A Glossary of US Politics and Government

P O L I T I C S G L O S S A R I E S

Cover design: Cathy Sprent

Edinburgh University Press22 George Square Edinburgh EH8 9LF

www.eup.ed.ac.uk

ISBN 0 7486 2253 5

P O L I T I C S G L O S S A R I E S

Series Editor: Keith FaulksGlossaries in this series provide brief, clear and convenient A–Z guides to the central concepts of the various branches of politics. They are thorough, authoritative and concise reference works which offer clear and consistent coverage of both traditional and contemporary terminology.

Volumes in the series provide:

• Dedicated coverage of particular topics within politics• Coverage of key terms and major figures• Practical examples of the terms defined• Cross-references to related terms

Alex Thomson

A GLOSSARY OF

A Glossary of US Politics & GovernmentAlex Thomson

This glossary explains the key concepts, institutions, personalities and events most commonly referred to in the teaching of US politics and government. The emphasis is on accessibility in order to provide students with a ready source of knowledge which can supplement core reading. The book will help students to address any gaps they may have in their understanding of US politics which, in turn, will make studying this fascinating subject all the more rewarding and enjoyable.

Alex Thomson is Principal Lecturer in Politics at Coventry University. His previous publications include Incomplete Engagement: US Foreign Policy Towards the Republic of South Africa (1996), An Introduction to African Politics (2000; second edition 2004) and (as co-author) Get Set for Politics (Edinburgh University Press, 2003).

US POLITICS& GOVERNMENT

EdinburghUS POLITICS & GOVERN

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A GLOSSARY OF US POLITICSAND GOVERNMENT

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Politics Glossaries

Series Editor: Keith Faulks

This series introduces key terms within the core subject areas ofpolitics. The aim is to provide a brief, clear and convenient A–Zguide to the central concepts of the various branches of politics.

The series provides thorough, authoritative and concise ref-erence works which offer clear and consistent coverage ofboth traditional and contemporary terminology. Students andteachers of politics at all levels of study will find the booksinvaluable, though the books are aimed primarily at readersnew to a subject area. In addition to appealing to mainstreampolitics students, the series will also appeal to those studyingcourses in sociology, journalism, media studies and socialpolicy that include elements of politics.

Volumes in the series provide:

■ Dedicated coverage of particular topics within politics■ Coverage of key terms and major figures■ Practical examples of the terms defined■ Cross-references to related terms

Titles in the series include:

John Hoffman, A Glossary of Political TheoryAlistair Jones, A Glossary of the European UnionAlex Thomson, A Glossary of US Politics and GovernmentDuncan Watts, A Glossary of UK Government and Politics

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A Glossary of US Politicsand Government

Alex Thomson

Edinburgh University Press

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© Alex Thomson, 2007

Edinburgh University Press Ltd 22 George Square, Edinburgh

Typeset in 10.5/13 Sabon byServis Filmsetting Ltd, Manchester, andprinted and bound in Great Britain by

Cox & Wyman Ltd, Reading

A CIP record for this book isavailable from the British Library

ISBN 978 0 7486 2804 9 (hardback)ISBN 978 0 7486 2253 5 (paperback)

The right of Alex Thomson to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with

the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

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Contents

Preface vi

A Glossary of US Politics and Government 1

Appendix A Presidents and Vice Presidents of the United States 188

Appendix B Chief Justices of the United States 192Appendix C Historic Strength of Political Parties

within the US Federal Government 193

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Preface

The United States houses one of the most intricate systems ofgovernment in the world, and produces politics of a complexnature. As a result, to understand this political arena, oneneeds to take on board many variables: the functions of awhole host of individual institutions; key political events thathave occurred over some 250 years; individuals who haveshaped this history; and the numerous expressions scholarshave ‘coined’ in order to explain this political system. Thismay seem daunting at first. One has to sort out the legislativebranch from the executive branch, and then work out wherethe Supreme Court resides in this political dispensation. Thisis before one realises that the federal government is only partof the equation, and that there are fifty other sovereign gov-ernments in the USA: those belonging to the individual states.And then there are the people and organisations that inhabitthis system of government (politicians, political parties, inter-est groups, government departments, courts, independentagencies, and so on). Not to mention methods of represent-ation, in terms of general elections, primary elections, recallvotes, state initiatives, lobbying and so forth. One needs somekind of mental map in order to put all these fragments of gov-ernment and politics back together, to gain an overall picture.Most use the US constitution as the starting point for drawingthis map. And the constitution itself introduces a plethora ofphrases that need to be understood (the commerce clause,denied powers, strict construction – again the list goes on). If

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you are serious about wanting to comprehend US politics andgovernment there is a lot to learn.

The good news is that assistance is at hand: literally. Thisbook is specifically designed to help you understand the aboveevents, institutions and terminology, and many more keywords and phrases besides. It is not a comprehensive andexhaustive twelve-volume encyclopaedia of everything relatedto US politics and government, nor is it meant to be a substi-tute for the vast literature of books and articles published onthis subject. Additionally, it is not a general political dictio-nary. There are no non-US-specific entries, such as ‘democ-racy’ in general or a broad consideration of ‘socialism’. Thebook is, instead, dedicated to terms that provide a good start-ing point for a journey into the politics of this part of theworld.

A Glossary of US Politics and Government works bestwhen read alongside other texts. It will help newcomers to thissubject understand a phrase or concept they come across intheir other reading, while more knowledgeable scholars canuse the entries in this book to clarify or remind themselvesabout a term previously encountered. Once you have lookedup a word, and satisfied yourself of its meaning, you can thenreturn to studying the key texts. However, having said this,there is nothing to stop you browsing. Inevitably with glos-saries, one often finds oneself following a path, with one entryleading to another: separation of the powers leads to SupremeCourt, which leads to Brown v. Board of Education, 1954,which leads to civil rights movement, and so on. Glossarybrowsing is a great way to build up knowledge of a subject,but remember, the best way to learn is to eventually get backto the key texts! This book is only designed to give snap-shots,helping you digest more comprehensive volumes.

So, what is actually in this book? Well, it is a collection of500 or so explanations of often-used terms and phrases foundin the study of US politics and government. These are listed

PREFACE vii

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in strict alphabetical order. The entries have been selectedaround four themes: institutions, historical events, expres-sions and personalities. Enough information is given to helpone understand an issue, but the entries are deliberatelyconcise in order not to bog the reader down with too manyfacts and detain them too long. Remember, the book is a com-panion to other recommended reading, not a substitute for it.

In addition to the 500 or so entries that make up the vastbulk of this book are three appendices: ‘US Presidents andVice Presidents’, ‘US Supreme Court Chief Justices’, anddetails of the US Congress since this body’s first session. Thesetables can be referred to when you need to confirm who wasPresident or Chief Justice when, and which political partycontrolled the US Congress or the White House at a certainpoint in history. These are the types of sources that even themost experienced scholar of US politics has to turn to everynow and then: when they forget which President succeededWilliam Henry Harrison in 1841, for example, after he diedin office. In times of need or forgetfulness, we all need aidememoires, such as the present book.

I also thought it would be useful to include the URLs ofwebsites at the end of selected glossary entries. These are theofficial home-pages of the institutions concerned: the USSenate, for example, or the National Rifle Association. TheseURLs, however, have been confined to official sites. Readersmay wish to search beyond these particular web pages,seeking a more critical view of these institutions. Similarly,one or two entries include further reading recommendations.Such recommendations have only been given when a specificbook is mentioned in the text. Rather than overwhelm readerswith several suggested books for each individual glossaryentry, it would probably be better to start with a holistic view,and consult a couple of good text books instead. Twovolumes, in particular, come highly recommended: GeorgeMcKay’s American Politics and Society (Oxford: Blackwell,

viii PREFACE

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2005), and The Irony of Democracy, written by Thomas R.Dye and Harmon Zeigler (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2005).The former is a good solid introductory text, written by aBritish-based author, useful to American and non-Americanscholars alike, while the latter is a (self sub-titled) ‘uncommonintroduction’ to the US system, offering a slightly more radicaltwist.

To assist the reader, all the entries in the glossary are cross-referenced. If you need further information about a topic, youcan simply follow the cross-references to other sections of thebook. Any entry in this glossary that appears within thedescription of another word or phrase is highlighted like so.

If you use the above tools, what starts out to be a dauntingand complex task, with a bit of effort, soon becomes easierand more straightforward. For, although the US system isintricate, it is also one of the most logical political dispensa-tions in the world. I hope this glossary will help you to unravelthis logic, and above all, I hope this book contributes to yourenjoyment of this political system.

My thanks go to Roy Perry, Jacques Gallagher, Janice Ellis,and Keith Faulks for their suggestions which have improvedthis book.

ARTManchester, 2006

PREFACE ix

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A Glossary of US Politics and Government

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A

abolitionists Those seeking to abolish slavery. Althoughthere had always been voices raised against the insti-tution of slavery, the opposition campaign became moreprominent from the 1830s onwards. Abolition was nowfirmly on the political agenda of the United States, if byno means the majority view. Newspapers such asWilliam Lloyd Garrison’s The Liberator and FrederickDouglass’ Northern Star popularised the movement’sdemands. Many abolitionists were involved in an‘underground railway’, a network of paths and safe-houses helping slaves to escape to Canada, and freedom.It would eventually take the civil war to bring about theabolitionists’ demands. President Abraham Lincolnmade his ‘Emancipation Proclamation’ in 1863, and theend of slavery was confirmed by the ThirteenthAmendment to the US constitution in 1865.

affirmative action Measures that positively discriminate, pro-viding opportunities to previously disadvantaged groupsin society. After the civil rights movement had won victo-ries securing equal political rights and desegregation forAfrican-Americans, attention began to turn to addressingsocial inequalities. Discrimination had denied African-Americans, and other minorities, opportunities in theworkplace and access to public services. Affirmativeaction is about redressing this imbalance. The MedicalSchool of the University of California at Davis in the mid-1970s, for example, attempted to increase the number ofits ‘minority’ graduates by setting admissions quotas.Sixteen of one hundred places were to be reserved forminority students. However, Allan Bakke, a white appli-cant, was denied admission to the School in both 1973 and1974, even though his test scores and grades were better


than most of those admitted through the affirmative actionprogram. His case went to the Supreme Court, and in thejudgment Regents of the University of California v. Bakke,1978 the justices ruled that such a rigid quota system wasunconstitutional: Bakke himself had been discriminatedagainst. Legally, affirmative action cannot reward an indi-vidual simply because of their race. A student from aminority group may be preferred over one from the major-ity with better grades because of their unique character orbackground, or in order to create diversity on a course, butnot solely on racial grounds. Each case has to be judgedindividually on its own merits.

AFL-CIO see American Federation of Labor and Congress ofIndustrial Organizations

Agnew, Spiro (1918–96) A former Republican governor ofMaryland, Spiro Agnew (born Spiro Anagnostopoulos)was Vice President of the United States between 1969 and1973. He resigned from this post as a result of tax irregu-larities and bribery allegations. He later pleaded ‘nocontest’ to criminal charges of tax evasion. His resignationtriggered the provisions of the Twenty-fifth Amendment tothe US constitution, whereby senator, and later President,Gerald Ford, became Richard Nixon’s Vice President. Thediscredit Agnew bestowed upon this administration was aforerunner to the Watergate scandal that eventually led toNixon’s own resignation in 1974.

Air Force One The aeroplane dedicated to transporting thePresident and presidential staff on official business. ‘AirForce One’ is the radio call-sign used when the Presidentis on board.

amendments, constitutional see constitutional amendments

4 US POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT A–Z


American exceptionalism The idea that the United States hasa unique, relatively homogeneous society and culture,based upon ideas of liberty, individualism and populism.Scholars and politicians alike have used this notion ofexceptionalism to explain various aspects of Americanhistory: the failure, for example, of this country todevelop deeper social fault lines between the interests ofcapital and labour. This perceived exceptionalism hasprompted many Americans to believe they have a supe-rior culture to others around the world. Most Americanscertainly consider the US to be a unique bastion offreedom, while many contend the values of this excep-tionalism should be exported abroad.

American Federation of Labor and Congress of IndustrialOrganizations (AFL-CIO) The AFL-CIO was createdin 1955 by the merger of the American Federation ofLabor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations toform the most influential trades union institution in theUnited States. Individual unions affiliated to this organi-sation currently represent a total of 9 million Americanworkers (including some in Canada, Mexico andPanama). As well as addressing workers’ interests at theshop-floor level, this organisation, although not aspowerful as comparable European union federations,actively lobbies and sponsors candidates at all levels of USgovernment. Internal disputes have occasionally weak-ened the AFL-CIO. In 1957, for example, the Teamsters,the United States biggest union, were expelled from theorganisation after allegations of corruption and labourracketeering, while the United Automobile Workers with-drew in 1968, due to complaints that the AFL-CIO wasnot radical enough. Both these unions reaffiliated duringthe 1980s. Despite these reaffiliations, the AFL-CIO hasseen a declining membership since a peak of 17 million

US POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT A–Z 5


represented workers in the late 1970s. In 2005, theorganisation hit another crisis with the Teamsters yetagain disaffiliating, along with several other large unions,seeking to create a more modern labour movement.

Website: http://www.aflcio.org

anti-federalists Those who opposed the ratification of the USconstitution in the late 1780s. Although many of theseindividuals conceded that the United States needed a morecentralised government than had been the case under theArticles of Confederation, they considered the constitu-tion negotiated by the Founding Fathers to cede too muchpower from the states to the new federal government.They were particularly concerned about the role of thePresident as Commander in Chief and chief diplomat; thepower of the judiciary; the federal government’s ability toraise taxes; Congress’ rights with the implied powers; andthat federal legislators would be too distant from theirconstituents. Despite these fears, ultimately, federalist, notanti-federalist, arguments prevailed. Only two of the thir-teen states voted against ratification (Rhode Island andNorth Carolina), and by 1790 all thirteen states hadadopted the constitution as penned in Philadelphia. Anti-federalist arguments addressing the constitution’s lack ofprotection for individual liberty, however, were recog-nised. In 1791, the first ten amendments to the US consti-tution, collectively known as the Bill of Rights, wereratified, providing such protection.

appellant A party who appeals the decision of the lower courtof law to a higher authority.

appellate court A court of law that has the power to reviewthe decision of a lower court. The Supreme Court is thehighest appellate authority in the United States.



appointment power The US constitution gives the Presidentof the United States the right to staff the offices ofthe executive branch within the federal government.The president will select those who will serve in thehigher-ranking positions within his or her administra-tion (such as cabinet members, ambassadors, militaryofficers, and over 1,000 deputy and assistant secre-taries). Lower-ranking officials within the executivebranch will be employed by department heads, underthe authority of the President. The President’s appoint-ment powers also require the chief executive to selectjustices to the Supreme Court and lower courts, whenthese positions become vacant. In order to preserve thesystem of checks and balances, presidential nominationsfor these posts are usually subject to confirmation bythe US Senate. Governors, as chief executives withinstate governmental systems, hold similar appointmentpowers.

appropriation The allocation of money for a specific purpose.All spending by the federal government has to havereceived prior approval by the US Congress. Resourcesavailable to the executive branch will usually be allocatedby the House of Representatives Committee onAppropriations.

Appropriations Committee see House of RepresentativesCommittee on Appropriations

arms for hostages scandal see Irangate

Articles of Confederation Effectively, the initial constitutionof the United States, regulating political cooperationbetween the ex-colonies from 1781 to 1789. TheArticles were drawn up in the early revolutionary period



by a committee of the Continental Congress. Fearful ofa strong central government, the Articles carefully out-lined what the national government could and could notdo, making sure that the rights of the thirteen statesremained paramount. Although the national govern-ment could raise an army, regulate a postal service, minta national currency, and oversee the expansion into thewestern territories, the states devolved little of their sov-ereignty. There would be no tax-raising powers for thenew central government (and thus no independentsource of revenue), nor provision for a separate execu-tive or judicial branch. Similarly, the United States couldonly declare war or agree foreign treaties if nine of thethirteen states approved the national government’s deci-sion to do so. After considerable debate, the Articles ofConfederation came into force upon their ratificationby Maryland in 1781. Despite this document’s aim ofcreating a ‘perpetual union’ between the thirteen states,the Articles failed to underpin an effective confedera-tion. The national government lacked power to settletrading disputes between the individual states, or to rep-resent them in the international area. States repeatedlyfailed to fund the central government adequately, inparticular preventing the United States from honouringits debts to those who had assisted the War ofIndependence. Realising that a stronger national gov-ernment was required, the Articles of Confederationwere superseded by the Constitution of the United Statesin 1789.

Attorney General The primary legal advisor to a government.In the federal system, the US Attorney General is alsothe administrative head of the Department of Justice. Thepost was established by the Judiciary Act of 1789 at therequest of President George Washington. As well as being



a key post within the federal government, each individualstate also has its own Attorney General.

Website: http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/index.html

B

Balanced Budget and Emergency Deficit Control Act, 1985see national debt

Bay of Pigs An invasion of Cuba, by Cuban exiles, plannedand funded by the administrations of Dwight D.Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy. The US sought to over-throw the socialist regime of Fidel Castro, and establisha pro-western regime in Havana. This 1961 invasionfailed catastrophically and severely embarrassed theKennedy Administration.

bellwether state An individual state that reflects the politicaloutlook of the nation as a whole. For example, if the citi-zens of Florida narrowly voted in favour of a RepublicanParty presidential candidate at a general election, and thisRepublican nominee did indeed narrowly take the WhiteHouse after all the votes nationwide were counted,Florida would be termed a bellwether state. The wordbellwether derives from the name given to the leadingsheep of a flock, which traditionally wore a bell, encour-aging others to follow it.

Beltway see Washington Beltway

bi-cameral legislature A two-chambered parliament. Thebi-cameral system traditionally evolved to represent twodifferent interests in the legislative process. In the case ofthe United Kingdom, there is a House of Lords, originally



established to reflect the views of landed society, and aHouse of Commons, representing other classes. In the USCongress, the two chambers are the Senate and the Houseof Representatives. The Senate was originally establishedto represent the interests of the states, while the Housewas to reflect popular opinion.

Bill of Rights The collective name given to the first tenamendments to the US constitution. During the ratifica-tion process of the original constitution, in the late 1780s,anti-federalists, and others, argued that this documentdid not make enough provision for individual rights.There was a danger that too much power would flow tothe new federal government, at the expense of the statesand individual citizens. Therefore, in order to secure rati-fication, it was agreed that additional clauses addressingthese concerns would be tabled with all due haste.Ratification of ten constitutional amendments was com-pleted by the states during 1791.

Collectively, the Bill of Rights deters governments in theUnited States from attempting to legislate away individualfreedoms. It identifies certain inalienable rights enjoyed byall US citizens: the so-called denied powers. The FirstAmendment, for example, states that Congress cannotpass laws that curtail Americans’ right of free speech,freedom of association, or the ability to practise religion.

The Bill of Rights also identifies certain standards thatgovernments in the United States have to adhere to whendealing with their citizens. Legally, for example, there mustbe ‘probable cause’ before individuals are arrested or havetheir property searched by the authorities (FourthAmendment). Similarly, citizens have a right to the ‘dueprocess of law’, including trial by jury, not being tried forthe same crime twice, the right to silence and legal repre-sentation, and not being forced to stand witness against


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themselves (amendments five, six and seven). Amendmenteight protects criminals from excessive legal recourse whenfound guilty, including ‘crewel and unusual punishments’.

Amendments two and three reflect the era in which theBill of Rights was penned. Individuals are protected fromgovernments unreasonably billeting soldiers in privateproperty, while citizens are encouraged to form militiasto provide for the nation’s security. Controversially in themodern era, the Second Amendment also permits indi-viduals the right to ‘keep and bear arms’. What wasdeemed essential for militias and national security in theeighteenth century is now seen by some as a scourge ofUS society. Today, many interpret this amendment asauthorising US citizens to own private weapons.

The idea that the Bill of Rights was about creatinglimited government, where powers reserved to individ-uals and the states cannot be abridged by the federal gov-ernment, is confirmed in amendments nine and ten.Amendment nine makes clear that the enumerated rightsarticulated in the constitution should not be regarded bythe federal government to be the sum total of individualrights in the United States, while the Tenth Amendmentcategorically asserts that any power not specifically dele-gated to the federal government by the constitutionremains reserved respectively to the states or the people.With the Bill of Rights appended to the original constitu-tion in 1791, the above provisions resulted in anti-feder-alists having many of their demands to curtail the powerof the federal government met.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act, 2002 Legislation address-ing the use of soft money in election campaigns. Althoughearlier legislation (see Federal Election Campaign Act,1971) had attempted to restrict the sums federal candi-dates could spend on campaigns, loopholes had been



exploited and considerable amounts of soft money con-tinued to be spent by or on behalf of campaigns. In par-ticular, the Supreme Court decision of Buckley v. Valeo,1976 created a supportive environment for soft money.The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (also known as‘McCain-Feingold’ after its Senate sponsors) closedseveral of these loopholes. Similarly, the act provides fora stricter legal definition of what an election campaignadvertisement is. Before, as long as an advertisement didnot overtly call upon the public to vote for a specific can-didate, it could be classed as an ‘issue ad’ rather than oneassociated with a particular campaign. Elections in the1990s, as a result, became typified by numerous negativeissue advertisements being broadcast, criticising oppos-ition candidates, as these could be paid for by soft money.Since the legislation, any advertisement aired withinthirty days of a primary election or sixty days of a generalelection, which is targeted at a voting constituency, nowconstitutes an electioneering communication. In order tooffer a degree of compensation for the loss of this softmoney, the sum of hard money that individual citizensand groups can donate to a campaign was doubled. As aresult of McCain-Feingold, the 2004 general election sawcandidates concentrating on raising record amounts ofhard money to pay for their campaigns, and less influencebeing bought with soft money. Controversy continued tosurround the use of soft money, however, with the growthof 527 groups.

bipartisanship Where Republicans and Democrats cometogether, setting aside party interests, to work for thecommon good.

Black Panther Party Founded in 1966, this party ori-ginated as a self-help movement organised amongst



African-Americans in Oakland, California. Memberspatrolled the ghettos of this city protecting residents frominstances of police brutality. The Black Panthers laterdeveloped into a radical ‘black power’ party, withMarxist leanings. They advocated, amongst other poli-cies, the exemption of black Americans from compulsorymilitary service, and the payment of compensation to allAfrican-Americans for years of exploitation at the handsof their white compatriots. The Black Panthers alsoorganised a number of social programmes amongstAfrican-American communities, including the distribu-tion of food to the poor. At its height, in the late 1960s,the Black Panther Party was active in a number of citiesacross the United States, and had some 2,000 members.The party’s advocacy of practising armed self-defence,and harassment by local police forces, however, led to anumber of shoot-outs, and members being imprisoned.These events effectively ended the Black Panther Party’spolitical potency in the early 1970s.

blanket primary A primary election where candidates fromall parties are on the same ballot paper. Normally, votersare asked to participate in a ballot involving candidatesfrom just one party (a closed primary).

block grant A sum of money provided by the federal govern-ment to state and local governments, or other organisa-tions, accompanied by only broad specifications on howthese funds should be spent. A block grant may be givenfor welfare or housing provision, for example, but recipi-ents will have considerable latitude as to which specificservices this money is allocated. With support for newfederalism growing since the 1970s, block grants havegradually become a more popular way of allocatingfederal money to the states. The autonomy the states have



in spending these funds, to a degree, negates the dangerof federal dominance. However, it does remain the casethat the states rely heavily on federal revenue to balancetheir budgets.

Blue Dog Democrats A group of conservative, southernDemocratic Party members of Congress who supported,across party lines, the economic policies of theRepublican Party President Ronald Reagan during the1980s. The blue dog moniker is a derivation of the earlierterm yellow dog Democrat combined with references tothe work of the artist George Rodrigue, well known inLouisiana for paintings featuring an unusual blue dog.The Blue Dog Democrat group can be seen as des-cendents of the boll weevils, conservative, traditionalDemocrats who occasionally have more in common withmoderate Republicans than they do with the northern,more liberal wing of their own party.

blue state A state where the majority of the electorate supportthe Democratic Party. Given that the United States has atwo-party system, results of an election are often por-trayed on a national map where the fifty states are eithercoloured blue (Democratic) or red (Republican) accord-ing to the party affiliation of the winning candidate.

boll weevils The collective slang name given to traditional,more conservative southern Democrats, who occasion-ally are at odds with the more liberal, northern wing ofthe Democratic Party. These southern politicians arethe direct descendants of a time when the DemocraticParty dominated the south of the United States. Theseconservatives tended to oppose ‘big-government’ andchampion states’ rights. Indeed, southern Democrats,unwilling to be dictated to by the federal government, led



the southern states into secession, and the civil war of the1860s. Northern Democrats joined with the Republicansin opposing the secession, and abolishing slavery. Therehas been tension between the two branches of theDemocratic Party ever since. In particular, during the civilrights era of the 1950s and 1960s, many southernDemocrats opposed the desegregation measures advo-cated by the party’s leadership. Boll weevil can beregarded as a pejorative term, as it the name of a pest thatdestroys the cotton plant.

Boston tea party An incident in 1773 where dissentersdumped chests of tea into Boston harbour. They wereprotesting at the British government’s imposition of a taxon tea in the colonies, and the British East IndiaCompany’s perceived monopoly on the sale of this com-modity. This was a case where the argument that thereshould be no taxation without representation was used.If the British government was to tax subjects in thecolonies, Americans demanded that they should enjoypolitical representation. The Boston tea party is seen asone of the preliminary acts of the War of Independence.

Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act, 1993 A Congres-sional act that requires licensed retailers of firearms toconduct background checks on individuals before sellingweapons to them. The legislation originally imposed awaiting period of up to five days between applying to pur-chase a gun and the actual sale. The Brady Act broughtthese measures to thirty-two states that had previouslyresisted such degrees of gun control. The success of theAct has been a topic of considerable debate, especiallysince many guns are acquired in the United States notfrom licensed dealers but from the ‘secondary’ market,while the five-day waiting period was replaced by an



‘instant’ national background check facility in 1998. Thebill was named after Jim Brady, former press secretary ofPresident Ronald Reagan, who was shot and seriouslywounded during an assassination attempt on thePresident in 1981.

bringing home the bacon see pork barrel politics

broad construction see flexible construction

Brown v. Board of Education, 1954 A Supreme Court decisionthat can be regarded as a major milestone in promotingracial equality in the United States. Despite the civil warbeing fought, and constitutional amendments enactedalmost one hundred years before this case, many southernstates still practised legally sanctioned racial discrimina-tion during the 1950s and 1960s. Being asked to judgewhether a local education board had the right to provideseparate schools for black and white children, the SupremeCourt ruled that such discrimination was unconstitu-tional. What is more, the judgment also stated that even ifa school board had made provision for both sets of chil-dren, ensuring an equal allocation of resources and oppor-tunities (which was not the case), separate provisionwould still be unconstitutional. As the text of the decisionstated, ‘separate educational facilities are inherentlyunequal’. This ruling established a precedent leaving awhole host of discriminatory public services open to legalchallenge, and marked the beginning of a (slow) desegre-gation process in the southern states over the next twodecades. Brown v. Board of Education represented the firstmajor victory for the American civil rights movement.

Buckley v. Valeo, 1976 A Supreme Court decision that ren-dered part of the Federal Election Campaign Act, 1971



(FECA) unconstitutional, having deemed the spending ofmoney a form of political expression. FECA had soughtto set an upper limit on how much money federal candi-dates could spend on an election campaign, and torestrict donations from individual citizens and organisa-tions to such campaigns. The appellants in this caseargued that such restrictions were a violation of firstamendment rights of free speech, and that the act shouldbe annulled. The Buckley v. Valeo judgment partiallyagreed with the appellants. One area where the Courtexpressed concern over infringements upon the FirstAmendment was the fact that FECA limited the amountof money a candidate could spend on their own cam-paign. After the Court gave its opinion, candidates werefree to spend much as they wanted on their election bid(unless they agreed to accept public funding, and the con-ditions attached to this). Equally, Buckley v. Valeo par-tially invalidated FECA with respect to campaigncontributions. Although the judgment supported restric-tions on direct donations to campaigns (hard money), theCourt ruled that US citizens and groups of citizens shouldnot be hindered in spending money on political activitiesindependent of these official campaigns. There should beno restrictions on the buying of airtime, for example, toexpress a view that did not directly advocate the electionof a candidate. This opened the way for the use of softmoney on issue advertisements.

Budget and Accounting Act, 1921 An act of Congress thatcentralised, and made more efficient, the federal budgetprocess. The act requires the President to submit toCongress a consolidated annual budget proposal andstatement on the US government’s finances. It also estab-lished the General Accounting Office, which was chargedwith auditing the government’s accounts. From this point



in time, the executive branch has taken the lead in settingthe federal government’s budget, albeit subject toCongressional approval. Previously, budget allocationswere determined by various Congressional committees,and were thus potentially too vulnerable to parochialpolitical deals struck between legislators.

budget deficit The amount to which a government’s spend-ing exceeds its income over a given period. A series ofbudget deficits from the 1970s onwards saw thenational debt of the United States rise to record levelsduring the 1980s and 1990s. As a consequence, thisdebt became a significant political issue. Several piecesof Congressional legislation have been passed in recentyears in an attempt to balance the federal budget,resulting in a number of years of budget surpluses bythe start of the twenty-first century. The national debtof the United States, however, still remains at histor-ically high levels. There have been a number of attemptsover the last decade to pass a constitutional amendmentrequiring the executive branch to maintain a balancedbudget.

Budget Enforcement Act, 1990 see national debt

Bull Moose Party The nickname of the Progressive Party.This alias derives from the party leader, TheodoreRoosevelt, who told reporters that he felt as strong as a‘bull moose’ on the occasion of the organisation’sinauguration.

Burger Court see Burger, Warren

Burger, Warren (1907–95) Having been active in RepublicanParty politics in the state of Minnesota, and served as



President Dwight Eisenhower’s Assistant AttorneyGeneral, Warren Earl Burger was President RichardNixon’s nominee for Chief Justice of the Supreme Courtin 1969. Nixon appointed Burger as a strict construc-tionist and a person who would exercise judicialrestraint. However, the Burger Court did not unleash acounter attack against the decisions of the previous, moreliberal, Warren Court, as many predicted. Although theBurger years can be characterised by a degree of conser-vatism, prominent judgements such as Roe v. Wade,1973, United States v. Nixon, 1974 and Regents of theUniversity of California v. Bakke, 1978 still emerged.Burger retired from the Court in 1986.

Bush, George (1924– ) George Herbert Walker Bush wasPresident of the United States between 1989 and 1993.Having made money in the oil industry, Bush started apolitical career in his home state of Texas, before movingon to serve several Republican Party Presidents inWashington DC. Prior to reaching the White House, hewas appointed Ambassador to the United Nations byRichard Nixon, he was Chair of the Republican NationalCommittee, Director of the Central Intelligence Agency,and was elected as Ronald Reagan’s Vice President in1980. Bush’s presidency can be categorised as moderatelyconservative, consolidating many initiatives of the earlyReagan administrations. In international affairs, Bushreadily used military force to secure US interests abroad,most notably acting to topple the Manuel Noriega regimein Panama during 1989, and leading an internationalcoalition that successfully resisted Saddam Hussein’s inva-sion of Kuwait in 1991. On the domestic front, Bushworked with the Congress to reduce the federal budgetdeficits, but he failed to get re-elected in 1992 due topopular dissatisfaction with the US economy, which had



entered recession. George Bush is the father of George W.Bush, who later also became President of the United states.

Bush, George W. (1946– ) George Walker Bush assumed thepresidency of the United States in January 2001, and waselected for a second term of office in 2004. The son of aformer President, George Bush, Bush junior followed hisfather into the Texas oil and gas industries after graduat-ing from Yale University, and service in the Air NationalGuard. Controversy surrounds this period of Bush’s life.Conflicting views exist over his military record during thetime of the Vietnam War, as well as his business dealings.Bush has also stated that he drank too much alcoholduring these years. However, having become a born-again Christian, Bush put this period of his life behindhim, and again followed in his father’s footsteps tobecome active in Texan politics. He served as governor ofthis state between 1995 and 2000.

In November 2000, Bush was elected President of theUnited States. Again, this event was surrounded by con-troversy. In an extremely close poll, Bush actually wonfewer popular votes than his opponent Al Gore, butgained the support of more delegates in the electoralcollege. Bush was confirmed President after the SupremeCourt, in its judgment Bush v. Gore, 2000, denied Gorethe right to a manual recount of votes cast in the state ofFlorida.

The acts of terrorism in New York City and WashingtonDC on 11 September 2001 dominated George W. Bush’syears in the White House. The administration’s response,the ‘War on Terror’, saw the United States lead militaryinvasions of first Afghanistan and then Iraq. Also part ofBush’s international agenda was the President’s refusal tosign the Kyoto environmental agreement aimed at tryingto stem global warming. His administration considered



the Kyoto protocols too damaging to US business interests.On the domestic front, the Bush Administration concen-trated on implementing tax cuts.

