I 29 .88/3 zOL 1

Nationa l Histor ic Trail Feasib ility Studyand Environmental Assessment

July 200 1

OLD SPANISH TRAIL

New Mex i co Col orado Utah ' Ar i zona Ne vada Cal i fo rn ia

Un i ted Sta te s Departmen t ofthe In te r ior Nat i onal Park Se rv ice

fi g ;

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Na tiona l Pa rk Service thanks the technica l team and o the rs who a ssisted in

the prepa ra tion and review of this document . In the inte rest ofh istor ica l

accu racy, these people gene rously sha red the ir know ledge of the histo ry and

resources of the O ld Span ish Tra il . The pa rticipa tion of these people ha s

impro ved the document and w ill se rvefuture genera tions well .

Nationa l Histor ic Tr a i l Feasib ility Studyand Env ironmental Assessm ent

Ju l y 200 1

OLD SPANISH TRAIL

New Mex ico 0 Co lorado 0 U tah Ar i z ona Ne vada Ca l ifo rn ia

Un i ted S ta te s Departmen t of the In te r i o r 0 Na t i o na l Park Se r v i ce

SUMMARY

The pu rpose of t h i s s tudy i s to eva l uate the feas i b i l i ty and desi rab i l i ty o f des i gnat i ng the Old

Span i sh Tra i l as a Nat iona l Hi s to ric Trai l unde r the s tudy prov i s ions of the Nat i ona l Tra i ls

Sys tem Ac t (Pub l i c LaWe9O—543 , 16 USC 124 1 , et

Pionee red by Mex ican trader An ton i o Armij o in 1829 ,the Old Span i s h Tra i l was a horse and

bu rro pack rou te that connec ted Santa Fe and Los Ange les . In its ear l y years , t rappe rs, s lave rs ,t rade rs , and immigran ts u sed part s or all of the Old Span i s h Tra i l . Othe r var ian ts ofthe trai l

de ve l oped as t rave le rs sough t adequate water , grazi ng , shorte r d i s tance s , smoother te rrai n , and

safe r passage . Ove r t ime ,mu l t i p le ,

paral le l , and i n tertw ined rou te s deve l oped . Many of the se

rou tes fo l lowed o l de r tra i l s deve l oped by Ame ri can Ind ians, and late r fo l l owed by Span ish ,Mex ican, and other Eu ro-Ame r ican expl ore rs .

After 1848 , use of the eas te rn end ofthe t ra i l d im in ished as the Cal i fo rn ia Tra i l to the nort h and

sou thern tra i l s ac ross Ari zona became the primary rou te s to Califom ia . In 1847 , the Mo rmons

in i t ia ted wagon t rave l from Sa l t Lake Ci ty to Los Ange le s . The i r wagon road para l le led or

ove r lapped much of the weste rn end of the Ol d Span ish Tra i l . Th i s wagon road became known asthe Mormon Road , and served as a suppl y rou te for Mormon se t t lemen ts . Many immi gran t s , Go l d

Ru sh prospec tors, and o thers u sed th is rou te as an al te rnat i ve to the mo re no rt he r l y rou tes oftheCa l i forn ia Tra i l to C alifom ia . The s tudy recommends t hat the Mo rmon Road be conside red e i t he r

a separate h i s tor ic rou te or a componen t ofanothe r tra i l , such as the Cal i fo rn ia Tra i l .

The h istory , background , and s i gn i ficance of the O ld Span ish Tra i l have bee n researched and

ana l yzed us i ng c ri te ria set forth i n the Nat i ona l Tra i l s Sys tem Act , w i t h app l icat ion ofNat i ona l

Hi s tor i c Landmark c r i ter ia for nat iona l si gn i fi cance . Th is ana l ys is is found i n the“Ana l ys is of

Nat i ona l Trai l s Sy s tem Act Cri ter ion B”and the

“Othe r Themes Consi de red w i t h Respec t to

Nat i ona l S i gn ificance”sec t ions of the documen t . The ana l ysis de te rm ined that the Old Span i sh

Tra i l i s nat i onal l y s i gn i fican t , w i th respec t to the theme of the Changing Ro le of the Un i ted S ta tes

i n the Wor l d Commun i ty and the topi c ofcomme rce as i den t i fied i n the Na t iona l Park Se rv ice’s

Rev ised Themat i c Framework Trade characte ri zed the most substan t i ve use of the en t i re

t ra i l . It i nc luded lega l and i l lega l comme rc ia l ac t i v i t ies be tween and among var ious e thn ic groups ,and trade i n enslaved Ame r ican Ind ians. Al though the analy s i s de te rmine s a find ing ofnat iona l

si gn ificance , i t a lso recogn i ze s tha t a deart h ofdata ex i s ts conce rn ing many aspec t s of thea l i gnmen t s and use of the Old Span ish Tra i l . Fac tors such as the h i gh l y ari d and forb idd ing natu reof the landscape ove r wh ich caravans on the t ra i l passed , i l legal t rade ac t i v i ty , and theoppo rtun i t ies and dange rs posed by sh i ft i ng a l l iance s be tween tra i l t rave le rs and the d i ve rse

Amer ican Ind ian bands, had a s i gn i fican t impac t on tra i l a l i gnmen t s and use . The ana l y s i s

conc ludes by recommending that i f the Old Span i sh Tra i l become s a nat i onal h i sto r ic t ra i l , t hen a

mu l t idi sc i p l i nary cu l tura l resou rce managemen t program that i nc ludes h isto rica l , archeo logical ,and e thnograph ic i n ve s t i gat i on s shou l d be a v i ta l componen t o f t rai l admin ist rat i on . Wi th respec t

to a numbe r of other h i s tor ic themes and uses t hat we re eva luated , the Old S pan i s h Tra i l is found

to be of state or local s i gn i ficance .

Th i s t ra i l study pre sent s th ree a l te rnat i ves . Unde r the fi rs t of these al te rnat i ve s, Al te rnat i ve A ,the

“

no-ac t i on”a l te rnat i ve , the re wou l d be no fu rthe r fede ra l invo l vemen t , and the rou tes wou l d not

become componen t s ofthe Nat i ona l Trai ls System as a nat iona l h istor ic t ra i l .

Altemative B recogn i ze s the i n terest i n and support for the trai l from groups, organ i za t ions, andpub l ic agenc ie s . In l ieu ofde s i gnat i on of the O ld Span ish Tra i l as a Nat i ona l Histor ic Trai l ,

Al te rnat i ve B propo ses ways to gi ve the pub l i c and Congress add i t i onal Op t i on s for prese rvat i on ,inte rpre tat i on ,

and pub l ic use of the t rai l . Pri vate organ i zat ions and the s tates cou ld i mp lemen t

th is a l ternat i ve . Fede ra l land managemen t agenc ies cou ld part ic i pate usi ng ex i s t i ng au thor i t ies , or

Congre ss cou l d presc ri be add i t i onal fede ra l i n vo l vemen t .

Al ternat i ve C propose s the des i gnat i on ofOld Span i s h Trai l rou te s i n New Mex ico , Col orado ,Ari zona ,

Utah , Ne vada, and Cal i fo rn ia as a Na t i ona l Histor ic Trai l under the s tudy prov i s i on s ofthe Nat i ona l Tra i l s Sy s tem Act . Ifde s i gna ted by Congres s as a Nat iona l Hi s to ri c Tra i l , the Old

Span ish Trai l wou l d be managed th rough cooperat i ve partne rsh i ps w i t h pub l i c agenc ie s , nonprofi torgan i zat i ons, and landowners . The fede ral ro le wou l d be to set and en sure con s i s tent

prese rvat i on , educat i on , and publ i c use programs . There wou l d be l i t t le , i f any,federa l acqu i s i t i on

of p ri vate land . It is recommended tha t au th or i t ie s be enac ted so that land wou l d be acqu i red on l y

from w i l l ing se l le rs .

