug ur at ed a l on g t ra di ti on o f t he m in ti ng o f

s uc h t ok en s b y t he i ns ur ge nt D u tc h. A s th e r ev ol t p ro gr es s e d, t he

s ym bo li sm b ec am e m or e o rn at e, t he m ed al s l ar ge r a nd m or e f or ma l.

T he y b ec am e m or e a nd m or e r em in is ce nt o f t he R en ai ss an ce p or tr ai t

m e d a l s e x c h a n g e d b e t w e e n t h e f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y l i t e r a t i , a n d n o w o w n e d

i n l ar ge n um be r s b y m aj or m us eu m c ol le ct io n s. F ro m t h e N et he rl a nd s

11 V . K a tz , D i e er zg eb i rg i s che P r a gemedaille des XVI. Jahrhunderts (Prague, 1932).12 H .F. K. v an N ie ro p, ‘ A B eg ga rs ’ B an qu et : T he C om pr om is e o f t he N ob il it y a nd t he

P ol it ic s o f I nv er si on ’, E ur o pe a n H i st o ry Q u ar t er l y, 21 (1991) , p p. 4 19 –4 3. D uk e,‘ D i ss i d e nt P r o p a ga n d a ’, p p . 1 2 2 – 2 3.

The culture of belonging 215



t h e p r a c t i c e s p r e a d t o E n g l a n d , w h e re t r i u m p h a n t m e d a l s w e r e s t r u c k t o

c el e br at e t h e f ai lu r e o f t h e A rm ad a.13

T he R ef or m at i on m ed al t ra di ti on e pi to mi ze d m an y a sp ec ts o f t he

c om pl ex p ro ce ss w e h av e d es cr ib ed i n t hi s b oo k. I t p ro vi de d a t an gi bl e

t ok en o f t he c ul tu re o f b el on gi ng , a c ul tu re d ev el op ed i n a no th er w ay

b y t he w id es pr e ad u se i n t h e R ef or m ed c h ur ch e s o f c om m un io n t ok e ns ,

s m a l l c o i n s s t a m p e d w i t h t h e s y m b o l o f t he l o c al c h ur c h a n d d i st r ib u te d

t o t ho se p e rm it t ed t o t ak e t h e E uc ha r is t.14 I t d e fi a nt l y a p pr o p ri a te d t h e

a tt ri b ut e s o f a ut ho ri ty b y m in ti ng c oi ns ( a c lo se ly g ua rd e d a tt ri bu t e o f

p ow er ). I t w as b ot h v is u al a nd t an g ib le : i t a l lo we d t he e nc od i ng o f

c om pl e x m es sa ge s, b ut i ts p r im ar y f un ct io n w as p e rf or me d b y p os se ss i on ,

a s a b a d g e o f b e l o n g i n g .

Th is , we h ave a rg ue d, w as al so t he f un ct ion o f m uc h o f t he v is ua l

c ult ur e o f t he Re fo rm at io n. Th is w as t he w ay in wh ic h t he w ood cut

f un ct io ne d i n t he c hai n o f c om mu ni ca ti on . T he w oo dc ut c ou ld n ot

t ea ch o r ex pl ai n. I t co uld am use or p ro vo ke , b ut on ly am ong th ose

w h o a lr e ad y u nd er s to od t h e f r am es o f r ef er e nc e . I t s w id er s oc ia l i mp ac t

w a s a s a b a d g e o f i d e n t i t y , a t a n g i b l e s y m b o l o f a l l e g i a n c e f o r t h o s e w h o

w is he d t o a ff ir m t he g en er al p ro gr am me o f t he G os pe l p re ac he rs .