Bush v. Gore, 2000 A Supreme Court decision that effec-tively decided the outcome of the 2000 presidential elec-tion. The Court’s judgment terminated a manualre-count of ballot papers in Florida, resulting in the stateassigning its electoral college votes to George W. Bush,securing this candidate’s passage to the White House.This contest eventually hung on the ability of machinereaders in the state of Florida to efficiently detect chads(the hole made in a ballot paper punch card indicatinga voter’s intention). With the machine count being sotight (Bush beat Gore by just 327 votes) attention turnedto the punch cards themselves. It was found that manyhad not been pierced cleanly (so-called ‘hanging chads’)and thus had not been counted correctly. As a result, theGore camp argued that the result was unsafe, andrequested a manual count of the ballot cards. Electorallaw in the state of Florida, however, required a result tobe declared within seven days of the poll. After severalcourt cases contested between the Bush and Gorecamps, trying to establish whether Gore had the right toa manual recount or not, the matter arrived at theSupreme Court, which settled the issue in favour ofGeorge W. Bush.

C

cabinet The highest committee within the federal executivebranch, consisting of the President, Vice President anddepartment heads. A number of non-department headsmay also be given ‘cabinet-level rank’ and invited to



attend these meetings. Traditionally, the most powerfulcabinet members, after the President and Vice President,have been the Secretary of State, Secretary of theTreasury, Secretary of Defense and the Attorney General.Unlike the parliamentary systems of Europe, the UScabinet is very much only an advisory panel for the chiefexecutive. The President alone is responsible for decision-making, and there is not a ‘first amongst equals’ under-standing. The US constitution makes no mention of thecabinet, and its members have no powers independent ofthose of the President. Indeed, cabinet influence haswaned historically. In more recent times, Presidents havealso sought advice from alternative committees, such asthe National Security Council.

Cable Satellite Public Affairs Network see C-SPAN

Camp David The official country retreat of the US President,located in the Catoctin Mountains of Maryland, seventymiles from the White House. This residence is designedto be somewhere where Presidents may work more infor-mally, entertain, or simply relax. Most famously, CampDavid hosted the 1978 negotiations brokered byPresident Jimmy Carter where Israel and Egypt agreed apeace deal: the Camp David Accords.

campaign finance Candidates seeking public office in theUnited States spend enormous amounts of money. In the2004 presidential race, for example, the contestantsbetween them collected over US$880 million in dona-tions. This money was then spent on employing cam-paign managers (strategists, pollsters, media consultants,lawyers, and so on), organising political rallies, produc-ing electoral literature, and, most expensive of all, buyingair time to broadcast advertisements. The scale of the



funding available to a candidate determines the natureand scope of that politician’s campaign, and their abilityto get their message across to the electorate.

By the 1970s, concern had grown that too muchmoney had become involved in US politics. Organisedinterests (corporations, unions, and lobby groups, forexample) were able to make large donations to candi-dates, and the fear was that a contender could buy polit-ical office, rather than be elected by the people on thestrength of their ideas or character. Momentum for cam-paign finance reform began to build.

The Federal Election Campaign Act, 1971 was passedby Congress requiring candidates to officially disclosefrom whom they received their larger donations. The actwas then amended in 1974 to place a ceiling on howmuch a candidate could spend on their election, and tolimit the sum an individual or organisation could giveto any one candidate. This amendment was legallychallenged in the case of Buckley v. Valeo, 1976. TheSupreme Court supported the disclosure element of the1971 Act, but ruled that there could be no limit on whatcandidates could spend on their own campaign. Similarly,although the Court supported a ceiling on direct dona-tions to candidates (hard money), it stated that citizenswere not to be restricted from supporting political activ-ity where there is no explicit call for a candidate’s victoryor defeat. This latter argument encouraged large sums ofsoft money to be spent in US politics.

With candidates becoming more sophisticated duringthe 1980s and 1990s, in the way that they used softmoney to assist their campaigns, again pressure grew toreduce the influence of money in US elections. Congresseventually passed the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act,of 2002. This piece of legislation restricted the list ofactivities that soft money could be spent on, as well as



providing a tighter legal definition of what constituted anelection advertisement. Previously, candidates’ cam-paigns had benefited considerably from ‘issue ads’, paidfor by soft money, which, although they did not specifi-cally endorse any individual for office, encouragedviewers to make such a choice.

Effectively, the recent history of campaign finance hasbeen a series of reforms trying to limit the influence ofmoney in elections. These reforms have been successful,to a degree, in making campaign contributions transpar-ent, and reducing the potential of rich individuals andorganisations simply buying influence, but these aimsare still being undermined by candidates’ use of softmoney.

candidate-centred election Where candidates run for officehighlighting their own ideas and character, rather thanpromoting a party platform. Given the weaker influenceof political parties in the United States, when comparedto European countries, individual candidates are oftenthe focus of elections, rather than national party strate-gies or manifestos.

Capitol Building The building located on Capitol Hill, at theheart of Washington DC, which hosts the US Congress.Contained within this building are the chambers of theUS Senate and House of Representatives, and over 500other rooms that serve this legislature. The CapitolBuilding, especially its towering dome, has come to sym-bolise American democracy.

Capitol Hill A low hill on the Potomac River’s flood plainthat was designed to be at the very heart of WashingtonDC. The Capitol Building sits on top of this hill. Giventhat this area of Washington DC hosts the US Congress



and a number of its administrative buildings, the termCapitol Hill is occasionally used as a synonym for thewhole legislative branch of the federal government.

carpetbaggers Northern politicians who moved south afterthe civil war seeking election. They oversaw theRepublican Party’s programme of Reconstruction in theformer confederate states. The term carpetbaggers wascoined by disgruntled southern Democrats, who werehighlighting the fact these politicians had no roots in thecommunities they sought to serve, but instead had arrivedfrom the north with their possessions contained in thefashionable carpet-fabric bags of the period.

Carter, Jimmy (1924– ) James Earl Carter was President ofthe United States, holding office between January 1977and January 1981. After serving as a naval officer andrunning his family’s farm, Carter entered local politicsin Georgia, and was elected Governor of this state in1970. Being a political ‘outsider’, rather than aWashington DC ‘insider’, Carter’s presidency didmuch to restore respect in the Office of the Presidentafter Richard Nixon’s earlier resignation in disgrace.However, Carter’s domestic agenda, promoting civilrights and social reform, lacked prominent successesbecause of a hostile Congress, while his foreign policywas hampered when US citizens were taken hostageduring Iran’s Islamist revolution. The CarterAdministration also faced economic conditions of bothrelatively high inflation and high unemployment. Thisperceived lack of success paved the way for his defeat byRonald Reagan in the 1980 presidential election.Despite these setbacks, the Carter Administration didfacilitate the ground-breaking Camp David Accordssigned between Israel and Egypt in 1978.



categorical grants Federal funding given to state and localgovernments, or other organisations, where the use ofthis money is narrowly defined. Recipients do not havethe flexibility of spending associated with block grants. Itis often the case that recipients have to match a propor-tion of the funds given. The vast majority of federal aidis issued in the form of categorical grants.

caucus A meeting of members of a legislative body or politi-cal party. The US Congress, for example, has a numberof caucuses (for example, the Congressional BlackCaucus, Congressional Caucus on Women’s Issues, andthe Dairy Caucus). These forums provide the opportunityfor like-minded legislators to meet regularly to discusshow to promote a particular issue.

A number of states arrange party caucuses as an alter-native to the presidential primary election process. Localparty activists will meet precinct by precinct within thestate to choose delegates from amongst themselves toattend the national party conventions. Caucuses differfrom primary elections in that it is party activists withinthe state that decide who amongst the challengers shouldbe their party’s presidential candidate, rather thanholding a public poll, in which the general public can par-ticipate.

censure A formal rebuke of an individual or organisation forwrongdoing. Congress, for example, may pass a motionof censure against one of its own members or thePresident for inappropriate behaviour.

Central Intelligence Agency An agency of the federal govern-ment that is charged with gathering, analysing and dis-seminating intelligence related to US national security.Since it was established in 1947, the CIA has provided the



President, the National Security Council and other ele-ments of the US government with information identifyingpotential threats to the United States. The majority of theagency’s work is conducted covertly abroad, but the CIAis also involved in counter-intelligence activities on homesoil. The agency is not responsible for gathering criminalintelligence or military intelligence. This is the work ofthe Federal Bureau of Investigation and the DefenseIntelligence Agency respectively. In the wake of the ter-rorist attacks on New York City and Washington DC in2001, there were criticisms that the US intelligence com-munity was too disparate and lacked coordination. TheDepartment of Homeland Security was therefore estab-lished in 2002, specifically to counter terrorist and poten-tial terrorist activity in the United States, while a newco-ordinating post of Director of National Intelligencewas created two years later. A number of the CIA’s previ-ous responsibilities have been transferred to these newagencies.

Website: http://www.cia.gov

certiorari, writ of The order issued by the US Supreme Courtrequiring a lower court to submit details of a case, inorder that the Supreme Court can review its judgment.Effectively, a writ of certiorari indicates that the SupremeCourt is willing to hear an appeal. The Court receivesover 5,000 petitions for such writs annually, but onlyagrees to hear 5 per cent of these cases. A writ will beissued if four justices vote to hear an appeal (the so-called‘rule of four’). Certiorare is the Latin verb ‘to beinformed’.

chad The hole made in a ballot paper punch card indicatinga voter’s intention. Chads came to the attention of theworld during the 2000 general election, when George W.



Bush narrowly beat Al Gore to become President of theUnited States. This contest eventually hung on the abilityof machine readers in Florida to efficiently detect chads.With the machine count being so tight (Bush beat Goreby just 327 votes), attention turned to the punch cardsthemselves. It was found that many had not been piercedcleanly (so-called hanging chads) and thus not countedcorrectly. Consequently, the Gore camp argued that theresult was unsafe, and requested a manual count ofthe ballot cards. After a short period of legal wranglingin the lower courts, this request was denied by the USSupreme Court in its judgement Bush v. Gore, 2000.

Chappaquiddick see Kennedy, Edward

checks and balances A key underlying principle of the USsystem of government that prevents too much poweraccumulating with one individual or agency, thus avoid-ing tyranny. Checks and balances require different partsof the government to work constructively together. Thefact that the President, for instance, is Commander inChief of the US military is theoretically balanced by theconstitution stating that only Congress can declare war.Other examples of checks and balances include therequirement that both Congress and the President play arole in appointing Supreme Court justices and otherfederal officials, while amendments to the constitutionhave to be agreed by both the federal and state govern-ments. Even within individual branches of governmentone can find internal checks and balances. Legislationdoes not become law, for example, until it is agreed byboth the House of Representatives and Senate, and eventhen a bill has to receive the President’s approval (unlessthe chief executive’s veto is overruled by a two-thirdsmajority in Congress: another check). In summary,



checks and balances guarantee that no one individual oragency of government can act in isolation, with eachoffering scrutiny over the others’ actions.

chief diplomat Reference to the US President’s constitution-ally defined role requiring this individual to ‘maketreaties’ and ‘appoint ambassadors’. Building upon thisconstitutional foundation, the chief executive has alwaysplayed a prominent role in the foreign affairs of theUnited States. The President will meet other Heads ofState promoting American interests, and represent the USat any collective forum of world leaders. However, theconstitution, to preserve the system of checks and bal-ances, does require the Congress to ratify any treatiesnegotiated by the President.

chief executive A title (informal) often given to the Presidentof the United States, given that this individual heads theexecutive branch of the federal government.

Chief Justice The judge that presides over the Supreme Court,and is thus the head of the judicial branch of the federalgovernment. As well as overseeing the work of theSupreme Court, this individual is also required to offici-ate the oath at the President’s inauguration, and presideover any impeachment trial brought against the Presidentor Vice President. Despite this person’s senior position,the Chief Justice’s opinion only carries the same weightas his or her fellow Supreme Court justices. Likewise, theChief Justice is appointed in the same manner as the otherjustices. When the office becomes vacant, the President isfree to nominate an individual either already sitting onthe bench of the Supreme Court or another candidatefrom outside this institution. This nomination will thenbe considered by the Senate in a confirmation hearing.



Chief of Staff An individual appointed by the President tomanage the White House Office. This individual isresponsible for overseeing the work of presidential assist-ants and advisors, and managing the President’s diary. Inseveral administrations, the Chief of Staff became a verypowerful figure, especially as they acted as a ‘gate-keeper’, deciding who had access to the chief executive.In other administrations, the post held less significance.Indeed, presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B.Johnson failed to appoint an official Chief of Staff at all,while Jimmy Carter only did so towards the end of histerm of office.

Christian Right A collective term for conservative politicalactivists in the United States who consider traditionalreligious values to be at the heart of their politicaldemands. High on the agenda of the Christian Right area number of social issues, such as opposing abortion,euthanasia, genetic engineering, and gay rights. Manywithin this movement also wish to see religion play amore prominent role in US schooling, something cur-rently prohibited by the Supreme Court’s interpretationof the US constitution. The Christian Right, known morecommonly as the ‘moral majority’ at this time, developedas a political force during the 1970s. President RonaldReagan received considerable support from this con-stituency in the 1980s, whilst, more recently, PresidentGeorge W. Bush has also been associated with theChristian Right.

Christmas tree bill A legislative bill that has had so manyamendments attached to it, it can be likened to aChristmas tree adorned with numerous decorations.Usually considered towards the end of a legislativesession, many of the amendments attached involve the



allocation of funds that have little relation to the subjectof the original bill.

CIA see Central Intelligence Agency

Civil Rights Act, 1964 An act of Congress that attempted to enddiscrimination on the basis of race, colour, national originor religion in the United States. In particular, the act madeit illegal to discriminate in public spaces, in the workplace,and schools. The federal government considered it had theright to pass this legislation, and impose these conditionson the states, as all these specified categories were involvedwithin the federal jurisdiction of interstate commerce. Theact also addressed how states granted the franchise to theircitizens, and equal employment rights for women.

The 1964 Civil Rights Act was the first major piece offederal legislation to address the issue of segregation sincethe reconstruction period after the civil war. It came atthe height of the civil rights campaign seeking to estab-lish equality in the United States for African-Americans.Southern states still opposed integration, and manysouthern politicians continued to be elected on a segre-gationist ticket. Indeed, after these politicians had failedto block this legislation in the Congress, a legal challengeagainst the act was launched. In the Supreme Courtopinion of Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States, 1964,however, the Civil Rights Act was upheld.

The 1964 Civil Rights Act, combined with the VotingRights Act, 1965, and the earlier Supreme Court decisionof Brown v. Board of Education, 1954, can be regardedas the three key events in the federal government’sattempts to remove segregation from the United States.

civil rights movement A campaign seeking racial desegrega-tion in the southern region of the United States during the



1950s and 1960s, which then went on to address racialdiscrimination in the whole of the country. Although theabolitionists and the civil war had brought about the endof slavery in the United States, and civil rights had beengranted to all via the Fourteenth and FifteenthAmendments to the US constitution, African-Americansfailed to secure equal opportunities for a century afterthese events. Indeed, in the southern states, state lawactively discriminated against the black population. Bythe 1950s, organisations such as the NationalAssociation for the Advancement of Colored People andthe Southern Christian Leadership Conference were suc-cessfully challenging this state of affairs.

Landmark victories for the civil rights movementinclude: Brown v. Board of Education, 1954, with theSupreme Court ruling that segregation in schools wasunconstitutional; the 1955 Montgomery bus boycott inAlabama, which forced this city to integrate its publictransport network; President Eisenhower deployingfederal troops in 1957 to ensure African-American stu-dents could attend Little Rock Central High School inArkansas, defying the state governor’s efforts to stop this;the Civil Rights Act, 1964 that effectively enforced deseg-regation in public places; and the Voting Rights Act, 1965that prevented the franchise from being manipulated todeny blacks rights of political representation. Southernstate governments resisted all of these actions, and occa-sionally protests led to violence. A number of civil rightscampaigners lost their lives during this period, includingmost notably the assassinations of leading activistsMartin Luther King and Malcolm X.

Having secured desegregation and a stronger legalfoundation to confront discrimination, the civil rightsmovement since the 1950s and 1960s has been aboutconsolidating these rights through stronger enforcement



measures, and tackling the issue of considerable wealthand opportunity gaps that exist between blacks andwhites in the United States. Affirmative action is seen bymany campaigners as a method of addressing theseinequalities.

civil war A war, 1861 to 1865, fought between the federalgovernment and eleven southern states that seceded fromthe Union to form their own Confederate States ofAmerica. Tensions grew between the northern and south-ern states as their respective economies developed differ-ent needs. The north forged ahead with industrialisationand developing a manufacturing base, while the southrelied more upon an agrarian economy. Plantations,worked by slave labour, were at the heart of this south-ern economy. As slavery became a more contentiousissue, southern politicians became concerned over callsemanating from the north to restrict this institution in theUnited States, culminating with the abolitionists’ cam-paign to ban slavery altogether. Alongside the issue ofslavery was the south’s resentment over what was per-ceived as the federal government’s infringement on states’rights (and the ‘southern way of life’ in general), as wellas a national tariff policy that favoured the industrialnorth over the agrarian south. When the (northern)Republican Party administration of Abraham Lincolntook office in 1861, eleven southern states judged theirinterests no longer to be served by the Union, andseceded, forming their own confederacy. The federal gov-ernment deemed this secession illegal, and a civil warensued.

The number of casualties suffered in this conflictstill outnumbers total combined losses from all otherbattles in which US troops have been involved, from theWar of Independence, through the two world wars, to



Vietnam and the Gulf. The Union (federal) army waseventually victorious, served by its superior numbers andresources, which ensured the preservation of the UnitedStates, and led to the abolition of slavery (through theemancipation proclamation and Thirteenth Amend-ment). A period of reconstruction then ensued, to bringthe southern states back into the Union.

Clinton, Bill William Jefferson Clinton served two terms asPresident of the United States between 1993 and 2001.From a humble background, Clinton won scholarshipsand graduated from Georgetown and Oxford universitiesbefore entering politics in his home state of Arkansas asa Democratic Party candidate. He served as this state’sAttorney General and then as its Governor.

As President, Clinton presided over a period of consid-erable economic success, where the federal governmentreturned surpluses after years of budget deficit. A numberof social reforms were also successfully enacted. TheClinton years, however, were also characterised by a con-frontational relationship between the executive branchand the Congress. Early on, Congress was to rejectClinton’s complex health reform bill, and, then, inClinton’s second term, Speaker of the House ofRepresentatives Newt Gingrich attempted to pushthrough an alternative, more conservative, legislativeprogramme, termed the Contract with America. Therelationship between the two branches of governmentwas also soured by Congress authorising a number ofinvestigations addressing Clinton’s public and personalconduct. These investigations culminated in the House ofRepresentatives impeaching President Clinton on thegrounds of ‘obstruction of justice’. This charge related toan earlier enquiry questioning the president’s relationshipwith Monica Lewinsky, a White House intern. Clinton is



only the second President to have been impeached in thehistory of the United States (Andrew Johnson being thefirst in 1868, and with Richard Nixon resigning beforeimpeachment charges were heard). As with AndrewJohnson’s case, however, a less partisan Senate acquittedClinton of the House charges, and the impeachmentprocess failed.

Clinton v. the City of New York, 1998 see line-item veto

cloakrooms, Congressional see Congressional cloakrooms

closed primary A primary election where voters are requiredto declare a party affiliation, determining which politicalparty’s primary process they can participate in.

cloture A rule of the United States Senate, introduced in1917, that permits the ending of debate, and the bringingof a bill to an immediate vote, should three-fifths ofmembers support the call for cloture. Prior to this date,the Senate had no formal mechanism for curtailing thedebating stage of a bill. Senators had the right to talk foras long as they wished. This left legislation vulnerable tofilibuster, where a small minority of members could blockthe passage of a bill simply by refusing to stop debatingon the floor of the Senate, until the bill’s sponsors with-drew their legislation. The House of Representatives hasno such cloture rule, as debates in this chamber areassigned time constraints.

Commander in Chief Article One, Section Eight of the USconstitution assigns the President the role of Commanderin Chief of the United States military. He or she is respon-sible for the military’s deployment, and assignment ofduties. In order to maintain checks and balances,



although the president commands these forces, onlyCongress may declare war. The Senate must also confirmthe chief executive’s choice of senior officers. Despitebeing the Commander in Chief, the President is not actu-ally a member of the military. This keeps the armed forcesstrictly under civilian control.

commerce clause Reference to a sentence in the US constitu-tion that requires Congress to ‘regulate commerce withforeign nations, and among the several states, and withthe Indian tribes’ (Article One, Section Eight). As well asdealing with international trade, the Founding Fatherscharged the federal government with supervising inter-nal, interstate commerce, due to harmful tariff wars thathad developed between the states immediately after theWar of Independence. Over time, this commerce clausehas permitted the federal government to legislate on abroad range of economic and social issues, previouslydeemed to be within the jurisdiction of the states. This isbecause, as the US economy expanded, nearly all com-merce came to involve the crossing of state boundaries.For example, in the middle of the twentieth century,Congress passed legislation to set national minimumlabour standards. Although the constitution does notspecifically make the federal government the custodian oflabour rights, the Supreme Court, in the case of UnitedStates v. Darby Lumber Company, 1941 confirmed thislegislation to be constitutional. This was because goodsproduced under sub-standard labour conditions wouldbe transported by interstate commerce. Similarly, theCivil Rights Act, 1964 was deemed constitutional by theCourt in the case of Heart of Atlanta Motel v. UnitedStates, 1964. In this instance, Congress was allowed topass legislation prohibiting racial segregation in publicplaces, because a number of customers staying at



the Heart of Atlanta motel, travelling sales persons forexample, did so in order to enable them to conduct inter-state commerce. A broad interpretation of the commerceclause has thus allowed the federal government to intro-duce legislation setting national social and economicstandards.

Committee on Rules see rules committees

Committee on Ways and Means see House of RepresentativesCommittee on Ways and Means

committee system Given the volume and complexity ofCongress’ responsibilities, much of the legislativebranch’s work is undertaken at committee level. Mem-bers of both the Senate and House of Represen-tatives divide themselves up into respective committees,and specialise in certain aspects of US government. Thesecommittees will scrutinise proposed legislation emanat-ing from the executive branch; introduce their own bills;hold hearings involving outside experts to inform them-selves about a certain area of policy; hold similar hear-ings to question executive officials by way of oversight;and generally manage this area of legislative responsibil-ity on behalf of the US Congress as a whole. Any legisla-tion that a committee does recommend after its internaldeliberations will subsequently be tabled for debate onthe Senate or House floor, where all members can assessthe proposal, and make amendments accordingly.Committees do the specialist work, ensuring effi-ciency, but it is the responsibility of the whole ofCongress to actually pass legislation. Examples of themost prestigious committees on which members ofCongress seek membership are the Senate ForeignRelations Committee, the House of Representatives



Rules Committee, and the House of RepresentativesWays and Means Committee.

compound republic A phrase used by James Madison todescribe the representative, federal, political system con-structed by the US constitution. In particular, ‘compoundrepublic’ refers to the partnership between the states andthe central government who have separate sovereignpowers, but also act as a check and balance upon eachother.

concurrent powers Powers shared between two or moregovernments. The US constitution determines that,although the federal and state governments have sover-eign jurisdiction where they govern separately, othertasks are shared. In the case of road transportation, forexample, both levels of government are involved inbuilding an integrated national road system. Other con-current powers include raising taxes and establishinglaw courts.

concurring opinion see opinion of the Supreme Court

Confederate States of America The group of eleven south-ern states that attempted to secede from the UnitedStates in 1860–1, sparking the civil war. The statesof South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama,Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas,Tennessee, and North Carolina considered theirinterests no longer served by the federal government,particularly in light of the north’s hostility towardsslavery and a tariff policy that favoured northern man-ufacturing industry over southern agriculture. Theseceding states argued that states’ rights had beenabused. The federal government deemed the secession



illegal, and a civil war ensued. Although strong enoughto fight for four years, eventually the Confederacy wasoverwhelmed by superior numbers and resources. AfterGeneral Robert Lee surrendered the Confederate armyat Appomattox, Virginia, in 1865, the ConfederateStates of America soon collapsed and this territoryreunited with the rest of the United States after a periodof reconstruction.

confederation A loose political union of states. Confederalcooperation involves members ceding less sovereignty,and forming a weaker central power, than required undera federal system.

conferees Members of Congress assigned respectively by theSenate and House of Representatives to act for thesebodies in a conference committee.

conference committee In order for a bill to be passed by the USCongress, its provisions need to be approved by both theSenate and the House of Representatives. This requires anidentical piece of legislation, word for word, to be agreedby the two chambers. Due to different amendments placedon bills during their respective passages through the Senateand the House, or even as a result of different starting pro-posals, legislation rarely attains the uniformity required.This is where the conference committee comes into play.Conferees are delegated by the two chambers to negotiatea compromise bill, harmonising the Senate’s and theHouse’s proposals. A report of the newly unified bill isthen sent back by the conference committee to both floorsof the Congress, for final approval.

Conference of Mayors see United States Conference ofMayors



confirmation hearing As part of the checks and balancessystem, the US constitution requires presidential appoint-ments to be approved by the Senate. In order to assessthese nominees, the Senate holds confirmation hearings.Cabinet members, judges, military officers, ambassadorsand other high-ranking executive branch officials arequestioned by assigned Senate committees, and a judg-ment made on the nominee’s competence and character.On the whole, partisan politics are avoided, given thePresident’s constitutional right to staff the executivebranch. Less than a dozen cabinet nominees have beenrejected by these hearings since 1789. Thirty other can-didates have failed to be approved (either formally in avote, or the nomination being withdrawn by thePresident). One of Ronald Reagan’s Supreme Courtchoices, Robert Bork, for example, was rejected becausehis conservative views were unacceptable to Senatorsclose to women’s and minority group interests, while oneof Richard Nixon’s Court nominations, ClementHaynsworth, failed to gain office because of Senatedoubts over this person’s ability to do the job.

Congress The US Congress is the legislative branch of thefederal government. It was initially convened in NewYork City, and met in Philadelphia, before finding a per-manent home in the US Capitol Building, WashingtonDC, since 1800. Congress is the collective name forthe two chambers, the Senate and the House ofRepresentatives, that together have the sole responsibilityfor making US federal law (subject to presidential assent).Each state elects two candidates to serve in the Senate,regardless of its population size, while constituencies ofthe House of Representatives reflect demographics, withlarger states sending more Representatives to Congressthan less populous ones. Both the Senate and House have



to approve a bill before it is sent to the President for enact-ment. The US constitution defines the areas in whichCongress is permitted to make law: namely the power tocollect taxes, borrow money on behalf of the UnitedStates, regulate commerce, coin money, declare war, raiseand support armies, and make all laws necessary andproper for the execution of its powers. The so-called com-merce clause and necessary and proper clause have beeninterpreted broadly to permit Congress to expand its leg-islative role alongside the development of the UnitedStates itself as a modern industrial state.

Alongside its legislative role, Congress, by way ofchecks and balances, also has an oversight role withrespect to the other branches of government. Overseeingthe executive branch, for example, senior presidentialappointments have to be confirmed by the Senate, andCongressional hearings will be regularly held investigat-ing the executive’s proposed legislation and the mannerin which laws are implemented.

The term ‘Congress’ is also used to refer to the two-year periods between federal general elections (itselfdivided into two annual sessions). George Washingtonwas therefore President at the time of the first Congress,while George W. Bush’s second term of office commencedwith the first session of the 109th Congress.

Website: http://www.house.gov or http://www.Senate.gov

Congress of the Confederation The title of the national gov-ernment that served the United States between 1781 and1789, under the Articles of Confederation. This body wasthe successor to the Continental Congress, which had suc-cessfully prosecuted the War of Independence, and wassuperseded by the US Congress on ratification of thecurrent constitution. The Congress of the Confederation



should not be confused with the government of theConfederate States of America, which governed thebreak-away southern states during the civil war period ofthe mid-nineteenth century.

Congressional Black Caucus A loose association of African-American Congressional members, operating since 1969,who cooperate to address the legislative interests of blackand minority citizens. Over the years, the Caucus hasbeen involved with issues such as promoting welfarereform and inner city regeneration, advocating sanctionsagainst apartheid South Africa, and attempting toexpand educational opportunities.

Website: http://www.congressionalblackcaucus.net

Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act, 1974see Congressional Budget Office

Congressional Budget Office (CBO) An advisory and researchagency assisting Congress in its economic and bud-getary legislation. This office was established by theCongressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act,1974 in an effort to counter the President’s perceivedadvantage over Congress in recommending the annualfederal budget. After the CBO’s formation, Congress wasnow in a position to scrutinise the president’s proposalsmore closely, using a level of expertise and recourses pre-viously only enjoyed by the executive branch. The estab-lishment of the CBO was one of several measures Congresstook in the wake of the Watergate scandal enabling the leg-islative branch to offer more scrutiny over the executive.

Website: http://www.cbo.gov

Congressional cloakrooms Rooms adjacent to the legislativechambers of the Senate and House of Representatives



in the Capitol Building, originally used by membersof Congress to hang their hats and overcoats. Today,these rooms provide informal meeting spaces whereRepresentatives and Senators can discuss legislative dealsand strategy.

Congressional committees see committee system

Congressional hearings Where Senate and House ofRepresentatives committees and sub-committees heartestimony from executive branch officials or outsideexperts. This evidence helps Congress inform its legisla-tive and oversight duties. Before passing a bill thatimposes economic sanctions on a foreign government, forexample, the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations willseek the opinions of high-ranking executive officials, inthe State Department say, as well as collecting advicefrom those outside government (academics, corporaterepresentatives, interest groups, and so on). Likewise, byway of oversight, this Committee will later question exec-utive officials over the implementation of this sanctionslegislation. Parallel hearings will take place in the House.

Other examples of oversight hearings include investi-gations into the official and personal conduct of govern-ment officials. When allegations arose over PresidentRichard Nixon’s role in the Watergate scandal, forinstance, the Senate created a Select Committee onPresidential Campaign Activities. This body heard testi-monies from the President’s staff, and the evidence col-lected eventually led Congress to start impeachmenthearings against Nixon.

Connecticut Compromise The 1787 settlement negotiated bythe Founding Fathers at the Philadelphia constitutionalconvention balancing the level of political representation



enjoyed by large and small states within the US Congress.Initially, the smaller states at the convention hadfavoured each state having an equal number of membersin Congress, while larger states desired levels of repre-sentation in proportion to a state’s total population.The ‘Connecticut’, or ‘Great’, compromise established abi-cameral legislature, where the Senate would have twomembers from each state whatever this state’s demogra-phy, while the House of Representatives would compriseconstituencies taking into account the size of a state’spopulation. The Connecticut compromise also decreedthat any bill addressing the raising of money should orig-inate in the House, and that slaves and taxed Indiansshould be counted as three-fifths of a US citizen when cal-culating the size of the House of Representatives’ con-stituencies. This agreement is known as the ConnecticutCompromise as it was first proposed by delegates fromthis state.

constitution The supreme law of the United States whichdefines this country’s federal institutions, and the internalrelationships between these institutions. The constitu-tion also dictates the association between federal andstate governments, and outlines the political rights of UScitizens.

Written during the summer of 1787, at a Philadelphiaconvention of fifty-five delegates (the so-called FoundingFathers), the constitution revolves around three inter-linked principles: a separation of the powers, checks andbalances, and limited government. In terms of a separa-tion of the powers, there are three branches of the federalgovernment: a legislative branch, an executive branchand a judicial branch. Power is further divided by the factthat the federal and state governments govern separatesovereign jurisdictions. This is designed to prevent any



one individual or institution becoming too powerful. Theseparation of powers is reinforced by in-built checks andbalances. Each branch of government relies on the coop-eration of others to perform its duties. The President ofthe United States commands the US military, for example,but only Congress can declare war. The chief executivenominates judges to serve the Supreme Court, but theSenate must confirm these nominations. Similarly, boththe federal and state governments have to agree beforethe constitution can be amended. Added to this separa-tion of powers and checks and balances is the notion oflimited government. The constitution outlines citizens’rights which no political authority is permitted to legis-late away.

Article One of the constitution outlines the role of thefederal legislative branch: the Congress. Power is dividedbetween a Senate and a House of Representatives, andthe jurisdiction in which they can make laws is clearlydefined (the right to levy taxes, borrow money, regulateinterstate commerce, provide for military forces, anddeclare war, amongst others). The Congress also exer-cises oversight powers with respect to the other branchesof government, including the right to impeach thePresident for ‘high crimes and misdemeanours’.

