Sedimentology, palaeoenvironments and biostratigraphy of the Pliocene-Pleistocene carbonate platform of Grande-Terre (Guadeloupe, Lesser Antilles forearc)

Sedimentology, palaeoenvironments and biostratigraphy of thePliocene–Pleistocene carbonate platform of Grande-Terre(Guadeloupe, Lesser Antilles forearc)

JEAN-JACQUES CORNEE*, JEAN-LEN LETICEE� , PHILIPPE MUNCH*,� , FREDERICQUILLEVERE§, JEAN-FREDERIC LEBRUN� , PIERRE MOISSETTE§, JUAN-CARLOSBRAGA– , MIHAELA MELINTE-DOBRINESCU**, LYVANE DE MIN*,� , JULIEN OUDET��and AURAN RANDRIANASOLO�*UMR CNRS 5243 Geosciences Montpellier, Universite Montpellier 2, CC 060, Pl. Eugene Bataillon,34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, France (E-mail: [email protected])�EA LaRGe, University des Antilles et de la Guyane, Campus de Fouillole, 97159 Pointe a Pitre CEDEX,Guadeloupe, France�Universite de Provence, Case 67, 13331 Marseille Cedex 03, France§UMR CNRS 5276 Laboratoire de Geologie de Lyon: Terre, Planetes, Environnement, Universite Lyon 1,Boulevard du 11 Novembre 1918, 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex, France–Departamento de Estratigrafıa y Paleontologıa, Universidad de Granada, Campus Fuentenueva s/n,18002 Granada, Spain**GeoEcoMar, Str. Dimitri Onciul, nr 23-25, RO-024053, Bucarest, Romania��EOSYS, 131, Bd Carnot, 78110 Le Vesinet, France

Associate Editor – Dave Mallinson

ABSTRACT

Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits from Grande-Terre (Guadeloupe

archipelago, French Lesser Antilles) provide a remarkable example of an

isolated carbonate system built in an active margin setting, with sedimentation

controlled by both rapid sea-level changes and tectonic movements. Based on

new field, sedimentological and palaeontological analyses, these deposits have

been organized into four sedimentary sequences (S1 to S4) separated by three

subaerial erosion surfaces (SB0, SB1 and SB2). Sequences S1 and S2

(‘Calcaires inferieurs a rhodolithes’) deposited during the Late Zanclean to

Early Gelasian (planktonic foraminiferal Zones PL2 to PL5) in low subsidence

conditions, on a distally steepened ramp dipping eastward. Red algal-rich

deposits, which dominate the western part of Grande-Terre, change to

planktonic foraminifer-rich deposits eastward. Vertical movements of tens of

metres were responsible for the formation of SB0 and SB1. Sequence S3

(‘Formation volcano-sedimentaire’, ‘Calcaires superieurs a rhodolithes’ and

‘Calcaires a Agaricia’) was deposited during the Late Piacenzian to Early

Calabrian (Zones PL5 to PT1a) on a distally steepened, red algal-dominated

ramp that changes upward into a homoclinal, coral-dominated ramp.

Deposition of Sequence S3 occurred during a eustatic cycle in quiet tectonic

conditions. Its uppermost boundary, the major erosion surface SB2, is related

to the Cala1 eustatic sea-level fall. Finally, Sequence S4 (‘Calcaires a

Acropora’) probably formed during the Calabrian, developing as a coral-

dominated platform during a eustatic cycle in quiet tectonic conditions. The

final emergence of the island could then have occurred in Late Calabrian times.

Keywords Caribbean, Early Quaternary, Late Neogene, sea-level changes,tectonics, tropical carbonates.

Sedimentology (2012) 59, 1426–1451 doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3091.2011.01311.x

1426 � 2011 The Authors. Journal compilation � 2011 International Association of Sedimentologists

INTRODUCTION

The Lesser Antilles arc (Fig. 1) developed in theeastern part of the Caribbean Plate as a result ofthe westward subduction of the Atlantic oceaniclithosphere (Pindell & Barrett, 1990; Mann et al.,1995; DeMets et al., 2000). North of Martinique(Fig. 2A) it is divided into two branches: awestern active volcanic arc and an eastern fossil,Eocene to Oligocene volcanic arc capped byOligocene to Recent carbonate deposits. Thisfossil arc is presently in the forearc position(Martin-Kaye, 1969; Fink, 1972; Bouysse, 1979;Bouysse & Westercamp, 1990). Although carbon-ate platform deposits crop out in Anguilla, Som-brero, Tintamarre, Antigua, Barbuda, Saint-Barthelemy, Saint-Martin and in the Guadeloupearchipelago, very little is known about theirsedimentary architecture and depositional his-tory. Within the Guadeloupe archipelago, in theGrande-Terre, La Desirade and Marie-Galanteislands (Fig. 2B), such deposits are better exposedthan anywhere else in the Lesser Antilles forearc(Andreieff et al., 1989).

Grande-Terre is of particular interest, as it iscomposed of a continuous, Pliocene to Pleisto-cene, tropical carbonate succession, enabling

discrimination of the respective roles of eustasyand tectonics during a 5 Myr period. Indeed, thecarbonate deposits of Grande-Terre developedduring frequent changes from glacial tointerglacial intervals (Lisiecki & Raymo, 2005)related to the final closure of the CentralAmerican Seaway (4Æ6 to 3Æ6 Ma; Keigwin, 1982;Haug & Tiedemann, 1998; Reijmer et al., 2002).Moreover, the carbonate deposits of Grande-Terrewere emplaced in an active margin setting as theisland is located some 50 km west of the termi-nation of the forearc crust below the accretionarywedge (Bangs et al., 2003; Roux, 2007). This areais believed to have experienced important verticalmovements (Bouysse & Westercamp, 1990;Feuillet et al., 2004; Kopp et al., 2011).

The main objective of this study is to develop,for the first time, a depositional and sequence-stratigraphic model for the Pliocene to Pleisto-cene carbonate systems of Grande-Terre in theLesser Antilles. This model will allow discussionof the respective roles of tectonics, sea-levelchanges and carbonate production, the majorfactors controlling sediment accommodationspace and accumulation rates (Tucker, 1990;Masse & Montaggioni, 2001; Pomar, 2001; Pomar& Kendall, 2007).

Grande Terre

NORTH AMERICAN PLATE

COCOS AND NAZCA PLATESSOUTH AMERICAN PLATE

Cuba

Mexico

Venezuela

Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean

90° 80°W 70° 60°

10°N

20°N

Lesser AntillesFig. 2

CARIBBEAN PLATE

12

3

4

Belize

Fig. 1. Map of the studied area in the Caribbean (modified after Cordey & Cornee, 2009): ‘1’ Antigua-Barbuda; ‘2’Anguilla; ‘3’ US Virgin Islands; ‘4’ Bahamas.

� 2011 The Authors. Journal compilation � 2011 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 59, 1426–1451

Sedimentology, palaeoenvironments and biostratigraphy 1427

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC ANDBIOSTRATIGRAPHIC SETTINGS

The carbonate deposits from Grande-Terre havebeen investigated by a number of authors over thepast 30 years (Andreieff & Cottez, 1976; Garrabe,1983; Garrabe & Andreieff, 1985, 1988; Andreieffet al., 1989; Rancon et al., 1992; Leticee et al.,2005; Leticee, 2008). The lithostratigraphy of thePliocene–Pleistocene sediments of Grande-Terrewas first established on a core located at LaSimoniere (Fig. 3), which was defined as a refer-ence section (Andreieff et al., 1989; Table 1).Biostratigraphic ages are based on planktonicforaminifera (Wade et al., 2011). From bottom totop, the deposits were subdivided into Unit u1,46 m of Zanclean to lower Gelasian argillaceouslimestones (planktonic foraminiferal Zones PL2to PL5 of Berggren et al., 1995; between 4Æ36 Maand 2Æ39 Ma); Unit u2, 3 m of upper Piacenzian tolower Gelasian volcaniclastic deposits (Zone PL5;between 3Æ13 Ma and 2Æ39 Ma); Unit u3, 25 m oflower Gelasian to Calabrian argillaceous lime-stones (Zones PL5 to PT1a; between 3Æ13 Ma and0Æ61 Ma); and Unit u4, 37 m of Calabrian coral-rich limestones (Zone PT1a; between 1Æ88 Ma and

0Æ61 Ma). The lithostratigraphy of the outcrop-ping deposits of Grande-Terre has also beenstudied by Garrabe (1983), Leticee et al. (2005)and Leticee (2008). These authors defined, frombottom to top, five lithological formations(Table 1): (i) the ‘Calcaires inferieurs a rhodoli-thes’ (rhodolith-rich Lower Limestones; equiva-lent to Unit u1 of the La Simoniere core); (ii) the‘Formation volcano-sedimentaire’ (VolcaniclasticFormation; equivalent to Unit u2); (iii) the‘Calcaires superieurs a rhodolithes’ (rhodolith-rich Upper Limestones; equivalent to Unit u3);(iv) the ‘Calcaires a Agaricia’ (Agaricia Lime-stones); and (v) the ‘Calcaires a Acropora’ (Acro-pora Limestones) (both equivalent to Unit u4). Amajor unconformity was identified between thetwo youngest reef-dominated formations (Leticeeet al., 2005). The ages of the three oldest, redalgal-dominated formations were estimated asZanclean to Calabrian. The two youngest, coral-dominated formations were believed to have beendeposited during the Calabrian. This ancientcarbonate platform is rimmed by at least fouruplifted marine terraces that have been consid-ered younger than 330 ka (Villemant & Feuillet,2003; Feuillet et al., 2004).