P am ph le ts , we h av e ar gu ed, c ou ld al so f un ct io n i n t hi s w ay. I n t his

r es pe ct t he C at ho li c a ut ho ri ti es w er e r ig ht t o r eg ar d m er e p os session,

r at he r t ha n r ea di ng o r u nd er st an di ng , a s t he e ss en ti al h e re sy.15 The

p ot en t p ow er o f t he w oo dc ut i ma ge a s b ad ge w as m os t s ys te ma ti ca ll y

e xp lo it ed in t he w id esp re ad use m ade o f p ri nt er s’ de vi ce s. I n an ag e

w h er e t he p os se ss io n o f f or b id de n b oo k s w as i ne v it ab ly p er il ou s, t he se

s er ve d as an e nc ode d sy mb ol o f t he l ik el y c ont en ts and c onf es si onal

a ll e gi an ce o f a b oo k t h at m ig ht o th er wi se e xe r ci se d is cr et io n o ve r p ro -

c l a i m i n g a u t h o r s h i p a n d p l a c e o f p u b l i c a t i o n . I t i s h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t

t hi s ag e – t he p er io d o f ma ss p ub li cat io n b efo re m as s l it er ac y – m ad e

s uc h e xt e ns iv e u se o f t he p r in te r ’s d ev ic e.

H um an b ei ng s a re g re ga ri ou s. We c ra ve b el on gi ng a nd w e f ea r i so l-

a ti on . A ny on e w ho h as h ea rd y ou ng c hi ld re n u nb ur de n t he ms el ve s

a b ou t p l ay g ro u nd q u ar r el s , t h e c o ns t an t s h if t in g o f i n cl u si o n a n d e x c lu -

s i o n, w i l l f e e l a g a i n t h e p ow er o f t h e c r o w d a n d t he f e a r o f b e i n g

o s t r a c i z e d t h a t r u n s s o d e e p i n u s a l l . E v e n i n a n a g e l i k e o u r o w n , w h i c h

13 A f i n e s e l e c t i o n o f m e d a l s c o m m e m o r a t i n g t h e d e f e a t o f t h e S p a n i s h A r m a d a i s a v a i l a b l ev ia t he w eb si te o f t he N at io na l M ar it im e M us eu m, www.nmm.ac.uk. F or a n ot h erf am ou s v ic to ry t ha t i ns pi re d a n o ut po ur in g o f n um is ma ti c c el eb ra ti on , s ee P. C h.Robert, S o u v en i r s n u m i sm a t iq u es d u s i e ge de 1552 (Metz, 1852).

14 H . G e l i n , L e m e r e a u d a n s l e s e glises re forme e s d e F r a n c e e t p l u s p a r t i c u l i e r e m e n t d a n s c e l l e s d ePoitou (Saint-Maixent, 1891).

15 Monter, J u d gi n g t h e F r en ch R ef o rm a t io n.


http://www.nmm.ac.uk/







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P l a yi n g i n T ud o r E n g la n d ( C a mb r id ge , 1 9 9 3) .

Wi l s o n, J e a n , T h e A r ch a eo l o gy o f S h a ke s pe a re ( St r o ud , 1 9 9 5) .