Article Two vests the executive power of the UnitedStates in one individual: the President. This person ischarged with overseeing the implementation of federallaw, and is Commander in Chief of the US military, andrepresents the United States in foreign affairs throughappointing ambassadors and negotiating treaties (bothsubject to Senate confirmation).

Article Three places the judicial power of the UnitedStates in a Supreme Court. This section of the constitu-tion guarantees that the justices serving this institutionare protected from political pressure in that they cannot



be removed from post provided they serve with ‘goodbehaviour’, nor can their salary be reduced whilst inoffice.

Article Four concerns itself with the relations betweenstates (the extradition of citizens accused of crimes acrossstate boundaries, for example), and the relationshipbetween the federal government and the states (thefederal government is required to guarantee the militarysecurity of the individual states).

Article Five outlines the process for amending the con-stitution. This is executed via cooperation between theCongress and state legislatures.

Article Six ensures that the new government is liablefor debts incurred by the previous administration underthe Articles of Confederation. It also makes plain that theconstitution is the supreme law of the United States.

Article Seven determined the ratification procedure forthe document, a process which was completed by thestates by 1791.

Since ratification, there have been twenty-seven consti-tutional amendments. These changes to the originaldocument have allowed the constitution to evolve along-side US society itself. Individual liberties were defined inthe first ten amendments, collectively known as the Billof Rights. Other amendments have addressed the fran-chise in the United States, slowly proceeding towards asituation where all adults have the right to vote and candirectly elect their political representatives. The end ofslavery was confirmed by a constitutional amendment, aswas the guarantee of constitutional protection for all UScitizens (including the ex-slaves). Likewise, there havebeen administrative clarifications: for instance, definingthe succession of administrations, and of the VicePresident to the office of the President, should the incum-bent be incapacitated. A constitutional amendment also



prevents any one individual being elected more thantwice as President of the United States.

The constitution, however, has not evolved only viaformal amendments. Each generation interprets this docu-ment in its own way, in order to ensure the constitution’scontinued relevance as society progresses. Supreme Courtinterpretations of the necessary and proper clause, along-side the commerce clause, for example, have allowedCongress to legislate in areas of society and the economynot envisaged by the Founding Fathers. Indeed, theSupreme Court itself has taken on this role of judging whatis, and is not, constitutional (known as judicial review) viajust such an informal amendment: the case of Marbury v.Madison, 1803. It is to the credit of the original document,and the relevance of these subsequent amendments, bothformal and informal, that the constitution is still sorevered and respected by US citizens today.

constitutional amendments Thomas Jefferson consideredthat a constitution, like the Earth itself, belongs to ‘theliving, and not the dead’. No constitution should bindfuture generations to outdated forms of governing.Consequently, the Founding Fathers imbedded withinthe US constitution a mechanism enabling this documentto be amended. Should two-thirds of both houses ofCongress agree to a change, the proposed amendment issent to the state legislatures, three-quarters of whichmust agree with this revision for it to be ratified. Analternative process permitted by the constitution, as yetunused, is a constitutional convention to be calledby Congress at the request of two-thirds of the states.This convention’s proposed amendments are thenrequired to be ratified by three-quarters of the state leg-islatures or, alternatively, by three-quarters of speciallyconvened state constitutional conventions. There have



been twenty-seven successful constitutional amendmentssince 1789.

Amendments to the US constitution can usefully be cat-egorised into five groups: those protecting individualrights; those expanding the franchise; those dealing withthe aftermath of slavery and the civil war; proceduralclarifications; and miscellaneous items.

The first ten amendments to the constitution, approvedin 1791, soon after the ratification of the original docu-ment itself, are collectively known as the Bill of Rights.These address individual liberties. A number of the statesonly agreed to ratify the original constitution after assur-ances that this Bill of Rights would soon follow. These firstten amendments guarantee that the freedom of speech,association and worship of US citizens cannot be legislatedaway by government. Similarly, they entitle any individualaccused of a crime to the due process of law (thosedetained must be charged and tried, have a right to legalrepresentation, a right to silence, and no ‘cruel or unnat-ural punishments’ administered for those found guilty,amongst other provisions). The Bill of Rights also protectscitizens from having soldiers billeted upon them withoutconsent, and gives individuals the right to form militiasand own weapons in order to protect national security.

As well as to conserve individual liberty, constitutionalamendments have also been used to expand the franchisein the United States. The Seventeenth Amendment (1913)provided for the direct election of senators, with thepeople deciding themselves, rather than the state legisla-tures, who would represent the state in Washington DC.The Nineteenth Amendment (1920) guaranteed thevoting rights of women. The Twenty-third Amendment(1961) gave the residents of the District of Columbia theright to vote in presidential elections. The Twenty-sixthAmendment (1971) guaranteed that individuals eighteen



years old or over could not be denied the vote on accountof their age.

The conclusion of the civil war, and subsequent effortsto extend equal rights to ex-slaves and the descendents ofslaves, also prompted a number of constitutional amend-ments. The Thirteenth Amendment (1865) prohibitsslavery in the United States. The Fourteenth Amendment(1868) defined US citizenship in such a way as to includeex-slaves. The Fifteenth Amendment (1870) bars federaland state governments from denying any citizen the rightto vote on the grounds of race, colour or previousenslavement. Over ninety years later, with the descen-dents of ex-slaves still being discriminated against, theTwenty-fourth Amendment (1964) was ratified, whichprohibits state governments from denying citizens theright to vote should they not be able to afford a poll tax.

A number of constitutional amendments have been rat-ified in order to better define the procedures of governmentin the United States. The Twelfth Amendment (1804) clar-ified how the US President and Vice President are elected.The Twentieth Amendment (1933) delimits precisely theterms of office of the President, Vice President and sena-tors (until noon, 20 January after an election in the case ofthe former two posts, and noon, 3 January for the sena-tors). This measure also clarifies the succession processbetween administrations. The Twenty-second Amendment(1951) prevents any individual being elected Presidentmore than two times, a response to Franklin D. Rooseveltbeing voted to this post four times, while the Twenty-fifthAmendment defines the conditions of succession should aPresident become incapacitated.

The remaining constitutional amendments respectivelyprevent US citizens and foreigners from suing a state in afederal court, without the consent of that state (EleventhAmendment, 1795); authorise the federal government to



raise a national income tax (Sixteenth Amendment, 1913);ban and reinstate the prohibition of intoxicating liquors inthe United States (Eighteenth Amendment of 1919 andTwenty-first Amendment of 1933); and determine that anypay rise the legislative branch awards itself will only comeinto effect after the commencement of the next Congress(Twenty-seventh Amendment of 1992).

The constitution, however, has not evolved solely viaformal amendments. Each generation interprets thisdocument in its own way, to ensure the constitution’scontinued relevance as society progresses. Supreme Courtinterpretations of the necessary and proper clause, along-side the commerce clause, for example, have allowedCongress to legislate in areas of society and the economynot envisaged by the Founding Fathers. Whether it bethrough formal or informal amendments, the constitu-tion seeks to be a living document.

construction see strict construction

Continental Congress The title of the assembly of represen-tatives from the thirteen colonies that met from 1774onwards in order to make decisions over how to protectAmerican interests under British rule. This body sub-sequently provided the political leadership behindthe prosecution of the War of Independence. It wasthe Continental Congress that appointed GeorgeWashington to lead the American forces in 1775, andwhich adopted the Declaration of Independence in 1776.After victory against the British, this assembly drew upthe Articles of Confederation. On the ratification of theseArticles in 1781, the Continental Congress was super-seded by the Congress of the Confederation, which itselfgave way to today’s US Congress, when the current con-stitution was ratified in 1789.



Contract with America As part of the election campaign of1994, Republican Party candidates for the House ofRepresentatives signed a ‘Contract with America’.Should they be elected, these representatives pledged toundertake a conservative legislative programme thatwould create, amongst other provisions: a balancedbudget constitutional amendment, a line-item veto tocontrol federal spending, tough anti-crime legislation,welfare reform, reduced federal regulation, and new termlimits for politicians. Rarely has a Congressional electionbeen fought on such a defined, national agenda. TheRepublican Party, partly as a response to this pledge, per-formed well in this poll. Supporters optimistically calledthis a ‘Republican revolution’.

The Contract was part of a strategy, led by the Speakerof the House of Representatives, Newt Gingrich, tocounter President Bill Clinton’s own legislative pro-gramme. It was a time of highly partisan politics, withonly limited cooperation between the Congress andthe executive branch. Most of the provisions of theContract were passed by the House of Representatives,as promised, but several of these items failed to beapproved by the Senate, or were diluted by it.Republicans in the Senate had not campaigned on thisplatform.

conventions see national party conventions

cooperative federalism A style of federalism where nationaland state institutions govern together in partnership, asopposed to dual federalism, where each division of gov-ernment only concerns itself with its own distinct andseparate jurisdiction. Nineteenth-century politics in theUnited States can be characterised as being akin to dualfederalism, while President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New



Deal is often cited as prompting a new era of cooperativefederalism. Seeking economic recovery, state govern-ments willingly worked with the federal government,receiving federal funds and supporting federal initiativesin policy areas that had traditionally been regarded asbeing solely within the state jurisdiction. Cooperativefederalism is sometimes termed picket-fence federalismor marble-cake federalism.

court-packing Faced with a conservative Supreme Courtduring the 1930s, which had struck down several poli-cies of his New Deal on the grounds that these acts wereunconstitutional, President Franklin D. Rooseveltthreatened to ‘pack’ the Court. In order to create apro-New Deal majority amongst the Supreme Courtjustices, Roosevelt suggested he would appoint newmembers to the Court. Although the constitutiondoes not allow the President to remove justices oncethey have been appointed, it does not specifically statehow many Supreme Court justices there should be.Roosevelt was threatening to exploit this loopholeto install new justices more sympathetic to his legisla-tive programme. Congress rejected this plan on thegrounds that it endangered the separation of the powersfound at the heart of the US constitution. TheSupreme Court did, however, review its opposition tothe New Deal in the wake of this challenge. It was to beless obstructive to the President’s plans from thispoint on.

creative federalism Where the US federal government inter-venes directly in political jurisdictions traditionallyassociated with the states. The federal government isthus interpreting the constitution ‘creatively’ in order toset national standards. The phrase if often associated



with President Lyndon B. Johnson, who attempted toimplement legislation during the 1960s addressingcivil rights and instigating welfare reforms. With thestates taking federal money to pay for Johnson’s pro-grammes, and abiding by federal guidelines, a new typeof federal relationship developed where WashingtonDC became the senior partner. This type of relation-ship moved away from the earlier periods of dual fed-eralism, where the federal and state governmentsoperated in separate jurisdictions, and cooperativefederalism, where the two levels of governmentinterlinked their work to a greater degree, but moreas equals. Under creative federalism, this equalityand cooperation is skewed in favour of federal leader-ship.

C-SPAN The television company that broadcasts the pro-ceedings of Congress. Television cameras were firstallowed to cover floor debates of the House ofRepresentatives in 1979, and of the Senate in 1986. C-SPAN also broadcasts Congressional hearings. C-SPANis an abbreviation of Cable Satellite Public AffairsNetwork.

Website: http://www.c-span.org

Cuban missile crisis A confrontation between the UnitedStates and the Soviet Union during 1962, which threat-ened to escalate into all-out nuclear war. The administra-tion of President J. F. Kennedy, after it had supported afailed invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles in the previousyear, had to contend with a Soviet build up of militaryforce in this country. Moscow deployed missile batteries,and considerable numbers of the Red Army. Kennedyresponded by blockading Cuba, and drawing upnew offensive invasion plans. After a nervous period of



stand-off, the Soviet Union agreed to withdraw its mis-siles and a number of its troops from Cuba, after a pledgefrom the United States that it would not invade itsCaribbean neighbour. Less publicly, but undoubtedlypart of the negotiations, US missiles were reciprocallyremoved from Turkish territory.

D

DC see District of Columbia

Declaration of Independence A document, largely penned byThomas Jefferson, and adopted by the ContinentalCongress in 1776, that outlines why the Americancolonies no longer accepted British rule. With the adop-tion of this document, hope of addressing the colonists’grievances within the colonial system was at an end.Independence was now the demand, and would be foughtfor. The text of the Declaration outlines the moral obli-gations of governments towards their subjects (that powermust be a product of the ‘consent of the governed’, forexample, with individuals entitled to ‘inalienable rights’),and then goes on to list specific cases where the govern-ment of King George III had failed to meet these obliga-tions. These grievances justify and compel the Americancolonies to fight for their independence, the text argued.The date that the Declaration came into effect, the 4th ofJuly, has become known as Independence Day, and is anannual national holiday in the United States.

delegated powers Those powers granted to the US Congressby the constitution. In forming a federal government,the states delegated to the national legislature specificareas of sovereign responsibility. These areas are



defined in Article One, Section Eight of the US consti-tution: namely to manage the national debt; to regulatecommerce between the states, with foreign powers andthe Indian nations; to mint a national currency andstandardise weights and measures; to establish a mailservice and construct roads; to enforce patents andcopyright; to constitute federal courts under theSupreme Court; to manage the nation’s military cap-ability and defend its interests in foreign affairs; to guar-antee the internal security of the United States; and‘to make laws which shall be necessary and proper forcarrying into execution the foregoing powers’. Overtime, the scope and reach of Congress’ legislation hasgrown immensely. The federal government involvesitself in most areas of US society in the twenty-firstcentury. Yet, every act of Congress must, in some way,be constitutionally justified by referring back to one ofthese delegated powers. In the majority of cases, this hasbeen helped by a broad interpretation of the commerceclause and the necessary and proper clause. The dele-gated powers are also known as the ‘enumeratedpowers’.

delegates to the House of Representatives In addition to 435members serving the state constituencies of the House ofRepresentatives, 4 delegates also sit in this legislativechamber, along with the Resident Commissioner ofPuerto Rico. These individuals represent the non-stateterritories of the United States. Delegates are currentlyelected from American Samoa, the District of Columbia,Guam, and the Virgin Islands. Delegates may participatein all the House’s legislative business, apart from the finalfloor vote of any bill. Delegates are elected for two yearsat a time, while the Resident Commissioner of PuertoRico serves a four-year term.



Democratic National Committee Operating since 1848, theDemocratic National Committee (DNC) is the central,national, organisational body of the Democratic Party.This committee helps co-ordinate the work of local, stateand national Democratic Party organisations and politi-cians, and promotes the election of its candidates via tech-nical and financial support. In addition, the DNC overseesthe quadrennial national party convention, and the asso-ciated nomination of a Democratic presidential candidate.

Website: http://www.democrats.org

Democratic national convention see national party convention

Democratic Party One of the two major political parties foundin the United States today. The Democratic Party can traceits origins back to a Congressional caucus founded in 1792by Thomas Jefferson, but the party only began to use itsmodern name, and develop its current institutions, in the1830s, under the presidency of Andrew Jackson. Prior tothe 1860s and the civil war, the Democrats were the dom-inant force in US politics. The party championed rural,agrarian interests, and was consistently re-elected to power.This dominance came to an end, however, when the issueof slavery split the party. Southern Democrats staunchlysought to preserve this institution, where as slavery enjoyedless support from those in the north. It eventually took thefighting of the civil war to settle this matter.

After the civil war, in terms of national politics, theRepublican Party prospered at the Democrat’s expense.Between 1860 and 1912, the Democrats only won theWhite House twice. The party suffered from being asso-ciated with the failed Confederation of American States,and by championing rural interests at a time whenAmerica’s industrial strength was growing. This failure atthe presidential level, however, was tempered by the



Democratic Party’s continued electoral success in thesouthern states. Still united by the experience of the civilwar, the south consistently voted Democrat.

In the twentieth century, the Democratic Partybecame a national political force once again. FollowingWoodrow Wilson’s two terms as President (1913–21), theDemocrats enjoyed a longer period of dominance start-ing with the Great Depression of the 1930s. This socialand economic crisis brought Franklin D. Roosevelt to theWhite House and his New Deal. The so-called New Dealcoalition was built upon the Democrat Party’s traditionalsouthern platform, adding to it the support of labourinterests, and the African-American vote. This provideda more radical edge to the Democratic Party. Governmentintervention would now be considered in order toprovide welfare reforms targeting disadvantaged sectionsof society. Similarly, policy was created to protect the civilrights of those discriminated against. Roosevelt’s NewDeal was followed in the 1960s by J. F. Kennedy’s andLyndon B. Johnson’s civil rights legislation, as well as theGreat Society welfare programme.

Due to the reforms made possible by the New Dealcoalition, today the Democratic Party is often associatedwith labour movements, left-leaning intellectuals, civilrights campaigners, minority groups and women’s inter-ests. It would be wrong, however, to compare this partyto social democratic movements found in Europe. TheDemocratic Party still operates within the traditionalconservative ideological outlook of the United States,demanding limited government, promotion of the indi-vidual, and respect for capitalism. It is an organisationthat should be classified as right of centre. Similarly, thereremain considerable numbers of socially conservativesouthern Democrats at the heart of the party, dulling thisorganisation’s radical edge.



Havingenjoyed longperiodsofCongressional andpresi-dential power in the twentieth century, today the Democra-tic Party faces greater competition from the RepublicanParty. With the party re-alignment of the last fourdecades, many southern Democrats have defected to theRepublicans.With thisbreak-upof theNewDeal coalition,Republican Party candidates have once again been winningthe White House, and the Democrats are more regularlylosing their majorities in both chambers of Congress.

Website: http://www.democrats.org

denied powers Those powers, outlined by the US constitu-tion, that remain in possession of citizens, which cannotbe legislated away by the states or the federal govern-ment. Provisions contained within the Bill of Rights,freedom of speech for example, are denied powers.

Department of Homeland Security A cabinet department ofthe federal government established in the wake of theterrorist attacks on New York City and Washington DCin 2001. The department’s three aims are to: preventterrorist attacks within the United States; reduceAmerica’s vulnerability to terrorism; and minimisethe damage from potential attacks and natural disasters.A number of existing federal agencies, such as the CoastGuard, the Federal Emergency Management Agency, andthe Citizenship and Immigration Service, were put underthe Department of Homeland Security’s control in orderto help co-ordinate the counter-terrorism campaign.

Website: http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/index.jsp

Department of State The cabinet department of the federalgovernment charged with managing the foreign affairs ofthe United States.

Website: http://www.state.gov



Department of the Treasury Created during the first sessionof Congress in 1789, this cabinet department of thefederal government oversees the finances of the UnitedStates. Amongst its roles are collecting federal taxes(via its Internal Revenue Service agency), supervisingthe national debt, advising the President on financialperformance and policy, regulating US banks, and pro-ducing the nation’s bank notes, coins and postagestamps.

Website: http://www.treasury.gov

desegregation The process of integrating a society, ending theenforced separation of (racial) groups. Despite constitu-tional amendments following the end of the civil war thatgave African-Americans equal political rights, segrega-tion remained a feature of US society, particularly in thesouthern states. Many black and white Americans livedapart and used separate public amenities. This was thecase until the second half of the twentieth century. States,reluctant to see the end of segregation, took heart fromthe Supreme Court decision of Plessey v. Ferguson, 1896.This ruling stated that the segregation of public facilitiesmay remain, as long as there was an equal provisionbetween the groups, required under the FourteenthAmendment: ‘Separate but equal’ became the justifica-tion for discrimination in the south. In reality, African-Americans rarely received equal resources from theirgovernments, and were habitually discriminated against.This situation began to change with the advent of thecivil rights movement. Responding to an altering socialenvironment, steps were taken initially in the US mili-tary to remove racial barriers. Similarly, the SupremeCourt, with Brown v. Board of Education, 1954, effec-tively reversed Plessey v. Ferguson. Public services couldno longer be segregated. Later, in the 1960s, federal



legislation was enacted (Civil Rights Act, 1964 andVoting Rights Act, 1965) attempting to eradicate segre-gation from the franchise. Despite considerable resistanceto these measures from southern state governments,racial barriers began to dissolve.

direct primary A primary election where, at the nationalparty convention, the victorious delegate is bound to votefor the candidate he or she pledged to support whilstcampaigning for the primary. In an indirect primary, thedelegate is under no such obligation, and may use theirdiscretion in selecting who to vote for as the party’scandidate.

discharging a bill Should a committee of Congress refuse toreport a bill out of its jurisdiction, and on to the floor ofthe Senate or House of Representatives, that chamber canvote on a motion of discharge. If a majority vote isreceived, the bill will proceed to the floor of the chamberfor scrutiny in the normal manner, overriding the resis-tance of the committee.

dissenting opinion If justices of the Supreme Court disagreewith the majority opinion in any case, they may collec-tively or individually write a dissenting opinion. Thisdocument puts into the public domain any argumentsagainst the Court’s majority (and prevailing) ruling.

District of Columbia (DC) A tract of land on the PotomacRiver, ceded to the federal government by the state ofMaryland. This territory is the location of Washington DC,the US federal capital since 1790. It is home to the WhiteHouse, the Capitol Building, the Supreme Court, and is theheadquarters of the national government. The fact that thecore of the federal government is not housed in any of the



fifty states, but on separate federal territory, helps reinforcethe division of powers. Somewhat ironically, preciselybecause this territory is not a state, residents of DC receiveless political representation than other US citizens.Although a constitutional amendment of 1961 let themparticipate in presidential elections, these residents have nosenator, and can only vote for a delegate to the Houseof Representatives. The US Congress itself administersthe territory. The District is named after ChristopherColumbus, the explorer who ‘discovered’ the Americasin 1492.

divided government see separation of the powers

division of powers see separation of the powers

Dixiecrat see southern Democrats

DNC see Democratic National Committee

double jeopardy Being tried for the same crime twice. Inorder to prevent citizens being harassed by the state, andtried until the prosecution is satisfied, double jeopardy isprevented in the United States by the Fifth Amendment tothe US constitution. This amendment also prevents indi-viduals being punished for the same crime more thanonce.

Dred Scott v. Sandford, 1857 A Supreme Court ruling thatreinforced the institution of slavery in the United States,and declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitu-tional. Dred Scott, a slave, had been taken to Illinois andthe Wisconsin Territory by his master, John Sandford,before returning to Missouri. While, at the time,Missouri was a slave state, both Illinois and the



Wisconsin Territory outlawed slavery. Scott thereforesued his master for his liberty, on the premise that hehad become a free person once he had entered Illinois.The Supreme Court found against Scott on severalcounts. In the first instance, the opinion ruled that asScott was a slave, he was not a citizen of the UnitedStates, and was not entitled to sue in a federal court.Secondly, the Court decided that Scott had lost anyrights he may have had under Illinois law when hereturned to Missouri. And finally, the justices declaredthat Scott was not protected by the Missouri Compro-mise, where it was possible to hold slaves in western ter-ritories below the 36th parallel, but not above it. TheCourt ruled this act of Congress to be unconstitutionalas it deprived Sandford of his Fifth Amendment rights:property (a slave, in this case) cannot be confiscatedwithout ‘due process of law’ and ‘just compensation’.This was only the second time that the Supreme Courthad invalidated an act of Congress.

With this ruling opening the possibility that everycitizen was now able to keep slaves, wherever theyresided in the United States, tensions between north andsouth increased. The civil war would begin four yearslater. The Thirteenth (1865) and Fourteenth (1868)Amendments would finally settle the constitutionalnature of slavery in the United States, not Dred Scott v.Sandford. These changes respectively made keepingslaves illegal nationwide, and granted ex-slaves rights ofcitizenship.

dual federalism A style of federalism where the centralauthority and the states govern in separate sovereignareas. Dual federalism is the type of federal/staterelationship envisaged by the Founding Fathers whenthey wrote the US constitution. This document clearly



outlines the duties of the federal government (theso-called delegated powers), leaving all other responsi-bility in the jurisdiction of the states. Thus, power isdivided. No one government within the system shouldencroach on the sovereignty of another. As the twentiethcentury progressed, however, dual sovereignty becamesomewhat diluted. The federal government, in an era ofso-called cooperative federalism and creative federalism,could frequently be found operating in policy areas tra-ditionally associated with the states.

due process of law The process that dictates that the statemust act fairly and in accordance with established proce-dures before it punishes a citizen for breaking a law. Thispunishment must be consummate with the crime com-mitted. US citizens therefore have the right, amongstothers, to a fair trial, legal representation, the right tosilence, no unwarranted seizure of personal property, andmay only be tried once for the same crime. Due processof law is guaranteed by the Bill of Rights and theFourteenth Amendment to the US constitution.

E

Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1890–1969) President of theUnited States between 1953 and 1961. Dwight DavidEisenhower was a career soldier who rose through theranks to command the allied forces in Europe during theSecond World War. After serving as President HarryTruman’s Army Chief of Staff, he became SupremeCommander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO) in 1950. Regarded by many Americans as a hero,due to his war record, Eisenhower stood successfully as



the Republican Party’s presidential candidate in 1952.The degree of his popularity can be measured by the factthat he had earlier also been offered the DemocraticParty’s nomination.

Eisenhower’s two terms of office were dominated byforeign affairs, particularly prosecuting the Cold Waragainst the Soviet Union. He honoured his campaignpledge to end the Korean War, established a number ofsecurity pacts with other nations, sanctioned the CentralIntelligence Agency to remove the anti-American govern-ments in Iran and Guatemala, bolstered the Lebanesegovernment by deploying US marines, and providedFrance with assistance (but not troops) in its war againstcommunist insurgents in Vietnam. In domestic affairs,Eisenhower largely deferred to the will of Congress.He did, however, initiate the building of the country’sinterstate highway network, establish the National Aero-nautics and Space Administration (NASA), and helpenforce desegregation by deploying federal troops in1957 to ensure African-American children could attendLittle Rock Central High School, Arkansas.

elastic clause Reference to the necessary and proper clause ofthe US constitution. It is deemed ‘elastic’ due to the leg-islative flexibility these words have given Congress.

electoral college The body that, ultimately, decides whobecomes President of the United States. Rather than thispost being directly elected by the people, it is a majorityof votes within the electoral college that presidential can-didates have to win. Each state is allocated a number ofdelegates to this body equal to their representation inCongress. More populous states therefore have greaterrepresentation than smaller states. Delegates of thecollege vote every four years in their respective state



capitols, and the results of this ballot are communicatedto the Congress, where the Vice President (as president ofthe Senate) will announce the result. The candidate whowins a majority of the electoral college votes becomesPresident.

The democratic link between the college’s decision andthe result of the popular vote in the November generalelection is reflected in whom the delegates vote for. Inmodern times, all the delegates from a state will vote forthe candidate who received the largest popular vote intheir state. Only Maine differs from this ‘winner takes all’formula. Here, the delegates vote proportionally. It hasbeen rare for delegates to abandon this practice and casta vote that does not mirror the popular vote in their ownstate.

However, due to the indirect manner in which thepresidential race is decided, occasionally the candidatewho wins the greatest number of popular votes nation-wide fails to gain a majority of the delegates’ votes in theelectoral college. This was the fate of Andrew Jackson(1824), Samuel Tilden (1876), Grover Cleveland (1888),and Al Gore (2000). In these instances, although the can-didates had successfully won over the majority of thepeople, these votes were not spread sufficiently amongstall of the states. Supporters of the electoral college systemcite this as being important in a federal system: thePresident should be the choice of a wide range of states,and not just the majority of the people. The college’sopponents consider the system anachronistic, and anumber of unsuccessful attempts have been made toamend the constitution, replacing the electoral collegewith a direct popular election.

Emancipation Proclamation President Abraham Lincoln’scivil war declaration to the south that the US government



would free all slaves resident in states still in rebellion on1 January 1863. Although the federal government had towin the civil war to enforce this emancipation, the procla-mation gave notice that the civil war was to be foughtover the issue of slavery as well as the right of secession.The end of slavery in the United States was confirmed bythe ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the con-stitution in 1865.

emergency powers see state of emergency

EMILY’s List An interest group campaigning to help pro-choice Democratic women win political office at both thestate and federal level. Women matching these criteria arehelped by EMILY with funding and technical support.EMILY is an acronym for the organisation’s strategy:‘Early Money Is Like Yeast’ (that is, it helps the doughrise). Women candidates who receive financial backing inthe early stages of their campaign are more successful inattracting additional backers, and therefore more likelyto get elected.

Website: http://www.emilyslist.org

enumerated powers see delegated powers

equal rights amendment An amendment to the US constitu-tion, first proposed in 1923, which would outlaw discrim-ination on the grounds of sex. This potential amendment,despite being on the political agenda for so long, andhaving been approved by the US Congress, has yet to beratified by the requisite number of states. Opponents to thechange argue that the constitution already protects womenas equals, while its supporters state that, as sexual dis-crimination still remains a feature of US society, the



amendment is specifically required, just as the FourteenthAmendment outlaws racial discrimination.

Website: http://www.equalrightsamendment.org

establishment clause The First Amendment to the US con-stitution states that ‘Congress shall make no lawrespecting the establishment of religion’. This establish-ment clause has traditionally prevented governments inthe United States from promoting religious activities.The Supreme Court, for example, has prohibited theholding of morning prayers in public schools. With therise of the Christian Right, however, arguments for gov-ernments being able to support religious activities hasbeen growing. Opponents of the traditional interpreta-tion of the establishment clause contend that as long asone religion is not officially endorsed over another, theninteraction between governments and religion should bepermitted.

executive agencies The federal departments and independentagencies established by the President of the United Statesto carry out the functions of the executive branch of gov-ernment.

executive branch A division of government charged withimplementing acts passed by the legislative branch. Inmodern times, executives around the world have alsotaken more responsibility for proposing policy. ThePresident heads the executive branch of the US federalgovernment. This individual is responsible for executingfederal law, managing the foreign affairs of the UnitedStates, and commanding the country’s armed forces. Inorder to carry out these duties, the President is servedby a bureaucracy consisting of cabinet departments,independent agencies, and military institutions. In total,



the executive branch employs over two million civilianworkers and 1.5 million military personnel.

Website: http://www.firstgov.gov/Agencies/Federal/Executive.shtml

Executive Office of the President The division of the federalexecutive branch, created in 1939 by Franklin D.Roosevelt, which hosts the President’s White House staffand senior policy advisors. Included within the ExecutiveOffice, for example, are the National Security Counciland the National Economic Council.

Website: http://www.firstgov.gov/Agencies/Federal/Executive.shtml

executive order Edicts issued by the President of the UnitedStates that have the force of law provided they arefounded on the President’s constitutional powers, or arealready powers granted to the chief executive throughan act of Congress. The President may, for example,deploy US troops for peace-keeping purposes via an exec-utive order, or impose economic sanctions against aforeign nation. These cases are permissible because thechief executive is operating within his or her respectiveconstitutional roles as Commander in Chief or ChiefDiplomat. Executive orders may be countermanded bysubsequent acts of Congress, or invalidated by theSupreme Court as unconstitutional (see, for example,Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company v. Sawyer, 1952).

executive privilege The right of the President to withholdinformation from the Congress, the federal courts, thestates, or the general public. Although there is no refer-ence to this right in the constitution, executive privilegeis assumed on the grounds that if there were no secrecyabout the deliberations of the executive branch, advice



given to the President would not necessarily be candid ortruthful. In the nineteenth century, presidents had soughtto keep from Congress the details of diplomatic negotia-tions. In more recent years, however, the executive hasmore often refused to supply information because thiswould be ‘incompatible with the national interest’.Franklin D. Roosevelt refused to furnish Congress withFederal Bureau of Investigation files, for example, whileJ. F. Kennedy ordered military officers not to testify to aCongressional committee about the Bay of Pigs incident.Most famously, on the grounds of executive privilege,Richard Nixon refused to supply the tapes of conversa-tions recorded in the Oval Office to the Congressionalcommittee investigating the Watergate affair. In the caseof United States v. Nixon, 1974 the Supreme Court ruledthat executive privilege did not extend to criminal inves-tigations, and Nixon was forced to relinquish these tapes.His resignation soon followed.

F

Farewell address see Washington’s farewell address

FBI see Federal Bureau of Investigation

FCC see Federal Communications Commission

FDR see Franklin D. Roosevelt

FEC see Federal Election Commission

FECA see Federal Election Campaign Act, 1971

Federal Bureau of Investigation An agency of the Departmentof Justice, the FBI is the main criminal investigatory arm



of the federal government. It enforces federal laws, andcooperates with the states to provide nationwide criminalintelligence. The FBI’s workload is as varied as federallegislation itself, ranging from aircraft piracy to the pro-tection of civil rights. Any crime that crosses state bordersalso comes under the jurisdiction of the Bureau, whilethe FBI has also traditionally been involved in counter-insurgency and counter-terrorism on American soil. Theorganisation has its headquarters in Washington DC,which is complemented by a number of field officesthroughout the USA. In certain specialist areas of inves-tigation, the FBI defers to other agencies of theDepartment of Justice, such as the Drug EnforcementAdministration, the Immigration and NaturalisationService, and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearmsand Explosives.