A B

BasseTerre

Grande Terre

La Désirade

PetiteTerre

MarieGalante

Guadeloupe Plateau

Marie Galante Basin

La Désirade Valley

?

?

10km

- 50

m

Sombrero Saint Martin

Saint Barthélémy

Anguilla TintamarreLa Simonière core

Fig. 2. (A) Location of the Guadeloupe Archipelago in the Lesser Antilles arc. (B) The Guadeloupe Archipelago.


1428 J-J. Cornee et al.

METHODS

In this study of the limestones of Grande-Terre,21 sections were measured, photographed andsampled and four cliff areas were mapped(Fig. 3). Cores La Simoniere and Jarry were alsoused (Fig. 3). These sections are correlated on the

basis of lithological characteristics, marker sur-faces, facies associations and available or newbiostratigraphic data based on planktonic forami-nifera and calcareous nannoplankton.

In the present study, 10 sections are describedin detail as they provide sufficient information todescribe the depositional model. The Vigie-

N

100 80 60 40 20 0

16° 20

16°15

16° 25

16°30

61°30 61°25 61°20 61°15

Normal faults

Elevation in metres

Les Grands-Fonds

5 Km

Northern Plateaus

Eastern Plateaus

Le Moule

Pointe-à-Pitre

Port-Louis

Grippon plain

Poucet

Abymes Papinquarry

Vigie

St FrançoisDelairquarries

La Simonière

Blonval

Gascon

Elie Anse-à-l'Eau

Porte d’enfer du Moule

Cocoyer

Pistolet

SectionSectiondescribedin the textDrilling

Jarry

Fig. 3. Map showing locations of the investigated sections in Grande-Terre (modified after Feuillet et al., 2002).

Table 1. Lithostratigraphic formations of Grande-Terre.

Garrabe, 1983;Grande-Terre

Andreieff et al. (1989)La Simoniere core

Leticee et al. (2005); Leticee (2008)Grande-Terre

Calcaires a polypiers Unit u4 Calcaires a AcroporaCalcaires a Agaricia

Calcaires superieurs a rhodolithes Unit u3 Calcaires superieurs a rhodolithes

Formation volcano-sedimentaire Unit u2 Formation volcano-sedimentaire

Calcaires inferieurs a rhodolithes Unit u1 Calcaires inferieurs a rhodolithes



Pistolet and Papin sections provide the oldestdeposits cropping out in Grande-Terre, i.e., the‘Calcaires inferieurs a rhodolithes’. The Abymes,Poucet and Cocoyer sections provide a windowon the ‘Formation volcano-sedimentaire’ and onthe overlying ‘Calcaires superieurs a rhodolithes’.The Anse a l’Eau and neighbouring Porte d’Enferdu Moule sections display the lateral faciesvariations that jointly characterize the ‘Calcairessuperieurs a rhodolithes’. Finally, the Delair,Blonval and Saint-Francois sections exhibit evi-dence of lateral changes within the uppermostpart of the carbonate deposits.

A total of 84 selected thin sections wereexamined for facies analyses. For palaeoenvi-ronmental and planktonic foraminiferal bio-stratigraphic analyses, 28 additional loosesediment samples were wet-sieved (mesh sizesbetween 2 mm and 63 lm). Standard smearslides of these samples were also prepared forcalcareous nannoplankton analyses. The zonalsubdivisions used are from Berggren et al.(1995) for planktonic foraminifera and fromMartini (1971) and Okada & Bukry (1980) fornannofossils. Calibration datums are from Wadeet al. (2011) and Raffi et al. (2006), respectively.Based on field and microscopic observations(semi-quantitative estimate of the relative abun-dance of bioclasts) and palaeontological quali-tative results, 17 facies types have beendistinguished (Tables 2 and 3). The lithologicaldescription is based on the Dunham (1962)carbonate rock classification refined by Embry& Klovan (1971). Each facies is related to adepositional environment according to thezonations proposed by Purser (1980), Tucker(1990), Handford & Loucks (1993), Wright &Burchette (1996) and Pomar (2001). The nomen-clature for sequence stratigraphy is from Catu-neanu et al. (2009).

RESULTS

Lithology

From west to east, the lithology of the studiedoutcrops is presented below.

Abymes (‘Formation volcano-sedimentaire’ andoverlying ‘Calcaires superieurs a rhodolithes’)The Abymes area displays 8 m of polygenic,mud-supported conglomerates (mass-flow depos-its) that characterize the ‘Formation volcano-sedimentaire’ (Fig. 4). Decimetre to metre-sized

boulders of volcanic rocks are embedded in asandy, clayey and ferruginous matrix that lacksfossils. Channels, sedimentary dykes and soft-sediment deformations are present locally. Asharp erosion surface is overlain by 4 m ofrhodolith-rich beds.

Poucet–Cocoyer (‘Formation volcano-sedimen-taire’ and overlying ‘Calcaires superieurs arhodolithes’)The Poucet section is 32 m thick (Fig. 5) of whichthe lowest 2 m comprises rhodolith-rich float-stones to rudstones (‘Calcaires inferieurs a rhodo-lithes’). Rhodoliths are densely present at the topof the beds. The top of the limestone is erodedand displays mollusc borings and karstificationfeatures (Fig. 6). Above this surface (SB1), 7 m ofvolcaniclastic deposits crop out (‘Formation vol-cano-sedimentaire’). At the base are metre-thickbeds of poorly sorted, matrix-supported volcani-clastic conglomerates (debris flow) deposited inerosional palaeo-depressions (Fig. 7). Above,muddy to conglomeratic volcaniclastic depositscrop out; they are arranged in densely bioturbatedbeds infilling palaeo-gullies or channels andcontain scattered rhodoliths (with nuclei ofweathered volcanic pebbles), molluscs (pecti-nids) and colonial coral fragments. Upward,above the last intensely bioturbated volcaniclasticsandy bed, the carbonate content progressivelyincreases (Fig. 5). Between 9 m and 20 m abovethe base of the section, rhodolith-rich floatstonesto rudstones are present (‘Calcaires superieurs arhodolithes’), overlain by a yellowish clayey bed0Æ2 m thick. Between 20 m and 32 m abovesection base, wackestones to floatstones dominatewith isolated rhodoliths and coral fragments(Diploria, Agaricia, Montastraea and Mussids:‘Calcaires a Agaricia’). In the Cocoyer section,located 2 km north of Poucet (Fig. 3), the transi-tion between the ‘Formation volcano-sedimen-taire’ and the ‘Calcaires superieurs a rhodolithes’is well-exposed. Here, the top of the volcaniclas-tic deposits is truncated by a marine planationsurface overlain by rhodolith-rich limestones(Fig. 7).

Papin (oldest deposits exposed in Grande-Terre)The Papin quarry section is 48Æ5 m thick (Fig. 8).The lowest 40Æ5 m of this section (‘Calcairesinferieurs a rhodolithes’) is composed of rhodo-lith-rich packstones to grainstones and is orga-nized into parasequences, 0Æ9 to 2Æ3 m thick.Parasequences are composed of rhodolith-rich



Table

2.

Facie

sty

pes

an

dd

ep

osi

tion

al

en

vir

on

men

tsin

the

red

alg

al-

dom

inate

dfa

cie

s.

Facie

sD

iagn

ost

icfe

atu

res

Bio

cla

sts

an

dli

thocla

sts

Sed

imen

tary

featu

res

Str

ata

lp

att

ern

sD

ep

osi

tion

al

en

vir

on

men

ts

F1:

Mu

d-s

up

port

ed

con

glo

mera

teH

ete

rom

etr

ican

dp

oly

gen

iccon

glo

mera

tes,

iron

-ric

hsa

nd

yan

dcla

yey

matr

ix,

no

foss

ils

Rou

nd

ed

,w

eath

ere

dvolc

an

icbou

lders

up

to1

min

dia

mete

rC

han

nels

,n

ep

tun

ian

dykes

Poorl

yst

rati

fied

,3

to10

mth

ick,

kil

om

etr

es

wid

e

Aeri

al

mass

-flow

tofl

uvia

tile

F2:

Cla

stic

matr

ix-s

up

port

ed

con

glo

mera

te

Alt

ern

ati

ng

matr

ix-s

up

port

ed

con

glo

mera

tes

an

dcla

st-s

up

port

ed

mic

ro-c

on

glo

mera

tes

Volc

an

ics,

rhod

oli

ths,

biv

alv

es

(pecti

nid

s,ost

reid

s,li

thop

hagid

s),

rare

pla

nkto

nic

fora

min

ifera

an

dra

rere

work

ed

cora

lfr

agm

en

ts

Ch

an

nels

,gra

ded

-bed

din

g,

bio

turb

ati

on

at

the

top

of

the

bed

s(C

all

ian

ass

a?)