Al te rnat i ve C propose s th ree pri nc i pa l rou tes for desi gnat i on as part ofthe Nat iona l Hi s tor i c

Trai l : Armij o’s Rou te , The Northe rn Rou te , and the North B ranch . Othe r i den t ified varian t s of

the se rou te s we re s tud ied i n the preparat i on of th i s feas i b i l i ty s tudy , i nc lud i ng the we s te rn fork ofthe North B ranch , the Fi sh lake Cutoff, and the K i n gston Cu toff. The se th ree var ian t s are i nc luded

as part ofthe ove ral l study area and met mos t c ri teri a for Nat iona l Hi s tor i c Trai l des i gna t i on , but

are not recommended for des i gnat i on at th i s t ime , because data i s lacki ng to show t hat they we re

used i n conduc t i ng trade and comme rce be tween New Mex ico and Ca l i forn ia,be tween 1 829

1 848 . Fu tu re i n vest i gat ion s may uncove r add i t i ona l i n format ion on the se variants t hat s hows they

we re used for t rade and comme rce du r i ng the pe riod ofs i gn ificance . Because the se rou te s have

me t all othe r s tudy requ i remen ts of the Nat i ona l Tra i ls System Act, th i s feas i b i l i t y s tudy suggest s

that any legislat ion deve loped to de s i gnate the Old Span ish Tra i l shou l d al so authori ze the

Secre tary to admin ist rat i ve l y add the se t ra i l varian ts to the Nat i ona l Hi s tor ic Tra i l i f suffic ien t

documentat ion i s pre sen ted to ve r i fy the i r as soc iat i on and use .

ii

CONTENTS

SUMMARY i

INTRODUCTION

Pu rpose of the S tudy 1

Nat i ona l Trai l s Sy s tem and Nat iona l Hi s tor i c Trai l s 1

BACKGROUND

De fin i t i on 5

Documen tat ion 5

Hi s tor ica l Ove rv iew 6

Desc ri p t i on ofthe Rou tes 13

ELIGIBILITY AND FEASIBILITY

In troduc t ion 17

Ana l ys is of Nat i ona l Tra i ls System Act Cri ter ia 17

Ana l y s i s ofNat iona l Trai l s Sy s tem Act Cri ter ion A 17

Ana l ysis ofNat iona l Tra i ls Sy s tem Act Cri ter i on B 2 1

Background 2 ]

S tatemen t ofS i gn ificance : Analysis/Conc lusion

Pe r i od ofS ign ificance : Trade and Comme rce

Ana l ysis ofNat iona l Tra i l s Sy s tem Act Cri ter ion C 28

Background 28

Ana l ys i s 29

Integr i ty ofResou rces 30

Feas i b i l i t y and Des i rab i l i ty 3 1

Poten t ia l Partne rsh i ps 36

OTHER THEMES CONS IDEREDWITH RESPECT TO NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE

RESOURCES 49

A rcheo l og ica l and Hi sto rical Resou rces 49

Ethnograph ic Resou rces 62

Cu l tural Landscape s 64

Natura l Resou rces 65

Soc i oeconomic Resource s 68

Landownersh i p and Land Use 70

ALTERNATIVESAl ternat i ve A : No Ac t ion 72

Al te rnat i ve B : Estab l ish the Old Span i sh Trai l Th rough Othe r Desi gna t i ons 73

Al te rnat i ve C : Es tab l i sh an Old Span i sh Tra i l Nat i ona l Hi s to ric Tra i l 75

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCESAl ternat i ve A : No Ac t i on 80

A l te rnat i ve B : Estab l ish the Old Span ish Trai l Th rough Othe r Desi gna t i on s 8 1

Al te rnat i ve C : Es tab l i s h an Old Span ish Tra i l Nat i ona l Hi s toric Tra i l 84

i i i

CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION 88

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 92

APPENDIXESA : Nat i onal Tra i l s S ys tem Ac t 103

B: Exped i t i on Ch ronol ogy B e tween New Mex ico and Ca l i forn ia 1 15

C : Maps 123

D : Se lec ted Wi ld l i fe Spec ie s 143

E : Ex i s t i ng Pub l i c Use Areas 147

F : Agenc ies and Organ i za t i on s Contac ted 149

G : Nat i ona l Park Se rv ice Study Team/Consultants 15 1

ILLUSTRATIONSFi gu re 1 : Trail Traces i n Col orado 3

Old Span i s h Tra i l : Ove rv iew Map 4

Figure 3 : B lue D iamond Sp ri ng , Nevada 48

Em i gran t Pass , Cal i forn ia 79

Cove r Photo : Traces of the Old Span i sh Tra i l across the Mojave Dese rt i n Span i s h Canyon ,Cal i fo rn ia .

i v

INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The pu rpose of th i s s tudy i s to e va luate the feas i b i l i ty and e l i g i b i l i ty ofde s i gnat i ng the Old Span i shTra i l as a Nat iona l Hi s tor i c Trai l unde r the feas i b i l i ty study prov i s i on s of the Nat iona l Tra i l s Sys tem

Act (NTSA, PL 90-543 , 16 USC 124 1 , et Spec i fica l l y,sec t i on 402 ofPub l ic Law 104— 333 , the

Omn i bu s Parks and Pub l i c Lands Managemen t Act of 1996 , adds the fo l low i n g prov is i on to s tudy

sec t i on 5 (e ) of the NTSA ( 16 USC 12440 ) d i rec t ing the Secre tary of In te r io r to study the Old Spani s h

Tra i l :

The O ld Spanish Trai l , beg inning in Santa Fe , New Mex ico , proceeding through Co lorado and U tah , andending in Los Ange les, Ca l i fornia, and the Northern B ranch ofthe Old S panish Tra i l , beg inning nearEspano la, New Me x ico , proceeding through Co lorado , and ending near Crescent Junc t ion, U tah .

Al though not men t i oned in the act, dur i ng its h istor ic deve l opmen t , at least one rou te of the Old

Span i sh Tra i l a l so pas sed th rough northeas te rn Ari zona .

Th is feasi b i l i ty study w i l l be submi t ted to Congress . Any fu ture fede ra l invo l vemen t i n the O ld Spani s h

Tra i l as a Nat i ona l Hi s tor i c Trai l mu s t be based on a spec i fic congress iona l au thor i zat i on .

NATIONAL TRAILS SYSTEM AND NATIONAL HISTORIC TRAILS

The Nat i ona l Tra i l s Sy s tem was estab l ished by the Nat i ona l Tra i l s System Act of 1968

to provide for the ever- increasing outdoor recreat ion needs ofan e x panding popu lat ion and to promote thepreservat ion of, pub l ic access to , trave l w i th in, and enjoyment and apprec iat ion of the open air, outdoorareas and h istoric resources of the Nat ion.

In i t ia l l y , the Nat i ona l Tra i l s System inc luded Na t iona l Scen ic Tra i ls and Na t iona l Rec rea t ion Tra i ls .

Na t iona l Historic Tra i ls were added w hen the Act was amended in 1978 . Nat iona l Scen ic Tra i l s are

extended tra i ls for ou tdoo r rec reat ion , such as the Appa lach ian or Pac i fic Crest Nat iona l Scen ic Tra i l s ,wh ich a l so prov ide “

for the conse rvat i on and enjoymen t of the nat i onal l y si gn i fican t scen ic , h i s toric ,

natura l , or cu l tu ra l qua l i t ies of the areas th rough w h ich such tra i ls may pas s .

”Rec rea t iona l use a l ong

scen i c trai l s is intended to be cont inuous, a l l ow i ng un i n te rrupted t rave l from end to end. Nat iona l

Rec rea t ion Tra i ls are t ra i l s t hat mee t prescr i bed cr i te r ia and offe r a var ie ty ofoppo rtun i t ies for ou tdoorrecreat ion i n or reasonab l y acce ss i b le to urban areas . Such t ra i l s can be estab l i shed and maintai ned bynon-fede ra l en t i t ies, w i th the

“nat i ona l” de s i gna t ion con fe rred by the Sec re tary of the Inte ri or, or they

may be t ra i l s on lands admin i s te red by the Secre tary of the In ter i or or Sec re tary ofAgricu l ture .