Website: http://www.fbi.gov

Federal Communications Commission The FCC, establishedin 1934, is the federal regulatory body that supervisesbroadcasting in the United States.

Website: http://www.fcc.gov

Federal Election Campaign Act, 1971 (FECA) Legislationthat attempted to bring a degree of transparency to cam-paign finance, and address the issue of money in US pol-itics. Candidates in federal elections were now requiredto disclose the source of most of their contributions.An amendment to the act in 1974 established theFederal Election Commission to oversee this disclosureprocess. This amendment also sought to place a ceiling onhow much a candidate could spend on a campaign, andlimited the sum of money an individual or organisationcould give to any one candidate. Individual contributionswere restricted to US$1,000, while organisations could



donate no more than US$5,000. FECA additionallyoffered public funds to federal candidates.

This initial attempt at campaign finance reform,although successful in many respects, did not solve theproblem of money in US federal elections. Although thedisclosure element of the act stood, the Supreme Courtruled that candidates should not be restricted in theamount of money they spend on their own campaign(unless they accepted public money). The case ofBuckley v. Valeo, 1976 stated this would be a violationof a candidate’s political expression, and thus aninfringement of the First Amendment. Similarly, whilethe Court supported a limit being placed on donationsdirectly to campaigns (hard money), no such ceilingshould be placed on US citizens spending money onpolitical activities independent of these official cam-paigns (soft money). There should be no restrictions onthe buying of airtime, for example, to express a viewthat did not directly advocate the election of a particu-lar candidate.

This ruling ushered in a new era of electioneering,dominated by the use of soft money on issue advertise-ments. It was not until 2002, and the BipartisanCampaign Reform Act, that Congress again attempted toreform campaign finance, and to close some of theseloopholes.

Federal Election Commission Created by a 1974 amendmentto the Federal Election Campaign Act, 1971, the FEC isan independent regulatory agency that oversees laws gov-erning federal elections in the United States. It is involvedin advising upon, and auditing, the disclosure of cam-paign contributions, as well as managing the publicfunding of presidential candidates.

Website: http://www.fec.gov



federal government The term used to refer to the central,national government of the United States, based primar-ily in Washington DC. The federal government differsfrom the fifty state governments in that it has a nationaljurisdiction, and it governs in separate policy areas fromthose of the states

federal pre-emption Where a federal law or policy gainsprecedence over state legislation.

Federal Reserve System A body established by Congress in1913, which acts as the US national bank. It is this agencythat sets the interest rate for the twelve Federal ReserveBanks.

Website: http://www.federalreserve.gov

federalism A system of government where power and respon-sibilities are divided between a national authority andseveral regional units. The United States is a political for-mation of fifty individual state governments and onefederal administration with a national jurisdiction. TheUS constitution dictates which powers are delegated tothe central government (see delegated powers), which arereserved by the states (see reserved powers), and whichare denied to any government, and remain the sovereignrights of individual citizens (see denied powers). Despitethis constitutional guidance, the relationship between thefederal government and the states has not remained con-stant over time. The traditional balance of dual federal-ism, where the state and federal authorities largelygoverned in distinct and separate areas, gave way tocooperative federalism with Franklin D. Roosevelt’s NewDeal in the 1930s. From this point in history, the federalgovernment has initiated and funded programmes inareas traditionally under the jurisdiction of the states.



President Lyndon B. Johnson even talked of a creativefederalism in the 1960s, which involved even greaterlevels of federal intervention. Since the 1970s, however,there have been attempts to return power back to thestates. This has been termed new federalism.

Federalist Papers A series of eighty-five articles published inThe Federalist newspaper between 1787 and 1788.Written under the pseudonym ‘Publius’, these essayswere the works of Alexander Hamilton, JamesMadison, and John Jay, aimed at persuading the indi-vidual states of the union to ratify the newly negotiatedconstitution. Although these articles were only part ofa much wider exchange of tracts and letters in theAmerican press at this time, both supporting andopposing ratification, collectively these essays, overtime, have come to represent an almost sacred defenceand explanation of the values of the US constitution.Even today, lawyers and politicians pore over theseworks to find justifications and advice on contemporarypolitical disputes and policy decisions. Federalist papersnumbers 10 and 51, written by Madison, for example,form one of the most logical and convincing defences ofpluralism, while Hamilton’s paper number 78 arguesfor the need of judicial review within any liberal gov-ernment.

Federalists A term used to describe various political factionsformed early in US history. Originally the title was givento supporters of the constitution penned in Philadelphia.Both Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson, forexample, campaigned for this document to be ratified bythe states. Their opponents were termed anti-federalists.Confusingly, however, the title ‘federalist’ came to meansomething different a few years later. Even as early as



George Washington’s first term of office, Hamilton wasdescribed as a federalist because he favoured a strongcentral government. Jefferson, on the other hand, was nolonger a federalist because he advocated a diffusion ofpower.

Fifth Amendment The constitutional amendment that guar-antees citizens due process of law should they be accusedof a crime. In particular, this passage of the US constitu-tion prevents individuals from being tried for the samecrime more than once (double jeopardy), and gives thema right to silence. The Fifth Amendment also states thatno citizen may have their property taken without duecompensation. This is one of the ten amendments thatcollectively form the Bill of Rights.

filibuster A method of obstructing the legislative process byextending its debating stage indefinitely. Prior to 1917,US senators had the right of unlimited debate when con-sidering a bill. This made it possible for opponents of apiece of legislation to effectively talk the measure off thefloor of the Senate. They would filibuster, refusing to stopdebating, thus preventing the issue reaching a vote. In themeantime, the Senate was prevented from moving on toany other business. A bill’s sponsors would thus be forcedto withdraw their bill in order that the Senate could oncemore function normally. Filibustering is an effective wayfor a minority to block the wishes of the majority. In1917, the Senate’s rules were amended to allow a motionof cloture to be passed, where, if there is agreement ofthree-fifths of members, debate is ended, and a bill pro-ceeds immediately to a vote. This change of rules hasmade filibustering harder to organise, but the practicestill continues as it is often difficult to persuade sixty ofthe one hundred-member Senate (three-fifths) to support



a motion of cloture. The House of Representatives has noproblems with filibustering, as its debates are all timeconstrained.

fireside chats A series of radio broadcasts presented byFranklin D. Roosevelt. These talks were characterised bya warm, informal tone, aimed to instil confidence andexplain government policy during the harsh years of the1930s depression. This is one of the first examples of aPresident using broadcast media to communicate directlywith the people.

First Amendment The First Amendment of the US constitu-tion gives citizens the right to freedom of speech, freedomof worship, and freedom of assembly. This constitutionalamendment also guarantees the freedom of the media inthe United States, and prohibits links between church andstate. This is one of the ten amendments that collectivelyform the Bill of Rights.

First Lady The wife of the President of the United States.Although this person holds no formal office or salary,Presidents’ partners have become more politically activeand influential over time. Eleanor Roosevelt, for example,was a politically active journalist and visited many NewDeal projects, reporting back to her husband (and waslater appointed as a US delegate to the United Nations byHarry S. Truman); Lady Bird Johnson was the first presi-dential wife to campaign alone on behalf of her husband;Rosalynn Carter acted as a staff aide in her husband’sadministration; Nancy Reagan promoted an anti-drugcampaign; Barbara Bush addressed the issue of illiteracy inthe United States; while Hillary Clinton was involved atthe highest level of policy-making with respect to welfarereforms.



527 groups A 527 is a non-profit organisation formed underSection 527 of the US Internal Revenue Code, whichgrants tax-exempt status to political committees at thenational, state and local level. Although these groupshave been around for some time, they gained more sig-nificance after the passage of the Bipartisan CampaignReform Act, 2002. Given that this legislation limited theopportunities for soft money donations to politicalparties and campaigns, these 527 groups now play agreater part in campaign finance strategies. By defini-tion, the 527s are legally independent of parties and offi-cial campaigns, and therefore targets for soft money.Unlike political action committees, they are permitted toraise unrestricted sums of soft money for political activ-ity, as long as this money is not used to specificallyendorse victory or defeat of an election candidate. In2004, for example, the 527 group Swift Boat Veteransfor Truth ran issue advertisements on national televisionquestioning Democratic Party presidential nomineeJohn Kerry’s Vietnam War record. Although these ‘issueads’ made no mention of Kerry’s opponent George W.Bush, this publicity helped the latter’s presidential cam-paign considerably. 527s are now a major conduit ofsoft money.

flexible construction An elastic interpretation of a legaldocument. A judge or politician that subjects the USconstitution to flexible construction will seek to makethis nineteenth century tract relevant to modern life.Rather than adhering to literal definitions of the words,they will seek timeless principles in the language,and apply these to today’s society. The opposite offlexible construction is strict construction.

See also: living constitution



floor Reference to when a legislative body meets as a whole,to debate a bill. For example: ‘The committee reportedthe proposal to the floor of the Senate’.

floor manager Once a bill has been reported by a Congressionalcommittee to the floor of either the Senate or House ofRepresentatives, a member of that chamber will beassigned to guide it through the legislative process. Thisindividual will attempt to make sure the bill gains supportamongst colleagues and no crippling amendments areplaced upon it.

food stamps Government tokens provided to those on lowincome, and without savings, which can be exchanged forgroceries in shops across the United States. Food stampinitiatives started in the Great Depression years of the1930s, but no permanent programme existed until 1964.The 1970s saw a dramatic rise in the number of stampsissued. The programme is currently co-ordinated at thefederal level by the US Department of Agriculture(specifically through its agency: the Food and NutritionService), while state bodies administer the programme atthe local level. In 2004, over 23 million persons were inreceipt of food stamps.

Ford, Gerald R. (1913– ) President of the United Statesbetween 1974 and 1977. Gerald Rudolph Ford turneddown the opportunity to play American football profes-sionally in order to study at Yale Law School and servein the US Navy during the Second World War.Discharged as a Lieutenant-Commander at the end ofthis conflict, Ford returned to his home town of GrandRapids, Michigan, to practise law. After a short periodof activity in local Republican Party politics, he waselected to the US House of Representatives in 1948.



Continually re-elected by his constituency, Ford becameHouse minority leader in 1965. It was from this positionthat Ford took an unusual path to the US presidency.

With the resignation of Spiro Agnew in 1973,Richard Nixon nominated Ford to be his new VicePresident. This appointment was confirmed by bothchambers of Congress, in accordance with the provi-sions of the Twenty-fifth Amendment. Ford was thenelevated to the presidency itself in 1974, when Nixonalso resigned, over the Watergate affair. This makesFord the only individual to serve as President of theUnited States without having been elected either asPresident or Vice President.

Controversially, one of Ford’s first acts as Presidentwas to pardon Richard Nixon for any crimes he may havecommitted related to the Watergate incident, an act thatoutraged many Americans. Ford similarly had difficultywinning over a Democratic majority Congress, whichafter mid-term elections had the ability to override Ford’smany presidential vetoes. In terms of domestic policy, theFord Administration attempted to cope with inflationand economic recession. In the foreign arena, Ford’swatch coincided with the fall of Cambodia to the KhmerRouge, and the evacuation of remaining US troops fromVietnam. Despite Watergate, economic stagflation, andthese foreign policy setbacks, it is notable that Ford onlynarrowly lost to Jimmy Carter in the 1976 presidentialelection.

forty acres and a mule Faced with the massive dislocation ofAfrican-Americans during the latter stages of the civilwar, General William Sherman of the Union army issuedSpecial Field Order Number Fifteen, which promisedfreed slaves ‘forty acres and a mule’ (i.e. land and a meansof farming this land). Presumably this land was to be



confiscated from white farmers who supported theConfederation of American States. In fact, this order onlyapplied to black families within Sherman’s vicinity, on thecoast of Georgia and Florida, and was a temporarymeasure. However, the idea of ‘forty acres and a mule’resonated widely amongst ex-slaves, and raised theirhopes that economic equality would result in the south asa result of reconstruction. In reality, few, if any, African-Americans received such support from the federal gov-ernment. ‘Forty acres and a mule’ has thus became arallying cry for civil rights campaigners across the years,highlighting the fact that African-Americans are stillwaiting for equality.

Frankfurter, Felix (1882–1965) Appointed by PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt, Frankfurter served as a SupremeCourt justice between 1939 and 1962. He was a leadingadvocate of judicial restraint.

free exercise clause Reference to the First Amendment of theUS constitution, which states that ‘Congress shall makeno law respecting the establishment of religion, or pro-hibiting the free exercise thereof’. This free exercise clauseunderwrites Americans’ rights to express religious beliefuninhibited by the state.

fruit-cake federalism Cake analogies have been used todescribe the differing forms of federalism found in theUnited States over time: layer-cake federalism for dualfederalism; and marble-cake federalism for cooperativefederalism. ‘Fruit-cake federalism’ refers to a systemwhere the overlaps and duplications between federal andstate governments have become dense and unmanage-able, yet provide ‘sweets’ for everyone.



G

GAO see General Accounting Office

Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority, 1985A Supreme Court judgment that confirmed the right ofCongress to include state and local government employ-ees within the remit of national minimum wage andlabour rights legislation. The San Antonio TransitAuthority had argued that the federal government hadno jurisdiction in this area of local government. TheCourt, however, disagreed. It ruled that the commerceclause applied in this case. In many respects, Garcia rep-resents the high-water mark of the Supreme Courtfavouring the commerce clause, and federal intervention,over state sovereignty. The Court’s later ruling of UnitedStates v. Lopez, 1995, for example, although it did notpurport to overturn Garcia, signalled the Court’s inten-tion to set limits with respect to Congress’ authority inareas traditionally regarded as within the jurisdiction ofthe states.

General Accountability Office see General Accounting Office

General Accounting Office An agency of the US Congress,established in 1921 to help this body oversee the work ofthe executive branch. The GAO conducts, on behalf ofCongress, audits of federal budgets, investigations of leg-islation implementation, and analyses policies emergingfrom the executive. In 2004, the GAO was renamed theGeneral Accountability Office.

Website: http://www.gao.gov

general election Defined, in the United States, as a series ofelections, involving candidates from competing parties,



held nationwide. General elections are organised on thefirst Tuesday in November, every twenty-four months, ineven-numbered years. These elections are distinct fromprimary elections, in that they involve candidates fromdifferent parties competing for political office. They arenot intra-party contests (i.e. primaries). Similarly, generalelections involve numerous concurrent polls across thewhole USA, and are not just confined to one or a few con-stituencies.

general revenue sharing A policy in place between 1972and 1986 where a proportion of revenue raised by thefederal government was given directly to state and localgovernments.

Gettysburg Address The speech given by President AbrahamLincoln in 1863, commemorating those who had died inthe Battle of Gettysburg earlier in the civil war. He arguedthat, for these individuals not to have lost their lives invain, the United States needed to rebuild itself on the prin-ciples of freedom and democracy. This short speech isregarded by many as one of the greatest expressions ofdemocratic ideals, and contains the famous phrase thatgovernment should be ‘of the people, by the people, forthe people’.

Gideon v. Wainwright, 1963 A Supreme Court decision thatrequires all courts in the United States to appoint freelegal representation to those facing the possibility of aprison sentence. This applies if the accused cannot affordto hire their own trial lawyer. Clarence Gideon was sen-tenced to five years incarceration by the state of Floridafor the crime of burglary. He was forced to defend himselfat his trial, as Florida courts, at the time, only providedcourt-appointed legal counsel to those accused of capital



crimes (that is, crimes that carry the possibility of a deathsentence). Gideon successfully argued before the SupremeCourt that this denial of legal representation, given thathe could not afford his own lawyer, violated his rights ofdue process guaranteed by the Sixth and FourteenthAmendments to the US constitution. At his re-trial, nowassisted by a court-appointed lawyer, Gideon was foundnot guilty of the original burglary charge.

Gingrich, Newt (1943– ) Newton Leroy Gingrich is a con-servative Republican Party politician from the state ofGeorgia. He served as Speaker of the House ofRepresentatives between 1995 and 1999, and used thisposition to orchestrate the Republican revolution basedon the Contract with America. This ‘revolution’attempted to push through an alternative conservativepolicy agenda, usurping President Bill Clinton’s ownlegislative programme. A combative relationshipbetween the Congress and the executive branch culmi-nated in Gingrich calling for Clinton’s impeachment overthe Monica Lewinsky affair and the financial irregulari-ties of Whitewater. By late 1998, however, Gingrich’sconfrontational style, and revelations of an extra-martialaffair of his own, were seen as electoral liabilitiesby many fellow Republicans. Gingrich subsequentlyresigned not only as Speaker, but from the House ofRepresentatives altogether. Still active in conservativepolitics, Gingrich is tipped as a potential future presiden-tial candidate.

GOP see Grand Old Party

governor The title given to the head of the executive branch(that is, the chief executive) of individual state govern-ments. Governors are directly elected, and enjoy state



powers similar to those of the President of the UnitedStates within the federal government: the right to veto leg-islation; commander in chief of the state national guard;and the ability to grant legal pardons, for example.

Gramm-Rudman-Hollings see national debt

Grand Old Party The ‘Grand Old Party’ or ‘GOP’ is an aliasfor the Republican Party used since the 1870s.

grants-in-aid Most commonly, a reference to the sums ofmoney the federal government transfers to state and localgovernments in order to fund specific policies, in theareas of health, education and welfare provision, forexample.

Great Compromise see connecticut Compromise

Great Depression A period of economic downturn thatstarted with the New York stock market crash of 1929,and lasted until World War Two stimulated globalmarkets once more. Many investors lost their savingsduring the depression, numerous banks closed, produc-tion slumped, and unemployment grew to record figures.The political response to this hardship was the election ofPresident Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1932, who aimedto mitigate the consequences of the depression with hisNew Deal.

Great Society reforms A programme of legislation initiatedby President Lyndon B. Johnson, during the 1960s, aimedat tackling poverty and racial discrimination in theUnited States. Johnson, seeking a ‘great society’, allo-cated federal money to provide educational opportuni-ties, improve the health, and address the general welfare


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of poor communities in the USA. The federal pro-grammes of Medicare and Medicaid, for example, dateback to this era. In terms of tackling racial discrimina-tion, the Johnson Administration secured the passage ofthe Civil Rights Act of 1964, which attacked racial seg-regation in public spaces, schools and the workplace,together with the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which out-lawed the literacy tests used to prevent African-Americans from voting in the southern states. Althoughthe Vietnam War diverted resources and attention awayfrom the Great Society programme, this series of reformsstill forms the foundation of much of the US welfaresystem today.

gubernatorial A word meaning ‘of, or pertaining to, a gover-nor’. A gubernatorial election, for example, will decidewhich candidate will become governor of a state.

Gulf of Tonkin The location of two allegedly unprovokedattacks by North Vietnamese torpedo boats on US Navyships during 1964. In response to this incident, Congresspassed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, granting PresidentLyndon B. Johnson support to protect US forces in thisregion. This resolution would later be interpreted by theJohnson Administration as constitutional authorisationto escalate US military operations in Vietnam.

gun control see Second Amendment

H

Hamilton, Alexander (c.1755–1804) Having served with dis-tinction in George Washington’s army during the War ofIndependence, Hamilton became an influential politician



during the early period of United States history. He wasa member of the Continental Congress, and a key advo-cate of abandoning the Articles of Confederation infavour of a stronger federal government. In this respect,Hamilton was appointed as a delegate representing thestate of New York at the Philadelphia constitutional con-gress. Alongside James Madison and John Jay, Hamiltonthen co-authored the Federalist Papers in support of thenew constitution, successfully convincing the states toratify this document. In government, Hamilton served asthe first Secretary of the Treasury between 1789 and1795, and then, on the formation of political parties,became a powerful member of the Federalist Party. Hecontinued to advocate a strong role for the national gov-ernment. Hamilton was to die after a duel in 1804, beingshot by a political rival Aaron Burr, after allegedly ques-tioning this individual’s honour at a dinner party.

hanging chad A faulty, partially pierced hole made in a ballotpaper punch card. Chads came to the attention of theworld during the 2000 general election, when George W.Bush narrowly beat Al Gore to become President of theUnited States. Legal action challenging Bush’s victoryfocused on the inadequacy of the state of Florida’s auto-mated electoral equipment, which had produced signifi-cant numbers of faulty hanging chads on ballot cards,instead of chads. The outcome of this legal action effec-tively decided who would be President. The US SupremeCourt’s decision Bush v. Gore, 2000 denied Gore theright to a manual recount of the Florida ballot cards. Theoriginal machine-read result, and Bush’s victory, stood.

hard money A phrase used to describe financial contributionsto political campaigns that are used directly to electcandidates. Such expenditure is tightly regulated by



campaign finance law, with the amount of hard money acampaign may receive from any one individual or organ-isation being capped. By contrast, soft money contribu-tions are not so tightly controlled, but these may only beused to fund political activity not advocating the electionof a candidate.

Hearings, Congressional see Congressional hearings

Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States, 1964 A SupremeCourt ruling confirming the Civil Rights Act, 1964 to beconstitutional. Supporters of segregation in the southernstates, having failed to block the Civil Rights Act in theUS Congress, mounted a legal challenge against its pro-visions. The appellant contested that the federal govern-ment had no right to impose desegregation on hisbusiness. It was argued that since this motel was privatelyowned, and operated solely within the state of Georgia,it had the right to refuse guests on the grounds of colourif it so wished. The federal government had no jurisdic-tion in this area. The Supreme Court disagreed. It was ofthe opinion that the motel was open to out-of-stateguests, due to its location near interstate highways, andthus came under the federal jurisdiction of interstatecommerce. The Civil Rights Act was deemed constitu-tional.

Homeland Security, Department of see Department of Home-land Security

Hoover, J. Edgar (1895–1972) Hoover served as the Directorof the Federal Bureau of Investigation between 1924 and1972. Almost fifty years at the helm of the FBI sawHoover build this agency into a professional body oflaw enforcement. Hoover’s strategies of crime fighting,



however, were not without controversy. He collecteddamaging information on politicians, and kept this intel-ligence under his own personal control. These secret fileswere used to maintain himself in post as the FBI’s direc-tor, and he was apparently able to intimidate even sittingpresidents by threatening to leak damaging disclosures.By the early 1970s Hoover had come under public criti-cism for his authoritarian administration of the FBI andfor his persecution of those he personally regarded as rad-icals and subversives. Similarly questions were beingasked about the FBI’s failure to tackle Mafia crime.Despite these criticisms, Hoover remained in office untilhis death in 1972.

Hopper The wooden box located on the floor of the Houseof Representatives in which members place draft legisla-tion they wish to introduce to this chamber. The Senatehas no equivalent receptacle. Instead, draft bills aresimply handed to a clerk.

House of Representatives The lower chamber of the USCongress. Members stand for election every 2 years, andrepresent 435 nationwide constituencies of approximatelyequal population. In addition, four non-voting delegatesto the House of Representatives sit in the chamber, attend-ing to the interests of the territories of AmericanSamoa, the District of Columbia, Guam, and the VirginIslands, along with the Resident Commissioner of PuertoRico.

The House is traditionally seen as the ‘popular’chamber of the Congress, members having always beendirectly and regularly elected by the general public.Consequently, Representatives tend to focus closely ontheir constituency’s interests, making sure, perhaps morethan the Senate, that their district has a voice in national



(and international) affairs. Given this closeness to thepeople, the US constitution vests certain exclusive powersto the House of Representatives, among the most impor-tant of which are the right to initiate impeachment pro-ceedings and the right to originate revenue bills.

The work and organisation of the House is dominatedby the committee system.

Website: http://www.house.gov

House of Representatives Committee on AppropriationsArticle One, Section Nine of the US constitution statesthat ‘No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but inconsequence of appropriations made by law . . .’Originally undertaken by the House of RepresentativesCommittee on Ways and Means, since 1865, this allo-cation of money has been the task of the HouseAppropriations Committee. Any spending of federalfunds has to be first approved by this body. The com-mittee therefore scrutinises all legislation proposed byother committees, making sure government money isbeing spent appropriately. This control of the pursestrings makes this particular committee very powerful.

Website: http://appropriations.house.gov

House of Representatives Committee on Rules see rules com-mittees

House of Representatives Committee on Ways and MeansGiven that the US constitution vests exclusive powerwith respect to revenue bills with the House ofRepresentatives, this makes the Ways and MeansCommittee one of the most powerful bodies in the USCongress. This body enjoys a broad jurisdiction over billslinked to taxation. The committee therefore makesimportant policy decisions with respect to federal



welfare, education, health and economic programmes,for example.

Website: http://waysandmeans.house.gov

hyphenated-Americans Reference to the fact that many inthe United States pay attention to the ethnic originof individuals, even several generations after their fami-lies originally arrived in this country. Thus individualsand communities become sub-categories of Americans,proceeded by a hyphen: African-Americans, Italian-Americans, Irish-Americans, and so on.

I

impeachment The act of charging a public official with mis-conduct, and determining whether or not they should beremoved from office. In the case of federal governmentemployees, it is the US Congress that prosecutes theimpeachment process. Proceedings are initiated in theJudiciary Committee of the House of Representatives.This body holds hearings on the allegations, and thenreports to the floor of the House on whether an individ-ual should answer to charges of ‘treason, bribery or otherhigh crimes and misdemeanours’ (Article Three of the USconstitution). The House, after debating this report, col-lectively determines whether impeachment is appropriatewith a simple majority vote. If it is deemed that chargesare warranted, Articles of Impeachment are drawn up,and passed over to the US Senate.

Senators collectively act as a court to judge the chargesbrought by the House. The Chief Justice of the SupremeCourt presides. A guilty verdict requires a two-thirdsmajority vote. Conviction will result in this official beingremoved from post, and the Senate may also bar them



from future public office. Congress has no power toinvoke criminal penalties on those found guilty, althoughadditional legal charges may follow from law enforce-ment agencies.

Congress traditionally reserves the impeachmentprocess for significant cases of alleged misconduct. Ofthe sixty-two individuals investigated by the House since1797, sixteen have been impeached by this chamber, andseven of those convicted and removed from office by theSenate (all the guilty parties being judges). The Househas voted to impeach two Presidents during this period:Andrew Johnson (1868) and Bill Clinton (1999).Johnson survived conviction in the Senate by one vote,while the charges against Clinton were dismissed by alarge majority. Most famously, President Richard Nixonavoided being impeached by resigning from office in1974, over the Watergate affair. In Nixon’s case, theHouse of Representatives Committee on the Judiciaryrecommended to the floor of the House that Articles ofImpeachment be drawn up, but Nixon vacated the WhiteHouse before a floor vote could confirm impeachment.Congress may not impeach an individual after they haveleft office.

imperial president A term used to describe a President whobends or ignores constitutional checks and balances inorder to dominate the federal government. Thus animperial president relies on White House aides ratherthan consulting cabinet colleagues or members ofCongress. They also actively resist oversight from otherbranches of government. Decision-making becomes moresecretive and centred on the president’s own ‘court’, or‘inner circle’, rather than being a transparent, openprocess, involving consultation. Various chief executiveshave been accused of being ‘imperial presidents’. Lyndon



B. Johnson, for example, for the way in which he com-mitted US forces to Vietnam without full disclosure toCongress, or Ronald Reagan and his secret war in LatinAmerica that led to the Irangate scandal. The presidencyof Richard Nixon, however, is most closely associatedwith this term, given his lack of respect for Congress andpolitical opponents, which bordered on criminal activity,as evidenced by the Watergate affair.

Further reading: Arthur Schlesinger, The ImperialPresidency (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1973)

implied powers Those powers that, although not specificallyreferred to in the US constitution, are deemed to be alogical extension or an implication of this document. TheUS Congress, for example, passed legislation that estab-lished a national bank in 1791. Nowhere in the constitu-tion is there a clause that specifically permits the federalgovernment to charter banks. Congress’ authority in thisarea is thus an ‘implied power’. As the constitutioncharges Congress with regulating the borrowing ofmoney, and the minting of currency on behalf of theUnited States, the formation of a national bank wastherefore accepted as a logical extension of this role (seeMcCulloch v. Maryland, 1819). Many of the impliedpowers are constitutionally justified by the necessary andproper clause and the commerce clause.

inauguration Ceremonies that mark the start of a new polit-ical term. The US president’s inauguration traditionallyconsists of a formal oath of office given before the ChiefJustice, followed by a speech to the nation outlining theadministration’s plans for the coming four years (the‘inaugural address’). Numerous ‘inaugural balls’ orparties are then held across Washington DC, in theevening, celebrating the new (or renewed) political order.



incumbent The individual currently holding a political postis the ‘incumbent’. Where an incumbent is repeatedlyre-appointed or re-elected to office this may createa problem for good government. Challengers are dis-suaded from competing for power, while new policy ideasthat new personnel would bring to an office may now failto reach decision-making forums. This problem ofincumbency is often compounded by the fact that incum-bents, through simply occupying an office, often gain anadvantage over their opponents. They are able to gaingreater publicity for their campaigns, as well as beingable to raise more campaign finance.

independent agencies Predominately, units of the executivebranch that operate independently of the main federaldepartments. These smaller executive agencies are chargedwith implementing specific elements of public policy. TheCentral Intelligence Agency, for example, is an independ-ent agency, operating apart from the Departments of Stateand Defense, reporting directly to the President via theNational Security Council. Other independent agenciesinclude the Federal Communications Commission, theNational Aeronautics and Space Commission (NASA),and the United States Postal Service. Congress also super-vises a number of independent agencies of its own, whichhelp it with the legislative process: the GovernmentAccountability Office, for example, and the Library ofCongress.

Website: http://www.firstgov.gov/Agencies/Federal/Independent.shtml

indirect primary A primary election where the victoriousdelegate is under no obligation to vote for a particularcandidate at the national party convention. With a directprimary, by contrast, winners are bound to vote for the



candidate he or she pledged to support whilst campaign-ing to be a delegate.

inherent powers see implied powers

initiative election A referendum on an issue initiated by agroup of citizens. Once a specified number of citizensregister their support for an initiative, this policy is putbefore the electorate as a whole for a decision. Manylocal and state governments in the US make provision forcitizens to introduce legislation via such initiative elec-tions.

Inland Revenue Service The IRS is a bureau of the Departmentof the Treasury responsible for collecting federal taxes inthe United States, and enforcing tax law.

Website: http://www.irs.gov

intentionalist see strict construction

interstate commerce clause see commerce clause

Iran-Contra scandal see Irangate

Irangate A scandal that disrupted the Reagan Administrationin 1986. A Congressional and media investigationrevealed that National Security Council (NSC) officialshad secretly sold arms to Iran. The sale was arranged onthe basis that it would strengthen the position of moder-ates within the Iranian regime who, in turn, could helpsecure the release of western hostages. The money gener-ated by the arms sale was then used by the NSC to fundthe right-wing Contra rebel movement in Nicaragua. Notonly was this arms sale questionable on the grounds ofthe United States providing weapons to Iran, a country



that posed a direct security threat to the US, it also con-travened specific Congressional legislation that bannedthe executive branch from providing military aid to theContra rebel movement. Questions were asked over theextent to which President Ronald Reagan, and otherhigh-ranking executive officials, knew about this oper-ation. The outcome of this investigation, however, wasthat just two members of the NSC, Admiral JohnPoindexter and Colonel Oliver North, were tried andconvicted in the courts.

iron triangle A phrase used to signify the mutual supportingrelationships that can develop between legislators,bureaucrats and interest groups. It is charged that an irontriangle formed by these three parties prioritises securingeach party’s interests, rather than serving the public good.It is an ‘iron’ triangle because it is difficult for ‘outsiders’to penetrate these established policy networks.

IRS see Inland Revenue Service

isolationism A policy of standing aloof from internationalaffairs. Most prominently, the United States took an isol-ationist stance during the 1920s and 1930s, officiallyremaining neutral in the run-up to World War Two. Thisisolationist era was ended by President Franklin D.Roosevelt, who declared war on Germany and Japanafter the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941.

issue advertisements Issue ads are advertisements that seek tohighlight a particular position or policy, but do notovertly call for the election of a particular candidate.They have been used extensively in recent years by polit-ical parties and interest groups in their efforts to circum-vent campaign finance laws.



J

Jackson, Andrew (1767–1845) Seventh President of theUnited States, holding office between 1829 and 1837.Born in the frontier territory of the Carolinas, Jacksonserved, aged fourteen, in George Washington’s continen-tal army, against the British, in the War of Independence.After the war, he built a successful career as a lawyer inTennessee. It was his later military exploits, however, thatcaught the public’s imagination. Leading US troopsbetween 1812 and 1818, he first defeated Creek Indianforces allied to Britain in Alabama, and then British andSpanish forces in the south-east of the country. These mili-tary exploits hastened the incorporation of Florida, for-merly a Spanish possession, into the United States. Afteran unsuccessful bid to become President of the UnitedStates in 1824, due to the vagaries of the electoral college,he was eventually elected to the White House in 1828.