Cu

rved

,0Æ5

to1Æ5

mth

ick

sequ

en

ces

Lit

tora

ld

elt

aic

F3:

Rh

od

oli

th-r

ich

rud

ston

eC

en

tim

etr

e-s

ized

join

ted

rhod

oli

ths,

gra

inst

on

eto

wackest

on

em

atr

ix,

up

perm

ost

bed

of

ele

men

tary

sequ

en

ces

mad

eof

F4

toF

3su

peri

mp

osi

tion

Red

alg

ae,

biv

alv

es

(pecti

nid

s),

gast

rop

od

s(e

.g.

Str

om

bu

s),

isola

ted

cora

lcolo

nie

s(M

uss

idae

an

dra

reA

cro

pora

),la

rger

(am

ph

iste

gin

ids,

mil

ioli

ds)

an

den

cru

stin

gben

thon

icfo

ram

inif

era

,ra

rep

lan

kto

nic

fora

min

ifera

(glo

big

eri

nid

s),

bry

ozoan

s,ra

revolc

an

icfr

agm

en

ts

Som

ein

vers

egra

ded

-bed

din

gT

abu

lar,

0Æ2

to1Æ5

mth

ick,

severa

lte

ns

of

metr

es

wid

e

Inn

er

ram

pto

pla

tform

,h

igh

-en

erg

y,

dep

thof

ca

10

m

F4:

Rh

od

oli

th-r

ich

floats

ton

eto

rud

ston

e

Cen

tim

etr

e-s

ized

scatt

ere

drh

od

oli

ths,

packst

on

em

atr

ix,

low

er

bed

of

ele

men

tary

sequ

en

ces

mad

eof

F4

toF

3su

peri

mp

osi

tion

Red

alg

ae,

en

cru

stin

g,

larg

er

an

dh

yali

ne

ben

thon

icfo

ram

inif

era

,ra

rep

lan

kto

nic

fora

min

ifera

,biv

alv

efr

agm

en

tsan

dgast

rop

od

s(e

.g.

Con

us)

–T

abu

lar,

0Æ 1

to1

mth

ick,

severa

lte

ns

of

metr

es

wid

e

Inn

er

tom

idra

mp

an

dp

latf

orm

,d

ep

thof

ca

10

m

F5:

Fora

min

ifer-

rich

wackest

on

eto

packst

on

e

Bio

cla

stic

san

dD

om

inan

tp

lan

kto

nic

fora

min

ifera

(glo

big

eri

nid

s),

small

hyali

ne

(uvig

eri

nid

s),

tran

sport

ed

larg

er

an

den

cru

stin

gben

thon

icfo

ram

inif

era

,m

oll

usc

san

dech

inoid

s

–L

arg

e-s

cale

cro

ss-s

trati

ficati

on

,1Æ5

mth

ick

an

dse

vera

lm

etr

es

wid

e

Mid

ram

p,

slop

e

F6:

Sil

icic

last

icw

ackest

on

eto

packst

on

ew

ith

pla

nkto

nic

fora

min

ifera

Wh

itis

hch

alk

ybed

s,abu

nd

an

tm

acro

fau

na

Abu

nd

an

tp

lan

kto

nic

fora

min

ifera

,h

yali

ne

ben

thon

icfo

ram

inif

era

,w

ell

-pre

serv

ed

ech

inoid

s,biv

alv

es,

gast

rop

od

san

dvolc

an

icgra

ins

Bio

turb

ati

on

at

the

top

of

the

bed

s

Tabu

lar,

thin

lam

inati

on

s,0Æ1

to1

mth

ick,

rare

low

-an

gle

cro

ss-s

trati

ficati

on

Mid

toou

ter

ram

p,

toe

of

pla

tform

slop

e

F7:

Pla

nkto

nic

fora

min

ifer-

rich

wackest

on

eto

packst

on

e

Wh

itis

hcla

yey

bed

s,ra

rem

acro

fau

na

Abu

nd

an

tp

lan

kto

nic

an

dben

thon

icfo

ram

inif

era

,an

dart

icu

late

dost

racod

s–

Tabu

lar,

1to

2m

thic

k,

locall

yla

min

ate

d

Mu

dd

you

ter

ram

p,

low

en

erg

y



Table

3.

Facie

sty

pes

an

dd

ep

osi

tion

al

en

vir

on

men

tsin

the

cora

l-d

om

inate

dfa

cie

s.

Facie

sD

iagn

ost

icfe

atu

res

Bio

cla

sts

an

dli

thocla

sts

Sed

imen

tary

featu

res

Str

ata

lp

att

ern

Dep

osi

tion

al

en

vir

on

men

ts

F8:

Sh

ell

ysi

licic

last

icp

ackest

on

eC

oars

esh

ell

ysa

nd

Moll

usc

san

dvolc

an

icgra

ins

Hori

zon

tal

bio

turb

ati

on

Local

beach

rock,

low

-an

gle

para

llel

Fore

shore

F9:

Larg

er

fora

min

ifer-

rich

gra

inst

on

e

Abu

nd

an

tn

um

mu

liti

ds

Larg

er

ben

thon

icfo

ram

inif

era

Pla

ne

lam

inati

on

Tabu

lar,

0Æ2

to0Æ5

mth

ick,

1to

2m

wid

eIn

ner

ram

p,

up

per

shore

face

F10:

Am

ph

iste

gin

aan

dooli

tic

packst

on

eto

gra

inst

on

e

Acro

pora

palm

ata

patc

hes

(F11)

Larg

er

ben

thon

icfo

ram

inif

era

,m

oll

usc

s,ta

ngen

tial

ooid

san

dqu

art

zgra

ins

Cro

ss-s

trati

ficati

on

0Æ3

to1Æ2

mth

ick,

ten

sof

metr

es

wid

eR

imm

ed

shelf

,lo

cal

aeoli

an

du

ne

F11:

A.

palm

ata

bou

nd

ston

eM

ass

ive,

poro

us

lim

est

on

e,

imp

ort

an

td

isso

luti

on

of

cora

ls,

packst

on

eto

gra

inst

on

em

atr

ix

Abu

nd

an

tcora

lcolo

nie

s,m

oll

usc

san

dla

rger

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floatstones to rudstones in their lower part and ofrhodolith-rich rudstones in their upper part. Apronounced erosional surface occurs 18Æ5 m abovethe base of the section (SB0). This surface isunderlain by microcaves and sparse volcanicfragments. Parasequences are composed of redalgal floatstones to rudstones, with an increasingamount of rhodoliths towards their top. Therhodoliths, typically 2 to 12 cm wide, are associ-ated with larger benthonic foraminifera (Amphi-stegina), bivalves (ostreids, Pecten, Chama,Lithophaga and Spondylus), gastropods (Strom-bus, Conus and Oliva) and corals (solitary Mussidsand rare Acropora cervicornis fragments). The redalgae are poorly diversified, as is the case every-where in Grande-Terre. These algae are repre-sented by the genera Hydrolithon boergesenii,Mesophyllum, Lithothamnion, Lithoporella, Litho-phyllum and Sporolithon. The rhodolith depositsshow large-scale trough cross-bedding at intervals33 to 34 m and 38 to 39 m above the base of thesection. In these intervals Neogoniolithon is pres-ent. A major erosional surface, which displays

karstification features (dissolution caves and cal-cite recrystallization), breccias and locally ironencrustations, occurs at the top of the limestones(SB1). The final 8 m of the section are composed ofclastic matrix-supported conglomerates to micro-conglomerates that characterize the ‘Formationvolcano-sedimentaire’. Within these deposits,millimetre to centimetre-sized volcanic fragmentscan be encrusted by red algae.

0

1

10

Calc

aire

s su

périe

urs

à rh

odol

ithes

TS

Facies F3:Rhodolith-rich rudstone

Formationsm

Volc

ano-

sédi

men

taire

Facies F1: Mud-supportedconglomerate

TS: Transgressionsurface

Soft deformation

Fig. 4. Abymes section. Mud-supported conglomeratesof the continental ‘Formation volcano-sedimentaire’ areoverlain by marine deposits of the ‘Calcaires superieursa rhodolithes’.

01

10

Calc

aire

s in

férie

urs

à rh

odol

ithes

20

SB1

First coral colonies

TS

Facies F2: Clastic matrix-supported conglomerate

Facies F3: Rhodolith-richrudstone

Facies F4: Rhodolith-richfloatstone to rudstone

SB: Erosionalsurface

Calc

aire

s su

périe

urs

à rh

odol

ithes

Ca

lcai

re à

Aga

ricia

Samples Formations

30m

Volc

ano-

sédi

men

taire

Facies F1: Mud-supportedconglomerate

Facies F8: Shelly siliciclasticpackstone

Facies F12: Montastraeabindstone

TS: Transgressionsurface

Bioturbation

Microfossils

PL5

BIO

ZON

E

Fig. 5. Poucet section. The section displays depositsfrom the uppermost ‘Calcaires inferieurs a rhodolithes’to the ‘Calcaires a Agaricia’.