Bibliography 231



Index

Aarau 89

A g r i co l a , J o h n 44

Aix-en-Provence 196A l bi a c, A c ac e d ’ 145

A l b ig e n s i an h e r e s y 182

A l b re c h t o f B r a n de n b u rg 51, 164

Aleander, Hieronymus 27

Alps 141

Altdorfer, Albrecht 102

A l va , D u ke o f 70, 71, 100, 106

Amadis de Gaule 98, 119

A m b o is e , C o n s pi r a c y o f 66, 180

Amsterdam 13, 94

Anabaptists 33, 71, 94, 176

Antwerp 62, 63, 93, 95, 176, 206

p r i nt i n g i n d u st r y 130, 133–4, 174, 178

s a ck o f ( 1 5 76 ) 185

apocalypse 5 , 50, 116, 121

Apocrypha 87

Aristotle 43

A r m ad a , S p a n is h 210, 216

Arras 143A s k e w, A n n e 74

Augsburg 45, 134, 168

A u g s b ur g I n t er i m (1 5 4 8 ) 50, 52

A u gs b ur g , P e ac e o f ( 1 5 55 ) 186

Augustine 4

Augustinians 10, 50, 168, 171

B a d i us , C o n ra d 143

B a d i us , J o s s e 143

Baldwin, William 91

B a l e , J o h n 72, 90–1

baptism 201

Basle 89

p r i nt i n g i n d u st r y 130, 133, 134, 141

Bavaria 209

B e a u li e u , E u s t or g 67

B e c k e t, T h o m as 90

B e c o n, T h o m as 91

B e n o is t , R e n e 192Berlin 52

Bern 82, 84–5, 88, 141

B e r n ar d i no o f S i e n a 13, 17

Bez e , T h eo d or e d e 41, 56, 59, 66, 87, 88,

143, 180–1

Bible 5, 8, 35, 62, 79, 108, 120, 122, 149,

156, 159, 169, 191, 193

G u t e nb e r g B i b l e 108

reading 118, 120

Bicocca 84

B o c c ac c i o , G i o v an n i 92

Bohemia 185

B o h e mi a n B r e th r e n 52

B o n n er, E d m u nd , B i s h op o f

London 74

B o ok s o f H o ur s 120, 121, 158–9, 161

Bordeaux 60, 92, 95, 196

B o u r g , A n n e d e 67–8

B o u rg e o i s, L o u i s 56Brabant 93, 153

B r a n do n , K a t h le e n , D u c h es s o f

Suffolk 74

B r e n z, J o h a nn e s 156

B r eu , J org 102

Bric onnet, Bishop 66

broadsheets 45, 73, 88, 112, 154

Bruges 37, 206

B r u g ma n , J o h a nn e s 13–14

Brussels 50, 177, 206

Bucer, Martin 30, 47, 55, 87, 169, 208

B u g e nh a g e n, J o h a nn e s 18, 20

Bullinger, Heinrich 11, 15, 21–2, 89,

122, 199

B u r ba g e , J a m es 96

Burntisland 38

232



Caen 59, 178

C a j e ta n , T h o m as 168

calendar 207–9

C a l v in , J e a n 4, 11, 22–5, 33, 67, 122, 176,

180–1, 189

a s a u th o r 141–6, 156, 199

Institutes 54, 67, 142

o n m u si c 54

preaching 22–5

Calvinism 40, 95, 98, 105, 153, 177, 186,

187, 190, 194–6

Cambridge 34

Canterbury 90

Capito, Wolfgang 29–30

Carmelites 52carnival 83, 84, 85, 91, 95, 121, 214

catechisms 5, 8, 46, 49, 58, 156, 188, 206

C a t h er i n e d e ’ M e d i ci 55, 99, 181

C a t h ol i c L e a g u e 154, 160

censorship 132, 145, 156

C h a m be r s o f R h e t or i c see Rederijkers

C h ar l es I , K i ng o f E n gl a nd 210

C h ar l es V 27, 84, 94, 104, 171

c h u r c h o r d e rs 5

Cicero 81

Cologne 130, 134, 186

colporteurs 58, 145

c o m m un i o n t o k e ns 216

Compostella 215

Conde, L o u i s , D u k e o f 66, 68, 71, 161,

180, 211

confession 16, 21, 40

confessionalization 186

C o n s ta n c e , C o u n c i l o f 53contrafactum 50, 51, 69, 71, 114

conventicles 118, 176

conversion 4

C o r n el i s , B r o th e r 37

C o r p us C h r is t i 78

C o v e rd a l e , M i l es 64

C r a n ac h , L u c a s 87, 102, 116, 125, 136,

138, 140, 167

Cranmer, Thomas 208

C r e s pi n , J e a n 143, 146, 178, 203, 206C r o m we l l , T h o m as 72, 90

C r o w le y , R o b e rt 65

C t e m at i u s , G i l le s 178

dancing 193, 196, 198

Danzig 82

D a t h en u s , P i e te r 62

D a y e , J o h n 65, 191

Dekker, Thomas 99

Delft 178, 197, 198

Denmark 47

Dessau 86

Devil 36, 79, 188

dialogues 80, 83, 188

Dominicans 13, 14, 30, 165

Dordrecht 198

Dor i n g , T h o m as 136 , 138

drama 76, 187, 214

Dresden 51

dress 2, 199

Durer, Albrecht 82, 102, 103, 164, 169D u t c h R e v o l t 62, 69, 95, 106, 153, 215