Jackson spent most of his presidency rearranging thefederal government and contending with Congress. Hisaccomplishments were mostly negative: relocating Indiantribes west of the Mississippi, vetoing road bills and aBank bill, and opposing nullification (a movement wherestates asserted their right to veto federal legislation). Thegreatest achievement of his administration, the rise of themass political party (the Democratic Party), was morethe work of advisors than of Jackson himself.

He did, however, make a lasting imprint on US history,as a war hero, and the first president ‘of the people’,who represented the nation as a whole, and not isolatedinterests.

Jefferson, Thomas (1743–1826) Third President of the UnitedStates, holding office between 1801 and 1809. The son ofa wealthy Virginian tobacco-plantation owner, Thomas



Jefferson played a major role in the founding, and the pol-itics of the early years, of the United States. He was themain author of the Declaration of Independence; he wasa member of the Continental Congress; he led theDemocratic-Republican Party; was elected Governor ofVirginia; served as Minister to France; and was appointedVice President, before becoming President himself. At thesame time, Jefferson also excelled in archaeology, archi-tecture, geography, meteorology, mathematics, music,and the sciences, amongst other fields.

The keystones of Jefferson’s presidency were theimposition of strict political neutrality within the judicialbranch of government, the abolition of interstate tax-ation, a reduction of the armed forces, the enhancementof states’ rights over the federal government, and theLouisiana Purchase.

Jim Crow laws Reference to legislation passed by state gov-ernments, after the end of reconstruction (c. 1890), whichsought to segregate whites and African-Americans, par-ticularly in the south. Although, post-civil war, the USconstitution outlawed direct discrimination, a series ofstate laws and local ordnances were enacted (Jim Crow)which prevented races mixing, on public transport,for example, or in public spaces. Similarly, African-Americans were prevented from voting. They were dis-franchised by Jim Crow literacy tests (that required blackswho wished to vote to correctly recite the entire constitu-tion, for example), and poll taxes (where a registration feewas required). These requirements were waived for whitecitizens. Jim Crow legislation was eventually repealedduring the 1950s and 1960s, in the face of oppositionfrom the civil rights movement. The phrase ‘Jim Crow’derives from the song ‘Jump Jim Crow’, part of a popularminstrel show performed in the nineteenth century.



Johnson, Lyndon B. (1908–73) Thirty-sixth President of theUnited States, holding office between 1963 and 1969.Lyndon Baines Johnson was raised on a modest Texasranch, and began a career in teaching during the late1920s. Working as a volunteer in Democratic Party poli-tics, he stood for office himself in 1937, and was electedto the US House of Representatives. Eleven years later hewas returned as a US senator for the state of Texas. In along Congressional career, Johnson built a reputation asa shrewd legislator, able to deliver votes. He served as aDemocratic Party whip, Senate Minority Leader, andthen the Majority Leader. Johnson was elected to theoffice of Vice President on John F. Kennedy’s presidentialticket in 1960, and then became President himself, in1963, as a consequence of Kennedy’s assassination. Thisposition was confirmed in 1964, when he won a massivepopular majority over his Republican Party opponent(Barry Goldwater) in the general election.

As well as providing stability to the office of thePresident during the politically turbulent years of the1960s, Johnson’s presidential legacy revolves aroundsocial reform, tackling racial discrimination, and theVietnam War. In terms of social reform, the JohnsonAdministration pushed through a series of legislativeprovisions collectively termed the Great Societyreforms. Alongside these laws, the Civil Rights Act waspassed in 1964, and the Voting Rights Act in 1965, bothof which helped end racial segregation in the south.These achievements, however, were overshadowed bythe United States being drawn further into the VietnamWar. More American troops were committed to thisconflict, despite increasing casualties and growingopposition to US involvement. In 1968, Johnson star-tled television viewers with a national address thatincluded three announcements: that he had just ordered



major reductions in the bombing of North Vietnam;that he was requesting peace talks; and that he wouldneither seek nor accept his party’s nomination for re-election.

Johnson rule A rule introduced in 1953 by Lyndon B.Johnson, when he was Senate Majority Leader, that statesthat no Democratic Party senator should be awarded asecond major committee assignment until all Democraticsenators have received their first. This rule reformedthe seniority system that had previously governed thecommittee system in the US Congress. Long-servingDemocratic senators had dominated Congressional pro-ceedings up to this point, at the expense of members morerecently elected to the Senate. With this rule, committeepositions would be more widely spread amongst partymembers.

Joint Chiefs of Staff A panel consisting of the highest-rankingofficers in the US Army, Navy, Air Force and MarineCorps. The ‘Joint Chiefs’ act as the principal militaryadvisors to the President, and other government agenciessuch as the Department of Defense and the NationalSecurity Council.

Website: http://www.jcs.mil

joint committee In the case of the US Congress, a committeewhose membership comprises individuals from both theSenate and the House of Representatives. Joint commit-tees are established to avoid duplication of work. Thesecommittees have been rarely used since the 1970s, witheach chamber preferring to keep its independence (andfoster a separation of the powers). Such a joint commit-tee, however, investigated events surrounding theIrangate scandal of 1987.



judicial activism Where a court uses its power to interpret thelaw in such a way as to effectively make public policy.The Supreme Court in the 1950s and 1960s, under theleadership of Earl Warren, for example, interpreted theconstitution in a manner that made the federal judiciarythe leading policy maker on the issue of desegregation.The Court’s decisions made segregation illegal in schools,public spaces and on public transport. The Warren Courtwas therefore ‘judicially active’ in this area of US politics.Those who oppose judicial activism advocate judicialrestraint.

judicial branch The division of government charged withinterpreting laws and adjudicating disputes. In theUnited States, each individual state has its own seriesof courts dealing with state laws, while federal laws areunder the jurisdiction of a separate system of federalcourts. All these courts recognise the ultimate author-ity of the US Supreme Court, which is the highestcourt of appeal, and the final interpreter of the USconstitution.

Website: http://www.uscourts.gov

judicial restraint Where courts hesitate from making judg-ments that would effectively make new public policy. Arestrained court will tend to defer to legislative interpre-tations of the constitution, as well as those of the execu-tive branch. Judicial intervention is limited to clearviolations of the law. Those who think the judicial branchshould be more dynamic in its interpretation of the con-stitution advocate judicial activism.

judicial review Where courts judge whether the acts of otherbranches of government are constitutional or not. Shouldbills passed by state legislatures or the US Congress be



deemed to be in conflict respectively with a state consti-tution or the US constitution, it is rendered null and void.Courts may also subject the actions of state executivesand the US President to judicial review. Courts are thefinal interpreters of constitutions, and thus have thepower to strike down legislation and policies emanatingfrom the other two branches of government. The powerof judicial review is not explicitly outlined in the US con-stitution, and, as such, is an implied power. This rightwas confirmed by the Supreme Court decision ofMarbury v. Madison, 1803. This court’s use of judicialreview has resulted in excess of 1,000 state laws and 120acts of Congress being overturned since the formation ofthe United States.

judicial self-restraint see judicial restraint

jurisdiction The area over which an institution of governmentenjoys authority.

K

Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1954 see Missouri compromise

Kennedy, Edward (1932– ) Veteran Democratic Partymember of Congress, and younger brother of PresidentJohn F. Kennedy and Robert Kennedy. After inheritinghis brother’s Massachusetts Senate seat in 1962, ‘Ted’ or‘Teddy’ Kennedy successfully built a power base and con-siderable influence within the US Congress. He has beentipped to win the White House several times, but, since1969, has never stood. Any political ambitions alongthese lines would be hampered by an incident of that yearknown as Chappaquiddick. Kennedy was charged and


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found guilty of leaving the scene of an accident, after apassenger, Mary Jo Kopechne, was killed in his car, sub-sequent to it driving off a bridge on ChappaquiddickIsland, Massachusetts.

Kennedy, John F. (1917–63) The thirty-fifth President of theUnited States, holding office between 1961 and 1963.The son of a wealthy, politically active, Massachusettsfamily, John Fitzgerald Kennedy was appointed USambassador to the United Kingdom, and served in the USNavy during World War Two, before being elected to theUS House of Representatives as a Democratic Party can-didate in 1946. He served three terms in the House, andthen became a Senator for the state of Massachusetts in1953. Kennedy’s 1960 victory against the RepublicanParty presidential candidate, Richard Nixon, may benoted for three particular reasons: Kennedy wasthe youngest person ever to be voted to the WhiteHouse; he was the first president drawn from a Catholicbackground; and he secured this position by winning agreater number of votes in the electoral college, but notmore than half of the popular vote (see minoritypresident).

For many, Kennedy’s youth, dynamism, charisma andgood looks personify his presidency. Phrases fromKennedy’s speeches are still repeated today, such as talkof the ‘New Frontier’, ‘Ich bin ein Berliner’, and ‘ask notwhat your country can do for you, ask what you can dofor your country’. Amongst this mood of renewal andreform, the Kennedy Administration laid down the foun-dations of far-reaching welfare and civil rights legislationthat would be completed by his successor PresidentLyndon B. Johnson. Kennedy’s record in foreign affairs,however, is more controversial, having sanctioned theBay of Pigs debacle, overseen the Cuban Missile Crisis,



and committed the United States further into the VietnamWar. Ultimately, however, Kennedy is remembered for hisuntimely departure from office: the victim of an assassin’sbullet in 1963. The idea of a youthful, dynamic president,cruelly denied time to achieve his promise, is how manyAmericans view Kennedy, making him one of the mostpopular presidents of the twentieth century.

Kennedy, Robert (1925–68) ‘Bobby’ Kennedy served as theUS Attorney General and as a close advisor to the admin-istration of his brother, John F. Kennedy. RemainingAttorney General for twelve months after his brother’sassassination, Kennedy then successfully stood as aDemocratic Party candidate for the US Senate. In 1968,he announced his intention to stand for President of theUnited States. He had won five out of six of his party’sprimary elections before he too was assassinated. Thechain of assassinations at this time – John F. Kennedy(1963), Malcolm X (1965), Martin Luther King (1968)and Robert Kennedy (1968) – marked some of the mostturbulent years for US politics in the twentieth century.

King, Martin Luther (1929–68) A leader of the civil rightsmovement in the United States during the 1950s and1960s. A Baptist minister, who helped found theSouthern Christian Leadership Conference, King calledfor a non-violent campaign against racial discrimination.He organised a series of protests and boycotts across thesouth, which culminated in the ‘March on Washington’in 1963. He was awarded the Nobel Peace prize a yearlater. After Congress passed the Civil Rights Act, 1964and the Voting Rights, 1965, King continued to highlightand campaign against racial discrimination both in thenorth and south of the United States. Latterly, he alsobegan to speak out against the Vietnam War and



apartheid in South Africa. He was assassinated in 1968,apparently by a white supremacist.

King, Rodney (1965– ) An African-American who wasarrested for motoring offences by the Los Angeles PoliceDepartment (LAPD) in 1991. The arrest, videotaped bya bystander, apparently involved LAPD officers brutallybeating King. These images of white policemen beating ablack suspect were broadcast nationwide. Charges ofassault followed against four LAPD officers, but all wereacquitted. News of these acquittals sparked the LosAngeles riots of 1992.

Kissinger, Henry (1923– ) A political scientist who served asNational Security Advisor to the President, and thenSecretary of State, under the administrations of RichardNixon and Gerald Ford. Kissinger’s major achievementsin public office involved developing a diplomatic under-standing with both China and the Soviet Union, as well asnegotiated settlements in Vietnam and the Middle East.

In terms of Kissinger’s Cold War strategy, his policy ofdétente resulted in warmer US relations with China andthe Soviet Union. This prompted strategic arms limita-tion talks (SALT) with Moscow from 1969 onwards,while the early 1970s rapprochement with China repre-sented the first official US contact with the People’sRepublic since communists had taken power in 1949.

Although he originally advocated a hard-line policy inthe Vietnam War and helped engineer the US bombing ofCambodia, Kissinger later played a major role in the dis-engagement of US troops from this country. The cease-fire he negotiated in Paris during 1973 earned Kissingerand his Vietnamese counterpart, Le Duc Tho (whorefused the honour), a Nobel Peace prize. This ceasefire,however, did not prevent the fall of South Vietnam to the


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communist North in 1975. Elsewhere, in the wake of theArab-Israeli War of 1973, Kissinger used what came tobe called ‘shuttle diplomacy’ in efforts to disengage theseopposing armies. As a consequence of brokering thesepeace talks, Kissinger was responsible for the resumptionof diplomatic relations between Egypt and the UnitedStates, severed since 1967, which made possible the laterCamp David Accords.

Despite the above diplomatic successes, Kissinger’sreputation has always been dogged by critics pointing tohis alleged preference for supporting anti-communistregimes, at the expense of down-playing these regimes’human rights records. Controversy surrounds Kissinger’srole in authorising the secret bombing of Cambodia, forexample, and backing the 1973 military coup in Chile.

kitchen cabinet Any informal forum of decision makers,effectively rivalling the formal cabinet. President RonaldReagan, for example, relied upon a ‘kitchen cabinet’ offriends and acquaintances from California for advice.None of these individuals held public office, but theyenjoyed considerable influence.

Ku Klux Klan A secret society intent on securing whitesupremacy in the United States, often by violent acts.Veterans of the Confederate army originally establishedthe Klan immediately after the civil war. Their objectivewas to resist reconstruction and restore old powerstructures. The Klan was involved in numerous cases ofintimidation and violence against newly enfranchisedAfrican-Americans. With reconstruction at an end, andsegregation largely re-established, the Klan dissolved. Asecond incarnation of the Ku Klux Klan emerged around1915, and revolved around a nostalgic yearning forthe ‘old South’. White citizens of small towns defended



their lifestyle against the perceived encroachment ofAfrican-American interests (as well as the interests ofnortherners, Catholics, Jews and ‘Bolsheviks’). Aburning cross became the symbol of this new organisa-tion, and white-robed Klansmen participated inmarches, parades, and night patrols all over the country.Membership of these societies peaked in the 1920s, butfell dramatically during the Great Depression. The lastmajor resurfacing of political activity using the name ‘KuKlux Klan’ came as a response to the civil rights move-ment in the 1950s and 1960s. ‘Klan’ members used arsonattacks, lynchings and bombings to intimidate African-Americans, and whites from the north, attempting toforce them not to join the desegregation campaign.Various scattered organisations claiming allegiance tothe Klan still exist today, but they are isolated and polit-ically discredited, numbering only a few thousandmembers in total.

L

lame duck An ineffective politician, due to changing circum-stances. The President of the United States, for example,will be a lame duck if they lose their re-election race, asthey wait for the new president’s inauguration. Similarly,if a mid-term election leaves the President with littlesupport in Congress, again they will continue weakened,as a ‘lame duck’.

layer-cake federalism Another name for dual federalism. Theanalogy refers to the different constituent parts found ina layer-cake. The federal and state governments are dis-tinct and separate, but are both required in order to makeup the whole cake/government.



legislative agencies Like the executive branch, the federal leg-islative branch also supervises a smaller number of inde-pendent agencies to help it in its work. These include theGovernment Accountability Office, the Library ofCongress, and the Government Printing Office.

legislative branch The division of government responsiblefor making laws. In the case of the US federal govern-ment, Congress is the sole law-making body. TheCongress is divided into two chambers: the House ofRepresentatives and the Senate. To ensure that eachstate is equally represented in this body, as are US citi-zens, each chamber has a different constituency. TheSenate comprises of two members from each of the fiftystates, irrespective of their total population, whilemembers of the House of Representatives are responsi-ble to 435 constituencies of roughly equal numbersof voters. This system was established by the GreatCompromise principle negotiated during the drafting ofthe US constitution. Senators and members of the Housealso have different terms of office: senators sit for sixyears, while those in the House are elected every twoyears. As well as undertaking a legislative role, Congressalso exercises powers of oversight, maintaining checksand balances.

Lewinsky, Monica (1973– ) A White House intern who hadan affair with President Bill Clinton. Revelations of thisextra-martial relationship, together with Clinton’s initialdenial, on oath, of ‘sexual relations’ with Lewinsky, ham-pered this politician’s second term in office. At a time ofaggravation between the executive branch and the leg-islative branch, this revelation provided the basis ofArticles of Impeachment drawn up by the US House ofRepresentatives against Clinton. The Senate dismissed



these charges. This scandal inevitably goes by the name‘Monica-gate’ and ‘Zipper-gate’.

limited government Where the work of government is con-strained by a higher authority, usually a constitution. Allgovernments in the United States are ‘limited’ in the sensethat none of these can exceed the powers designated tothem by the US constitution.

Lincoln, Abraham (1809–65) Sixteenth President of theUnited States, holding office between 1861 and 1865.After George Washington, Lincoln is perhaps the presi-dent still held in most regard by the US people. It was hisadministration that prosecuted the civil war, defeating therebellious forces of the Confederate States of America,and preserving the Union. Lincoln also took the decisionto end the practice of slavery in the United States.

Born in Kentucky, and raised in Illinois, Lincoln camefrom a humble background, working as a shop-keeper, asurveyor, a postal worker, and then a lawyer before enter-ing Illinois state politics in 1834. In 1846, he was electedto the US House of Representatives as a member of theWhig Party, but only served one term of office. In the1850s, Lincoln helped reorganise the Republican Party,and became this organisation’s nominee for President ofthe United States in 1860. By the time Lincoln arrived inthe White House, seven southern states had alreadyseceded from the Union.

Lincoln never wavered from his belief that no state hadthe right to secede from the Union, and that federal lawsshould be upheld, even if this meant civil war. Similarly,as President, he would not allow the institution of slaveryto spread into the new territories of the west. Despitemassive casualties on both sides, Lincoln prosecuted thewar with determination, granting himself a considerable



array of emergency powers. Re-elected to the WhiteHouse in 1864, Lincoln’s last major acts as Presidentwere to issue the Emancipation Proclamation freeingslaves in the United States, and to advocate leniency forthe terms admitting the Confederate states back into theUnion. Lincoln was assassinated in April 1865, a fewdays after his second inauguration.

line-item veto The right of a chief executive to veto a legisla-tive act, not only in its entirety, but also specific individ-ual clauses of a proposal. Parts of an act can thus beremoved by veto, leaving the remaining portions intactand legally binding. Most governors have the right ofline-item veto in the United States, but not the Presidentof the United States, who can only veto a Congressionalact as a whole. Several presidents have campaigned for anamendment to the constitution granting them the right ofline-item veto, but this proposal has yet to gain sufficientsupport. Congress did, however, briefly give President BillClinton this right in 1997, with a simple act of Congress,but this was struck down a year later by the SupremeCourt in the ruling Clinton v. the City of New York,1998.

Little Rock Central High School The scene of a 1957 mile-stone event in the civil rights campaign. President DwightEisenhower deployed federal troops in order to guaran-tee the safety of nine African-American pupils whowished to attend a newly desegregated school. White pro-testors had gathered outside the school to prevent thesechildren from entering the school premises, in direct defi-ance of the Supreme Court integration ruling Brown v.Board of Education, 1954. The political tension sur-rounding this protest was heightened by the fact that thesegregationist Arkansas state governor, Orval Faubus,



deployed the state national guard to block entry to theschool for African-Americans. Eisenhower first feder-alised the Arkansas National Guard, ordering them toreturn to barracks, and then replaced them with federalparatroopers, to guarantee order. This was a clear signalthat the federal government was now prepared to upholdthe constitution in the southern states, where previouslyit had tolerated segregationist Jim Crow laws.

living constitution A phrase that reflects the idea that a con-stitution is not set in time and meaning, but can be inter-preted differently by different generations to suit theirparticular needs.

See also: flexible construction

log rolling A term referring to an exchange of favoursbetween legislators. A member of Congress agreeing tosupport a colleague pushing through an initiative on agri-cultural subsidies, in return for reciprocal help winning aseparate federal highways project for his or her ownstate, would be deemed to be ‘log rolling’.

Louisiana Purchase An 1803 treaty signed by PresidentThomas Jefferson that doubled the territory of the UnitedStates. Over five million acres of land were bought fromFrance, which extended the borders of the United Statesto the Rocky Mountains in the west, and to what is themodern state of Louisiana in the south.

M

McCain-Feingold see Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act,2002



McCarthy, Joseph (1908–57) A Republican Party US senator,holding office between 1946 and 1957, who led an anti-communist crusade against public figures. McCarthy firstcame to the public’s attention in 1950 when he claimedthat 205 communists had infiltrated the StateDepartment. Although he was unable to substantiate thisclaim, when testifying before the Senate Foreign RelationsCommittee, his campaign gained popularity amidst thegeneral paranoia created at the height of the Cold War.Re-elected to the Senate in 1952, McCarthy wasappointed chair of the Committee on Operations, and itsinvestigations sub-committee. He used this position towage a war against ‘un-American activities’. Many publicfigures were accused of communist affiliations, andbrought to testify before his committee. As a consequenceof the publicity these hearings generated, individuals losttheir jobs or were publicly humiliated, often with littleevidence to support the accusations. The phrase ‘witchhunt’ is often used to describe McCarthy’s actions.Eventually, McCarthy’s increasingly irresponsible accusa-tions (which even included President Dwight Eisenhower)and his aggressive public interrogation tactics, began tolose McCarthy public support. When the Republicanslost control of the Senate in 1954, the upper chamberpassed a motion of censure against McCarthy, repri-manding him for conduct ‘contrary to Senate traditions’.

McCarthyism In general terms, to accuse individuals oftreachery, and persecute them for their political beliefs,often without proof of guilt. More specifically, this termrelates to the activities of Senator Joseph McCarthyduring the 1950s.

McCulloch v. Maryland, 1819 A Supreme Court decisionthat underwrites expansive federal government public



policy, permitted by the US constitution’s necessary andproper clause.

In 1816, the US Congress passed legislation charteringthe Second Bank of the United States, in an effort tostabilise the US national currency. This move provedunpopular in many states. It was viewed as the federalgovernment intervening in the jurisdiction of the states.Consequently, Maryland imposed a high rate of taxationon this institution. James McCulloch, the cashier of theBaltimore branch of the Second Bank, refused to pay thistax, and was subsequently sued by the state of Maryland.

Before the Supreme Court, bank officials argued thatthe state of Maryland was unconstitutionally interferingwith a federally chartered institution. The state govern-ment, by contrast, asserted that Congress had no author-ity to impose a federal bank on its territory.

The Court’s opinion found in favour of McCulloch. Itjudged that although the US constitution does not specif-ically give Congress the right to charter banks, this is per-mitted by the ‘necessary and proper clause’. Congresslegitimately passed this legislation to enable it to carryout its enumerated powers. The chartering of banks wastherefore an implied power of Congress under the con-stitution. This set a precedent justifying an expanded rolefor the federal government, legitimised by the necessaryand proper clause.

Madison, James (1751–1836) Founding Father, and fourthPresident of the United States, holding office between1809 and 1817. Madison was raised on his family’stobacco plantation in Virginia, before becoming a legis-lator in this state’s House of Delegates (1776–9). He alsorepresented Virginia in the Continental Congress, andplayed a leading role in the drafting of the US constitu-tion. Defending his work, Madison co-authored the



Federalist Papers, in an effort to persuade the states toratify this document. As a result of his political skills atthe Annapolis and Philadelphia conventions, combinedwith his successful leadership of the ratification cam-paign, Americans often refer to Madison as the ‘Father ofthe Constitution’.

Elected to the House of Representatives in 1888 for thefirst session of the US Congress, Madison was at the fore-front of ratifying the Bill of Rights (the first ten amend-ments of the US constitution). He also acted as PresidentGeorge Washington’s floor manager in the House, andthen served in Thomas Jefferson’s administration asSecretary of State. Madison became President himself in1809, and was re-elected to this office in 1812.

Madison’s two administrations were preoccupiedwith foreign affairs. In particular, the US governmenthad to deal with both France and Great Britain interfer-ing with American merchant shipping. Madison wouldeventually ask Congress to declare war on Britain. Thewar of 1812, or ‘Madison’s War’, was a disaster. The USinvasion of British Canada failed, and British troopsretaliated by burning Washington DC, including thenew presidential residence: the White House. OnlyBritish wariness of a repeat of the War of Independence,and the distraction of the Napoleonic Wars, ensuredthat the United States ended this war with its territorystill intact.

Majority Leader The title given to the individual elected bycolleagues to lead the majority party in a legislative body.The US Senate and House of Representatives, forexample, both have majority leaders. These individualsmanage floor proceedings on behalf of their party, act asa spokesperson, and attempt to maintain unity amongstparty members.



Malcolm X (1925–65) Born Malcolm Little in Nebraska,Malcolm X transformed himself from a small-time crookinto one of the most eloquent speakers of the twentiethcentury addressing the civil rights of African-Americans.Malcolm adopted the name ‘X’ in preference to thesurname that had been bestowed upon his forefathers bya slave owner.

Serving eight years in prison for theft and firearmsoffences, Malcolm joined the Nation of Islam whilstincarcerated, and studied the black nationalist teachingsof Elijah Muhammad. This organisation preached thatAfrican-Americans should convert to the Muslim faith,and establish their own, separate black nation within theborders of the United States. Only then, it was argued,would white subjugation and exploitation of their blackcompatriots end. On leaving prison in 1952, Malcolmbecame a leading organiser within the Nation of Islam,helping to build recognition and the popularity of thismovement. Many disaffected African-Americans came tosee the idea of a separate black state as the only alterna-tive to the racial exploitation of the status quo. TheNation of Islam, in this respect, was a more radical, blacknationalist, wing of the broader civil rights campaign ofthe time.

Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam in 1964, after dis-agreements with Elijah Muhammed and in-fightingwithin the organisation’s leadership. He established‘Muslim Mosque, Inc.’, and later the ‘Organization ofAfro-American Unity’, continuing his fiery anti-racistoratory. Malcolm X was assassinated in 1965, apparentlyby individuals close to the leadership of the Nation ofIslam.

manifest destiny The belief that it was the historical fate ofthe United States to expand its original territory from the



thirteen colonies on the eastern seaboard of Americaacross the whole continent to the Pacific Ocean. Thisphrase was commonly evoked by advocates of territorialexpansion in the nineteenth century, and was even usedto justify the United States’ brief flirtation with imperial-ism at the turn of the twentieth century.

marble-cake federalism Another name for cooperative feder-alism. The analogy refers to the different constituentparts found in a marble cake. The federal and state gov-ernments are distinct, but are intermingled in order tomake up the best example of the cake/government.Another analogy for this style of governing is picket-fencefederalism.

Marbury v. Madison, 1803 The Supreme Court decision thatestablished this body’s right of constitutional judicialreview.

The case of Marbury v. Madison revolved around apolitical dispute between the administrations of an incom-ing President, Thomas Jefferson, and an outgoing one,John Adams. Adams, fearful that Jefferson would undowhat the Federalists had achieved in the previous twelveyears, appointed over 200 of his party’s loyal supportersto federal government posts in the last weeks of his pres-idency. Amongst these appointees was William Marbury,who was to be a Justice of the Peace in Washington DC.The dispute arose because the formalities of theseappointments were not completed before Jefferson’s inau-guration. Although Marbury’s commission had beensigned and sealed, it had not been delivered. Angered bythe Adams Administration’s use of political patronage,the Jefferson Administration refused to completeMarbury’s appointment process, along with others leftoutstanding. Marbury appealed to the Supreme Court.



Initially, the Court issued a writ (writ of mandamus)ordering Jefferson’s Secretary of State, James Madison, tocomplete the appointment. The new administration,however, ignored this writ, arguing that the judicialbranch had no constitutional power to order anotherbranch of government to take a particular action. TheSupreme Court was thus left in a delicate position. If itformally found in favour of Marbury’s case, there was thepossibility that the executive branch would simply ignorethis ruling.

The opinion of Marbury v. Madison cleverly avoideddirectly confronting the Jefferson administration, whilstat the same time it established the Court as the final inter-preter of the constitution. In gaining the power of judi-cial review, this institution gave itself the right to strikedown any piece of legislation or executive act that it con-sidered to be in conflict with the constitution.

Although Chief Justice John Marshall’s opinionmade it plain that it would be right for the JeffersonAdministration to complete Marbury’s appointment as aJustice of the Peace, it did not insist on this. Instead,it decreed a section of the Judiciary Act of 1789,which authorised the Supreme Court to issue a writ ofmandamus, unconstitutional. This was on the groundsthat the Supreme Court was an appeal court, while onlya lower court could issue such a writ. The 1789Congressional act was therefore in conflict with the con-stitution, and thus null and void.

This judgment on a minor legal technicality hadmassive consequences for the role of the Supreme Courtin US politics. Did Marshall and his colleagues have theright to declare an act of Congress unconstitutional, andstrike it down? Could appointed judges override the willof elected law makers? Nowhere in the US constitutionis this right specifically mentioned. Marshall, however,



argued that it was an implied power of the constitution.He interlinked three clauses of this document to supporthis assertion: the constitution states that it is the duty ofthe judicial branch to interpret the laws of the land; sim-ilarly, it declares that the constitution is the supreme lawof the United States; and it also requires court officialsto swear to uphold the constitution. Thus, Marshall’slogic was, courts are established to interpret laws. Ittherefore follows that they have authority to judge casesinvolving the law of the constitution. Faced with twolaws, one made by Congress, and the other the consti-tution itself, courts are duty bound to recognise thesupremacy of the latter. It is therefore the SupremeCourt’s duty to uphold the constitution by strikingdown any conflicting law, making it null and void.

From this point onwards, with the power of judicialreview, the Supreme Court developed into an importantarbiter between citizens and their government, andbetween the institutions of government. By the end of thecivil war (1861–5), Marshall’s logic, espoused inMarbury v. Madison, had become fully accepted withinthe US political system.

Marine One Marine Helicopter Squadron One is dedicatedto providing helicopter transport for the President andpresidential staff on official business. ‘Marine One’ is theradio call-sign used to identify a helicopter when thePresident is on board.

mark-up The final Congressional committee session, where abill is fine-tuned before being proposed to the floor of theHouse of Representatives or Senate.

Mason–Dixon line In modern usage, an imaginary line thatseparates the northern and southern states of the USA,



symbolically emphasising the different cultural, social,economic and political traditions of these two regions.The original Mason–Dixon line, named after the twoBritish surveyors who demarcated this territory in the1760s, was drawn to define the disputed border betweencolonial Pennsylvania and Maryland.

Medicaid A national social security programme providinghealth insurance for those individuals on a low incomeand under the age of 65, as well as those over this agewho have exhausted their Medicare entitlement.Medicaid came into operation in 1966 as part ofPresident Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society reforms.The federal government funds between 50 and 80 percent of the costs of this programme, with state govern-ments contributing the balance. Qualification for thisbenefit is determined by local state legislation (andrestrictions subsequently enacted by Congress), but thefederal government requires all who receive publicwelfare assistance to be covered by this scheme.

Medicare A national social security programme providinghealth insurance for US citizens aged 65 years or over.There are restrictions on the length of time an individualis entitled to receive Medicaid, as well as the number oftimes a person may apply for this assistance. This schemecame into operation in 1966 as part of President LyndonB. Johnson’s Great Society reforms, and is funded by thefederal government.

Website: http://www.medicare.gov

mid-term elections Federal general elections are scheduledevery two years, when all seats of the House ofRepresentatives are contested, along with one-third ofthe Senate’s membership. ‘Mid-terms’ are those elections



that fall in a non-presidential-race year. In this respect,2008 will be a presidential year, 2010 will be a mid-termelection year, 2012 will be another presidential year, 2014will be a mid-term year, and so on.

military–industrial complex A term coined by PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower, highlighting the three-way rela-tionship between commercial interests (mainly defencecontractors), politicians (both legislators and members ofthe executive branch), and the armed forces of the UnitedStates. It is argued that all constituents within this irontriangle benefit from the growth of the military and itsacquisition of new and better weapons systems. Thedanger of the military–industrial complex is that such anexpansion of military might is not necessarily the bestway for the US to spend its resources, and may lead to anaggressive foreign policy.

minority leader The title given to the individual elected bymembers of the second largest party in a chamber wholeads the opposition in US legislative bodies. The USSenate and House of Representatives, for example, bothhave minority leaders. These individuals manage floorproceedings on behalf of the opposition, act as aspokesperson, and attempt to maintain unity amongstparty members.

minority president There are two definitions of a minorityPresident. In the first category are those chief executiveswho, although they are legitimately elected, gained fewerpopular votes than their opponents. This is possible dueto the mechanism of the electoral college. An alternativedefinition is a President who polled less than 50 per centof the total popular vote. This can occur when there aremore than two candidates standing.



Miranda v. Arizona, 1966 A Supreme Court decision thatunderpins the rights of those who are suspected of crim-inal acts in the United States. In 1963, Ernesto Mirandawas arrested near Phoenix, Arizona, and charged withkidnapping and rape. After being identified by the victim,and being interrogated by police officers for two hours,he confessed to these crimes. Miranda was subsequentlyconvicted on the basis of this confession, and received acustodial sentence. Key to this individual’s subsequentappeal was the fact that at no time during this policeinterrogation was Miranda advised of his right to silenceand legal counsel. Miranda’s appeal lawyer thereforeargued that his client’s rights under the Fifth Amendmentto the US constitution had been violated.