Vigie-Pistolet (oldest to youngest depositsexposed in Grande-Terre)The Vigie section is 64 m thick (Fig. 9). Thelowest 33 m of the section is composed of rhodo-lith-rich wackestones/floatstones and rudstones,

organized into parasequences decimetres tometres thick. A poorly developed erosionalsurface, nearly parallel to bedding, occurs 15 mabove the base of the section (SB0). It is located atthe top of the first ochre bed of Garrabe (1983).Between 32 m and 33 m above the base of thesection, floatstones yield volcanic fragmentsabove an undulated and locally microkarstifiedsurface (SB1). This bed corresponds to the secondochre bed of Garrabe (1983) that correlates withthe ‘Formation volcano-sedimentaire’. Between34 m and 44 m above the base of the section,well-bedded rhodolithic wackestones are ex-posed. These deposits contain sparse volcanicand coral fragments and correlate with the‘Calcaires superieurs a rhodolithes’. The elemen-tary sequences are metre-thick and do not displayany internal, major biological change. Coral-richbeds, corresponding to the ‘Calcaires a Agaricia’and dominated by Agaricia, Montastraea andDiploria, occur between 44 m and 58 m abovethe base of the section. Between 58 m and 64 mabove the base of the section, bioclastic lime-stones with debris of Acropora palmata, Diploriaand Montastraea colonies dominate; they corre-

Red-algal limestone

Erosional surface

NWSE

Recent karst

Dissolutioncaves

2 m

Soil

Conglomerate with volcanic elements

Fig. 6. SB1 erosional surface in Les Grands Fonds area(Besson). The Calcaires inferieurs a rhodolithes iseroded and karstified. The overlying ‘Formationvolcano-sedimentaire’ comprises decimetre-sizedvolcanic fragments.

01

10

Calc

aire

s in

f.à

rhod

olith

es

SB1




SB: Erosional surface

Calc

aire

s su

p.à

rhod

olith

es

Volc

ano-

sédi

men

taire

TS: Transgressive surface BioturbationMicrofossils

PL5

BIO

ZON

E

mFormations

SW NE

TS

Calcaires supérieursà rhodolithes

Volcano-sédimentaire

Not

on

the

phot

ogra

ph

TS

Fig. 7. Transgression surface over the ‘Formation volcano-sedimentaire’ in Les Grands Fonds area, Cocoyer. Littoraldeposits of the ‘Formation volcano-sedimentaire’ are overlain by inner ramp deposits of the ‘Calcaires superieurs arhodolithes’.



spond to the ‘Calcaires a Acropora’. The connec-tions between the three uppermost formations aredifficult to investigate in the Vigie sectionbecause the outcrops here are located mainly ininaccessible cliffs. However, the upper part of thesection (upper 36 m) crops out extensively in theneighbouring Anse Pistolet Bay (Fig. 3). In the

northern cliff of Anse Pistolet (Fig. 10), the‘Calcaires superieurs a rhodolithes’ are composedof elementary sequences with red algae in theirlower part and Porites colonies in their upperpart. The top of this formation progressivelychanges into Agaricia-rich limestones. The topof the Agaricia-rich limestones corresponds to anerosion surface with metre-long undulations(SB2). The truncation of the underlying bedsindicates an aerial erosive unconformity thatformed prior to deposition of the ‘Calcaires aAcropora’.

Delair quarry (youngest deposits exposed inGrande-Terre)The Delair quarry section is 40 m thick (Fig. 11).In its lower part, it is composed of 35 m ofwackestones to packstones and boundstonescorresponding to the ‘Calcaires a Agaricia’.Depending upon the area, the bioclastic lime-stones contain isolated coral colonies (mainlymetre-wide Diploria colonies), coral biostromes(dominated by Agaricia colonies) and disc-shaped corals (mainly Montastraea colonies),embedded in a muddy matrix. The uppermostpart of the quarry displays patch reefs, 3 to 10 min height, composed of Acropora, Porites, Mon-tastraea, Diploria and scarce Agaricia colonies,as well as abundant reef fauna (for example,Oliva, Strombus, Cypraea and oysters). The topof these limestones is truncated by a weaklyundulated erosion surface exposed in the north-western part of the quarry. Southward, thissurface deeply erodes the underlying reefs downto 40 m (SB2). The surface is underlain by ahardground and displays subaerial erosionalfeatures (decimetre-wide karstic gullies; Fig. 10)and borings. Above the surface, up to 35 m ofcalcareous sandstones onlap, distally changinginto bioclastic sandy limestones with coral col-onies (Acropora and rare Agaricia). These sand-stones are overlain by 5 to 15 m of coralboundstones corresponding to the ‘Calcaires aAcropora’; they yield abundant thickly branchingAcropora palmata and thinly branching A. cer-vicornis, Porites and Montastraea colonies. Thesecolonies are frequently bored by sponges andencrusted by red algae. The top of these bound-stones is karstified and caves are infilled withweathered volcanic material.

Blonval section (youngest deposits exposed inGrande-Terre)The Blonval section is 17 m thick (Fig. 12). Itslower part displays Montastraea and Agaricia

01

10

Calc

aire

s à

rhod

olith

es in

férie

urs

Vol

cano

-séd

imen

taire

30

SB1

Formation

m

40

SB0

20




SB: Erosional surface

Cross-stratification

Fig. 8. Papin section. The section shows the oldestdeposits of Grande-Terre (Calcaires inferieurs arhodolithes’).



biostromes organized into parallel beds (‘Cal-caires a Agaricia’) truncated at their top by anerosional surface (SB2). Acropora-dominatedboundstones (‘Calcaires a Acropora’) crop outabove this surface.

Saint-Francois (youngest deposits exposed inGrande-Terre)Seventeen metres of limestones crop out in Saint-Francois close to the cemetery road (Fig. 12). Thelowest 2 m is composed of Agaricia and Montast-raea-rich biostromes from the ‘Calcaires aAgaricia’, truncated by an undulated, erosiveunconformity (SB2), which is overlain by 12 mof cross-bedded, oolitic-bioclastic grainstoneswith Acropora patch reefs. The uppermost partof the section is composed of 2 m of bioclastic-oolitic, high-angle dipping, cross-beddedgrainstones.

Anse a l’Eau (oldest to youngest depositsexposed in Grande-Terre)The Anse a l’Eau section is 43 m thick (Fig. 13).The lowest 4Æ5 m of the section comprises whitishwackestones with planktonic foraminifera,pectinids, gastropods and echinoids. Burrowsare frequent and flat, decimetre-long hummockycross-stratifications occur. These wackestones areoverlain by a sharp, well-lithified and undulatedsurface parallel to bedding (SB1) and 2 m ofvolcaniclastic and carbonate deposits. The volca-niclastic deposits comprise fine-grained greenishbeds that rest on the well-lithified surface(Fig. 14). The carbonate beds are heavily bur-rowed; they contain fragments of gastropods,echinoids (Scutella and Cidaris), bivalves(Pecten), planktonic foraminifera and euhedralplagioclase crystals (0Æ1 to 0Æ3 mm). The top ofthese carbonate deposits is delineated by a hard-

Fig. 9. Vigie section, field of view is to the west. The section is the most complete of Grande-Terre, from the‘Calcaires inferieurs a rhodolithes’ to the ‘Calcaires a Acropora’.



Calcaires à Acropora

Calcaires à Agaricia

Calcaires supérieurs à rhodolites

SB 2Erosionalsurface

36 m

etre

s

W E

Fig. 10. View of the northern cliff of Anse Pistolet. The ‘Calcaires superieurs a rhodolithes’ comprises some coralbindstones (Porites). The overlying formation contains coral boundstones. Coral biostromes display low-angle cross-bedding in the ‘Calcaires a Agaricia’.