e a r l y c h u r ch 1, 188, 206

E c k , J o h a nn e s 28, 114

Edinburgh 36

E dw ar d V I, K in g o f E ng la nd 64, 65, 74, 91,

97, 203

E g r a nu s , J o h a nn 28

Einsiedeln 21

E l iz a b et h, Q u ee n o f E n gl a nd 65, 73, 74,

89, 96, 209

E m b le m b o o k s 115

Emden 62, 63, 65, 175, 176,

178, 206

Emser, Johannes 29–30, 51, 104, 114

England 35, 64, 72, 77, 78, 89–91, 96,

171, 172–7, 185, 190–1, 196,

198–201, 209, 216

E n g l is h C i v i l Wa r 65p r i nt i n g i n d u st r y 113

Erasmus, Desiderius 95, 112–13, 170

Erfurt 45, 135

E s t i en n e , H e n ry 115

E s t i en n e , R o b e rt 143, 144, 146

Eucharist 182, 190, 200, 201, 216

Evreux 33

Fabritius, Christoffel 70

F a r e l, G u i ll a u m e 66, 67, 143fasting 21

Flanders 93, 176, 209

Florence 13, 16

Flugschriften 121, 133, 156, 160, 164, 170,

173, 179, 181

F o xe , J o hn 72, 74, 91, 203, 206, 207

Index 233



France 8, 31, 33, 55, 58–62, 65, 77, 78,

79, 80, 89, 91, 105, 131, 141, 142,

144, 149, 159, 171, 172–84, 185,

194–6, 197, 183, 209

p r i n ti n g i n d u st r y 133, 143

F r an c is I , K i ng o f F r an c e 55, 153

F r an c is I I , K i n g o f F r an c e 67, 68, 180

Franciscans 13

Frankfurt 65, 108, 139, 209

Frankfurt-an-der-Oder 165

F r e d er i c k t h e Wi s e , E l e c to r 43, 125

Gemigger, Laux 167

Geneva 4 , 11, 22–5, 55, 64, 65, 66,

67, 98, 175, 176, 178, 186, 200,203, 207

Academy 34

Auditorium 142

Bible 122, 143, 192

p r i nt i n g i n d u st r y 146, 147, 175

G e or g e o f S a xo n y 165, 170

Germany 7, 14, 16, 26, 34, 36, 38, 77, 80,

82, 92, 95, 102–6, 134, 171, 173, 175,

179, 185, 197

publishing 149, 160

G e r s on , J e a n 188

Ghent 62, 63, 94, 169

G i r ar d , J e a n 141, 143

Glarus 21

G l o b e T h e a tr e 96

Gorcum 71

G o u d im e l , C l a u de 192

G r a p he u s , G u l ie l m u s 81

G r e b an , A r n o ul 78G r e b an , S i m o n 78

G r e e nh a m , R i c h a rd 31, 34, 36

G r e g or i a n c h a n t 44

G r e g or y X I I I 208

Grenoble 33

G r i nd a l , E d m un d 203

G r i ng o r e , P i e r re 91

Guise 68, 99, 180, 184

G u n p ow d e r P l o t (1 6 0 5 ) 210

G u t e nb e r g , J o h a nn e s 132

H a e m st e d e , A d r ia e n v a n 206

Hainault 145

Hamburg 30, 189

Harlingen 70

H e d i o, C a s p a r 30

Heidelberg 17, 168, 169, 190

H e i nr i c h o f B r a u ns c h w e ig 51

Hell 48

H e nr i et t a M a ri a , Q u ee n o f

England 210

H en ry I I, K in g o f F ra nc e 55, 60, 67,

177, 179

H e nr y I V, K i ng o f F r an c e 99, 154, 196

H e nr y V I II , K i ng o f E n gl a nd 72, 89

H e r ma n , N i c o la s 47–8

H e r ol d , J o h a nn e s 14, 17

H e yd e n, G a sp a r v a n d e r 176

H o l be i n , H a n s 102

Holland 93, 197

H o p k in s , J o h n 64Horace 86

Hotm an, Fra nc ois 180

humanism 43, 81, 85, 89, 92

Hungary 185

H u r au l t , M i c h el 154

H u s, J a n 208, 215

Hussites 53–4

hymns 40, 45, 55, 64, 75, 187

indulgences 25, 76–7, 132, 135, 153, 163,

164, 167, 202