Despite the state of Arizona counter-arguing thatMiranda could have asked for legal representation at anytime during his interrogation, and that nobody hadforced him to confess to these crimes, the Supreme Courtdecided that the state had not sufficiently protectedMiranda’s constitutional rights. His conviction wasquashed. Consequently, law informant agencies nowinform those they arrest of their ‘Miranda rights’: sus-pects have the right to remain silent; anything said may beused in a court of law; all accused have the right to legalrepresentation; and that legal representation will be pro-vided free of charge if the accused cannot afford toemploy their own counsel.

Missouri compromise An 1820–1 Congressional agreementthat saw the territories of Missouri and Maine becomestates of the Union, the former as a ‘slave state’, and thelatter as a ‘free state’. It was also decided, with any otherfuture states joining the Union, that slave holding wouldonly be permitted in territories below the 36th parallel.With the power of slave states and free states evenly



balanced in the first half of the nineteenth century, neitherside wished to see any of the new states being carved outof the western frontier upset this north–south politicalequilibrium, hence the compromise, and a maintenance ofthe balance of power. The Missouri compromise endureduntil the US Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act of1854, which potentially permitted both these territories beadmitted to the Union as ‘slave states’, even though theywere both located above the 36th parallel. With the will-ingness to compromise now diminished in Congress, this1854 act was a significant step on the road to civil war.

modern presidency Reference to a presidential era evolvingsince the 1930s, where the chief executive has beenwilling to place the White House at the heart of legisla-tive programmes tackling national social and economicissues (Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal, for example,or Lyndon B. Johnson’s Great Society reforms). Similarly,‘modern Presidents’ have used their constitutionalpowers in the field of foreign and military affairs morewidely, projecting US power abroad (including Rooseveltentering World War Two, and subsequent Presidents’prosecution of the Cold War). Modern Presidents havealso appealed directly to the people using new forms ofmedia technology, rather than relying on the traditionalchannel of communication though the people’s represen-tatives in Congress (Roosevelt’s radio fireside chats, forinstance, or Ronald Reagan’s use of television). This eraof the US presidency is distinct from the earlier period ofthe traditional presidency.

Monica-gate see Lewinsky, Monica

Monroe Doctrine A proclamation made by President JamesMonroe in 1823, indicating that the United States



would regard as hostile any further attempt by aEuropean power to establish a colony in the Americas,or, likewise, to interfere with the affairs of any sovereignstate on this continent. In return, the United Statespledged to remain neutral in disputes between Europeanstates.

Montesquieu, Baron de (1689–1755) Charles-Louis deSecondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu, was aFrench political philosopher, whose ideas of a separationof the powers and checks and balances between branchesof government were later adopted by the FoundingFathers when drafting the US constitution. His key workwas the De l’esprit des lois (The Spirit of the Laws) pub-lished in 1748.

Montgomery bus boycott A 1955–6 political protest byAfrican-Americans against racial discrimination on thepublic transit system of Montgomery, Alabama. AfterRosa Parks was arrested in December 1955 for refusingto give up her bus seat for a fellow white passenger, aboycott of this city’s public transit system ensued. Thiswas managed by a civil rights organisation led by MartinLuther King. The boycott proved successful, and in 1956,the discriminatory policies of the city’s bus company wereruled unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court. TheMontgomery bus boycott gave the civil rights movementone of its first major victories, and brought King to theattention of the nation.

moral majority see Christian Right

Motor-Voter Act An epithet for the National VoterRegistration Act passed by the US Congress in 1993.Aiming to increase the number of US citizens registering



for, and subsequently participating in, federal elections,this act makes it possible for individuals to register tovote in a wide range of federal buildings, not just viaelectoral offices, as had been the case previously. The actalso simplified the registration process. It was dubbedthe ‘motor-voter’ act as some of the new offices pro-cessing registration forms were federal drivers’ licencecentres.

Website: http://www.motorvoter.com/motorhome.htm

N

NAACP see National Association for the Advancement ofColored People

Nader, Ralph (1934– ) A political activist on the Left of USpolitics, championing environmental issues, democraticrights and consumer protection. He has stood as a presi-dential candidate on several occasions, both as an inde-pendent and representing the Green Party.

NAFTA see North American Free Trade Agreement

National Association for the Advancement of Colored PeopleAn interest group formed in 1909 to protect and expandthe civil rights of African-Americans. For almost acentury, the NAACP has mounted numerous legal chal-lenges to discriminatory laws and practices in the UnitedStates. NAACP legal counsel, for example, prosecutedthe case of Brown v. Board of Education, 1954. Thisorganisation also played a leadership role during the1950s and 1960s, at the height of the civil rights cam-paign. Today, the NAACP continues its work rooting outracism in the United States, highlighting areas of dis-



crimination, and lobbying and speaking out on issuespertinent to the African-American community.

Website: http://www.naacp.org

national debt The sum the government of the United Statesowes it creditors. Most western governments have anational debt. However, the federal government from the1970s onwards ran a series of budget deficits that eventu-ally created considerable political concern over the size ofthe US national debt. Congress responded to this perceivedcrisis by passing a series of acts. The Balanced Budget andEmergency Deficit Control Act, 1985 (also known asGramm-Rudman-Hollings after its sponsors), forexample, dictated specific deficit targets for future budgets,and established a sequestration procedure to reduce spend-ing if those sums were exceeded. The Budget EnforcementAct, 1990 extended these targets. A number of budget sur-pluses were recorded as a result of this legislation. Oncethe provisions of the Budget Enforcement Act expired,however, President George W. Bush presided over a seriesof tax cuts that once more created deficits and increasedthe national debt. There have been several attempts overrecent years to pass a constitutional amendment requiringthe executive branch to maintain a balanced budget.

National Governors Association An organisation that bringstogether all the governors of the fifty states, and those ofthe US territories (American Samoa, Guam, the NorthernMariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands).As well as providing a forum of networking for theseleaders, the National Governors Association collectivelylobbies the federal government on state (and territory)issues, and develops public policy and best practice rele-vant to the states.

Website: http://www.nga.org/portal/site/nga



national guard The United States National Guard is thereserve force of the US military. It comprises regular units,and, additionally, state militias. The state militias areunder the command of their respective state governors,and are deployed locally to assist in emergencies (forestfires or flooding, for instance), and to maintain law andorder (to quell civil disobedience, such as rioting). Thesemilitias are, however, fully trained and combat ready.Should the need arise, these troops may be ‘federalised’ bycommand of the President of the United States anddeployed on federal government missions. Federal dutieshave precedence over state needs, and ‘federalisation’ ispermissible even without the relevant state governor’s per-mission (see Little Rock Central High School).

Websites: http://www.arng.army.mil and http://www.ang.af.mil

national party convention Where delegates of a politicalparty meet every four years to select a candidate to standfor President of the United States. These conventions alsoprovide a forum where the national party platform isfinalised, outlining principles and polices for the forth-coming elections. As, in more modern times, the party’spresidential nominee is now decided by primary elec-tions, the national convention has taken on a more cere-monial role. The winner of the primary contest isconfirmed amongst shows of party unity and jubilation,and the publicity generated by this event is used to launchthe party’s campaign for the general election inNovember. In the past, national conventions were lessstage-managed. They were arenas where political dealswere struck. Amongst this political bargaining, whowould actually receive the party’s nomination for presi-dent often remained in doubt until the final ballot hadtaken place.



National Rifle Association Established in 1871, the NRA is apowerful interest group representing gun owners in theUnited States. Politically, it is very active in lobbyingagainst gun-control legislation. Controversy surroundsthis area of public policy, as a result of the country’s highlevels of gun crime conflicting with the apparent rightof Americans to own weapons under the SecondAmendment to the US constitution.

Website: http://www.nra.org

National Security Advisor The Assistant to the President forNational Security Affairs serves as the chief executive’sprime advisor on national security, and administers theNational Security Council. This individual is independentof the Departments of State and Defense, and is notsubject to Senate confirmation before being appointed.

National Security Council The NSC is a unit of the executivebranch established to assist the President in making andexecuting national security decisions. Along with thePresident attending, the Council gathers together the VicePresident, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of theTreasury, the Secretary of Defense, and the Assistant tothe President for National Security Affairs (commonlyreferred to as the National Security Advisor). TheChairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is the statutory mili-tary advisor to the Council, and the Director of theCentral Intelligence Agency is the intelligence advisor.The Chief of Staff to the President, Counsel to thePresident, and the Assistant to the President forEconomic Policy are invited to attend all NSC meetings.The Attorney General and the Director of the Office ofManagement and Budget are invited to attend meetingspertaining to their responsibilities. The heads of otherexecutive departments and agencies, as well as other



senior officials, are also occasionally part of the NSC’sdeliberations, when appropriate.

Established in 1947, the NSC has no formal powers,takes no votes, and makes no decisions of its own.The Council’s work merely serves to help the Presi-dent make an informed decision. The President willoften consult members of the NSC individually, or insmaller groups, avoiding holding a full meeting of thisbody.

Website: http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc

National Voter Registration Act, 1993 see Motor-Voter Act

necessary and proper clause see implied powers

negative campaigning When a candidate seeks to win an elec-tion by attacking his or her opponent’s character andpolicies, rather than emphasising the positives they them-selves could potentially contribute to this office.

neocon see neo-conservative

neo-conservative An ill-defined term, more frequently used inthe 1990s and twenty-first century to describe individu-als broadly subscribing to the views of the New Right andChristian Right. Neo-conservatives of the modern era aremore likely to sanction foreign policy intervention, tospread ‘liberty’ and ‘democracy’ abroad, than previousgenerations of US conservatives.

New Deal A broad programme of public policy implementedduring the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt designedto counter the effects of the Great Depression.Roosevelt’s comprehensive set of measures includedbanking reforms, economic regeneration initiatives,



public works schemes, welfare reforms and labour legis-lation. Although the New Deal was successful in helpingmany Americans cope with the harsh economic andsocial conditions of the 1930s, whether this programmewas a success strategically is still debated by historians.Ultimately, US fortunes would only recover with the eco-nomic stimulation created by the Second World War.A major legacy of the New Deal was the federal govern-ment’s new willingness to intervene, in an effort to guar-antee minimum national social and economic standards.

New Deal coalition An alignment of politicians, interestgroups and voters which first coalesced around FranklinD. Roosevelt’s New Deal in the 1930s. This coalition thencontinued to back the Democratic Party during the1940s, 1950s and 1960s, supporting this party’s socialand economic reforms. The main constituent parts of theNew Deal coalition were the Democratic Party itself,labour unions, and minority groups. The coalitiondissolved during the 1960s due to rifts created by thecivil rights movement, the Vietnam War and affirmativeaction.

new federalism Reference to a movement in US politics,popular since the 1970s, aiming to restore political powerto the states. New federalists believe that Washington DChas gained too much of an upper hand with respect to thestate/federal balance since the implementation of theNew Deal in the 1930s, and particularly in more recenttimes. One tool of the new federalism has been to grantfederal block grants to the states. These budgets give localgovernments considerable autonomy over how money isspent, rather than the more traditional categorical grants,where the federal government directed how states shoulduse this aid.



New Frontier Reference to President John F. Kennedy’s legis-lative programme that established the US Peace Corps,urban regeneration projects, and welfare reforms.Kennedy suffered defeats on many of his proposed bills.His successor, President Lyndon B. Johnson, achievedmore success with his Great Society reforms. The term‘New Frontier’ is drawn from Kennedy’s nominationacceptance speech where he stated: ‘We stand today onthe edge of a new frontier – the frontier of the 1960s, afrontier of unknown opportunities and paths.’

New Right In terms of US party politics, the term New Rightis used to refer to a movement within the RepublicanParty that gained momentum during the 1960s and1970s, which successfully built a new electoral apparatusand advocated competitive policies. This New Rightactivism helped end the Democratic Party’s dominationof US politics stemming from the era of the New Dealcoalition (1930s to 1960s). Republican victories camewith first Richard Nixon being elected president in 1969,followed by Ronald Reagan’s two administrations in the1980s, and then Presidents Bush senior and junior. TheRepublican Party has also enjoyed a resurgence of itselectoral fortunes in the US Congress during this sameperiod.

Ideologically, the New Right movement is broaderthan just the organisational capacity of the RepublicanParty. Indeed, the neo-liberal economic principles of thisschool of thought came to influence many western gov-ernments from the 1970s onwards. In the US context,ideologically, New Right ideas have been taken up by theChristian Right and other neo-conservatives.

9/11 Reference to the date of 11 September 2001, whentwo passenger planes were hi-jacked by al-Qa’ida oper-



atives and deliberately crashed into the twin towers ofthe World Trade Center in New York City. Another hi-jacked plane hit the Pentagon, while a fourth failed toreach its intended target. These acts prompted, by wayof response, President George W. Bush’s ‘War onTerror’.

Nixon, Richard (1913–94) Thirty-seventh President of theUnited States, holding office between 1969 and 1974.Richard Milhous Nixon, raised in California, served inthe United States Navy during the Second World War,before being elected to the US House of Representativesas a Republican in 1946. In 1950, he became a US senatorfor the state of California, and between 1953 and 1961served as President Dwight Eisenhower’s Vice President.Only the narrowest of margins, in the popular vote of1960, saw Nixon lose to John F. Kennedy for the presi-dency of the United States. He spent the next few years inpolitical semi-retirement, before winning the 1968 WhiteHouse race, and was re-elected President of the UnitedStates in 1972.

Although criticised for his style of leadership (see impe-rial president), Nixon achieved considerable feats inforeign affairs during his time as chief executive. Heextricated US forces from the Vietnam War, and negoti-ated treaties with the communist powers of the SovietUnion and China. Domestically, he also successfullycreated two new executive agencies, in the fields of theenvironment, and health and safety, and developedfederal social security policy. Overshadowing all theseachievements, however, is the Watergate scandal. Nixon,accused of trying to cover up the politically motivatedburglary of a Democratic National Committee office, andimpeached by the House of Representatives, became theonly President to resign from office in US history.



nomination The act of proposing a candidate for publicoffice. Candidates seeking election for President of theUnited States, for example, are nominated at their res-pective national party conventions. Delegates from thisparty, representing all the states, come together everyfour years to decide who will be their candidate for theforthcoming elections. Previously, the nomination con-ventions involved a good deal of ‘horse trading’ amongstdifferent sets of supporters within the party. Today,primary elections, held prior to the convention, deter-mine who will receive the party’s backing.

Nominations are also required as part of the processdetermining who will staff the upper echelons of the exe-cutive branch (the Secretary to the Treasury, for example,or a US ambassador to a foreign country). In the case ofthe federal government, the President will nominate theindividual they wish to serve under them. It is then up tothe Senate to approve this appointment, or not, throughconfirmation hearings.

North American Free Trade Agreement NAFTA is a treaty ofeconomic cooperation, signed by the United States,Canada and Mexico. Operating since 1994, this agree-ment has seen a reduction of trade tariffs between thesethree countries. NAFTA also encompasses agreement ona number of minimum environmental standards. Unlikethe European Union, this treaty created no supranationalinstitutions.

North, Oliver (1943– ) Colonel Oliver North, a US Marineassigned to the National Security Council staff during theadministration of President Ronald Reagan, came tothe public’s attention during the Irangate scandal of the1980s. He was one of the key managers of the arms-for-hostages deal. He received a three-year suspended prison



sentence for attempting to obstruct the investigation ofthis scandal, which was later overturned in 1991 (as pros-ecution evidence, the judge agreed, was influenced byNorth’s Congressional testimony, for which he hadreceived partial immunity). Due to his passionate per-formance during the Irangate hearings, North becamea doyen of the Christian Right, and ran (unsuccessfully)for the US Senate. Today, North is a neo-conservativemedia commentator.

NRA see National Rifle Association

NSC see National Security Council

O

Office of Management and Budget The OMB, established in1921, is a division of the executive branch that is chargedwith assisting the President formulate the proposedannual federal budget. Once Congress has agreed abudget, it is also the OMB’s duty to manage this legisla-tion, allocating executive departments and agenciestranches of money on a periodic basis.

Website: http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb

OMB see Office of Management and Budget

omnibus bill Where several items of proposed legislation,often largely unrelated, are considered together in onesingle large bill. These items are usually debated togetherin order to assist the time management of a legislativebody. The US Congress, for example, often approves thefederal budget via an omnibus bill.



open primary Where voters have a choice of which party’sprimary election they wish to participate in. Given thedominance of the two-party system, when entering apolling station, voters will usually either select a ballotrelating to Republican Party hopefuls, or one relating toDemocratic Party contenders. By contrast, in a closedprimary, voters may only participate in a ballot if they haveregistered their affiliation to that party prior to election day.

opinion of the Supreme Court The ‘opinion’ of the SupremeCourt is a written document, authored by a justice sup-porting the majority view, outlining the Court’s decisionin a case. This document explains the legal reasoningbehind the verdict. Such opinions have had dramatic con-sequences for US politics and society over the years.Brown v. Board of Education, 1954, for example, out-lawed segregation, while United States v. Nixon, 1974led to the resignation of a President. In addition to ‘the’opinion in a Supreme Court case, there may also be other,minority, opinions. Concurring opinions are written byone or more justices who support the overall decision ofthe Court, but differ from, or wish to add to, the legal rea-soning behind ‘the’ opinion, while a dissenting opinion(or opinions) will be written by justices who disagreewith the actual verdict itself.

originalist see strict construction

Oval Office The name given to the President’s official officein the White House, so called because of its shape.

oversight The process of one institution or branch of govern-ment supervising and inspecting the work of another.Such scrutiny is at the heart of the United States systemof checks and balances.



P

PAC see political action committee

Parks, Rosa (1913–2005) see Montgomery bus boycott

pardon The removal of the legal consequences of a crime orconviction. The President has the constitutional author-ity (Article Two, Section Two) to pardon any individualwho has committed a crime or other offence against theUnited States. This power was included in the US consti-tution by the Founding Fathers to provide a check andbalance on the judicial branch of government, and tofacilitate reconciliation after rebellion. Most famously,President Gerald Ford granted Richard Nixon a pardonin 1974 for any crimes that may have been committedduring the Watergate scandal. The only conviction thePresident may not pardon is an impeachment verdict.Most state constitutions grant similar pardon powers torespective state governors, enabling them to pardon thoseconvicted of state crimes.

parochialism Literally, acting with a narrowness of scope,concentrating on the local. Members of the US Congressare often accused of being parochial. This is because theydedicate much of their energy to serving their con-stituents, or particular interests associated with theirown state or district. Although parochialism may beapplauded, given that it bolsters democratic representa-tion, it often hinders governance at the national level.With so many members of Congress concentrating ontheir constituency needs, sometimes the broader nationalinterest suffers.



partisan Strong, unreasoned affiliation to a political party orcause. The US Congress, for example, is said to dividealong partisan lines when members vote with their party,serving party interests, rather than considering an issueon its individual merits.

party convention see national party convention

party decline Reference to the fact that US citizens are todaymore likely to regard themselves, and behave, as ‘inde-pendent voters’, rather than being affiliated to a specificpolitical party. Whereas before, up until the 1950s and1960s, it was relatively easy to find ‘life-long’ DemocraticParty or Republican Party supporters, in more moderntimes, many of the electorate regularly change their polit-ical allegiance. Instances of split-ticket voting have alsoincreased. Various explanations for party ‘decline’ havebeen offered, amongst them the rise of the candidate-centred election, competition from interest groups, andthe Democratic Party’s alienation of southern votersduring the second half of the twentieth century. However,although clearly relevant, the ‘party in decline thesis’ maybe taken too far. Voting blocks of citizens (minorities,business interests, union members, and so on), as awhole, may still be identified as being affiliated to eitherthe Republicans or Democrats, and these two parties stilldominate the staffing and functions of government at allpolitical levels in the United States.

party nomination see nomination

party platform see platform

patronage see appointment power



Peace Corps Volunteers, managed by an agency of the federalgovernment, who share their skills and experience, assist-ing development projects in the Third World. PresidentJohn F. Kennedy established this agency in 1961, as partof his New Frontier initiatives.

Pentagon Literally, the five-sided building located outsideWashington DC that is the headquarters of the USDepartment of Defense. The phrase ‘the Pentagon’ isoften used as a synonym for this institution of the federalgovernment.

Perot, Ross (1930– ) A contender in the 1992 and 1996presidential elections, standing initially as an indepen-dent and then as a third-party candidate. Perot, a multi-millionaire businessman from Texas, campaigned largelyon one issue, balancing the federal budget. Disillusionedwith the two major parties’ handling of this problem,and ‘big-government’ in general, Perot self-financedthese two presidential races, as well as establishing theReform Party in 1995. Running a simple but effective‘anti-Washington DC’ campaign, Perot gained consider-able success in the 1992 election (taking 19 per cent ofthe popular vote), but was less successful in 1996(winning 8 per cent).

picket-fence federalism Another term for cooperative federal-ism, where national and state institutions govern togetherin partnership, as opposed to dual federalism, where eachdivision of government only concerns itself with its owndistinct and separate jurisdiction. The picket-fenceanalogy places national, state, and local governments asthe horizontal supports of a fence of vertical pickets thatrepresent different policies. Each horizontal level of gov-ernment works together to develop the policy represented



by the picket. By cooperating, these levels of governmentare best placed to support/serve the whole fence/society.Another analogy for this style of governing is marble-cake federalism.

platform A manifesto of principles and policies that a candi-date or party seeks to be elected upon. Although impor-tant, US political platforms tend to be less detailed andbinding than the equivalent manifestos of Europeanparties.

Plessy v. Ferguson, 1896 A Supreme Court decision thatsanctioned racial discrimination in the United States, aslong as each group was treated ‘separately but equal’.Despite the civil war, and the subsequent ratification ofthe thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments, discrimina-tory Jim Crow laws returned rapidly to the southernstates. In 1890, Homer Plessy, on behalf of a citizens’group, bought a first-class rail ticket to travel in the stateof Louisiana. On boarding the train, he informed the con-ductor of his racial origin (one-eighth African-American).When asked to move to the ‘colored’ carriage, Plessyrefused, and was subsequently arrested. The SupremeCourt was asked to judge whether the Louisiana state lawrequiring railway companies to provide separate ‘white’and ‘colored’ travelling accommodation violated Plessy’srights under the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendmentsto the US constitution.

The Court ruled that Plessy’s rights had not beenabridged. The opinion reasoned that as long as citizensfrom different races were given equal provision (in thisinstance, a similar standard of railway-carriage accom-modation), then this provision could be separate. Stategovernments in the south used Plessy v. Ferguson as aprecedent to legally separate the races in public places,



and to discriminate in their public policy. In most cases,the ‘equality’ element of this ‘separate but equal’ provi-sion failed to materialise. Discrimination in the southernstates continued until outlawed by a subsequent SupremeCourt decision Brown v. Board of Education, 1954,which overturned Plessy v. Ferguson.

pocket veto Where the President blocks a legislative bill viainaction, failing to process it within ten days of aCongressional recess. In the normal course of events, thePresident will either sign a bill into law or return it toCongress with a veto message. One of these two optionsmust be taken within ten days, or the bill automaticallybecomes law. However, if a Congressional session endswithin ten days of a bill being sent to the White House,then the President is under no obligation to do anything.He or she may choose to act or not. In the latter case, thebill becomes null and void, having run out of time. It iscalled a pocket veto, as the President simply disregardsthe issue, and ‘puts the bill in his pocket’, knowing thatthe normal ten-day time limit cannot apply.

political action committee PACs are the means throughwhich organisations (such as corporations, labour unionsand interest groups) donate money to political cam-paigns. These committees register with the FederalElection Commission, and may donate up to US$5,000to any one candidate per election, and up to US$15,000to any one political party per annum. PACs have grownin number since campaign finance reform legislation inthe 1970s, and serve as a tool for organisations to donatemoney in a transparent and legal manner. PAC donations,however, become more controversial when this money isused for negative campaigning.

See also: 527 groups



Populist Party A third party, supported by agriculturalworkers and farmers, which emerged in the late nine-teenth century, protesting against the federal govern-ment’s monetary policy.

pork barrel politics Pork barrel politics is when the legislativemotive of a representative is primarily about securingfunding for their own constituency. This parochialapproach may be at the expense of the collective ornational good. In the case of a military programme ‘porkbarrel’, for example, members of Congress may prioritisetrying to win a defence contract for a business in theirown constituency, rather than take a wider, national,view of where best this contract may be placed. The term‘pork barrel’ comes from a practice on pre-civil war plan-tations, where slaves received food via dipping theirhands into barrels of salted pork. Similarly, politiciansseek to ‘bring home the bacon’ to their own constituen-cies.

precinct The lowest constituency division found in the UnitedStates. These areas are used for the administration ofelections, similar to ‘wards’ in British politics. Majorpolitical parties often employ a ‘precinct captain’ tocampaign locally on this organisation’s behalf, as well asproviding feedback on the political views of the residentsof this area.

pre-emption, federal see federal pre-emption

President The US constitution vests all executive power of thefederal government in one individual, the President of theUnited States. He, not yet she, is head of state, and isresponsible for implementing Congressional legislation.This office derives specific powers from the constitution,



such as being Commander in Chief of US military forces.The President also negotiates treaties on behalf of theUnited States, and appoints ambassadors. Informally, thePresident gains additional political influence from beingthe leading figure in the ruling party, and through hispowers of patronage. Assisting him are some four millioncivilian and military personnel that make up the executivebranch. The above powers should, however, be seen in thecontext of the constitution’s system of checks and balances.

The US President serves a fixed term of four years’duration, and, since the ratification of the Twenty-secondAmendment to the constitution in 1951, may only beelected to this office twice. To win the White House, pres-idential candidates need to perform well in primary elec-tions, gain their party’s nomination, and then post amajority of votes in the electoral college after a nation-wide poll. The President and the Vice President are theonly politicians in the United States that are elected by,and serve, a single national constituency.

Historically, the President played a supporting role tothe US Congress. The office was more an administrativepost, making sure federal laws and polices were imple-mented. With the advent of the modern presidency,however, from the 1930s onwards, the chief executivehas taken on more of a leadership role, most often initi-ating national policy. The President has come to person-ify the federal government. Some commentators arguethat Presidents simply do not have enough power at theirdisposal to fulfil this role. This has led more recent chiefexecutives to occasionally over-extend their reach,becoming imperial presidents. Ultimately, as RichardNeustadt points out, successful modern presidents haveto rely on their power to persuade others, building coali-tions of support, rather than relying on their limited con-stitutional powers.



Further reading: Richard E. Neustadt, PresidentialPower and the Modern Presidents: The Politics ofLeadership from Roosevelt to Reagan (New York: FreePress, 1991)

Website: http://www.whitehouse.gov

president pro tempore of the Senate Literally translatedfrom the Latin: president ‘for the time being’. The USconstitution states that the US Vice President is the pre-siding officer of the US Senate. Vice Presidents have notundertaken this role, on a day-to-day basis, since thevery first sessions of Congress. They tend now only toattend Congress for ceremonial duties or to break a tiein a Senate vote. In their absence, the chamber elects apresident pro tempore. This individual, inevitably fromthe majority party, acts as a ‘speaker’ for the Senate,and is third in line in the order of presidential succes-sion.

presidential succession Should the President of the UnitedStates die in office, resign from this post, or be removedby the impeachment process, the US constitution directsthat the Vice President should assume these powers forthe remainder of the current term of office. The Twenty-fifth Amendment to this constitution, ratified in 1967,confirms that the Vice President becomes President, andnot just an Acting President, under these circumstances.This amendment also outlines the procedure to be takenif the President is temporarily unable to carry out his orher duties (the Vice President becomes Acting Presidentuntil the President communicates to Congress that he orshe is able to resume office).

Congressional legislation has been enacted to settle thesuccession issue should both the offices of the Presidentand Vice President become vacant at the same time.



Currently, the president pro tempore of the Senate andthe Speaker of the House are next in line to the WhiteHouse, followed by a number of cabinet members listedin order (from the Secretary of State through to theSecretary of Veterans’ Affairs).

primary election A poll that ultimately decides which con-testant will stand as a party’s official candidate in anelection. For example, in a presidential election year,both the Republican Party and the Democratic Partywill hold a series of parallel presidential primaries indifferent states across the country. The objective, ineach case, is to select just one individual from a numberof presidential hopefuls. The winner of these primarieswill receive their respective party’s nomination, becom-ing this party’s official candidate for President in theforthcoming November general election. Primarieshave the effect of narrowing down a field of severalcontenders within one party to just one candidate perparty.

Two important characteristics of the primary systemresult from who actually votes in these elections, and theindirect nature of these polls. In the former case, thevoters in primaries are the electorate itself. UnlikeEuropean political parties, where candidates are selectedby party leaders, or by these organisations’ membership,with US primaries, ‘ordinary’ citizens participate inselecting party candidates. Each state has its own elec-toral law with respect to primaries (see, for example,open primary and closed primary), but in all cases, it isthe general public that decides who they wish to see goforward as this party’s candidate for the November elec-tions. In this respect, US voters get two bites of the cherry.They first participate in selecting one individual from aparty’s potential candidates (primaries). They then have



the opportunity to choose between the parties themselves(the November general election).

The second important characteristic is the indirectnature of these polls. Instead of actually voting for a pre-ferred choice of candidate, primary voters are insteadchoosing who will attend this party’s national conven-tion as a delegate. It is the delegates at this event whoactually decide which candidate will receive their party’snomination. In the past, delegates operated with adegree of independence at the conventions, and coulddecide themselves who they wished to back for the nom-ination. Today, in most states, delegates declare inadvance whom they will support, so electors can be surethey are selecting the right delegate to attend thenational convention.

power of appointment see appointment power

pro-choice movement Those who support the legal right ofabortion in the United States. The term ‘pro-choice’ isused as this movement believes a woman has the right tochoose on issues relating to her body.

Progressive Party A political party established by TheodoreRoosevelt to contest the 1912 presidential election.Roosevelt took this action after a dispute with theleadership of the Republican Party. With the Republicanvote split, Woodrow Wilson, the Democratic Party can-didate, was elected to the White House, and theProgressive Party soon disbanded, with Roosevelt return-ing to the Republican fold.

prohibition Reference to a period of US history where themanufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages was madeillegal nationwide. This ban was imposed by the



Eighteenth Amendment to the US constitution, ratified in1919, and ended with the Twenty-first Amendment of1933.

pro-life movement Those who are against abortion. The termhas also expanded to describe those who oppose euthana-sia, human cloning and embryonic human stem-cellresearch.

Publius The pseudonym used by James Madison, AlexanderHamilton and John Jay when writing the FederalistPapers.

Q

Quorum The required number of members of a committee orchamber that must be present to make this body’s busi-ness valid. The quorum of both the US Senate and Houseof Representatives is half its membership, plus one.However, these chambers often operate with less thanthis number, as by convention it is assumed that there isa quorum unless this assumption is challenged. Membersmay make such a challenge in order to disrupt proceed-ings, or to create time for a legislative compromise orother deal to be negotiated. The challenge triggers a rollcall of members.

R

radical reconstruction see reconstruction

ratification Where one institution or body confirms a proposalmade by another, as part of a formal decision-making



process. It was agreed, for example, that the US constitu-tion, authored by delegates at a convention, needed to beratified by at least nine of the thirteen states of the Unionbefore it became binding for any of them. Similarly, anyamendments to this constitution require agreementbetween the US Congress and the states. The states ratifya proposal made by Congress, or vice versa.

Reagan democrats Traditional Democratic Party voters andpoliticians who, across party lines, supported the policiesof Ronald Reagan in the 1980s.

See also: Blue Dog Democrats

Reagan, Ronald (1911–2004) Fortieth President of the UnitedStates, holding office between 1981 and 1989. Reagan wasraised in Illinois, before building an acting career inHollywood, California. Starring as the leading man inseveral ‘B-movies’ and numerous television dramas,Reagan’s acting career lasted for almost thirty years.During this time he served as the president of the ScreenActors Guild, and his political allegiance shifted from theDemocratic Party to the Republican Party. In 1966 hesuccessfully campaigned to be a Republican Governor ofCalifornia, and was re-elected in 1970. After two priorbids to become President of the United States (1968 and1976), Reagan arrived in the White House in 1981.