Nat ional Hi s tor i c Tra i l s are e x tended tra i l s wh i ch fo l low as c lose l y as poss i b le and prac t icab le the

ori g i na l rou te or rou te s of t rave l ofna t iona l h i storica l s i gn i ficance . The pu rpose of Nat iona l Histori c

Tra i ls is“the i dent i ficat ion and pro tec t i on of the h istor i c rou te and its h isto r ic remnan ts and art i fac ts for

pub l i c use and enjoyment . The des i gna t ion of suc h tra i ls or rou tes i s to be con t i nuous, but estab l ished

or deve l oped tra i l s are not nece ssari l y con t i nuous land areas; t hey may i nc lude po rt ions or sec t ion s of

land areas, land and wate r segments, or othe r spec i fic s i te s . Toge t he r , t hese qua l i fy ing ent i t ies form a

cha in or ne twork ofareas that may be inc luded as componen ts of a Nat i ona l Histor ic Tra i l . Nat iona l

Histo r ic Tra i l au thor i zat ion wou l d requ i re fede ral funds for the p lann ing , de ve lopment , research , and/o r

managemen t of the t ra i l and re lated tra i l ac t i v i t ie s . Some ex i s t i ng au thori zed Nat i ona l Hi stor ic Tra i l s

are the Santa Fe , Oregon , Pony Expres s , Mormon P ionee r , and Lew i s and Clark t ra i l s .

The Nat i ona l Tra i l s S y stem Act prov ides for a lead fede ra l agency to admi n i s te r each Nat i ona l Scen ic

and Nat i ona l Hi s tor i c Tra i l i n pe rpe tu i ty , i n coope rat ion w i th a varie ty of partne rs, i nc lud ing other

fede ral agenc ie s , s tate and l oca l agenc ies , Ame rican Ind ians , l oca l commun i t ies, pri vate landowners ,and o the rs .

IfCongre ss au t hor i zes a Nat i ona l Hi s toric Tra i l , a managemen t p lan w i l l have to be prepared to gu i de

the pre se rvat i on and pub l ic use of the t ra i l , as we l l as educat i on and partne rsh i p e ffort s . Ex i s t i ng t ra i l

segmen t s a l ready i n fede ra l owne rsh i p cou l d become the in i t ia l componen ts of the Nat i ona l Historic

Tra i l . Othe r t ra i l segmen ts cou l d be deve loped and protec ted th rough vari ou s mean s , such as

coope rat i ve and ce rt i fi cat ion agreemen ts , easemen ts , and ac t i on s by non-profi t o rgan i zat i on s .

A bas ic Na t iona l Historic Tra i l too l i s the cert i fi cat i on of h i stor ic si te s , segmen t s of the t ra i l , and

i n terpre t i ve s i tes al ong the rou te . Hi s tor i c s i tes and segments that are not on fede ra l land can be

ce rt ified on l y i f the owne rs reque s t such recogn i t i on . A cert ificat i on agreemen t i s de ve l oped be tween

the Nat i ona l Park Se rv ice and the owner . On l y h i stor ic s i tes and t ra i l segmen ts u sed du r i n g the pe riod

in wh i c h the t rai l i s c on s i de red to be nat iona l l y s i gn i fi can t and t hat have a d i rec t and s i gn i fi can t

re lat ionsh i p to the reason s for wh i ch the t rai l i s c ons i de red nat i ona l l y s i gn i ficant are e l i g i b le for

ce rt ificat i on . Ce rt i ficat ion vo lun tar i l y commi ts the owne r or manager to pre se rve t ra i l -re lated resou rce s

and to a l l ow appropriate pub l ic access .

Nat iona l t ra i ls are managed th rough Coope rat i ve partne rsh i ps among pub l i c agenc ie s , non-profi t

o rgan i zat ions, and landowne rs . The fede ra l ro le i s one ofse t t i ng and ma i n ta i n i ng s tandards ; prov id i ng

i ncen t i ves l i ke tech n ica l and l i m i ted fi nanc ia l ass i s tance to partne rs ; he l p i ng to ensu re cons i sten t

pre servat i on , educat ion, and pub l ic use programs ; and managi ng the use of the offic ia l t ra i l logo for

mark i ng and othe r appropr iate purpose s .

Figure 1 : Tra i l traces in Co lorado .

Figure 2 : A n Ove rv iew ofRoutes S tudied

BACKGROUND

DEFINITION

The Old Span i s h Tra i l was primar i l y a horse and bu rro pack rou te be tween Santa Fe and Los Ange les,wh ich deve l oped part l y from a ne twork of Ame r ican Ind ian and H ispan i c t rade rou tes . Al though

primar i l y a t rade th oroughfare ,i t a l so was used by exp l ore rs , t rappers , prospec to rs, and i mmigrant s . In

1847 ,Mormons i n i t iated wagon t rave l a l ong the we ste rn ha l f of the t ra i l wh i le t rave l i n g be tween Sa l t

Lake Ci ty and Los Ange le s . The Mormon wagon rou te rep l ica ted or para l le led the Old Span i s h Tra i l for

most of the d i s tance be tween the presen t-day commun i t ies ofParagonah , Utah , and San Be rnard i no ,Cal i fo rn ia . Jou rna ls kept by Mormon trave le rs prov ide exce l lent i n format ion abou t the Old Span i s h

Tra i l . The se rou te desc r i p t ions are i nc luded as pa rt of the Old Span i sh Tra i l Complex i n th i s document .

Howeve r, the s tudy recommends (see“Pe r iod ofS i gn i ficance : Trade and Comme rce

”

sec t ion ) t hat the

Mormon Road be cons i de red e i t her a separate h i s tor ic rou te or a componen t ofanothe r t ra i l , such as the

Ca l i forn ia Tra i l .

De ta i led maps of the t ra i l are found in Append i x C .

Two ma in rou tes eme rged— the Armijo (Sou the rn) Rou te and the No rthe rn Rou te . The North B ranch of

the O ld Span ish Tra i l t h rough the San Lu i s Va l ley and Gunn i son Ri ve r count ry ofCo l orado and eas te rn

Utah was a var ian t of the Nort he rn Rou te . Fur t rappe rs we re the predom inant use rs of the North

B ranch .

It is comm on l y sa i d tha t the Old Span ish Tra i l was ne i t he r old nor Span ish . The fi rst documen ted

use of the name came from John C . Fremont i n the 18405 , and the name was p icked up and used by

o the rs, pri nc i pa l l y Anglo-Ame r ican trave le rs N ine teent h-cen tu ry Mex ican t rade rs in New Mex ico

refe rred to i t as the "Camino de Ca liforn ia , and Ca lifo rn ios re fe rred to i t as the "Camino de Santa Fe

or the"Camino de Nuevo Mexico . Some t i me s , Angl o-Ame r icans used those desi gnat ions , but not

often . The name “Old Span i s h Tra i l” has come i n to common use and is now cons ide red the appropr iate

name for the t rai l .