I n d u lg en ce P ed l ar, T h e 84, 85

inns 41, 50, 69, 97, 198

iconoclasm 6, 31, 37, 60, 212

Italy 12, 16, 42, 77, 134, 141, 209

Jeremiah 24

Jerome of Prague 208

Jeune, Claude de 192 Jews 79, 100, 118, 182

Joachimstal 28, 47–9, 215

John the Baptist 24

John the Constant, Elector of Saxony 125

Jonas, Justus 20

Judas Iscariot 85

j u s t if i c a ti o n b y f a i t h 4, 5, 26, 49, 51, 169

Kampen 70

Kappel 21K a r ls t a d t, A n d r ea s 29–30, 31, 32, 44

Karsthans 114 , 117

K a th a ri n a v o n B o ra 126

King Johne 90

Kirchmeyer, Thomas 85, 87

K n ox , J o hn 24, 31

234 Index



Languedoc 195

L as c o, J oh n a 62

L a ss u s , R o la n d d e 192

Latimer, Hugh 208

L a u d , Wi l l ia m , A r c hb i s h o p 74

Lausanne 176

Lefev r e d ’ E ta p l e s, J a c q u es 192

L e i c e st e r, E a r l o f 96

Leiden 198

Leipzig 17, 51, 134, 135, 165, 168

Lent 80

L e o X 84, 109

libel 72

Limoges 33

Livy 89Lollards 208

London 63, 73, 189, 207

b o o k p r o d uc t i on 130, 133, 134

Stationers’ Company 73

theatre 74, 96

L o r r ai n e , C a r d in a l o f 67, 180

Lotter, Melchior 135, 138, 139

L o ui s X II 91

L o ui s e o f S a vo y e 91

Louvain 192

L o w C o u n tr i e s see Netherlands

Lucerne 76

L u ff t , H a n s 136

Luther, Martin 1, 3 , 4, 5–6, 10, 17, 26, 30,

31–2, 102, 122, 125, 134, 156 , 166,

181, 183, 184, 192, 202, 207, 215

i m ag e s o f 103–4, 111, 112–13, 114

o n d r am a 81–2, 86, 87

o n m u si c 41, 43–54Postils 15

preaching 10, 12, 17–20, 21, 24, 25

Turmerlebnis 4

writings 116, 141, 142, 146, 163–5,

173, 189

L u t h er a n c h u r c he s 40, 96, 98, 105, 111,

185, 187, 215

Lyon 59, 68–9, 145, 154, 181

p r i nt i n g i n d u s tr y 141, 145, 178

Magdeburg 44, 87

Magdeburg Centuriators 202

Mainz 51, 76, 209

M a n u el , N i k la u s 84–5, 88

M a rg a re t o f P a rm a 215

M a r g ue r i te o f N a v a rr e 55, 92, 119

Marlowe, Christopher 99

M a rn i x d e S t e A l de g on d e, P h il i p 71

M a r ot , C l ement 55–6, 58, 59, 64, 68

marriage 19

martyrologies 2

M a ry , Q u ee n o f E n gl a nd 62, 72, 91, 203

M a ry , Q u ee n o f S c ot s 180

Mass 15, 21, 27, 30, 33, 40, 42–3, 44, 47,

55, 67, 69, 72, 153, 181, 197, 201, 214

M a t he s i u s, J o h a n 47–8

M a ur i ce o f S a xo n y 52

Meaux 66, 145

Melanchthon, Philip 20, 29–30, 82, 87, 88,

126, 208

M e l v il l e , A n d r ew 64–5Metz 145

M i c he l , J e a n 79, 142

Milan 13

monks 21, 83, 84, 111, 125, 167

Montpellier 31, 195

Montauban 145, 195, 196

M o re , S i r T h om as 100

M o r na y, P h i l ip p e d u P l e s si s 196

Moses 68

Munday, Anthony 98

Munster 33, 209

Muntzer, Thomas 28, 32, 44

Murner, Thomas 114

Netherlands 13, 33, 37, 38, 62, 65, 69,

77, 89, 93, 105–6, 144, 149, 159,

171–9, 185, 196, 202

p r i nt i n g i n d u st r y 133

Neuchatel 143Nımes 31, 195, 196

Nordlingen 53

N o r ma n d ie , L a u r en t d e 59, 145

Normandy 34, 61

Norway 38

Norwich 90

nuns 84

Nuremberg 45, 46, 50, 51, 82, 111, 134,