Reagan’s two administrations can be characterisedby neo-liberal economics in domestic policy, andanti-communism in foreign affairs. Reagan’s domesticprogramme revolved around ‘Reagonomics’. Tax cutswere implemented, combined with cost-cutting in federalspending. The US economy recovered during the 1980s,but debate still continues as to whether this was a conse-quence of Reagan’s policies or despite them. One areaexempt from this tightening of public spending was



defence (increasing the national debt significantly).Reagan dramatically enlarged the military capability ofthe United States, taking a confrontational stancetowards the Soviet Union, and any state deemed to be anally of what Reagan termed ‘the evil empire’. Thisapproach eventually brought the Soviet Union to thenegotiating table, and Reagan’s supporters claim that thisprecipitated the end of the Cold War. Detractors point tothe human cost resulting from the number of right-wingauthoritarian states the Reagan Administration backedas part of its anti-communist foreign policy. The Irangatescandal can be seen as a consequence of this stance.Despite these issues, in the United States itself, Reagan isremembered with much affection, due to his overtlypatriotic demeanour, combined with his skills as a polit-ical communicator.

Reaganomics see Reagan Ronald

re-apportionment The re-drawing of constituency bound-aries. Many political constituencies in the UnitedStates are defined on the basis of population. Eachmember of the US House of Representatives, forexample, acts on behalf of approximately the samenumber of citizens. As a consequence, constituencyboundaries have to be re-drawn periodically to accom-modate demographic changes. Should a state’s popula-tion rise at a faster rate, relative to other states, then itwill be entitled to more representation in the House, andvice versa. Re-apportionment for the House occursevery ten years, following the results of the official UScensus. States, usually through a local legislative act,decide where any new constituency boundaries will bedrawn. Re-apportionment is also referred to as ‘re-districting’.



recall election A poll held before the end of an official’s termof office to determine whether this individual shouldcontinue in their post, or not. Approximately one-thirdof state constitutions contain provisions that, should cit-izens of that state be displeased, they may hold an elec-tion to remove a politician from office. Typically, apetition of signatures, numbering one-quarter of thetotal number of votes this politician originally polled,triggers a recall election. This official is then removedfrom office if 50 per cent of the votes cast call for this. Aspecial election is subsequently held to fill the vacantpost. Most famously, film actor Arnold Schwarzeneggerwas elected Governor of California in 2003, after theprevious incumbent was removed from office by a recallelection. No federal government posts are subject torecall.

reconstruction The collective name given to federal govern-ment programmes subsequent to the civil war, imple-mented between 1865 and 1877, setting the terms onwhich the rebellious southern states would be re-integrated back into the Union. Initially, these terms werequite moderate. However, after Confederate powerstructures began to resurface once more in southern stategovernments, along with Jim Crow laws underminingthe rights of African-Americans, northern politicianssought to resist this return to the past. A period of‘radical reconstruction’ ensued. Led by Republicans inthe US Congress, legislation was passed to ensure martiallaw continued, that the Fifteenth Amendment to the USconstitution was ratified, and that politicians loyal tothe Union won office in the southern governments.Provision was also made to educate and feed ex-slaves.Eventually, however, civilian rule would return to thesouthern states, and with it the region’s traditional polit-



ical elite returned to office. These reinstated southernpoliticians revived legislation installing racial segrega-tion once more. African-Americans would have to waituntil the 1950s and 1960s, and the civil rights move-ment, for these Jim Crow laws to be removed perma-nently.

re-districting see re-apportionment

red state A state where the majority of the electorate supportthe Republican Party. Give that the United States has atwo-party system, results of an election are often por-trayed on a national map where the fifty states are eithercoloured blue (Democratic) or red (Republican) accord-ing to the party affiliation of the winning candidate.

Reform Party A political party born in 1995, in the wake ofRoss Perot’s earlier presidential candidacy. Perot as theReform Party candidate for President in 1996 won 8 percent of the popular vote. When internal differences grewwithin the Reform Party during the 2000 election cam-paign, Perot cut his ties with this organisation, and it hassubsequently splintered into a number of separate move-ments.

Website: http://www.reformparty.org

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, 1978 seeaffirmative action

religious Right see Christian Right

reporting out When a Congressional committee agrees a finalversion of proposed legislation, and recommends this tothe floor of the Senate or House of Representatives.



Republican National Committee The central, national,organisational body of the Republican Party. This com-mittee helps co-ordinate the work of local, state andnational Republican Party organisations and politi-cians, and promotes the election of its candidates viatechnical and financial support. In addition, the RNCoversees the quadrennial national convention, and theassociated nomination of a Republican presidential can-didate.

Website: http://www.rnc.org

Republican national convention see national party convention

Republican Party The Republican Party forms one half of thetwo-party system that has dominated US politics forover 150 years. Today, of the two major parties, theRepublicans are the more libertarian, are socially conser-vative, favour less government intervention, have theclosest links with business, and promote neo-liberal eco-nomic policies.

The Republican Party, or Grand Old Party (GOP) asit is also known, traces its roots back to oppositionagainst the southern power block in the years prior tothe civil war. Very much a northern party, support coa-lesced around northern industrial and financial interestsagainst the sectional, states-rights agenda of the power-ful southern Democrats. The nascent Republican Partywas opposed to the spread of slavery: the issue thatfinally precipitated the civil war. The first RepublicanPresident was Abraham Lincoln.

The end of the civil war began a long period ofRepublican domination in US politics (the 1860s to the1930s). The party’s close identification with the Unionvictory in the war secured it the allegiance of most north-ern and midwestern farmers, while its support of protect-



ive tariffs and its accommodating attitude towards bigbusiness eventually gained this party the backing of pow-erful industrial and financial interests. This dominance,although interrupted occasionally in the early twentiethcentury, continued until the onset of the GreatDepression, and the emergence of the New Deal coali-tion. The formation of this coalition would see the elect-oral pendulum swing back to the Democratic Party untilthe end of the 1960s.

The GOP has seen a gradual return to power in the lastfew decades. Aided by allegiances in the south switchingfrom Democrat to Republican candidates (attracted bytheir socially conservative outlook), and the decline of theDemocrat industrial-worker base, GOP presidents haveoccupied the White House for all but twelve years since1969. Republican fortunes in the US Congress have alsoimproved since the 1990s, with this party capturing bothchambers for only the second time since 1931, after the1995 elections. Today, with its neo-liberal economics andbacking from the Christian Right, combined with aninterventionist foreign policy (the ‘War on Terror’), theGOP has moved a long way from its nineteenth-centuryroots, but is still the party of business.

Website: http://www.rnc.org

Republican revolution see Contract with America

reserved powers Reference to the powers that the US stateskept for themselves when writing the US constitution.With this document, the states agreed to form the federalgovernment, and, in so doing, gave up some of theirpowers. Certain specified political functions and dutieswere transferred from the states to the newly formednational government (these are known as the delegatedpowers). The states no longer took a lead, for instance, in



foreign policy. Similarly, the states, via ratifying the Billof Rights, also recognised that there are some areas whereno government should legislate (the denied powers).These form the individual rights of US citizens. The con-stitution, for example, declares that no government maylegislate away the freedom of speech. However, thosepowers that were not delegated to the federal governmentby the states, or retained by individual citizens, remainthe jurisdiction of state governments: the so-called‘reserved powers’. Theoretically, therefore, sovereigntydefaults to the states should it not match the aforemen-tioned ‘denied’ or ‘delegated’ criteria. This dispensationis confirmed by the Tenth Amendment to the US consti-tution. In reality, however, the growth of the federal gov-ernment, via the necessary and proper clause andcommerce clause, has challenged this notion of statesupremacy.

retail politics Political strategies and campaigns that areaimed at selling a candidate and policies to a broad, massaudience. Issues are generalised, and actions designed togenerate mass appeal. The opposite of ‘retail politics’ is‘wholesale politics’, where strategies are more focused,and tailored to appeal to a select group of more demand-ing customers/voters/interests.

revolutionary war Another name for the War of Independence.Most Americans refer to this event as the ‘revolutionarywar’ or the ‘American revolution’.

revolving door A term used to highlight the phenomenonwhere an individual may build a career working in insti-tutions on both sides of a regulatory relationship. Anofficial with the Federal Election Commission, forexample, may start their career ensuring political parties



abide by electoral law. The expertise this individual accu-mulates, however, is of use to the parties. As a conse-quence, they may be offered a job helping a party’srelationship with the FEC: crossing to the other side ofthe divide. Later, the individual may move back to theFEC. Thus, personnel use a ‘revolving door’ that existsbetween institutions on either side of the regulatory line.They are ‘gamekeepers turned poachers’, or vice versa.Politicians who become journalists, sometimes later toreturn to public service, are also said to have gonethrough a ‘revolving door’.

rider A clause added to a legislative bill.

right to bear arms see Second Amendment

RNC see Republican National Committee

Roe v. Wade, 1973 The Supreme Court decision that guaran-tees legal abortion in the United States. Abortion remainsone of the most controversial and divisive social issues inthis country.

In 1969, a woman from Texas (later known as JaneRoe, to protect her anonymity) sought an abortion. Herdoctor refused on the grounds that Texas state lawbanned this procedure, unless a woman’s life was indanger. Roe consequently sued the District Attorneyfor Dallas County (Henry Wade), claiming that herconstitutional rights were being violated by the stateof Texas. The Supreme Court agreed that Roe’sFourteenth Amendment and Ninth Amendment rightsentitled her to a ‘right of privacy’, thus she should beable to make her own decision over whether to have anabortion or not. However, the opinion of the court alsomade it clear that this right to an abortion should be



curtailed if there was a ‘compelling state interest’ toprotect the health of the mother. States could thus stilllegislate to ban abortion in the third trimester (monthsseven to nine of a pregnancy). The Court expressed itsopinion, however, that it would be unlikely that suchcompelling state interest would exist in the firsttrimester (months one to three). Since 1973, women inthe United States have thus had the ‘right to choose’when it comes to an abortion (should this entail nohealth danger to the mother).

With the Supreme Court growing more conservative innature since the Roe v. Wade decision, abortion rights inthe United States have been eroded. The case of Websterv. Reproductive Health Services, 1989, for example,places further restrictions on abortion justified by issuesof maternal health, while Rust v. Sullivan, 1991 upheldgovernment policy preventing clinics receiving federalgovernment funds from performing abortions. Despitethese cases, the central tenet of Roe v. Wade, a woman’s‘right to choose’, has yet to be overturned.

roll call Where the names of the members of the House ofRepresentatives or Senate are called, to either establishwhether the chamber is quorate, or to receive and recordthis individual’s vote.

Roosevelt, Franklin D. (1882–1945) Of all the Presidents ofthe United States, Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) hasheld this office for the longest period (1933 to 1945), andis the only individual to be elected to this post four times.

Roosevelt was raised in a wealthy New York statefamily and practised law before being elected to the NewYork state senate in 1910. He served as assistant secre-tary to the Navy in Woodrow Wilson’s administration(1913–20), and then stood unsuccessfully as the



Democratic Party Vice President candidate in 1920. Thefollowing year, Roosevelt contracted polio and would beparalysed from the waist downwards for the rest of hislife. He continued his career in New York politics, even-tually becoming Governor of this state in 1929. Fouryears later he was elected to the White House.

FDR is remembered as the President that imple-mented the New Deal during the Great Depressionof the 1930s, and as the President that led the UnitedStates into the Second World War, helping to defeatNazi Germany. When Roosevelt arrived in WashingtonDC, the US economy was facing one of its worst crisesever: millions of Americans were unemployed, thou-sands of businesses were failing, and the banking andfinance system was in chaos. Roosevelt’s New Deal wasa comprehensive set of measures, including bankingreforms, economic regeneration initiatives, publicworks schemes, welfare reforms and labour legislation,aimed at tackling the economic turndown. Althoughhistorians still debate the extent to which FDR’s policieshelped the US economy recover, most agree thatRoosevelt’s leadership aided a restoration of public con-fidence, and contributed to the mitigation of the worstconsequences of the depression.

Roosevelt, bowing to isolationist sentiment within theUnited States at the time, advocated US neutrality duringthe build-up to the Second World War. In 1939, however,this strict neutrality was broken when he recommendedto Congress that the United States should be able to sellarms to those fighting the Axis powers. After Rooseveltbroke tradition, and successfully stood for Presidenta third time in 1940 (explained by the ominous inter-national political situation), US neutrality was dilutedeven further when the US government ‘loaned’ Britainand its allies military equipment. Eventually, the United



States entered the war after the Japanese attack on PearlHarbor late in 1941.

Today, most Americans look back kindly uponFranklin D. Roosevelt’s career in the White House. He isseen as a great leader, first tackling the depression of the1930s, and then directing the United States through thewar years. FDR’s most important political legacy,however, was building the New Deal coalition. Thisalignment of politicians, interest groups and voters, firstbrought together around the New Deal, continued todominate national politics after FDR’s death. This coali-tion ensured the Democratic Party’s domination of theCongress for four decades (1930s, 1940s, 1950s and1960s), providing a political base for the later adminis-trations of John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson.

rule of four see certiorari, writ of

rules committees Rules committees are the legislative forumswhere it is decided when (and if) a bill will be debated, forhow long, and under what regulations. This proceduralcontrol make rules committees one of the most powerfulin their respective chambers. For this reason, the mostsenior member of the majority party traditionally chairsthe US House of Representatives Committee on Rules.

Unlike most of their equivalents, the Senate Committeeon Rules and Administration is less powerful. This isbecause the Senate operates a principle of open debate.There are no official time limits set, and legislative proce-dure is generally determined by consensus between major-ity and minority party leaders. Consequently, the Senatecommittee deals more with administrative matters.

Websites: http://www.rules.house.gov and http://rules.senate.gov



running mate Parties nominate both a presidential and vicepresidential candidate to stand in a general election. Theycampaign together as a team. The presidential nominee’schoice of potential Vice President is known as his or her‘running mate’.

S

school district Local government in the United States is pro-vided by a myriad of smaller administrative units autho-rised by state legislation. Existing alongside city andcounty councils are more specialised decision-makingbodies. These ‘special districts’ tackle issues such as theprovision of fire and rescue services, water management,environmental conservation, and even tasks such as thecontrol of mosquitoes, in areas where this is a healthproblem. These special districts often have their ownelected personnel, and many are funded by levies imposedon local communities (usually in the form of a propertyor sales tax). ‘School districts’ are another form of specialdistrict, administering educational establishments withina defined geographical area.

Scott v. Sandford, 1857 see Dred Scott v. Sandford, 1857

secession The act of withdrawing from a political union. In1860–1, thirteen southern states withdrew from theUnited States to form their own Confederate States ofAmerica, precipitating the civil war. The Union govern-ment of President Abraham Lincoln declared this seces-sion to be illegal, and forced these states back into thefold via military force. The Supreme Court in the case ofTexas v. White, 1869 confirmed Lincoln’s view that nostate may secede from the Union.



Second Amendment The Second Amendment to the US con-stitution, ratified in 1791, is central to the controversialdebate concerning gun ownership in the United States.The actual text of this amendment reads: ‘A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a freeState, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shallnot be infringed.’

When the US constitution was ratified, each of thestates had its own militia: a military force comprisingordinary citizens serving as part-time soldiers. Althoughthe new constitution provided for a national standingarmy, it was thought that these militias should be main-tained, to act as a check and balance on the federal force.The authors of the Second Amendment feared that thisnew federal army could become a tool of oppression.This was less likely to happen, however, if the ‘people’s’militias remained. Thus citizens should retain the right toown weapons.

In modern times, the Second Amendment has beenreferred to in a more general context. Pro-gun lobbieshave tended to concentrate on just one clause of the sen-tence that comprises the Second Amendment: ‘the rightof the people to keep and bear Arms’. Organisations,such as the National Rifle Association, use this clause topromote the freedom of gun ownership in the UnitedStates. The majority of public opinion tends to supportthis view. Governments, as a consequence, have onlyenacted limited gun control legislation, the banning ofsophisticated assault weapons, for example, and, in somestates, carrying a concealed weapon.

As yet, no part of the judiciary in the United States hasdirectly defined to what extent US citizens do have a rightof gun ownership under the Second Amendment. TheSupreme Court, in particular, has not cared to interpretthe constitution with respect to the relationship between



this right and being a member of a ‘well-regulatedmilitia’, despite having the opportunity to do so onseveral occasions. The Court has chosen not to issue writsof certiorari in these cases.

Secretary of State The individual within the executivebranch of the federal government who takes responsi-bility for implementing US foreign policy. This person ishead of the Department of State, is a cabinet member,and a leading advisor to the President. Additionally, theholder of this office is the first cabinet member in theline of presidential succession. Should the posts ofPresident, Vice President, Speaker of the House, andpresident pro tempore of the Senate be vacant simulta-neously, the Secretary of State will become ActingPresident.

Website: http://www.state.gov/secretary

segregation see Jim Crow laws

Senate The upper chamber of the US Congress. The Senatecomprises one hundred elected members, with two sena-tors representing each state. Each of these members’ termof office lasts six years, with one-third of the chamberbeing elected every two years. The presiding officer of theSenate is the US Vice President, who may only vote tobreak a tie. Apart from such votes, and occasional cere-monial duties, much of the Vice President’s work in thisbody is carried out by a deputy, the president pro temporeof the Senate.

The Senate’s primary function, together with theHouse of Representatives, is to make federal law. Eachchamber acts as a check and balance on the other. TheHouse and Senate differ in their constituencies (theHouse represents districts determined by population),



their impeachment role (the House charges, whilethe Senate tries), and in the fact that the Senate hasthe sole power of ‘advise and consent’ (confirming thePresident’s appointments, and ratifying treaties). Enjoy-ing longer terms of office than members of the House,and representing states rather than smaller constituen-cies, the Senate often positions itself further from themore confrontational day-to-day politics of the lowerchamber. Instead, the Senate takes a more deliberativeapproach to its legislative duties. There are no timerestrictions, for example, on a member’s right to debatean issue. The Senate convenes in the Capitol Building inWashington DC.

Website: http://www.senate.gov/

Senate Committee on Appropriations The Senate Appr-opriations Committee is the largest committee of thischamber. Its role is defined by the US constitution, whichrequires ‘appropriations made by law’ prior to theexpenditure of any money from the federal treasury. TheCommittee writes the legislation that allocates federalfunds to the numerous agencies, departments and organ-isations of the executive branch on an annual basis.Given that the content of this legislation determineswhether federal programmes are fully or partiallyfunded, or not at all, this is one of the most powerfulcommittees, together with its House equivalent, found inCongress.

Website: http://appropriations.senate.gov

Senate Committee on Rules and Administration see rulescommittees

Senate, president pro tempore see president pro tempore ofthe Senate



seniority Reference to the privileges, and the more powerfulappointments, that length of continuous service bringswithin the US Congress. Those who have served thelongest within the US Senate or House of Representativeswill be appointed to the more powerful positions and com-mittees of these chambers (leadership roles, for example,or chairs of appropriations, ways and means, or rules com-mittees). Senior members will also receive other benefits,such as being allocated the largest offices on Capitol Hill.

The stranglehold of seniority over the committeesystem reached its zenith in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s.The success of the New Deal coalition resulted in ablock of southern Democrats gaining seniority withinCongress. Occupying safe constituencies, being returnedelection after election, these individuals used their senior-ity to dominate both House and Senate institutions fordecades. Collectively they occupied committee chairs andwere appointed to leadership roles. Many argue thathaving legislative leaders from one party and one geo-graphical area, associated with certain social views, forso long, distorted the representative role of Congress.

The seniority stranglehold was lessened in 1953 withthe Johnson Rule, which stated that no Democratic Partysenator should be awarded a second major committeechair until all had received a first appointment. It was notuntil the 1970s, however, that the sub-committee Bill ofRights was pushed though by liberal (as opposed tosouthern) Democrats. These reforms increased the inde-pendence of sub-committees, lessening the ability of theirparent committee chairs to make appointments and setagendas. Similarly, seniority was made only one ofseveral criteria used to determine the allocations of pos-itions to party members within Congress. Seniority,however, is still an issue in the House and Senate today.As late as 1995, Republicans decided that no member



could chair a committee or sub-committee for more thansix years.

separate but equal see Plessy v. Ferguson, 1896

separation of the powers Article One, Section Three of the USconstitution states, ‘The powers of government shall bedivided into three distinct departments: legislative, execu-tive and judicial. No person or persons belonging to orconstituting one of these departments shall exerciseany of the powers properly belonging to either of theothers . . .’ This separation of powers is designed so noone institution or individual within the system of gov-ernment becomes too powerful. Power is fragmented.Consequently, government can only function when itsdifferent divisions cooperate.

September the Eleventh see 9/11

shared powers see concurrent powers

Sierra Club An interest group campaigning on environmentalissues.

Website: http://www.sierraclub.org

Smoke-filled rooms An expression used to signify politicaldecision-making conducted in secret, where an elitegroup will decide amongst themselves a desired outcome.This expression was first used in 1920, when theRepublican Party was in deadlock at its national conven-tion over whom to nominate as their presidential candi-date. A powerful group of party senators retired to a‘smoke-filled room’, away from the convention floor, tointrigue late into the night, and eventually agreedamongst themselves to back the nomination of Warren G.



Harding. The convention floor confirmed this decisionthe next day.

soft money If hard money stems from political donationsspent directly on an individual’s electoral campaign, softmoney is the term used to describe contributions usedmore broadly by political parties. As a consequence, softmoney is free of many legal restrictions imposed by cam-paign finance reform. Examples of soft money spendinginclude drives to increase voter registration, the capacity-building of political parties at local level, and voter edu-cation on a myriad of issues. Controversy surrounds softmoney, however, as donations are often used to supportparty officers and personnel utilised, but not paid for, bycandidates running for election, or to buy television issueadvertisements that, although they do not specificallyendorse a candidate, infer this, or attempt to discredit anopponent’s campaign.

Solicitor General An officer appointed by the President ofthe United States to represent the executive branch in theSupreme Court. The Solicitor General is a deputy of theAttorney General in the Department of Justice.

Website: http://www.usdoj.gov/osg

solid south see southern Democrats

southern Democrats A block of Democratic Party supportersresiding in the southern region of the United States. TheDemocratic Party was established as a movement ofagrarian interests, which opposed the centralisation ofgovernment. These sentiments made this party popular inthe south amongst the planter elite and those distrustfulof the industrial power growing in the north of thecountry. The southern states became solidly Democratic



as a result. This remained the case, despite the northernand southern wings of the party disagreeing over slaveryat the time of the civil war. Indeed, it was southernDemocrats who provided the political leadership thatbrought secession, and the formation of the ConfederateStates of America.

After the civil war, the Democratic Party continued tobenefit from the ‘solid south’. A deep resentment of theRepublican Party, the party that had prosecuted the waragainst the Confederacy, ensured that Democrats werereturned in state and federal elections in this region timeafter time. Southern Democrats now advocated states’rights, under which justification they perpetuated asystem of segregation and discrimination in this region ofthe United States. Given that southern Democratsenjoyed incumbency in the ‘solid south’, they gainedseniority in the US Congress, and legislators from thispolitical block dominated this intuition from the 1930sthrough to the 1960s.

The Democratic Party’s domination of the southbegan to fade in the 1960s, when many supportersbecame disillusioned with the party’s liberal leadership.Southern Democrats, being conservative in outlook, dis-approved of the party supporting the civil rights move-ment, and its willingness to sanction governmentintervention to provide welfare support. Given theirsocial conservatism and their preference for states’ rightsover federal intervention (and unrepentant racism, insome cases), many southern Democrats re-aligned them-selves, and began to vote for the Republican Party.Instead of being a Democratic ‘solid south’, this regionis today now more likely to elect Republican representa-tives. This tension between conservatism and the modernDemocratic Party is demonstrated in the willingness ofremaining southern Democrats to frequently cross party



lines: see boll weevils, Blue Dog Democrats, and ReaganDemocrats.

Speaker of the House of Representatives The presiding officerof the US House of Representatives, and usually theleader of the majority party in this chamber. The Speakeris appointed through a vote of House members. This indi-vidual is second in the presidential line of succession, andwill become Acting President if the presidency and theVice presidency are vacant concurrently.

Website: http://speaker.house.gov

special districts Local government in the United States is pro-vided by a myriad of smaller administrative units autho-rised by state legislation. Existing alongside city andcounty councils are more specialised decision-makingbodies. These ‘special districts’ tackle issues such as theprovision of fire and rescue services, water management,environmental conservation, school administration, andeven tasks such as the control of mosquitoes, in areaswhere this is a health problem. These special districtsoften have their own elected personnel, and many arefunded by levies imposed on local communities (usuallyin the form of property or sales taxes).

Spirit of the Laws see Montesquieu, Baron de

split-ticket voting Where a member of the electorate votes forcandidates of more than one political party on the sameballot paper. On the same polling day, for example, anindividual may vote for a Republican President, while atthe same time voting for a Democratic senatorial candi-date. Split-ticket voting is more common in the UnitedStates than in other democracies due to weaker party alle-giances.



spoils system The practice of rewarding loyal party support-ers with appointments to public office, when this partyforms a government. In more modern times, althoughparties still operate a spoils system, it is expected thatnominees for public office possess competency andexpertise in the post for which they have been selected.

State Department see Department of State

state of emergency Where a political administration declaresthat certain functions of government and/or laws havebeen suspended. This may be in response to events suchas natural disasters, or military or civil unrest. States ofemergency are rare in most democracies, but morecommon in the United States. This is due to the fact thata declaration of an emergency by a governor or mayorpermits the federal government to commit nationalresources to the problem. States of emergency are there-fore commonly called after a severe flood, hurricane orforest fire.

State of the Union Address The title of the speech given bythe US President to Congress, more recently at the startof each year, outlining the chief executive’s opinion onhow the US government is faring, and explaining pro-posed initiatives.

states’ rights The protection and promotion of state govern-ment policies over those of the federal government. Mostobviously, issues of states’ rights became prominent in UShistory throughout the period leading up to the civil war(where the southern states wished to retain the institutionof slavery), and during the civil rights campaign of the1950s and 1960s (where the southern states wished toretain policies of segregation). The twentieth century saw



a significant expansion of the role of the federal govern-ment, sometimes at the expense of states’ rights. Legally,this expansion is supported by the Supreme Court rulingof McCulloch v. Maryland, 1819, which declared thatthe federal government commands not only enumeratedpowers under the US constitution, but also impliedpowers.

strict construction A narrow interpretation of a legal docu-ment. A judge or politician who subjects the US constitu-tion to strict construction, for example, will try toascertain precisely what the Founding Fathers intended.No allowances are made for the fact that this documentwas penned in the nineteenth century, and that modern-day society has developed a different set of principles andvalues. The literal meanings of the words are adhered to.Strict constructionalists are also known as ‘intentional-ists’ and ‘originalists’. The opposite of a strict construc-tionist is one who applies flexible construction.

stump speech A term used in reference to a politician’s stockaddress, used several times during a campaign, at differ-ent venues, perhaps with only minor variations.

Sub-committee A method of dividing up the work of a com-mittee. The US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations,for example, currently has seven sub-committees:‘African Affairs’, ‘East Asian and Pacific Affairs’,‘European Affairs’, ‘International Economic Policy,Export and Trade Promotion’, ‘International Operationsand Terrorism’, ‘Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs’,‘Western Hemisphere, Peace Corp and Narcotics Affairs’.All sub-committees refer their work to their parent, fullcommittee, before legislation is reported to the floor ofthe Senate or House of Representatives.



sub-committee Bill of Rights Reforms made during the early1970s modifying the committee system of the USCongress. The ‘sub-committee Bill of Rights’ authorisedHouse of Representatives sub-committees to meet undertheir own authority and hold hearings, as well as actingupon matters referred to them. This broke the strangle-hold of the parent committee chairs, who previously hadcontrolled the business of the sub-committees. Nowsub-committees could act independently. This chal-lenged the seniority system prevalent in Congress at thetime.

subpoena A writ ordering a person to attend a legal hearing,or to provide evidence to this body. The right of the USCongress to subpoena witnesses and evidence is writteninto the US constitution. Refusal to testify before thisbody, having been subpoenaed, may result in a prisonsentence for ‘contempt of Congress’. Most famously,President Richard Nixon, claiming executive privilege,refused a Congressional subpoena during the Watergateinvestigations. The President lost the subsequentSupreme Court case, United States v. Nixon, 1974, andsubsequently resigned.

sunshine rules Reference to reforms of the committee systemin the US Congress, resulting in nearly all committeemeetings being open to the public. Sunshine rules wereadopted by the House of Representatives in 1973 and theSenate in 1975. Previously, the administrative and mark-up business of these committees was conducted behindclosed doors.

Super Tuesday A date in early March of a presidential elec-tion year where several states, since 1988, have simulta-neously held primary elections. Given the number of



national convention delegates elected on Super Tuesday,a candidate failing to secure significant support at thesepolls is unlikely to win his or her party’s nomination.

super delegates Individuals who are invited to attend anational party convention, rather than qualifying to doso via primary elections. These super delegates have thesame voting rights as the elected delegates, giving them anequal say in who will be the party’s presidential nomineeand what the party’s platform will consist of. Superdelegates are largely drawn from the ranks of a party’sleadership (members of Congress and the national com-mittees, for example) and from employees of relevantinterest groups.

Supremacy Clause The sentence in Article Six of the US con-stitution that articulates that the constitution itself,federal laws, and treaties signed by the United Statesoverride state laws.

Supreme Court As its name suggests, the Supreme Court isthe highest judicial body to be found in the UnitedStates. It acts as the final court of appeal, andhas the final say over interpreting the US constitution.The Court currently comprises nine justices, althoughCongress has varied this number over time, and it isled by a Chief Justice. Suitable candidates are nomi-nated by the President to serve the Court when a posi-tion becomes vacant on the death, impeachment orretirement of a sitting judge. The President’s choice isthen confirmed (or not) by the US Senate. Onceappointed, no justice may be removed from powerunless they are impeached. This security of tenure isdesigned to prevent political pressure being placed onCourt members.



Much of the Supreme Court’s political influence stemsfrom its power of judicial review. This power is notspecifically outlined in the US constitution, but theCourt took this role upon itself with the opinion ofMarbury v. Madison, 1803. From this date, theSupreme Court has had the ability to strike down actsof Congress, or acts from state legislatures, as well asexecutive policies, should they be deemed to be in con-flict with the constitution. Women in the United States,for example, gained the right to choose whether to havean abortion, or not, when the Court found Texas law onthis issue to violate the constitutional rights of citizens(Roe v. Wade, 1973). Similarly, earlier, the Court has-tened the end of segregation in the southern states withits opinion of Brown v. Board of Education, 1954,which found the state of Kansas to be denying African-American school children their constitutional rights.What the court may not do, however, is directly inter-vene in an issue, of its own accord. A citizen must firstbring a case in a lower court, which is subsequentlyappealed through the system to the Supreme Court. TheSupreme Court is at liberty to choose cases from any ofthe numerous appeals it receives. Successful applicationsreceive a writ of certiorari.

Website: http://www.supremecourtus.gov

swing state A state where no political party dominates, andconsequently elections are competitive. New Jersey, forexample, has been a ‘swing state’ in recent elections,switching several times between providing respective vic-tories for the Demoractic Party and the RepublicanParty. As the outcome of elections in swing statesis uncertain, parties focus campaign resources in theseareas, as this is where national elections are wonand lost.



T

Tammany Hall Literally, the host building of the head-quarters of the Democratic Party in New YorkCity. Tammany Hall, however, has become a by-wordin US politics describing a well-organised, urban, polit-ical machine. The phrase is often used in a pejora-tive sense, as Democrats in New York City oftengave out favours in return for votes. The success ofthe Tammany Hall system can be judged by thefact that the Democratic Party dominated this city’sgovernment from the 1850s to the 1930s, and thismachine still had significant influence as late as the1960s.

Teamsters union The International Brotherhood ofTeamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen, Stablemen andHelpers of America was formed in 1903, after the mergerof two labour organisations representing delivery men(using horse-drawn vehicles). It grew to be the largesttrade union in the Unites States by 1940, enlargedfurther after organising and recruiting amongst truckdrivers. A strongly centralised union, the Teamsters wereable to negotiate nationwide freight haulage agreementson behalf of their members. The reputation of the unionwas tarnished, however, by its leadership’s associationwith racketeering, organised crime and the manipulationof the union’s pension fund. Between 1957 and 1988three of the Teamsters’ presidents were convicted ofcriminal charges and sentenced to prison terms. Theseactivities led to this union being expelled from theAmerican Federation of Labor and Congress ofIndustrial Organizations in 1957, and only beingreadmitted thirty years later.