DOCUMENTATION

The iden t i ficat ion of the No rthe rn and Armij o (Sou the rn) Rou tes of the Old Span ish Tra i l and t he i r

seve ra l varian ts was based large l y on t rave l d iar ies and mi l i tary e xped i t i on records . The mos t spec i fic

of these accoun ts are Dom ingue z-Esca lante Armijo Orv i l le Prat t Gunn ison

Addi son Prat t Chee sman Hun t ington Macomb and Par ley P

Pra t t

More recent l y, h i stor ians and archeo log ists have s tud ied the var i ous rou te s fo l lowed by trappe rs,t raders, i mm i grants, and mi l i tary e x pedi t ions (for example , see Hafen and Hafen Crampton and

Madsen Sanchez Warren andWa l ke r

In add i t i on to pub l i shed sources, the Spani sh Col on ia l Research Cente r d i d an i n vento ry of gu i des,catalogue s , card catal ogue s , indexes , fi les , compu te r i zed indexes , and data bases in Mex ico Ci ty . The

primary research e ffort concen trated on the Arch i vo Hi s té r i co D i p l omat ico ,Secre tar ia de Re lac ione s

Ex te ri ores , and the Arch i vo Gene ra l de la Nac ién . The work in t hese sou rce s i n vo l ved go ing th roughco l lec t ions and sec t ions that comp r i se seve ra l thou sand vo lumes ofbound documents and l oose l y

co l lec ted manuscr i p ts . Th i s work concent rated on the pe r iod from 1 82 1 - 1848 . A numbe r ofdocumen ts

we re se lec ted from these arch i ves, and a de ta i led exami nat ion of the i r con ten ts con t i nues to the pre sen t .

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

Ame r ican Ind ian groups have l i ved for thousands of years th roughou t what i s now the Ame rican

Southwe s t . These groups deve l oped an ex ten s i ve ne twork of rou tes for t rave l and trade . As w i t h othe r

we s te rn t ra i l s , i t i s l i ke l y that segmen ts of the Old Span i sh Tra i l fo l l ow some ear l ie r t ra i l s and t rade

rou tes . Trade and t rave l a l ong the rou te , or po rt i on s of i t , i nc l uded use by Ute , Pa iu te , Comanche , and

Navaj o peop les .

In 1769 , Spa i n es tab l i shed se t t lemen ts i n sou the rn Ca l i fo rn ia to preven t ongo i ng Russian and Engl i s h

encroachmen ts . Supp l y i ng these se t t lement s by sea was d i ffi cu l t because ofun favo rab le w i nds and

ocean cu rren ts . The fi rs t land rou te t o sou the rn Ca l i forn ia was ex tended from La Paz i n Baja,

Ca l i fo rn ia,to San D iego i n 1769 . In 1775 and 1776, Juan Bau t i sta de Anza led se t t lers north i n to

Ca l i fo rn ia from Sonora, Mex ico .

Spai n a l so was i n te rested i n es tab l i sh i ng aviab le ove r land l i n k be tween her nort hern ho ld i ngs i nCa l i fo rn ia andNew Mex ico . Part s of what wou l d become the Old Span ish Tra i l we re exp l ored from the

west when Fathe r Franc i sco Hem iengildo Garces set out from the Yuma v i l lages a l ong the Gi la Ri ve ri n sou the rn Ari zona to exp l ore a path to the Ca l i forn ia mi ss i on s begi nn i ng i n 1774 . To get there ,

Garcés t rave led nort h to the friend l y Mojave v i l lage s a long the Colorado Ri ve r . There , he was offe red

fou r gu i des , who led h im a long i nd i genous t ra i l s to the Mojave Ri ve r . Garcés fo l l owed the Mojave for

seve ra l days , reach i ng M i s ion San Gabrie l v ia the San Bemardino-San Gabrie l Range s . Some ofthe

i nd i genou s rou te s that Garcés t rave led th rough the Mojave Dese rt late r became part of the wes tern

po rt i on ofthe Old Span i s h Trai l .

Span i sh colon ia l i n te rest i n t rade w i t h the Ute s began i n the se ven teen th cen tu ry . Feari ng renewed

hos t i l i t ies caused by u nfa i r t rade prac t i ce s , e i gh teen th -cen tu ry Span i sh offic ia l s p roh i b i ted trade w i t h

the Utes . Flaun t ing the law , t rade rs from New Mex ico fo l lowed pat hways to the land of the Ute s . Each

i l legal e xped i t i on i n var iab l y fu rn i shed know ledge of Ute coun t ry . As Span i sh fron t ie rsmen ven tu red

beyond western Co l orado , they learned d i ffe ren t ways t o get t o the Great Bas i n . Late r, the more

expe r ienced se rved as gu i de s on offi c ia l exped i t ions to we ste rn Col orado and Utah .

Three offic ia l l y sanc t ioned exped i t i on s from New Mex ico i n to Ute coun try , composed part ia l l y ofmenwho had pre v ious l y t raded i l lega l l y w i t h the Utes, reflec ted renewed Span i sh i n te re s t i n Ute coun try . In

1765 , Juan Maria Anton i o Ri ve ra led two part ie s to exp l ore sou t hwe s te rn Co l orado and sou theas tern

Utah . Ele ven years late r, i n 1776 , a t h i rd o ffic ia l exped i t i on le ft San ta Fe fo l l ow i n g Ri ve ra’

s rou te to

the Uncompahgre Pla teau and beyond to the Great Bas i n i n wes tern Utah . Th is exped i t i on,led by two

Franc i scan prie st s , Franc isco Atanas i o Dom inguez and Franc i sco S i l ve s t re Velez de Esca lante ,was

i n tended to estab l i s h a rou te be tween San ta Fe andMonte re y i n Ca l i fo rn ia . Al though the i r exped i t i on

fai led i n i ts objec t i ve to reach the coas t of the Pac ific Ocean , t hey succeeded i n prov i d i ng more

i n format i on abou t the inte ri or land and its people .

In the m id- 18205 , Hi span ic New Mex icans and Anglo-Ame ri cans e x panded the i r t rade i n Ute count ry .

Angl o-Amer ican fur t rappe rs , i n part icu lar , we re inte re s ted i n mee t i n g Eu ropean demand for beave r

hat s w i t h new sou rce s offur i n the Rocky Moun ta i n s . Wh i le t rapp ing for beave r, the se men exp lored

the region . In 1825- 1 826 Anto ine Rob idoux bu i l t Fort Uncompahgre (Fort Rob idoux) near present-dayDe l ta, Colorado . Th i s fort was a cen tra l i zed t rad i ng area w he re var ious Ind ian groups brough t fu rs to

t rade ; these furs we re t hen transpo rted to San ta Fe or Ben t’s O l d Fo rt ove r rou te s that late r became part

of the Old Span i sh Tra i l . Rob idoux late r bu i l t ano the r fur- t rade post , Fo rt U intah , in northeaste rn Utah .

Occas i ona l l y , the No rth B ranch of the Old Span ish Tra i l was used to supp l y the se t rad i ng post s .

In late summe r of 1826 Jeded iah S . Smi th led a sma l l party of t rappe rs we s tward from the rende zvousat Cache Va l ley , Utah , u t i l i z i ng port ions ofwha t wou l d become the Old Span i sh Tra i l as he headed

sou t hwest toward Ca l i forn ia . Afte r w inte ri ng among the ca lifornios, Smi t h and some of h i s party made

t he i r way to the 1 827 rendezvous at Bear Lake near the Utah— Idaho boundary . Leav i ng that rendezvous

i n Ju l y . Sm i t h aga in headed for Ca l i fo rn ia , gene ral ly re t rac i ng h i s s teps ofa year be fore , but th i s t ime

seve ra l of h i s men d ied i n a bl oody c lash w i t h Mojave Ind ians when they at tempted to cros s the

Co lorado Ri ve r at a Mojave v i l lage .

B egi nn ing in the 18205 , seve ra l groups of fur t rappe rs made t he i r way from New Mex ico to Ca l i fo rn ia

v ia var i ou s rou tes th rough Arizona . Col lec t i ve l y , these rou te s are some t i mes ca l led the Gi la Rou tebecause mos t t rave lers t rapped a long the Gi la Ri ve r en rou te . In 1827 , Richard Campbe l l led 3 5 men to

San D iego . Wh i le i t i s some t ime s assumed that he wen t sou th a l ong the Gi la, he late r remembe red

tak ing a more northe rl y rou te us i ng the Cross i ng of the Fat he rs and then go ing no rt h of the Grand

Canyon . In 1827 , Sy l ves ter Pat t ie led a group a l ong the Gi la to Baja Ca liforn ia ,whe re they we re

imprisoned by Mex ican offi c ia l s and taken to San D iego . Two membe rs of t h i s party , Isaac S l ove r and

Wi l l iam Pepe , escaped and re tu rned to New Mex ico . They late r fo l lowed the Old Span i sh Tra i l to l i vei n Ca l i fo rn ia . Ew i n g Young led a group that inc luded Kit Carson— v ia Zun i and the Sal t Ri ve r and then

trapped a l ong the V i rgin Ri ve r in Utah before head ing to Ca l i forn ia in 1830 . Some membe rs of t hese

groups , as we l l as membe rs ofothe r groups t rave l ing v ia sou the rn rou te s , s tayed i n Ca l i fo rn ia .