Agaricia-richboundstones

Acropora -rich boundstonesand floatstones

Onlapping silicipackestone F8

Downlap surface

F11

N S

F17

SB2

10 m

Erosional unconformity SB2

30

20

10

0

40

CalcairesàAgaricia

Calcairesà Acropora

Formations SB3

SB: Sequence boundary (erosional surface)

Facies F8: Shelly siliciclastic packestone

Facies F 17: Agaricia-Montastraea-Diploria framestone

Facies F 11: Acropora palmata boundstone

m


CalcairesàAgaricia

Fig. 11. View of the southern part of the Delair quarry. Left: detailed field view of the southern part of the quarrywith erosion on top of the ‘Calcaires a Agaricia’ (SB2); note the onlap of the ‘Calcaires a Acropora’ on SB2. Right:synthetic succession of the quarry.



ground with abundant iron crusts (Fig. 14), bor-ings and encrusting organisms (serpulid wormsand oysters). Above the hardground, the ‘Calcairessuperieurs a rhodolithes’ are represented by 22 mof bioclastic limestones (Fig. 13). The lowest 15 mof this formation is composed of coarse-grainedwackestones to packstones with larger benthonicforaminifera and red algae. The lowermost bedscontain euhedral plagioclase crystals (0Æ2 to0Æ5 mm). These limestones exhibit 1 to 3 m highand 3 to 6 m wide cross-stratification sets. Theuppermost 7 m of the ‘Calcaires superieurs arhodolithes’ are composed of wackestones topackstones with abundant red algae (rhodoliths)with a marker coquina bed (accumulation ofpectinids) near the top of the formation. Some15 m of ‘Calcaires a Agaricia’ crop out above the‘Calcaires superieurs a rhodolithes’; they arecomposed of coral biostromes (bindstones andmassive colonies, dominated by Montastraea ann-ularis and Diploria) and larger benthonic foramin-ifer-rich (dominantly Amphistegina) packstonesand grainstones. Some oyster and pectinid accu-mulations can also be observed. The top of theformation is undulated (SB2). The uppermost 2 mof the section contain Acropora fragments in aforaminifer-rich packstone and correspond to the‘Calcaires a Acropora’. The Porte d’Enfer du

Moule section, which is located 2 km to thenorth-west, displays a rather similar succession.

Biostratigraphy

Among the 28 loose sediment samples that weretreated for calcareous plankton biostratigraphy,25 yielded planktonic foraminifera and only oneyielded nannofossils. Because preservation of theplanktonic foraminifera and nannofossils is poorto moderate, micropalaeontological analyses arebased on a complete inventory of species withinthe samples, in order to better characterize theoccurrence of stratigraphically significant taxa.

In the ‘Formation volcano-sedimentaire’ and inthe lowermost part of the ‘Calcaires superieurs arhodolithes’, five samples from the Poucet sectionand four from the Cocoyer section (see Figs 5 and7, respectively) yielded identical planktonic fora-miniferal assemblages that point to Zone PL5. Theoccurrence of Menardella miocenica and theabsence of Dentoglobigerina altispira (Berggrenet al., 1995; Wade et al., 2011) are characteristicof the upper Piacenzian to lower Gelasian. Theseassemblages include Candeina nitida, Globigerinabulloides, Globigerinella siphonifera, Globigeri-noides conglobatus, Gs. extremus, Gs. fistulosus,Gs. obliquus, Gs. quadrilobatus, Gs. ruber, Gs.sacculifer, Globoturborotalia woodi, Menardellaexilis, M. menardii, M. miocenica, Neogloboquad-rina acostaensis, N. humerosa, Orbulina universa,Sphaeroidinella dehicens, Truncorotalia crassa-formis and T. tosaensis.

In the Anse a l’Eau section (Fig. 13), within thewackestones located below the lowermost hard-ened surface, as well as within the packstoneslocated between this surface and the hardground,an abundant and diversified assemblage of plank-tonic foraminifera occurs. This assemblageincludes Candeina nitida, Globigerinella siphonif-era, Globigerinoides conglobatus, Gs. extremus,Gs. quadrilobatus, Gs. ruber, Gs. sacculifer,Menardella exilis, M. miocenica, M. limbata,M. pertenuis, Neogloboquadrina acostaensis,N. humerosa, Orbulina universa, Sphaeroidinelladehicens, Truncorotalia crassaformis and T. tosa-ensis. Together with the absence of Dentoglobiger-ina altispira, the occurrence of M. miocenicapoints to Zone PL5 (Berggren et al., 1995; Wadeet al., 2011) in the upper Piacenzian to lowerGelasian. One standard smear slide from thesedeposits yielded calcareous nannoplankton taxa,including Discoaster pentaradiatus, D. triradiatus,Pseudoemiliana lacunosa, Calcidiscus leptoporus,Cs. macintyrei and Coccolithus pelagicus, which

10

0

SB2: Sequence boundary

CalcairesàAgaricia


Formations

SB2

m

Facies F11: Acropora palmata boundstone

Facies F12-14: Montastraea bindstone,Agaricia-Montastraea-Porites floatstoneand Montastraea framestone

10

0

m

Facies F10: Amphistegina and ooliticpackstone to grainstone

Aeolian deposit

Blonval

St François

Fig. 12. Blonval and Saint-Francois sections. Thesesections show the erosional unconformity SB2 andoolitic deposits in the ‘Calcaires a Acropora’.



together point to Zones NN16 to NN17 (Martini,1971) and CN12 (Okada & Bukry, 1980) in thePiacenzian to lower Gelasian. Above the hard-ground, the analysed samples yielded planktonicforaminifera pointing to Zones PL6 (partim) andPT1a (partim) in the upper Gelasian to Calabrian,based on the co-occurrence of Truncorotalia trun-catulinoides and T. tosaensis (Berggren et al.,1995; Wade et al., 2011). Other associated taxainclude C. nitida, Globigerina falconensis, Globi-gerinita glutinata, Gs. conglobatus, Gs. quadrilob-atus, Gs. obliquus, Gs. ruber, Gs. sacculifer, Gs.trilobus, N. acostaensis, N. humerosa, O. universa,Pulleniatina finalis, P. obliquiloculata, S. dehi-cens, T. crassaformis s.l. and T. crassaformis viola.

Facies description and environmentalinterpretation

Seventeen facies types have been distinguished(Facies F3 to F6 and are illustrated as examples inFig. 15). These facies are organized mainly into

Facies F4: Rhodolith-rich floatstone to rudstone

Facies F11: Acropora palmata boundstone

Bioturbation

Calcaires àAgaricia

Calcaires à Acropora

Formations

Calcairesinférieursàrhodolithes

Calcairessupérieursàrhodolithes

Volc. séd.

Samples

Facies F5: Foraminifer-rich wackestone to packstone

Facies F6: Siliciclastic wackestone to packstone with planktonic foraminifersFacies F8: Planktonic foraminifer-rich wackestone to packstone

Facies F9: Larger foraminifer-rich grainstone

Molluscs

Facies F12: Montastraea bindstone

HGSB1

HG: Hard ground

SB2

SB2: Sequence boundary

PL5

Microfossils

E. PL6-L. Pt1a

m

30 m

Fig. 13. Anse a l’Eau section. The section displays the distal facies of the ‘Calcaires inferieurs a rhodolithes’ and ofthe ‘Calcaires superieurs a rhodolithes’.

Fig. 14. The marker surfaces at Anse a l’Eau. SB1 is awell-lithified surface and on top of the ‘Formationvolcano-sedimentaire’ is a hard ground.



A B C

D E

F G

Fig. 15. Selected lithofacies from the red algal-dominated deposits. (A) Facies F3, red algal-rich rudstone toboundstone, packstone to grainstone matrix. (B) Facies F4, red algal-rich floatstone to rudstone, packstone matrix. (C)Facies F5, foraminifer-rich wackestone to packstone. (D) Facies F6, siliciclastic wackestone to packstone withplanktonic foraminifera. ‘Gb’ Globigerina; ‘Sph’ Sphaerodinella; ‘Txt’ Textularia; ‘Amp’ Amphistegina; ‘En Fm’Encrusting foraminifer; ‘RA’ Red algae. (E) Facies F12, Montastraea bindstones. Arrows point to lamellar colonies.(F) Facies F17: Agaricia–Montastraea–Diploria framestone. Large Agaricia colony. (G) Facies F11: Acropora palmataboundstone. Arrow points to A. palmata.



two different depositional systems, one corre-sponding to the red algal-dominated deposits andthe other one to the coral-dominated deposits.

Red algal-dominated depositional systemFrom proximal to distal, the depositional envi-ronments are as follows (Table 2).

Alluvial fans. Alluvial fan deposits occur solelyin the ‘Formation volcano-sedimentaire’ and arecomposed of boulders and pebbles of volcanicrocks probably originating from an ancient vol-cano that was located to the west (Garrabe, 1983).Facies F1 are mud-supported conglomerates lack-ing fossils. Internal bedding and particle orienta-tion indicate that they may have been depositedin a continental environment. This facies changeseastward into Facies F2, mud-supported andgrain-supported conglomerates filling up chan-nels of mid to distal alluvial fans. These laterdeposits contain typical marine flora and fauna(red algae, pectinids, lithophagids, solitary coralsand scarce planktonic foraminifera).