Website: http://www.teamster.org



Tenth Amendment The Tenth Amendment to the US consti-tution, ratified in 1791, as part of the Bill of Rights,states: ‘The powers not delegated to the United States bythe Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, arereserved to the States respectively, or to the people.’ Thispart of the constitution reinforces the fact that the federalgovernment was established to carry out specific func-tions on behalf of the United States: the so-called dele-gated powers. Additionally, no government was able tolegislate in certain areas of society, due to the individualrights of US citizens (the denied powers). What the TenthAmendment clarifies, however, is that power not deniedto all governments, or specifically delegated to the federalgovernment, remains within the jurisdiction of the stategovernments (the reserved powers). It is a catch-allclause, added by the states to preserve their sovereigntywithin the United States. The Tenth Amendment, to anextent, conflicts with the necessary and proper clause andthe commerce clause. These two sentences of the consti-tution have allowed federal government to expand at thestates’ expense for more than 200 years.

term limit The legal prevention of an individual standing foran elected post, once this person has served a stipulatednumber of terms in that same office. The Twenty-secondAmendment to the US constitution, ratified in 1951, forexample, decrees that no politician may be electedPresident of the United States more than twice. In otherwords, under normal circumstances (see Twenty-secondAmendment), Presidents are restricted to holding thisoffice for a maximum of two four-year terms. Suppor-ters of term limits argue that these restrictions aid therenewal of government, bringing new personnel andideas to the institutions of power, helping the democraticprocess.



Texas v. White, 1869 see secession

Thirteenth Amendment An 1865 constitutional amendment,ratified in the wake of the civil war, which abolishedslavery in the United States.

ticket A phrase used in elections where more than one officeis determined by a voter’s choice. A presidential candi-date and a vice presidential candidate, for example, aresaid to be ‘running on the same ticket’. ‘Ticket’ is alsoused to indicate a candidate’s party: ‘Jones is running ona Republican ticket.’

Tocqueville, Alexis de (1805–59) A nineteenth-century Frenchpolitical philosopher and historian whose observations ofUS politics during the 1830s were published in his book:Democracy in America. This work has become a standardtext discussing conditions favouring and threateningdemocracy.

Suggested reading: Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracyin America (New York: Harper, 1988).

Tonkin Resolution see Gulf of Tonkin

traditional presidency Where the President of the UnitedStates acts more in the role envisaged by the FoundingFathers, implementing policy, rather than initiating it.Agenda-setting is left more to the Congress. Many see the‘traditional president’ being eclipsed by the modern presi-dent with the arrival of Franklin D. Roosevelt in theWhite House, with his New Deal.

Treasury see Department of the Treasury

Truman Doctrine A pledge made by President Harry S.Truman, in an address before the US Congress in 1947,



that stated the United States would assist governmentsresisting communism throughout the world. Thisdoctrine subsequently became a key strategy in the pros-ecution of the Cold War.

Truman, Harry S. (1884–1972) The thirty-third President ofthe United States, holding office between 1945 and 1953.Raised on a Missouri farm, Truman gained employmentin a myriad of (none too successful) jobs and businesspartnerships before serving in the US Army during WorldWar One. On returning to the United States, and anotherfailed business partnership, he entered state politics.Association with the boss of a local Democratic Partymachine in Missouri saw Truman first serve as a countyjudge (1922 to 1934), and then enter the US Senate.Truman managed to rise above the criminal convictionsof his former associates in the Missouri Democratic Partyand win re-election to the Senate in 1940. In 1944,Truman received his party’s nomination as candidate forVice President, and secured victory alongside Franklin D.Roosevelt in the general election of that year. His term asUS Vice President lasted just eighty-two days, whereupon Truman became President as a result of Roosevelt’sdeath in office. Truman won a presidential election in hisown right in 1948.

Truman’s presidency was dominated by foreignaffairs: the end of World War Two, and the subsequentdevelopment of the Cold War. Soon after becomingPresident, Truman took the decision to use atomicweapons against Japan, to terminate hostilities quickly.Yet, having helped defeat fascism, the United Statesimmediately had to deal with communist expansion.Truman supported a confrontational policy of ‘contain-ment’ against the Soviet Union and Communist China.Liberal democracies were supported financially in



Europe (the Marshall Plan), NATO was formed, and UStroops saw active duty, in the name of containment, inKorea.

In terms of domestic policy, Truman had some suc-cesses in building upon the provisions of the New Deal,but he also had to spend time resisting Republican Partyefforts to repeal some of Roosevelt’s earlier reforms.Truman’s unpopularity as a result of post-war inflation,labour unrest, and US involvement in the Korean Warpersuaded the President not to seek re-election in 1953,at the end of his first full term in office.

Twelfth Amendment An amendment to the US constitution,ratified in 1804, that altered the manner in which US VicePresidents are elected. Previously, members of the elect-oral college each had two votes on the same ballot. Thewinner of this poll would become President, while therunner-up would be Vice President. The TwelfthAmendment separates the election of President and VicePresident. The electoral college now conducts two sep-arate polls. This ensured that the President and VicePresident, from this date onwards, came from the samepolitical party.

Twenty-fifth Amendment An amendment to the US constitu-tion, ratified in 1967, addressing two issues of successionwithin the executive branch of the federal government. Inthe first instance, this amendment outlines procedureshould the President become incapacitated, and, second,it determines the rules for appointing a new VicePresident, should this position become vacant.

In terms of outlining procedure should the Presidentbecome disabled, the Vice President becomes ActingPresident if invited to do so by the President. Should therebe no such invitation, the Vice President may declare the



President unfit for office, and become Acting Presidenthim or herself, but only if supported by a majority of thecabinet. In either scenario, it is the President him orherself who determines when they are able to return tooffice. If the Acting President and a majority of thecabinet disagree with the President’s decision to return tooffice, the matter is referred to the US Senate. A two-thirds majority vote is required to maintain an ActingPresident in office against the wishes of the President.

The Twenty-fifth amendment also makes provision forappointing a Vice President, should this position becomevacant between general elections. Previously, the postwas left unfilled should an incumbent resign, beimpeached or die in office. Since 1967, however, with theratification of this amendment, the President may nownominate a replacement. This nomination must be con-firmed by a majority vote in both chambers of Congress.

This amendment, with respect to replacing the VicePresident, became almost immediately relevant whenRichard Nixon’s Vice President, Spiro Agnew, resigned in1973. Nixon appointed Speaker of the House, GeraldFord, as his new Vice President. Ford then succeededNixon to the presidency itself upon Nixon’s own resig-nation over the Watergate affair. Ford had thus becomePresident without being elected to this post or to the Vicepresidency.

Twenty-second Amendment An amendment to the US con-stitution, ratified in 1951, setting a term limit on theoffice of the President. Under normal circumstances, noPresident of the United States may serve more than twofour-year periods in office. This limit is designed as acheck and balance to prevent any one individual dom-inating the executive branch for too long a period. Thefirst US President, George Washington, who retired from



this post after eight years’ service, set the precedent of atwo-term spell. Three Presidents have sought a thirdterm, but only Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected to dothis (and was, indeed, returned for a fourth term). Debateabout the need for presidential term limits commencedsoon after Roosevelt died in office.

Theoretically, an individual could serve as President forjust less than ten years. Such an individual would havebeen promoted to the presidency due to the death, resig-nation or impeachment of an incumbent, and then beelected to this post twice after the original succession (twofour-year elected terms, plus less than two years as a‘replacement’ President). The Twenty-second Amendmentstates that anyone becoming President in these circum-stances, and serving more than two years as a ‘stand-in’President, may only seek election to this post once.

Twin Towers Reference to the World Trade Center buildingin New York City, targeted in the 9/11 terrorist attacks.

two-party system Reference to the fact that, since the organi-sation of political parties in the United States, no morethan two parties have dominated the competition for gov-ernment in this country. Subsequent to the civil war, thiscontest for power has been between the Republican Partyand the Democratic Party. Third parties have difficultycompeting with established contenders due to the natureof majoritarian electoral systems of the United States.However, successful third-party campaigns have occa-sionally prompted policy changes or a realignment withinthe two dominant parties. Ross Perot, for example, ran asuccessful third-party campaign in 1992 (polling 19 percent of the popular vote in the presidential race), but hisReform Party won no seats in Congress. Responding tothis challenge, the Republican and Democratic parties



altered their subsequent polices as a result. They bothadded Perot’s main demand to their own party platform:balanced budgets to address the national debt.

U

Uncle Tom A pejorative term for an African-American whodefers too easily to white authority. The phrase is derivedfrom Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin,where the title character, a slave, is a long-suffering, faith-ful servant of his white owners.

Further reading: Harriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle Tom’sCabin (London: Prentice Hall, 2003)

underground railway see abolitionists

United States Conference of Mayors A non-partisan organisa-tion bringing together some 1,100 mayoral offices nation-wide. The Conference offers opportunities for networking,assists federal–city relationships, and provides leadershipon issues relating to urban and suburban policy.

Website: http://www.usmayors.org

United States v. Darby Lumber Company, 1941 see com-merce clause

United States v. Nixon, 1974 A Supreme Court decision out-lining the extent of executive privilege. As part of itsinvestigation into the Watergate affair, the US Senaterequested copies of recordings made of Oval Office con-versations between the President and his staff. PresidentRichard Nixon refused this subpoena on the grounds ofexecutive privilege. The Court ruled that although the USconstitution supported the notion of executive privilege



(particularly in cases of national security), the right to afair trial outweighed these considerations. No officialshould be immune from the judicial process on thegrounds of executive privilege, or the separation of thepowers. Nixon complied with the Court’s opinion, andreleased the tapes to Congress. He resigned as Presidentshortly afterwards.

University of California v. Bakke, 1978 see affirmative action

V

veto The right to reject a legislative act, making it null andvoid. As part of a system of checks and balances in theUnited States, the US President has the right to vetoCongressional proposals, while governors may reject billsfrom state legislators. In the case of the federal govern-ment, Congress may override a presidential veto bya two-thirds majority vote in both the House ofRepresentatives and the Senate.

See also: pocket veto and line-item veto

veto override see veto

veto, pocket see pocket veto

Vice President The US Vice President (VP) has two constitu-tional functions within the US system of government: heor she succeeds the President should the incumbent resign,be incapacitated, impeached or die in office; he or she alsohas a ceremonial function within the US Senate, and has acasting say in this chamber, should there be a tied vote.

Beyond these constitutional duties, Vice Presidentshave, in more modern times, become key policy advisors



to the President. Although the President has no officialauthority over the Vice President, and may not dismisshim or her, VPs often accept this advisory role to advancetheir own political career: perhaps grooming themselvesfor the presidency itself.

To become US Vice President, politicians first have to beselected by a party’s presidential nominee, to act as theirrunning mate. The choice of running mate usually reflectsan attempt to balance the party’s presidential ticket. Avice presidential candidate from a different region thanthat of the presidential candidate, or one representing adifferent wing of the party, makes the party’s ticket moreattractive. This choice is confirmed by a vote of thenational party convention. The presidential and vice pres-idential nominees then campaign together to try and winthe White House in the November general election.

Website: http://www.whitehouse.gov/vicepresident

Vietnam War US involvement in Vietnam dated from theadministration of Harry S. Truman, when economic andmilitary aid was provided to deter a communist takeoverof French Indochina. When France withdrew from thiscountry in 1954, and Vietnam was divided into two sep-arate states, the US continued to support anti-communistforces in the south. A decade later, communist insurgentsthreatened to overwhelm the government of SouthVietnam. In 1964, following an allegedly unprovokedattack on US warships patrolling the Gulf of Tonkin, aresolution pledging support for American action inVietnam was passed by the US Congress. This TonkinResolution was used by the administration of Lyndon B.Johnson to justify a massive commitment of US troops tothis war. Military operations spread to North Vietnam,Cambodia and Laos. Amid heavy US and Vietnamesecasualties, and the failure to defeat the communist



insurgents, a vocal anti-war movement grew in theUnited States. Effective defeat in Vietnam has scarred USsociety for several generations. The Nixon Admini-stration eventually withdrew American troops fromsouth-east Asia in 1973. Lacking US military support, thesouthern government finally fell to the North Vietnamesearmy in 1975, whereupon the country was reunitedunder communist rule.

Voting Rights Act, 1965 An act of Congress that specificallyoutlawed practices such as grandfather clauses, literacytests and poll taxes that had been used in the southernstates, up to this point, to disenfranchise African-Americans. The federal government’s Department ofJustice was empowered to scrutinise state electoral laws.The number of African-Americans who voted after thepassage of this act increased dramatically. For example,in 1960, only 5 per cent of those African-Americans eli-gible to vote in the state of Mississippi did so. By 1968,this figure had risen to 60 per cent.

W

War of 1812 see Madison, James

War on Poverty Another slogan for President Lyndon B.Johnson’s 1960s Great Society reforms.

War Powers Resolution, 1973 Legislation that requires thePresident to receive the consent of the US Congress whendeploying military forces in combat situations. The USconstitution states that only Congress has the right todeclare war, after which the President, as Commander inChief, prosecutes military action. Yet the United States



has only officially declared war five times (the Warof 1812, the Mexican–American War, the Spanish–American War, World War I and World War II). Othermilitary campaigns, successive Presidents have argued,particularly in recent decades, have been actions short ofwar: merely police actions. They have not required aformal Congressional declaration of war.

Congress in the early 1970s became hostile to PresidentRichard Nixon’s military operations in south-east Asia, inparticular his secret bombing of Cambodia. The legisla-tive branch therefore passed the War Powers Resolutionto provide a check and balance on ‘police actions’. TheResolution requires the President, should he or she deploycombat troops, to inform Congress of this action withinforty-eight hours of the event. The President must thenreceive Congressional approval of this military campaignwithin sixty days of the first deployment. This may be inthe form of a formal declaration of war, or legislationendorsing the action. Congress may grant an extension tothis sixty-day period. If no such consent is forthcoming,the President must withdraw US troops from the relevanttheatre of war within a further sixty days.

The War Powers Resolution was passed by the USCongress, overriding the veto of Richard Nixon. Severalsubsequent Presidents have declared the Resolution to beunconstitutional. Most have largely ignored the legisla-tion when deploying US troops. The constitutional valid-ity of the Resolution remains uncertain. When calledupon to express an opinion on the matter with the caseof Crockett v. Reagan, 1982, the judicial branch duckedthe responsibility, ruling that it was an issue for theexecutive and legislative branches to sort out themselves;not a matter for the courts.

Warren Court see Warren, Earl



Warren, Earl (1891–1974) Served as governor of Californiabetween 1943 and 1953, before being appointed byPresident Dwight Eisenhower to be Chief Justice of theSupreme Court. Warren remained in this post until hisdeath in 1974. Warren’s record, serving as a districtattorney in several counties, Attorney General, and thena Republican Party Governor of California, suggestedthat he was a conservative. It was this record in publicoffice that attracted the attention of Eisenhower. YetEisenhower called his decision to appoint Warren to theSupreme Court, ‘the biggest dam-fool mistake I evermade.’ This is because Warren presided over one of themost radical Supreme Courts the United States has everseen. His Court advanced individual freedoms (particu-larly for those accused of crimes) and increased thepeople’s representation in government. The WarrenCourt, for example, authored the opinions of Brown v.Board of Education, 1954; Gideon v. Wainwright,1963; and Miranda v. Arizona, 1966. Warren believedthe Supreme Court should protect the rights of individ-uals against the state, and that judicial activism couldhelp the other branches of government meet theirresponsibilities.

Washington Beltway The name of the ring-road circlingWashington DC. Political insiders, privy to the workingsof the federal government within the capital city, areoften described as being ‘inside the Beltway’.

Washington DC The capital city of the United States ofAmerica, and host to the leading institutions of the USfederal government. Given that this city is home to allthree branches of the national government, housing theWhite House, the Congress and the Supreme Court, thephrase ‘Washington DC’ is often used simply as a synonym



for the federal government itself. Washington city islocated in the federal territory of the District of Columbia.

Washington, George (1732–99) First President of the UnitedStates, holding office between 1789 and 1797.Washington is the country’s original national hero,having lead American forces to victory against the Britishin the War of Independence, and then helping secure acivilian, representative government in its aftermath(despite support for him to lead a more authoritarianregime). Washington retired from the presidency aftertwo terms of office, setting a precedent of term limits.

Washington’s farewell address An open letter to the Americanpeople, published by George Washington in the form of aspeech, in 1796, on the occasion of his retirement fromthe presidency. An original draft of this address waspenned by James Madison four years earlier, when itappeared Washington might retire after just one term inoffice. This draft was revised by Alexander Hamilton,with Washington finalising his valedictory advice.Domestically, the address urged Americans not to enterinto sectional politics, and especially not to form compet-ing political parties. In foreign affairs, Washingtonwarned about the dangers of permanent ‘entangling’alliances, advocating instead a more isolationist stance.

Watergate A political scandal of the early 1970s that forcedRichard Nixon to resign: the first US President ever to dothis. In June 1972, five individuals broke into WashingtonDC’s Watergate office complex. The particular office suitetargeted was that occupied by the Democratic NationalCommittee. Two years of investigations by the police, theDistrict Attorney, journalists from the Washington Post,the Department of Justice, and Congress identified



personnel from Nixon’s Committee to Re-Elect thePresident to be complicit in this break-in. This was part ofa wider conspiracy to disrupt and harass Nixon’s politicalopponents: operation Gemstone.

Initially, the White House denied any ‘involvementwhatsoever’ in this ‘third-rate burglary’. However,members of the Nixon Administration did attempt tocover up the existence of operation Gemstone. TheCentral Intelligence Agency (CIA), for example, wasinstructed to impede the enquiry of the Federal Bureauof Investigation (FBI). Eventually, investigators linkedNixon to the subsequent cover-up measures, if not theoriginal burglary itself. The key piece of evidence wascontained within recorded Oval Office conversations.These tapes were only released by the President to Senateinvestigators after the Supreme Court decision of UnitedStates v. Nixon, 1973. The House Committee on theJudiciary voted to impeach Nixon on charges of obstruct-ing justice. He resigned before the Senate had the oppor-tunity to try him. The legacy of the Watergate scandal hasbeen less trust in the Office of the President ever since,and the growth of media scrutiny of government, in theform of investigative journalism.

Ways and Means Committee see House of RepresentativesWays and Means Committee

West Wing Part of the White House building housing theOval Office and working accommodation for senior staffof the executive branch.

Whig Party A political party in US history, most powerful inthe 1840s and 1850s. The Whigs formed during the 1930sin opposition to Andrew Jackson’s Democratic Party.They rejected Jackson’s leadership style of a strong



executive branch, and favoured industrial developmentover Democratic agrarian interests. The party disinte-grated in the second half of the 1850s over the issue ofslavery, making way for the Republican Party as theDemocrat’s main opponent in the two-party system.

whip Deputies of the majority and minority leaders in leg-islative bodies charged with organising support for aparty’s bill. Whips identify who will back a proposal, andthen make sure that votes are cast. These posts are mod-elled on the British parliamentary system. The word‘whip’ is derived from the ‘whipper-in’ of a hunt, whoinsures that hounds do not stray too far during the chase.

White House The building, located at 1600 PennsylvaniaAvenue, Washington DC, that is the official residence of thePresident of the United States. This building has formerlybeen known as the ‘President’s Palace’, the ‘President’sHouse’, and the ‘Executive Mansion’, before officiallybecoming the ‘White House’ in 1901, during the presidencyof Theodore Roosevelt. Contained within the White Houseare rooms that make up the living accommodation of thePresident and his or her family, a ballroom and dining roomfor official functions, a vast collection of offices for thePresident’s staff, a communications centre, and cateringand medical facilities for all the building’s inhabitants.

Whitewater A financial scandal of the 1990s revolvingaround the Whitewater Development Company, ofwhich First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton and PresidentBill Clinton were directors. Although the Clintonswere cleared of any wrongdoing with respect to this inci-dent, the report of the Independent Counsel of theDepartment of Justice, Kenneth Starr, who investigatedthese accusations, brought to light the President’s sexual



improprieties with Monica Lewinsky. This later resultedin an unsuccessful effort to impeach Clinton.

wholesale politics Political strategies and campaigns whereactions and policies are focused on specific groups ofvoters and interest groups. The opposite of ‘wholesalepolitics’ is ‘retail politics’: strategies aimed at selling acandidate and policies to a broad, mass audience.

Wilson, Woodrow (1856–1924) Twenty-eighth President ofthe United States, holding office between 1913 and 1921.Born in Virginia, and raised in Georgia and the Carolinasduring the civil war, Wilson briefly practised law beforestudying history and political science. His doctoral thesison Congressional government was highly regarded at thetime. Wilson built a successful academic career, becom-ing President of Princeton University in 1902. Nine yearslater he successfully ran as the Democratic Party candi-date for Governor of New Jersey, and then becamePresident of the United Sates in 1913.

Wilson’s two terms in office are characterised by hisprogressive domestic reform programme, and the leader-ship he demonstrated in foreign affairs. At home, Wilsonsuccessfully built a Congressional coalition to pass anumber of reforms. He reduced tariffs on importedgoods, benefiting consumers; he attacked the monopoliesof big corporations via the 1914 Anti-Trust Act; he intro-duced legislation forcing businesses to recognise labourunions and improve conditions for their workers; and heprovided lower-interest loans for poorer farmers.

Abroad, President Wilson took a more interventionistline than many of his predecessors. He used military forcein Mexico, Haiti and Santa Domingo to protect US inter-ests. His biggest decision in foreign affairs, however,involved US entry to the First World War in 1917. The US



expeditionary force under General John J. Pershing brokethe stalemate on the western front, bringing the armisticeof 1918. It would be Wilson’s ‘fourteen points’ that laidthe basis of the Treaty of Versailles that officially endedthis war, and he was instrumental in creating the Leagueof Nations. Ironically, the United States did not sign theVersailles Treaty or join the League of Nations. Wilsoncould not get the consent of the Republican Party-controlled Congress at home, which took an isolationiststance, and failed to ratify these treaties. The UnitedStates signed a separate peace treaty with Germany.

writ of certiorari see certiorari, writ of

X

X, Malcolm see Malcolm X

Y

Yellow Dog Democrat A staunchly loyal supporter of theDemocratic Party. The phrase originates from the elec-tions of 1928, when an Alabama senator, Tom Heflin,failed to back a fellow Democratic candidate forPresident of the United States. Loyal Democratic Partysupporters, who disagreed with Heflin’s decision, appar-ently swore that they would ‘even vote for a yellow dogif it ran on a Democratic ticket’.

Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company v. Sawyer, 1952 ASupreme Court decision that confirmed the limits of the USPresident’s power, even in times of national emergency. Atthe height of the Korean War, steelworkers nationally wereabout to strike, their employers having rejected calls for



increased wages. Fearing that a cut in the supply of steelwould hamper the US military effort in Korea, PresidentHarry S. Truman intervened. He effectively nationalisedmany of the nation’s steel mills. This would be a tempo-rary measure, the President made it clear, ensuring contin-ued production whilst workers and employers settled theirdifferences. The mill owners abided by Truman’s executiveorder, but challenged its validity in the courts. The case ofYoungstown Sheet and Tube Company v. Sawyer wasadjudicated by the Supreme Court. The petitioner, CharlesSawyer, was Truman’s Secretary of Commerce.

Sawyer argued that Article Two of the US constitutiongave the President power to make such an interventionduring a national emergency. Additionally the administra-tion stated that as commander in chief, the President wasentitled to take actions that protected US forces in theatresof war. Youngstown Sheet and Tube conversely questionedthe President’s ability to seize private property, especiallywithout the authority of a prior act of Congress.

The Supreme Court’s ruling backed the steel-millowners. The opinion stated that the President had nopowers to nationalise private property, even in a nationalemergency. Such intervention, if it were to be constitu-tional, would first have to be authorised by Congress.The President had no right to make his own law.

Truman immediately returned the steel mills to theirowners, and the strike commenced. A settlement wasreached after fifty-three days. The President later claimedthat the strike had indeed caused some shortages inammunition available to troops in Korea.

Z

Zipper-gate see Lewinsky, Monica



appendix a

Presidents and Vice Presidentsof the United States

Term President President’s Vice Presidentparty

1789–1793 George Washington None John Adams

1793–1797 George Washington None John Adams

1797–1801 John Adams Federalist Thomas Jefferson

1801–1805 Thomas Jefferson Dem-Rep Aaron Burr

1805–1809 Thomas Jefferson Dem-Rep George Clinton

1809–1813 James Madison Dem-Rep George Clinton(died in office, 1812)no VP

1813–1817 James Madison Dem-Rep Elbridge Gerry(died in office, 1814)no VP

1817–1821 James Monroe Dem-Rep Daniel D. Tompkins

1821–1825 James Monroe Dem-Rep Daniel D. Tompkins

1825–1829 John Quincy Adams Dem-Rep John C. Calhoun

1829–1833 Andrew Jackson Dem John C. Calhoun

(resigned, 1832)

no VP

1833–1837 Andrew Jackson Dem Martin Van Buren

1837–1841 Martin Van Buren Dem Richard M. Johnson

1841–1845 William Henry Whig John TylerHarrison (became President,

(died in office, 1841) 1841)

John Tyler Whig no VP


PRESIDENTS AND VICE PRESIDENTS 189


1845–1849 James Knox Polk Dem George M. Dallas1849–1853 Zachary Taylor Whig Millard Fillmore

(died in office, (became President, 1850) 1850)Millard Fillmore Whig no VP

1853–1857 Franklin Pierce Dem William R. King(died in office, 1853)no VP

1857–1861 James Buchanan Dem John C. Breckinridge1861–1865 Abraham Lincoln Rep Hannibal Hamlin1865–1869 Abraham Lincoln Rep Andrew Johnson

(assassinated, 1865) (became President,1865)

Andrew Johnson Dem/Union no VP1869–1873 Ulysses S. Grant Rep Schuyler Colfax1873–1877 Ulysses S. Grant Rep Henry Wilson

(died in office, 1875)no VP

1877–1881 Rutherford B. Hayes Rep William A. Wheeler1881–1885 James Abram Rep Chester A. Arthur

Garfield (became President, (assassinated, 1881) 1881)Chester Alan Arthur Rep no VP

1885–1889 Grover Cleveland Dem Thomas A. Hendricks (died in office, 1885)no VP

1889–1893 Benjamin Harrison Rep Levi P. Morton1893–1897 Grover Cleveland Dem Adlai E. Stevenson1897–1901 William McKinley Rep Garret A. Hobart

(died in office, 1899)no VP

1901–1905 William McKinley Rep Theodore Roosevelt(assassinated, 1901) (became President,

1901)Theodore Roosevelt no VP



1905–1909 Theodore Roosevelt Rep Charles W. Fairbanks

1909–1913 William Howard Rep James S. ShermanTaft (died in office, 1912)

no VP

1913–1917 Woodrow Wilson Dem Thomas R. Marshall

1917–1921 Woodrow Wilson Dem Thomas R. Marshall

1921–1925 Warren G. Harding Rep Calvin Coolidge(died in office, 1923) (became President,

1923)

Calvin Coolidge Rep no VP

1925–1929 Calvin Coolidge Rep Charles G. Dawes

1929–1933 Herbert Clark Rep Charles CurtisHoover

1933–1937 Franklin D. Dem John N. GarnerRoosevelt

1937–1941 Franklin D. Dem John N. GarnerRoosevelt

1941–1945 Franklin D. Dem Henry A. WallaceRoosevelt

1945–1949 Franklin D. Dem Harry S. TrumanRoosevelt (became President, (died in office, 1945) 1945)

Harry S. Truman Dem no VP

1949–1953 Harry S. Truman Dem Alben W. Barkley

1953–1957 Dwight D. Rep Richard M. NixonEisenhower

1957–1961 Dwight D. Rep Richard M. NixonEisenhower

1961–1965 John F. Kennedy Dem Lyndon B. Johnson(assassinated, 1963) (became President,

1963)

Lyndon B. Johnson Dem no VP

1965–1969 Lyndon B. Johnson Dem Hubert H. Humphrey

190 PRESIDENTS AND VICE PRESIDENTS


PRESIDENTS AND VICE PRESIDENTS 191


1969–1973 Richard M. Nixon Rep Spiro T. Agnew,1969–73(no VP, 10 Oct. 1973–6 Dec. 1973)Gerald R. Ford,1973–4

1973–1977 Richard Nixon Rep Spiro T. Agnew(resigned, 1974) (resigned from office,

1973)

Gerald R. Ford Gerald R. Fordbecame President,1974)Nelson A. Rockefeller

1977–1981 Jimmy Carter Dem Walter F. Mondale

1981–1985 Ronald Reagan Rep George H. W. Bush

1985–1989 Ronald Reagan Rep George H. W. Bush

1989–1993 George Bush Rep J. Danforth Quayle

1993–1997 Bill Clinton Dem Albert A. Gore

1997–2001 Bill Clinton Dem Albert A. Gore

2001–2005 George W. Bush Rep Richard B. Cheney

2005– George W. Bush Rep Richard B. Cheney


appendix b

Chief Justices of the United States

John Jay 1789–1795John Rutledge 1795Oliver Ellsworth 1796–1800John Marshall 1801–1835Roger B. Taney 1836–1864Salmon P. Chase 1864–1873Morrison R. Waite 1874–1888Melville W. Fuller 1888–1910Edward D. White 1910–1921William H. Taft 1921–1930Charles E. Hughes 1930–1941Harlan F. Stone 1941–1946Fred M. Vinson 1946–1953Earl Warren 1953–1969Warren E. Burger 1969–1986William H. Rehnquist 1986–2005John Roberts 2005–


appendix c

Historic Strength of Political Parties within the US Federal Government

Congress Period Majority Majority Partyparty in party in holding the

the Senate the House presidency

1st 1789–1791 – – –2nd 1791–1793 F F –3rd 1793–1795 F DR F4th 1795–1797 F F F5th 1797–1799 F F F6th 1799–1801 F F F

7th 1801–1803 DR DR DR8th 1803–1805 DR DR DR9th 1805–1807 DR DR DR10th 1807–1809 DR DR DR11th 1809–1811 DR DR DR12th 1811–1813 DR DR DR

13th 1813–1815 DR DR DR14th 1815–1817 DR DR DR15th 1817–1819 DR DR DR16th 1819–1821 DR DR DR17th 1821–1823 DR DR DR18th 1823–1825 DR DR DR

19th 1825–1827 – – C20th 1827–1829 JD JD C21st 1829–1831 D D D22nd 1831–1833 D D D23rd 1833–1835 D D D24th 1835–1837 D D D




25th 1837–1839 D D D26th 1839–1841 D D D27th 1841–1843 W W W28th 1843–1845 W D W29th 1845–1847 D D D30th 1847–1849 D W D

31st 1849–1851 D D W32nd 1851–1853 D D W33rd 1853–1855 D D D34th 1855–1857 D R D35th 1857–1859 D D D36th 1859–1861 D R D

37th 1861–1863 R R R38th 1863–1865 R R R39th 1865–1867 U U R40th 1867–1869 R R R41st 1869–1871 R R R42nd 1871–1873 R R R

43rd 1873–1875 R R R44th 1875–1877 R D R45th 1877–1879 R D R46th 1879–1881 D D R47th 1881–1883 R D R48th 1883–1885 R D R

49th 1885–1887 R D D50th 1887–1889 R D D51st 1889–1891 R R R52nd 1891–1893 R D R53rd 1893–1895 D D D54th 1895–1897 R R D

55th 1897–1899 R R R56th 1899–1901 R R R57th 1901–1903 R R R58th 1903–1905 R R R59th 1905–1907 R R R60th 1907–1909 R R R

194 POLITICAL PARTIES




61st 1909–1911 R R R62nd 1911–1913 R D R63rd 1913–1915 D D D64th 1915–1917 D D D65th 1917–1919 D D D66th 1919–1921 R R D

67th 1921–1923 R R R68th 1923–1925 R R R69th 1925–1927 R R R70th 1927–1929 R R R71st 1929–1931 R R R72nd 1931–1933 R D R

73rd 1933–1935 D D D74th 1935–1937 D D D75th 1937–1939 D D D76th 1939–1941 D D D77th 1941–1943 D D D78th 1943–1945 D D D

79th 1945–1947 D D D80th 1947–1949 R R D81st 1949–1951 D D D82nd 1951–1953 D D D83rd 1953–1955 R R R84th 1955–1957 D D R

85th 1957–1959 D D R86th 1959–1961 D D R87th 1961–1963 D D D88th 1963–1965 D D D89th 1965–1967 D D D90th 1967–1969 D D D

91st 1969–1971 D D R92nd 1971–1973 D D R93rd 1973–1975 D D R94th 1975–1977 D D R95th 1977–1979 D D D96th 1979–1981 D D D

POLITICAL PARTIES 195




97th 1981–1983 R D R98th 1983–1985 R D R99th 1985–1987 R D R100th 1987–1989 D D R101st 1989–1991 D D R102nd 1991–1993 D D R

103rd 1993–1995 D D D104th 1995–1997 R R D105th 1997–1999 R R D106th 1999–2001 R R D107th 2001–2003 D R R108th 2003–2005 R R R109th 2005–2007 R R R

Party abbreviations

– No distinct party majorityC coalitionD DemocraticDR Democratic-RepublicanF FederalistJD Jacksonian DemocratR RepublicanU UnionistW Whig

196 POLITICAL PARTIES


Documents

A Glossary of US Politics and Government