In 1829 , Mex ican t rade r Anton io Armij o departed from Ab iqu iri i n command ofa comme rc ia l caravan

of60 men . Arm ij o succe s s fu l l y estab l i shed a rou te to Los Ange le s , w he re he t raded serape s and othe r

New Mex ican goods for horses and mu les . Fo l l ow ing known Ame r i can Ind ian and Span i sh pa t hs,Arm ij o t rave led west t h rough Navaj o and Pa iu te terr i to ry , and fo rded the Col orado Ri ve r at the

Cross i ng of the Fat he rs— an i nd igenous c ross i ng used by Domin guez and Esca lan te in 1776 . Thence ,

Armij o genera l ly fo l lowed the pre sen t s tate boundary be tween Ari zona and Utah un t i l he reached theV i rgi n Ri ve r . From the V i rg in Ri ve r , based on the adv ice from his gu i de , he pas sed sou t h of pre sent

day Las Vegas on h i s way to the Amargosa Ri ve r .

W i l l iamWolfskill and George C . Youn t fi rs t e s tab l i s hed the Northe rn Rou te of the Old Span i s h Tra i l

as they passed th rough cent ra l Utah in 183 1 . Wi th a party ofapprox ima te l y 20 men, Wolfsk ill and

Youn t de parted Ab iqu it’

r in the w inte r of 18 30, and wen t to Ca l i forn ia by a rou te t hatWolfskill wou ld

late r descr ibe as be i ng“farthe r north than tha t adopted by the Span iards i n trave l ing be tween Ca l i forn ia

andNew Mex ico .

”The Wolfskill-Youn t rou te headed no rt hwe s t to a c ross i ng of the Co lorado Ri ve r ,

then west and sou t hwest th rough Utah . They re tu rned to the Col orado Ri ve r and fo l lowed i t to the

Mojave v i l lage s , w he re they res ted and fed the i r an ima ls and t raded w i t h the Moj ave . The part y then

proceeded wes t to Los Ange les .

A major variat ion of the O ld Span i s h Tra i l was estab l i shed by t rade rs and t rappe rs using Ame ri can

Ind ian and Span i sh co l on ia l rou tes from San ta Fe and Taos i n to the San Lu i s Va l ley of Co lorado , and

then wes t to Cochetopa Pass and the Gunn i son Ri ver Va l ley . It prov ided a corr i dor i n to eastern Utah .

The rou te t h rough the San Lu i s Va l ley inc luded the ma i n road from Taos and a lso a weste rn fork tha t

came i n to greate r use afte r 1848 . The se t rai l s co l lec t i ve l y fo rmed a rou te t hat became know n as the

Nort h B ranch of the Old Span ish Tra i l . In his 1870 book abou t l i fe i n the West , John C . Van Trampc i te s a le t te r he rece i ved from t rappe r , An to i ne Leroux . Le roux ident i fies the No rt h B ranch as ana l te rnate rou te to Ca l i forn ia from Taos . Its grea test at t rac t ion to the t ra i l t rave le rs was the Coche topa

Pas s . Le roux reported tha t The re is not much snow i n th i s pass , (the Coochetope ,) and peop le go

th rough i t all the w i n te r . And when the re i s much snow on the moun ta i n s on the Ab iqu i u rou te , (w h ich

is the o ld Span i s h t ra i l from San ta Fe to Califom ia,) the peop le ofTaos go round th i s way, and get i n to

that t rai l i n the forks of the Grand and Green r i ve rs .

As use ofOld Span ish Tra i l segmen ts con t i nued , t rave le rs es tab l i shed nume rou s othe r var iat i ons to take

advan tage ofbe t te r wate r sou rce s and to shorten the length and t i me of t rave l . By 1 848 , t rave le rs had

deve l oped se vera l var iat i on s of the route to the Sev ier Ri ve r i n orde r to avo i d the Saw tooth Narrow s of

Sa l i na Canyon . Anothe r var iat ion , deve l oped late r s t i l l , was the K i n gs ton Cu toff, w h ich led t rave le rs

sou t hwe s t from Moun ta i n S pr i ngs , Nevada, to S i lurian Lake , Ca l i fo rn ia .

As the t ra i l ne twork evo l ved , part l y from ind igenous footpa t h s and part l y from new l y b lazed route s ,i n to a horse and mu le t rai l , and late r i n to a wagon road , seve ra l varian ts we re opened th rough Caj on

Pas s , nort h ofSan Bemardino . Some t raffic wen t ove r Caj on Pas s fo l l ow i n g what is now Cal i forn ia

S tate Hi ghway 152 up to the summi t , and descended i n to the San Bemardino Va l ley th rough the area

now occup ied by the Ca l i forn ia S tate Un i ve rs i ty campus . Howeve r, the rou te chosen probab l y depended

on seve ra l factors , i nc l ud i ng party composi t i on , the amoun t and type of l oad carried , whe the r weathe r was

wet or dry, the t ime ofyear, and the pre sence ofgove rnmen t i nspec tors .

The maj or reason for t rave l on the Old Span i sh Tra i l was t rade be tween New Mex ico and Cal i fo rn ia,

primar i ly by New Mex i can trade caravans, wh ich t rave led be tween San ta Fe and Los Ange le s be twee n

1829 and 1848 . Caravans usua l l y left on the th ree-month j ou rney i n the fa l l , primari l y carry i ng woo len

goods produced i n New Mex ico . The y re tu rned the fo l l ow i n g year , hav i ng traded the i r goods for horses

and mu les .

The s i ze ofcaravan s seems to vary from year to year . Some of the documen ted trad i ng part ies inc lude :

An ton io Sant ie s teban and 30 men i n 183 1 ; José Av ieta and 124 men i n 1 833-1 834 ; José An ton i o

Salazar and 75 men i n 1839- 1840 ; Franc i sco Es tevan V i g i l and 35 men and o the rs (poss i b l y abou t 134

peop le) i n 184 1 ; Tomas Sa lazar and 170 men i n 1 843 ; and Franc i sco Estevan V i g i l and 209-225 men i n

1 847 . Li tt le or no i nformat ion seems to be avai lab le as to the s i ze of the caravan s i n 1838 , 1840 , and

1845 . The re are no annua l t rade caravans iden t i fied for 1 834- 1 835 , 1 835- 1 836 , or 1846 . The re we re

othe r t rave le rs, suc h as Sant iago Mart in,who wen t to Ca l i fo rn ia w i t h 1 5 men i n 1832 for pe rsonal

reasons rathe r t han t rade .

Ove ra l l , the ava i lab le informa t i on on the s i ze ofcaravans , and to a grea te r ex ten t the quan t i ty of

me rchand i se carr ied to Ca l i fo rn ia tends to be vague . The 184 1 V igi l grou p was reported by a

Frenchman , Duflot du Mofras, as con s i s t i ng of200 New Mex i cans and 60 or more North Ame r ican s .

Duflot sugge s ted that the annua l caravans rou t i ne l y cons i s ted of200 men, and t hey re tu rned to NewMex ico w i th abou t horses . Howeve r, the known i n forma t ion as to caravan si ze (see preced i ng

paragraph ) sugges t s that the s i ze ofthe caravan s and the numbe rs of l i ve s tock (see be low) brough t back

varied from year to year . In some years , the documen ted numbe r of l i vestock was more t han tw ice du

Mofras’

e s t imate and in othe rs on l y a frac t i on of t hat amoun t .