Inner-ramp environment or shoreface depos-its. Facies F2 to F4: the beds contain abundantrhodoliths that exhibit diameters ranging from 1to 10 cm. The packstone to grainstone matrixindicates high to medium energy. Planktonicforaminifera are rare. Red algal assemblages arepoorly diversified, with various proportions ofHydrolithon boergesenii, Mesophyllum sp., Litho-thamnion spp., Lithoporella, Neogoniolithon,thin Lithophyllum (L. gr. L. pustulatum) andSporolithon sp. The algae usually occur as fora-lgaliths (nodules of coralline algae intergrownwith encrusting foraminifera), or rhodoliths withvarious degrees of bioerosion. Bryozoans are alsocommon in the nodules. The absence of veryshallow-water Caribbean coralline species, suchas Hydrolithon pachydermum, and the abun-dance in the algal assemblages of H. boergesenii,Mesophyllum and Lithothamnion suggest thatrhodoliths formed at palaeodepths ranging from20 to 70 m (67 m is the deepest reported occur-rence of H. boergesenii; Minnery et al., 1985;Minnery, 1990). Considering the presence of rareAcropora fragments and of amphisteginids andmiliolids, usually associated with seagrass mead-ows, Facies F3 (Fig. 15A) and F4 (Fig. 15B)probably were deposited between ca 20 m and40 m water depth. In the inner part of the innerramp, the extent of marine influence on thealluvial system is exemplified by Facies F2.

Mid-ramp environment or lower shoreface tooffshore transition deposits. The mid-rampenvironment is characterized by an increase inmud and planktonic foraminifera. Facies changeinto Facies F4, red algal-foraminifer packstoneswith locally large-scale trough cross-bedding andFacies F5 and F6 (Fig. 15C and D), planktonicforaminifer-rich wackestones to packstones withcross-stratifications, echinoid burrows and hya-line benthonic foraminifera. These facies weredeposited on a low-angle dipping slope underfair-weather wave base. Cross-stratifications wereformed in subaqueous three-dimensional dunes(sensu Ashley, 1990). The depth of formation ofsubaqueous dunes is estimated as three to fivetimes their maximum thickness, or even more(see review by Anastas et al., 1997), indicatingthat deposition took place at depths below 10 m.Bioturbation is frequent.

Outer-ramp environment or offshore depos-its. This environment is characterized by FaciesF7, planktonic foraminifer-rich mudstones. Thebeds display parallel laminations. Bioturbationand burrowing echinoid remains are present.

Coral-dominated depositional systemFrom proximal to distal, the depositional envi-ronments are as follows (Table 3).

Foreshore. Rarely found, sediments from thisdepositional environment are represented byFacies F8, which comprises siliciclastic, coarse-grained carbonate sands with low-angle, parallellamination locally cemented as beachrock. FaciesF8 can change rapidly to siliciclastic carbonateswith coral colonies towards the basin.

Rimmed shelf. Facies F11, Acropora palmata-dominated boundstones (Fig. 15G), locally restupon Facies F8 and cover the entire Grande-Terreisland. In the eastern part of the island, localplanar cross-stratified beds dipping up to 30� maycorrespond to aeolian, bioclastic and ooliticdunes, laterally passing to Facies F10, ooliticmarine sand shoals between Acropora palmatapatch reefs.

Inner-ramp environment or shoreface depos-its. Several inner-ramp sub-environments aredistinguished. Reefal sub-environments are char-acterized by Facies F12 and F14, Montastraea-dominated biostromes and bioherms and FaciesF9 and F13, various bioclastic deposits. Biostro-



mes are dominantly made of imbricated encrust-ing and centimetre-thick lamellar colonies ofMontastraea (Fig. 15E) and indicate medium tohigh-energy environments. Buildups are domi-nated by dome-shaped colonies of Montastraea,associated with Diploria, Porites and rare Acro-pora colonies. This association suggests a waterdepth of 5 to 25 m in fore-reef position (Gischler,2007). Bioclastic deposits are composed of grain-stones with larger benthonic foraminifera. Othersediments are Facies F13, floatstones partly com-posed of fragments of various corals (Agaricia,Montastraea, Porites and Diploria) associatedwith red algae and benthonic foraminifera, indic-ative of coral buildups in the vicinity.

Mid-ramp environment or lower shoreface tooffshore transition deposits. Bafflestones arerepresented mainly by Acropora cervicornis bio-stromal to lenticular buildups formed under fair-weather wave action, in fore-reef position. FaciesF17, framestones with bioherms up to 15 m high,is dominated by Agaricia (colonies up to 0Æ3 mhigh; Fig. 15F) associated with dome-shapedMontastraea and Diploria colonies and rareA. cervicornis. Facies F16, coral-dominated float-stones, were deposited between bioherms.

DISCUSSION

Temporal interpretation of the deposits fromGrande-Terre

Planktonic foraminiferal assemblages found insamples from the Poucet, Cocoyer and Anse al’Eau sections, based on bioevent calibrations byWade et al. (2011), allow age estimations to bemade for several of the outcropping formations inGrande-Terre. In the Poucet-Cocoyer section,Menardella miocenica [first appearance datum(FAD) = 3Æ77 Ma; last appearance datum (LAD) =2Æ39 Ma] and Truncorotalia tosaensis [FAD =3Æ2 Ma (Chaisson & d’Hondt, 2000); LAD = 0Æ61 Ma]co-occur within sediments attributed to plank-tonic foraminiferal Zone PL5. Together with theabsence of Dentoglobigerina altispira (LAD =3Æ13 Ma) and Menardella multicamerata (LAD =2Æ99 Ma), this result indicates that the ‘Formationvolcano-sedimentaire’ was deposited during theLate Piacenzian to Early Gelasian, between2Æ99 Ma and 2Æ39 Ma (Wade et al., 2011). Asimilar time span is found for deposition of theuppermost part of the ‘Calcaires inferieursarhodolithes’ in the Anse a l’Eau section (Fig. 13)

and the lowermost part of the ‘Calcaires superi-eurs a rhodolites’ in the Poucet section (Fig. 5).Finally, in the Anse a l’Eau section, Truncorotaliatruncatulinoides (FAD = 1Æ93 Ma), Pulleniatinafinalis (FAD = 2Æ05 Ma) and Neogloboquadrinaacostaensis (LAD = 1Æ58 Ma; Lourens et al., 2004)co-occur in deposits found above the hardground(Fig. 14), which are correlated to Zones PL6(partim) to PT1a (partim). These co-occurrencesindicate that sedimentation in the outer ramprenewed during the Late Gelasian to Early Cala-brian, between 1Æ93 Ma and 1Æ58 Ma.

Based on correlations with the reference sectionof the La Simoniere core (Andreieff et al., 1989),it is suggested that deposition of the ‘Calcairesinferieurs a rhodolithes’ started during the LateZanclean, between 4Æ36 Ma and 3Æ85 Ma (ZonePL2). In accordance with Andreieff et al. (1989),the following conclusions may be drawn: (i)deposition of this formation ended during theLate Piacenzian–Early Gelasian, between 2Æ98 Maand 2Æ39 Ma (Zone PL5); (ii) deposition of the‘Formation volcano-sedimentaire’ occurred dur-ing the same interval as the uppermost part of the‘Calcaires inferieurs a rhodolithes’; and (iii) coral-dominated sedimentation in Grande-Terre beganduring the Early Calabrian (Zone PT1a). In addi-tion, the lower part of the ‘Calcaires superieurs arhodolithes’ appears to be diachronous betweenthe inner ramp (Zone PL5) and the outer ramp(Zones PL6 to PT1a). In the outer-ramp setting,the hardground probably corresponds to a 400 to800 kyr hiatus, whereas no time gap can beevidenced in the inner-ramp setting.

Facies architecture and palaeoenvironmentalreconstruction

The analysis of facies associations along a broadlywest–east profile provides the basis for a palaeo-environmental model for the three depositionalsystems (Fig. 16). In the red algal-dominatedunits (‘Calcaires inferieurs a rhodolithes’, ‘For-mation volcano-sedimentaire’ and ‘Calcaires sup-erieurs a rhodolithes’), deposition took place on aramp with, from proximal to distal environments(Fig. 16A): (i) fluviatile to deltaic foreshore(Facies F1 and F2); (ii) inner-ramp, redalgal-dominated (Facies F3); (iii) mid-ramp, redalgal-dominated (Facies F4); and (iv) mid to outerramp, foraminifer-rich (Facies F5 to F7). Withinthe ‘Calcaires inferieurs a rhodolithes’, the depo-sitional environments change from inner to mid-ramp settings in the west to outer-ramp settings tothe east. Within the inner–mid ramp settings, as



suggested by the red algal assemblages, the palaeo-environmental conditions remained mostly sim-ilar during deposition despite the cyclic aspect ofthe beds (Cocoyer, Papin and Vigie sections).Outer-ramp environments have been found in theAnse a l’Eau section but were also described fromthe La Simoniere core (Garrabe & Andreieff, 1988;Andreieff et al., 1989). Thus, a rapid deepeningtrend is inferred at the transition between theGrands Fonds/Plateaus du Nord and Plateaus del’Est areas; this indicates that the ramp wasdistally steepened. Relative sea-level changes

are also evidenced by subaerial erosion surfaces.Within inner to mid-ramp settings, two subaerialerosion surfaces can be identified: one locatedwithin the ‘Calcaires inferieurs a rhodolithes’(namely SB0; Papin and Vigie sections), andanother one located at its top (namely SB1;Poucet, Papin, and Vigie sections). In all settings,an abrupt change in sedimentation is recordedabove SB1, with the deposition of continent-derived sediments of the ‘Formation volcano-sedimentaire’. From west to east, continentalalluvial fans (Abymes and Poucet section) later-

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Fig. 16. Distribution of the facies types: (A) ‘Calcaires inferieurs a rhodolithes’, ‘Calcaires superieurs a rhodolithes’and ‘Formation volcano-sedimentaire’; (B) ‘Calcaires a Agaricia’; (C) ‘Calcaires a Acropora’.



ally and vertically change into inner to mid-rampenvironments (Poucet, Papin and Vigie sections),and further east into outer-ramp settings (Anse al’Eau section). The ‘Calcaires superieurs a rhodo-lithes’ deposited in inner (Poucet, Vigie) to mid-ramp (Anse a l’Eau) environments during a majortransgression.