164, 166, 209

Oecolampadius, Johannes 156

Oldenburg 46

O l i ve t a n , R o b e rt 143 , 192

ordination 22

Orleans 145, 178, 179, 211

Overijssel 153

Index 235



Ovid 121

Oxford 130

pamphlets 112, 133, 149, 159, 177, 216

Paris 4, 67, 79, 129, 133–4, 145, 176,

194–5

Parlement 66, 67, 172, 174

p r i nt i n g i n d u st r y 58, 59, 130, 134, 160,

172, 174, 192

university 172

Pau 145

P a u l , S a i n t 4, 207

Peasants’ War 32, 53

penance 16

penitence 16P h i l ip I I 177 , 185

P i c c ol o m i ni , A e n e u s S i l v iu s 108

p i l g ri m s ’ t o k e ns 116, 215

Plato 43

P o i s s y, C o l l oq u y o f 59

p o o r r e l i ef 197

Portugal 209

P o y n e t, J o h n 72

predestination 33

p r ie s th o od o f a l l b e li e ve r s 32

privilege 59, 131, 132, 147, 149

prophecies 72, 191

Prophezei 34

psalms 40–1, 46, 51, 55, 68–9, 70, 75, 143,

176, 187, 190, 192

Purgatory 30

puys 93

R a b u s , L u d w ig 203R a e m on d , F l o r im o n d d e 24, 25

Rederijkers (C h a mb e r s o f R h e t or i c ) 72, 80,

93, 198, 214

Regensburg 209

R ei n E v a n g el i u m 19, 27, 58, 94, 111, 112,

167, 169, 174

Reims 145

Renaissance 42–3

R e ve l at i on , b o ok o f 212

Rhau-Grunenberg, Johann 135R i d le y , N i c o la s 208

romances 118, 121, 133

Rome 130, 134, 168, 215

R o ns a rd , P i er re d e 61, 68

Rostock 46

Rouen 34, 59, 60, 181

R u by s , C l au d e d e 154

Rut e , H a n s v o n 86

Sabbath 198

S a c h s , H a n s 46, 51, 52, 82, 84, 167–8

sacraments 28, 94

S t A l ba n s 130

S t A n d r ew s 31, 215

S t B a r th o l o me w ’s D a y m a s s a cr e 144, 182,

185, 186, 195

S t M a r ga r e t 161

S t S t e p he n 206

saints 21, 28, 33, 50, 79, 93, 111, 172, 215

salvation 1, 3–4, 26, 48, 73, 86, 94,

112, 114Saulnier, Antoine 67

Savonarola 13, 16–17, 24

Savoy 141

Saxony 26, 135, 165, 189

S c h e ul , C o n r ad 164

S c h i nk e l , H a r m en 178

S c h m al k a l di c L e a g u e 202

schools 197

Scotland 31, 35, 38, 64, 65, 185, 186, 201

Scripture 169, 174

Shrewsbury 90

Sisteron 145

S l e id a n , J o h a nn 202–3

Slut e r, J o a c hi m 46

S o me r se t , D u ke o f 207

Sorbonne 55, 181

Southwark 97, 100

Spain 52, 70, 134, 185, 209

S p a l at i n , G e o r g 41, 136Spengler, Lazarus 166–8

S t a u pi t z , J o h a nn e s 17

Steenwijk 70

S t e rn h o l d, T h o ma s 64

Strasbourg 22, 29–30, 47, 55, 58, 62,

65, 76

Sweden 47

Swiss Confederation 14, 82

taverns see innsTerence 81, 82

Tetzel, Johannes 165

theatre 198

tithes 21, 27, 30

Toledo 61

Toulouse 67, 196

236 Index



transubstantiation 114

Turk 20, 36, 122, 186

U d a l l, N i c o la s 91

usury 27

U t e n ho v e , J a n 62, 65

Utrecht 153

Va l A n to i ne d u 182

Wesel 65

Westminster 130

Whittingham, William 65

Wi l l ia m o f O r a n ge 71, 100

Wittenberg 10, 17–18, 20, 25, 26, 28, 31,

32, 43, 44, 54, 81–2, 85, 87, 125,

126–7, 141, 146, 165, 168 , 170

p r i nt i n g i n d u st r y 140, 144, 147, 168

University 135 140

Index 237