The re was con s i de rable lega l t rade i n horses and mu le s be tween Ca l i forn ia andNew Mex ico . Howeve r,data can on l y be found for some ofthe years i n wh ich trade caravans Ope rated . The numbe rs vary from

year to year . Some of the known groups i nc lude Arm ij o ,w i t h 100 an ima l s i n 1 830 ; José An ton i o

Sa lazar, w i t h an e s t imated an ima l s in 1839 ; Franc isco Este van V i g i l , w i th an ima l s i n 1842 '

John Row land , w i t h 300 an ima l s in 1842 ; a group , w i t h 252 an ima l s i n 1843 ; a Frenchman ca l led Le

Tard w i t h 23 1 an imal s i n 1848 ; and Franc i sco Estevan V i g i l , aga i n , w i t h an ima l s i n 1 848 .

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Th i s t rade was i l lega l , hence w r i t ten accoun ts we re se l dom kep t and Offic ia l records are large l y lack i ng .

The re is l i mi ted documen tat i on Of the ex ten t of the i n vo l vemen t OfOld Span i s h Tra i l t rade caravansw i t h the s lave t rade . The ma i n marke t for slave s was New Mex i co , and a numbe r O f t rave lers i n to theUtah coun t ry reported on Mex icans engaged i n slave t rad i ng . Some Ind ian slave s we re taken to

Ca l i forn ia to be so l d .

Hi span i c New Mex ican fami l ie s , Angl o—Amer i can s from the US , and others i mmi grated to Ca l i fo rn ia

on the Old Span i sh Tra i l .

Some New Mex icans accompan ied Ame r ican immi gran ts , such as the Row land-Workman party . Othe rs

accompan ied Mex ican t rade caravan s ; and some t rave led on the i r own . Hi s tor i ca l re ference s maysome t imes on l y re fe r to the numbe r of fami l ie s and not to the numbe r of i nd i v i dua l s .

In 1837 ,J osé Maria Chavez and h i s brothe r Ju l ian Chavez, w i th fami l y membe rs and seve ra l o the rs ,

e scaped New Mex ico by way OfUtah to Ca l i fo rn ia . They had been s i ng led ou t for e xecu t ion for s i d i ng

w i t h Gove rnor A lb i no Pérez , who was s la i n i n the New Mex ico Rebe l l ion Of 1 837 . In Ca l i fo rn ia, they

j oined the rebe l l i on and were cap tu red by gove rnmen t force s under Gene ra l J osé Cas tro . They we re

later re leased . J osé Maria re tu rned to New Mex ico bu t Ju l ian rema i ned , se t t l i ng in Chave z Rav i ne i n

Los Ange les . In 1 83 8 , Loren zo Truj i l l o and six o the r New Mex ican s left New Mex i co for Ca l i forn ia .

En rou te ,Manue l i ta Renaga gave bi rt h at Re s t i ng S pri ngs on the Old Span i sh Tra i l . These e i gh t

i nd i v idua l s became the fi rs t se t t le rs i n the San Bemardino area . In 1839 , 75 New Me x i cans arr i ved inCa l i fo rn ia and se t t led near Ranc ho de San José . Seve ra l groups arri ved i n 1 842 , inc l ud i n g a party Of40

from Ab i qu iu , New Mex ico , who se t t led at Agua Mansa and Politana, and a group Of 19 fami l ie s who

even tual l y se t t led i n San Lu i s Ob i spo . In 1 843 , 10 fami l ies accompan ied the regu lar caravan ; anothe r

10 fami l ie s poss i b l y accompan ied a group unde r J ohn Row land ; and fi ve fami l ie s arri ved at Agua

Mansa i n 1 844 .

Begi nn ing w i t h the Wolfskill-Youn t part y i n 1 830 , a numbe r Of Americans fo l l ow i n g the Old Span i shTra i l a l so s tayed in Ca l i forn ia . Approx i mate l y 28 Ame r ican s (abou t 2 1 adu l t ma le s and e i gh t fami l y

members) are known to have immi grated a l ong the Old Span ish Tra i l be tween 1 830 and 183 8 . Wi l l iam

Pope and Isaac S l over , who led a group i n 1837 , had prev i ou s l y been to Ca l i forn ia v ia the Gi la Rou te .

In 184 1 , the Row land-Workman part y immigra ted on the t ra i l . Most of the 26 men i n t h i s group we re

Amer icans, wh i le se veral we re nat i ve New Mex ican s . Two ofthe New Mex ican s brough t the i r fami l ie s .

Nine membe rs of the Row land party d i d no t s tay i n Ca l i fo rn ia. In 1844 ,Lou is Rob i doux and Jean

Jean te t immigrated to Ca l i fo rn ia afte r t rave l ing w i t h a Mex i can trade caravan , poss i b l y a l on g the O ld

Span i sh Tra i l .

Ame r ican s and othe r fore i gne rs who i mmi grated to Ca l i forn ia engaged i n a varie t y Ofbus i ne sse s .

Al though 1828 regu lat i ons Opened Ca l i fo rn ia t o se t t lemen t by fore igne rs , the re was l i t t le land ava i lab le ,

and Me x ican O ffic ia ls we re not support i ve Ofgran t s to fo re i gne rs . Wi th the secu lar i za t i on of the

mi ss i on s in 1 834 , lands that had been prev iou s l y c losed to se t t lemen t became ava i lab le . In the 1 8405 ,

Mex ican Offic ia ls Opened large amoun ts Of land to pri vate deve l opmen t , and fo re i gne rs we re permi t tedto pu rchase land i n Ca l i fo rn ia . Many became owne rs of large ho ld ings . Abou t one-th i rd Of the land i n

Cal i fo rn ia wen t to Angl o-Ame r ican s . The secu lari zat i on of the m i ssi on s a l so mean t tha t th ou sands Of

Ind ian s from those mi ss i ons we re now avai lab le as a sou rce ofcheap labo r . And an ou t s i de marke t

ex i s ted for produc t s OfCa l i forn ia ranche s , primari l y h ides and tal low . These fac tors set Offa land rush

among Mex ican s and fore i gne rs .

10

Addi t i ona l ly ,people we re drawn to Califom ia as a resu l t Ofnume rou s booste rs who had w r i t ten abou t

the area,begi nn i ng as ear l y as 1 808 w i t h the jou rna l Ofa sea-ot te r trade r , Capta i n Wi l l iam Sha le r ; Ha l l

Jackson Ke l ley ’s 1 839 repo rt to Congre ss ; Richard H. Dana’

s Two Yea rs before the Mast, and o t he rs .

Tale s heard from -fur t rappe rs and the publ i shed words ofh ide and ta l l ow t raders and t rave le rs who

w ro te OfCa l i fo rn ia he l ped fue l the Ame r ican appe t i te for expansi on . Othe rs, such as J oh n Marsh and

J ohn Su t te r , we re a lso ac t i ve i n lur i ng ove r land trave le rs to Ca l i forn ia .

Some Of those who i mmigrated to Ca l i fo rn ia on the Old Span ish Tra i l became i n vo l ved in the Ame ricanunde rground t ha t worked to has ten the takeove r OfCa l i forn ia . Th i s takeove r was gene ra l l y a goa l Of the

var ious boos te rs . J oh n Row land andWi l l iam Workman had been i nvo l ved i n the Repub l i c OfTexas’

fa i led 1 84 1 i n vasion O fNew Mex ico . They became ac t i ve i n annexa t i on ist i n t ri gues, jo in i ng w i t h many ,such as Abe l S tearn s , who we re a l ready i n Ca l i fo rn ia . Bo th , a long w i t h o the r membe rs Of the i r

immi grant part y , were i n vo l ved i n the mi l i tary upr i s i ng i n 1 845 aga i nst Gove rno r M iche ltorena , as we l l

as late r upri s ings .