The transition from the ‘Calcaires superieurs arhodolithes’ to the ‘Calcaires a Agaricia’ is pro-gressive, with an increasing amount of coralcolonies. In the ‘Calcaires a Agaricia’, foreshoreto backshore facies and offshore facies remainunknown. This formation was deposited on aramp with, from proximal to distal environments(Fig. 16B): (i) inner-ramp, coral-dominated (FaciesF9, F12 to F14); and (ii) mid-ramp, coral-domi-nated (Facies F15 to F17). However, the geometryof this ramp is slightly different from the red algal-rich depositional system. The inner-ramp depositsin the west progressively change into mid-rampdeposits to the east, indicating a homoclinal rampsystem. Within this ramp system, the reef to peri-reef deposits of the ‘Calcaires a Agaricia’ point toinner to mid-ramp environments and exhibit aprogradational geometry. In the Delair section,mid-ramp coral biostromes change upward intometre-high patches, and in the Anse a l’Eausection, mid-ramp coral bioconstructions changeupward into shallow-water foraminiferal deposits.The ‘Calcaires a Agaricia’ displays an overallupward-shallowing trend. The top of the ‘Calc-aires a Agaricia’ corresponds to a major subaerialerosional unconformity (namely SB2).

SB2 is overlain by the high-energy, coral-reefdeposits of the ‘Calcaires a Acropora’ (Vigie,Delair, Blonval, Saint-Francois and Anse a l’Eausections). At their base, retrograding foreshoredeposits infilled depressions prior to coral-reefdeposition (Delair section, Facies F8). To the east,in the Saint-Francois section, Acropora coralpatches are associated with oolitic deposits andlocally with aeolian dunes (Facies F10). Theuppermost part of the ‘Calcaires a Acropora’ isrepresented solely by inner-shelf reef depositsover the entire island (Facies F11). It can bedepicted as a flat-topped platform in a rimmed-shelf setting.

Sequence stratigraphy and palaeogeographicevolution

The biostratigraphic framework, the sedimentaryorganization, the palaeoenvironmental modeland the identification of three main erosionalsurfaces (SB0, SB1 and SB2) and one transgres-

sive surface (on top of the volcaniclasticdeposits and between SB1 and SB2) allow thedefinition of four major sedimentary sequencesthat constitute the carbonate systems of Grande-Terre (Fig. 17). The distribution of the deposi-tional environments in each sequence illustratesthe changes that occurred from a distally steep-ened ramp during the Late Zanclean to EarlyGelasian (between 4Æ36 Ma and 2Æ39 Ma), to ahomoclinal ramp during the Late Gelasian toEarly Calabrian (between 3Æ47 Ma and 1Æ66 Ma),then to a flat-topped platform during the EarlyCalabrian (between 1Æ81 Ma and 0Æ79 Ma)(Fig. 18).

The present-day surface at the top of theGrande-Terre plateaus underlines the definitiveemersion of the island and corresponds to the lastsubaerial erosional surface (SB3). Its age remainscontroversial: Early Calabrian (Zone PT1a)according to Andreieff et al. (1989) or Ionian(270 kyr or 330 kyr) according to Feuillet et al.(2004). Four third-order sedimentary sequencesbounded by surfaces SB0 to SB3 can then bedefined. The ‘Calcaires inferieurs a rhodolithes’ iscomposed of Sequences 1 and 2. The ‘Formationvolcano-sedimentaire’, the ‘Calcaires superieurs arhodolithes’ and the ‘Calcaires a Agariciaa’ con-stitute Sequence 3. The ‘Calcaires a Acropora’corresponds to Sequence 4.

Sequence 1The western part of Grande-Terre is composed ofaggrading red algal-rich limestones deposited atdepths between 20 m and 40 m. The base of thesequence is unknown and its uppermost limit isSB0. This sequence was identified in the GrandsFonds area and along the coastal cliffs of thePlateaus du Nord. Eastward, these deposits passlaterally into poorly known mid to outer ramp,planktonic foraminifer-rich wackestones (LaSimoniere core; Andreieff et al., 1989). The cyclicorganization of these deposits may be related tohigher-order sequences. Sequence 1 is consideredto have been deposited on a mainly eastward-dipping distally steepened ramp, with inner tomid-ramp settings in the west (Grands Fonds andPlateaus du Nord areas) and mid to outer-rampsettings in the east (Eastern Plateaus; Figs 17 and18A). Within this sequence, only the transgres-sive systems tract is observable.

Sequence 2Sequence 2 does not represent a complete sedi-mentary cycle because it is only composed ofaggrading rhodolith-rich beds. It is bounded by



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SB0 and SB1. It displays the same cyclic organi-zation and the same depositional pattern asSequence 1, with inner to mid-ramp settings inthe west changing into outer-ramp settings in theeast (Figs 17 and 18A). Sequence 2 was alsodeposited on a distally steepened ramp with aslope break located between Les Grands Fondsand the Eastern Plateaus. Within this sequence,only the transgressive systems tract waspreserved.

Sequence 3Sequence 3 is limited by SB1 and SB2 andrepresents a complete sedimentary cycle. The‘Formation volcano-sedimentaire’ is bounded byerosional surface SB1 at its base, and by atransgression surface at its top. This formation isinterpreted as a lowstand systems tract. Inland,erosion was severe and the marine/continentaltransition (between Les Abymes and Poucet)shifted eastward (Figs 17 and 18B). Onlappingbeds of the ‘Calcaires superieurs a rhodolithes’were deposited above the transgression surface.These beds display an aggradational–retrograda-tional pattern and were deposited on a distallysteepened ramp (Figs 17 and 18C); they areconsidered as a transgressive systems tract andare capped by the downlapping beds of the‘Calcaires a Agaricia’. It is therefore suggestedthat the boundary between the ‘Calcaires superi-eurs a rhodolithes’ and the ‘Calcaires a Agaricia’corresponds to a maximum flooding surface. Tothe west, the ‘Calcaires a Agaricia’ comprisesinner-ramp reef deposits organized into low-angleeastward progradational beds. To the east, facieschange into mid-ramp reef deposits displaying ashallowing-upward trend. This formation wasdeposited on a low-angle homoclinal ramp, dip-ping to the east (Figs 17 and 18D). It is interpretedas a highstand systems tract.

Sequence 4Sequence 4 is limited by SB2 and SB3. It displaysretrogradational sands in its lower part and isindicative of a transgressive systems tract.Aggrading–prograding coral boundstones, indic-ative of a highstand systems tract, occur above.The boundstones are associated locally withoolitic shoals and aeolian dunes (Saint-Francoisarea). Sequence 4 corresponds to a flat-topped,reefal, inner platform and platform margin thatcovered the entire Grande-Terre Island (Figs 17and 18E).

The change from a ramp to a rimmed platformmorphology can be related to both sea-level and

biological changes. It is coincident with thedevelopment of corals and the demise of redalgae. Corals have a high potential for vertical andlateral growth and the production of bioclasticsediments in tropical areas. Reefs and associatedbioclastic sediments filled the accommodationspace over the previous ramp during a highstandof Sequence 3 (Fig. 17), resulting in a platformmorphology. The overlying Sequence 4 wasdeposited on this platform. The reasons for thechange from red algal-dominant facies in thelower part of Sequence 3 to coral-dominant faciesin its upper part remain unknown. Such a changeis neither related to bathymetric variation(Fig. 16), nor to turbidity fluctuations. Trophiccondition changes can be assumed but they arenot clearly supported: the fauna associated withred algae or corals is scarce and not significantenough (no diatoms and nannofossils, rare bry-ozoans and molluscs). The change from red algaldomination to coral domination is limited toGrande-Terre and Marie Galante Islands. Duringthe Early Pliocene, red algae dominate there, butcorals develop in the neighbouring La DesiradeIsland (Westercamp, 1980; Cornee et al., 2011)and elsewhere in the Caribbean (Kenter et al.,2001; Lasseur et al., 2011). A local phenomenonmay possibly explain this major biological change(local upwelling during the Zanclean?) but noconclusive evidence has been found.

Eustatic and tectonic controls onsedimentation

Deciphering the respective roles of eustasy andlocal tectonics during carbonate deposition inGrande-Terre requires comparisons with otherareas of the Caribbean. Such comparisons remaincontroversial, as most of the Pliocene–PleistoceneCaribbean carbonate systems remain poorlyknown and insufficiently dated.

In Belize, the San Pablo Limestone Membercomprises dolomitic limestones attributed to thePiacenzian to Early Gelasian (3Æ5 to 2Æ5 Ma;Mazzullo, 2006). A major unconformity is onlyreported at their top (‘Belize unconformity’),related to the global sea-level fall that occurredat the end of the Gelasian (Haq et al., 1988). In theBahamas, a subaerial exposure has been reportedat ca 3Æ6 Ma (Reijmer et al., 2002). Contrary toGrande-Terre, there is no major, sudden sea-leveldrawdown reported during the 3Æ2 to 2Æ4 Mainterval. Most of the inner-platform areas re-mained above sea-level during the Gelasian andthe Calabrian (McNeill et al., 1998). In the



Dominican Republic, the carbonate platformoverlying Cretaceous rocks is attributed tenta-tively to the Pliocene to Early Pleistocene(Lasseur et al., 2011). In the US Virgin Islands,poorly dated Pliocene carbonate deposits are partof the bioclastic Mannings Bay Member and of theoverlying reefal Blessing Formation (Gill et al.,1999). Early Pleistocene deposits are not clearlyidentified. Several emersion surfaces have beenobserved, but they remain imprecisely dated andthey were related to syntectonic graben activityduring a general tectonic uplift trend. Finally, inBarbuda, the carbonate Highland Formation isbelieved to have been deposited during the EarlyPliocene (Brasier & Donahue, 1985).

In Grande-Terre, Sequences 1 and 2 only displayaggrading deposits disrupted by SB0 (Zanclean–Early Piacenzian) and SB1 (Late Piacenzian–EarlyGelasian). This observation suggests that SB0 andSB1 have been generated by local tectonic uplifts(estimated amplitude of ca 20 to 30 m), as clearlyrecorded in La Desirade during the Pliocene (An-dreieff et al., 1989; Cornee et al., 2011). Suchuplifts have been interpreted as the result of thesubduction of an Atlantic oceanic ridge under theGuadeloupean forearc (Bouysse & Westercamp,1990). In the Grands Fonds and the NorthernPlateaus, the red algal limestones of Sequences 1and 2 were deposited at a constant depth of ca 20 to40 m; this indicates that subsidence rates weregenerally equal to carbonate accumulation ratesduring the Late Zanclean–Early Gelasian. Subsi-dence rates are difficult to establish precisely,because the ages of both the base and the top of thedeposits are poorly constrained, and because theduration of the hiatuses corresponding to SB0 andSB1 remain unknown. Nevertheless, the Papin,Vigie and Poucet sections show that some 60 m ofrhodolith-rich beds were deposited during the LateZanclean to Early Gelasian, within a time span ofca 2 Ma (Wade et al., 2011). Thus, a minimumsubsidence rate of ca 0Æ3 mm year)1 is estimated.

Sequences 3 (Late Gelasian to Early Calabrian)and 4 (presumably Calabrian) both display trans-gressive–regressive sedimentary patterns, sug-gesting a response to sea-level changes. Basedon information collected from neighbouring is-lands, regional sea-level changes are also sug-gested. In the isolated Marie-Galante platformlocated 40 km to the south (Fig. 3), the Plioceneto Pleistocene succession is quite similar to thatof Grande-Terre (Leticee, 2008). The first 170 m ofthe succession comprises red algal-rich beds(Sequences 1 and 2), which are overlain by twotransgressive–regressive sedimentary cycles (Se-

quences 3 and 4). Sequence 3 is composed of ca10 m of coral bafflestones with Agaricia, Diploriastrigosa, Montastraea and Acropora cervicornis;these are eroded by SB2. Sequence 4 comprisesAcropora palmata-rich reefs. In Barbuda, some80 km to the north, Watters et al. (1991) alsodocumented two Calabrian highstand systemstracts in the Beazer Formation. From the bio-stratigraphic data presented here, the major ero-sional unconformities SB1 and SB2 can becorrelated with the eustatic chart of Haq et al.(1988). SB1 occurred within the 2Æ99 to 2Æ39 Matime span and could thus be correlated with oneof the eustatic sea-level lows Pia 1 or Ge 1 (Haqet al., 1988; Fig. 17). Nevertheless, as previouslydiscussed, SB1 probably originated from tectonicmovements. SB2 was created after the depositionof the youngest dated underlying deposits (1Æ93 to1Æ58 Ma) and could be correlated with one of thetwo eustatic sea-level lows of the Calabrian (Cala1or Cala2; Haq et al., 1988). The present authorsthus suggest that Sequences 3 and 4 can becorrelated with the Ge2 and the following Cala1eustatic cycles, respectively. The correlationbetween SB2 and the eustatic low Cala1 insteadof Cala 2 is suggested because SB2 did notprovide significant karst features, that better fitswith a short emersion. Consequently, the finalemersion of the island could have occurred muchearlier than previously suggested (ca 330 kyr inFeuillet et al., 2004). These last two sequencesmay be related to the onset of glaciations withinthe Northern Hemisphere, and the closure of theCentral American seaway (Haug & Tiedemann,1998).

CONCLUSIONS

Grande-Terre is a key area to understanding theevolution of the Lesser Antilles forearc during thelast 5 Myr because Zanclean to Calabrian shal-low-water carbonates are well-exposed and canbe investigated in detail. The new sedimentolog-ical, palaeoenvironmental and biostratigraphicalanalyses presented here enable recognition of thegeneral sedimentary architecture of the platformand four main depositional sequences.

• Sequences 1 and 2 (‘Calcaires inferieurs arhodolithes’) were deposited during the LateZanclean to Early Gelasian. They display onlyaggrading deposits, with a cyclic organization andwith red algal-rich, inner to mid-ramp deposits inthe west changing into muddy, outer-ramp



deposits to the east. Sedimentation took placeover ca 2 Myr on a distally steepened ramp underlow subsidence rates (‡0Æ3 mm year)1). The rampsuffered subaerial exposure during the Zanclean–Early Piacenzian (SB0) and later during the LatePiacenzian–Early Gelasian (SB1).

• Sequence 3 was deposited during the LateGelasian to Early Calabrian. It is sandwiched be-tween emersion surfaces SB1 and SB2. It corre-sponds to a complete sedimentary cycle depositedon an eastward-dipping ramp. The Late Gelasianred algal-rich deposits changing into muddy outer-ramp deposits constitute a transgressive systemstract emplaced on a distally steepened ramp. Later,Early Calabrian coral reefs and their associatedsediments developed during a highstand on ahomoclinal, very low-angle ramp. The end ofSequence 3 is marked by the generalized emer-gence of Grande-Terre during the Early Calabrian(SB2).

• Although not precisely known, the age ofSequence 4 appears to be Calabrian. Sequence 4corresponds to a sedimentary cycle deposited in aflat-topped platform covering the submergedplateau of Grande-Terre. A typical feature con-sists of an extensive development of shallow-water Acropora palmata-rich boundstones andbioclastic/oolitic deposits at its rim.

Sequences 1 and 2 may be controlled tectoni-cally. Indeed, the relative sea-level falls associatedwith SB0 and SB1 appear to be related to localtectonic uplifts of the forearc in the Guadeloupearchipelago. The overall architecture of these twosequences indicates a relatively low and contin-uous subsidence of this part of the forearc duringthe Zanclean to Early Gelasian interval. In con-trast, Sequences 3 and 4 may have been controlledby global sea-level changes and may be correlatedtentatively with eustatic cycles Ge2 and Cala1,respectively. The definitive emersion of Grande-Terre (SB3) may have occurred much earlier thanpreviously suggested, during the Late Calabrian.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

M. Villeneuve and J.-M. Lardeaux are thanked forhelp in finding funds for this research. G. Conesaparticipated in part of the field work and pro-vided tools for microfacies analysis. The authorsare grateful to B. Pittet, F. Cordey, J. Reijmer,F. Martineau, J.-P. Saint Martin and S. SaintMartin for helpful discussions and field workwith us. L. Marie and N. Pierre provided techni-

cal assistance during field work. This study wasfunded by the CPER Guadeloupe (2000 to 2006)and the DyETI program ‘‘Etude stratigraphique ettectonique de la plate-forme carbonatee mio-pleistocene de l’avant-arc des Petites Antilles’’.The authors are greatly indebted to two anony-mous reviewers for their constructive commentson an earlier version of this manuscript. The helpof Prof. Peter Swart and Dr Dave Mallinson,Editors of Sedimentology, is also gratefullyacknowledged.

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Manuscript received 28 June 2011; revision accepted 8November 2011



Documents

Sedimentology, palaeoenvironments and biostratigraphy of the Pliocene-Pleistocene carbonate platform of Grande-Terre (Guadeloupe, Lesser Antilles forearc)