Soon after se t t l ing i n the Sal t Lake area, the Mormons unde r B ri gham Young began e x pand i ngsou t hward w i t h the inten t ofestab l ish ing an ou t le t to the sea . A se r ies Of se t t lemen ts we re e s tab l i shed i n

the late 1 840s and ear l y 1 850 3 al ong the“Mormon Corri dor ,

” i nc ludi n g Parowan and Cedar C i ty ,w h ich

were near beds Of i ron and coal . In 1852 ,Young sen t a company of300 se t t le rs , who fo l lowed the

wes te rn pa rt Of the Old Span i s h Tra i l to sou t he rn Ca l i forn ia,whe re t hey estab l i shed a c i ty ca l led San

Bemardino . In 1855 , the Mormons bu i l t a fo rt at the si te of presen t-day Las Vegas , Nevada , and ano the r

group fo l lowed part Of the Old Span ish Tra i l to se t t le Moab , Utah . In 1857 , feari ng an i n vas i on O f Utahby the US . Army , the co lon i st s from San Bemardino and othe r ou tpos ts le ft the i r se t t lemen ts and

re tu rned to he l p defend aga i nst the potent ial i nvade rs .

Ove r the years, a numbe r Of mi l i tary groups and exped i t ions fo l lowed port i ons or all Of the Old Span i s hTrai l .

At the fore fron t ofexp lorat ion O f the West was the US . Army Corps OfTopograph i c Engi nee rs— and

the mos t famou s membe r of t hat group was J ohn C . Fremon t . Li ke mos t Ofhis co l leagues, Fremon t was

a fi rm be l ie ve r in man i fest dest iny . Al ready renowned for his ear l ie r e x p l orat ions, Fremont led a w ide

ranging exped i t ion ac ross the West in 1 843 - 1 844 . His primary Objec t i ve was to t rave l from M i ssour i toOregon . When he reached Fort Vancouve r , h i s Offic ia l du ty was done , bu t he chose to head sou th i n to

Cal i forn ia, exp l or i ng a long the way . In sou t he rn Ca l i fo rn ia the exped i t ion p icked up the Old Span i s h

Trai l . It le ft the t ra i l in sou thwe s t Utah , cont i nued no rt h to Utah Lake ,went east a l ong the Ui n ta

Moun tai n s and i n to Co lo rado , sou th to Pueb l o , and t hen eas t back to S t . Lou is . In h i s w r i t ings, Fremon t

refe rred to the t ra i l as the“

Span ish Trai l ,”a de si gnat i on that was p icked up by othe rs,

t hus lead i ng to

the popu l ar name for the t ra i l . Frémont pub l ished maps and de ta i led de sc ri pt i on s Ofthe Amargosa

Ri ve r Var ian t Of the Old Span i sh Tra i l .

Kit Carson carr ied mi l i tary d i spatches on seve ra l t r i ps, some of them al ong the Old S pan ish Tra i l . In

late 1 847 , he carr ied d ispatches we s t a l ong the Old Span i s h Tra i l . In 1848 ,Carson aga i n t rave led w i t h

d ispatche s eas t from Los A nge les a long the Old Span i sh Trai l to San ta Fe and on to Wash ington, DC .

George B rewe rton, who accompan ied Carson, kept an accoun t of the t ri p , wh ich contains some Ofthe

most de ta i led s tor ies Of trave l al ong the tra i l .

Wi th the American takeove r OfCa l i fo rn ia, t he re was a s t rong i n te res t i n comple t i ng a ra i l road

connec t ion to the Pac i fic ,and compe t i t i on be tween proponen ts ofd i ffe ren t rou te s to make t hat

connec t i on . A numbe r Of e xped i t ions fo l l owed vari ou s no rt he rn , sou the rn , and cent ra l rou tes . In 1853 ,

1 1

Congress au t hor i zed a gove rnmen t su rvey of all the pri nc i pa l rou tes under the d i rec t i on O f Sec re tary OfWar Jeffe rson Dav i s , who was to submi t h i s report i n January 1 854 .

Lieu tenan t Edward Fi tzge ra l d Bea le led a group a l ong the No rt h B ranch and t hen down the ma i n O ld

Span ish Trai l to Ca l i fo rn ia i n 1853 . Bea le had been appo i n ted as Ind ian Commi ss i one r to Cal i fo rn ia .

Senator Thomas Hart Ben ton secu red Beale’

s appoi n tmen t and the fund i ng for h i s t ri p . Gw i nn Harr i s

Heap , Beale’s cou s i n and a newspaperrnan,

w rote a w ide l y d i s t r i bu ted accoun t Of the t ri p , wh ich wasve ry favorab le to the rou te t h rough CochetOpa Pas s .

In 1 853 ,Capta i n Joh n Wi l l iams Gunn i son led an exped i t i on to exp l ore a poss i b le 3 8th para l le l ra i l road

rou te acros s Cochetopa Pas s . Afte r en te ring the San Lu i s Va l ley i n Co l orado , the group fo l l owed the

Nort h B ranch of the Ol d Span i sh Tra i l i n to we s te rn Col orado . In Utah , the group fo l l owed part s ofthe

Old Span i sh Tra i l . On Oc tobe r 26 , after leav i ng the Ol d S pan i sh Tra i l , a group from the exped i t i on was

at tacked , repo rted l y by Pa i u te Ind ian s ; Gunn i son and othe rs we re ki l led , leav ing on l y fou r su rv i vo rs.

The mai n party reached the scene two days late r, and Fi rs t L ieu tenan t Edward G . Beckw i t h led t hem to

Sal t Lake C i ty .

Senator Thomas Hart Benton OfMi ssou r i , who was a s t rong proponen t Ofthe 3 8th para l le l rou te for the

ra i l road , secu red pr i vate fund i ng and sen t a su rvey part y led by J ohn C . Frémont beh i nd Gunn i son .

They fol lowed Gunn i son’

s t racks on the North B ranch and con t i nued i n to Utah , fo l l ow i ng part s Of the

Old Span ish Tra i l . En te ri ng the Rocky Moun tai n s i n Decembe r 1 853 , the group encoun te red

d i fficu l t ie s , fo rc i n g them to fi rst wa l k w h i le the an imal s carr ied the i r suppl ie s , and then to cache all but

the i r mos t importan t baggage i n orde r to ri de . Even tua l l y , as the an ima l s gave out, t hey we re eaten and

the i r ri de rs had to wa l k . The t rave le rs su ffe red seve re hardsh i ps and one man d ied . Sol omon Carva l h o ,who w rote the accoun t ofthe t r i p , lost 44 pounds . The part y fi na l ly reached Parowan , Utah . Fre

’

mon t

had a lso led a pre v i ou s exped i t ion i n 1848 for Ben ton exp l ori ng a 38th para l le l rou te for the ra i l road i n

Co lorado , wh ich was not on the Old Span ish Tra i l , and wh i c h ended i n the deat h s Of many Of the partyw hen the group encoun te red se ve re weathe r and heavy snow .

From Novembe r 1857 to January 1 858 , Captai n Rando l ph B . Marcy ’s party Of 40 so ld ie rs and 25moun ta in men t rave led a port ion Of the North B ranch of the Old Span i sh Tra i l en rou te from FortB ridge r to New Me x ico to procu re supp l ie s for Army troops unde r Gene ra l A l be rt S i dney J ohn son , who

was po i sed to suppress a poss i b le i n su rrec t i on in Sa l t Lake C i ty . Marcy’

s group suffe red from seve rew inte r wea the r and lack Of food . Afte r reach i ng Fort Un ion , they Obta i ned supp l ie s and re turned v ia al onge r, safe r rou te .

In the summe r Of 1 85 8 , Co l one l Wi l l iam W . Lo ri ng and 300 men w i t h 50 wagons used part Of the Old

Spani sh Tra i l and the Nort h B ranch to re tu rn from Camp Fl oyd i n Utah to Fort Un i on

Capta in John N . Macomb led an exp lorat ion i n to sou theas tern Utah i n 1 859 . The exped i t i on was

look i ng for a mi l i tary road and seek i ng the confluence Of the Green and Grand Ri ve rs . They fo l l owed asec t ion of the Old Span i s h Tra i l and t hen dev iated from tha t rou te ,

rej o i n ing i t fart he r a long . The

exped i t i on en te red Utah near presen t-day Mont ice l lo and set up a base camp . They re tu rned to San ta Feac ross the San Juan Bas in . A maj or accomp l ishmen t Of the exped i t i on was the sc ien t i fic Obse rvat ions Ofgeol ogi s t John S . Newbe rry .

In 1860 , severa l c i v i l ian s we re k i l led , and the Paiu te Ind ians we re b lamed for the dea th s , al t hough the

i dent i ty Of the k i l le rs and the i r t r i bes was ac tua l l y u nknown . B reve t Maj or Jame s H. Carle ton was put i n

command ofa mi l i tary un i t sent fo rt h to pun i s h the Pa iu te . The t roops reached the Mojave Ri ve r on

A pri l 19 , and scou ted for Ind ians in the area and along parts Of the Old S pan i sh Trai l un t i l Ju l y 3 . Two

12

groups OfInd ians we re found and fi ve i ndi v idua l s we re k i l led . The t roops found e v idence of the

Timb isha S hoshone t r i be but d id not encoun te r them .

Ove ra l l , use Ofmuch O f the Old Span i sh Tra i l , e spec ial l y the é'

astem ha l f, di mi n i shed afte r 1848 , as

t rave le rs began u s i ng othe r trai l s such as the Ca l i fo rn ia Tra i l and rou te s th rough Ari zona . Wh i le late r

wagon roads, and even tua l l y h i ghways , Often rep l icated segments Ofthe Old Span ish Tra i l , othe rsec t i ons rece i ved l im i ted ,

Often l oca l use afte r abou t 1 850 . The e stab l i s hmen t O f the In te rcon t inentalRa i l road in 1869 and o t he r ra i l rou te s a l so re su l ted i n the gradua l d i sp lacemen t Of many O ld t ra i ls asi mm i grat i on and comme rc ia l rou tes .

DESCRIPTION OF THE ROUTES

Introduction

Trave lers’

accoun ts he l ped i den t i fy major and var ian t rou te s (see Append i x C : Maps) Of the Ol d

Span i s h Tra i l by de sc ri b i ng geograph i ca l features, cu l tu ra l si te s , and peop les a long the tra i l . Wh i le

many Of these t rave lers we re us i ng the en t i re t ra i l or parts Of the t rai l afte r the possi b le pe r iod ofs i gn i ficance i dent i fied i n th i s document , the re i s e v idence t hat they we re on the same t ra i l used du r i ng

the pe r iod Ofs i gn i ficance . Based on di ffe ring translat i ons of Mex ican and Span i sh documents and the i r

know ledge Of landmarks , geography and geol ogy, and Ind ian t r i be s , re searche rs have mapped O ldSpan i sh Tra i l rou te s be tween New Mex ico and Cal i forn ia (see

“Documen tat i on sec t ion ) . It is c lear

from trave le rs ’ accoun ts t ha t the rou te ( s) we re d ic tated by se ve ra l fac tors , i nc lud i ng : wate r sou rce s ,forage , ease Of t rave l ( te rra i n and c l imate) , presence Of fr iend l y t r i be s (O ften for t rad ing purposes) , andabsence Of h os t i le groups (for safe ty Of the caravans) . For the pu rposes of t h is study, the fo l l ow i ngdesc r i p t i on s gene ra l l y fo l low the t ra i l rou tes de fined by Crampton and Madsen Sanc hez

Wa l ke r Warren S te ine r and Kessle r Refe rences to the maps i n Append i x

C are prov ided i n the fo l low ing de scri p t i on s .

Over t ime , t rave le rs sough t easie r , sho rte r rou te s , and nume rou s var ian t t ra i l s deve l oped a l ong the Old

Span i sh Tra i l Nort he rn Rou te co rr i dor . Parts Of the Northe rn Rou te we re o ri g ina l l y used by the

Domin guez—Esca lan te exped i t i on of 1776 , and late r trave led by Wolfskill Youn t ( 1830 Orv i l le

Prat t Gunn i son Hunt i ngton Cheesman andMacomb ( 1 859) (maps 1 and

Trave lers who used the No rt h B ranc h Rou te s th rough Co lorado ’

s San Lu i s Va l ley i nc lude : Gunn i son

and Sch ie l Heap and Beale Rux ton Pope , S love r, and J oh n Wolfskill

and Fre’

mon t ( 1853 — 1854) (maps 1 and Gunn i son, Fremont , and Heap and Bea le are a lso known to

have t rave rsed the Gunn i son Ri ve r coun try on the Nort h B ranch (maps 2 and

Trave le rs who wen t.

th rough Ab iqu iu before cont inu ing nort hwest int o what is now Co lorado i nc lude

Orv i l le Prat t ( 1848) and Macomb ( 1859) (maps 1 The i r t ra i l s ove r lapped or paral le led part s Of the

earl ie r Domi ngue z-Esca lante rou te . From the Green Ri ve r i n Utah , Lori n g Hun t i ngton

and Gunn i son ( 1 853 ) t rave led th rough the Sev ie r Ri ve r Va l ley (map

An add i t i onal variant , the Fish lake Cutoff, was a short cu t be tween Iv ie Creek and Junc t ion , Utah .

B rewe rton and Carson popu lar i zed th i s rou te i n 1847-1848 , but i t was not regu larl y used un t i l afte r1 848 . Carval ho ( 1854) i n te rsec ted the Fi sh lake Cu toff afte r leav i ng the Nort he rn Rou te eas t ofthe

Green Ri ve r (map Jefferson Hun t ( 1 849) and Par ley Prat t ( 1 85 1 ) j o ined the rou te s taken by Fremont

( 1844) and late r by Whee le r on the recomb ined Northe rn Rou te as i t ran sou t hward from Utah

1 3

i n to presen t-day Ari zona (maps 5 and Apparen t l y , a l mos t all the t rave le rs used the Ca l i forn ia

Cross i ng Of the Muddy Ri ve r ju s t i n s i de the Nevada borde r (map From the re , the Armij o Rou te ran

due sou t h , t hen tu rned we s t to i n te rsec t or paral le l var ian ts Of the No rt he rn Rou te (s) used by Whee le rA . Prat t Chand le s s and Da l ton ( 1857) (map Al l the rou tes conve rged i n the

YermO/Daggett area,j u s t ou ts i de Bars tow , and con t i nued al ong the Mojave Ri ve r and ove r Cajon Pass

into the San Bemardino/Los Ange les area (map

New Mexico

Be tween San ta Fe and Abiqu iu ,the Nort he rn Rou te and Sou the rn Rou te e i the r over lapped or paral le led

each othe r (map From Ab i qu i u , the Armijo Rou te para l le led pre sen t-day New Mex ico S tate

Hi ghways 96 , 595 , 173 , and 574 no rthwest to the v ic i n i ty Of Aztec Ru i n s Na t i ona l Monument , anden te red Co lorado jus t i n s i de the eas te rn edge Of the Ute Moun ta i n Ind ian Rese rvat i on (map The t ra i l

re-en te red New Mex i co briefly just west ofUS . Hi ghway 666, and t hen con t i nued we s t i n to Ari zona at

the Four Come rs area . Ori gi nat i n g i n San ta Fe , seve ra l vari an ts Of th i s ma i n rou te ran al ong the Rio

Grande va l ley . Near Espar‘

io la and San J uan Pueb l o , respec t i ve l y , two var iat ion s of the North B ranch

broke away from the mai n trai l to run northeast . Severa l c ros s t ra i l s connec ted these two variant s ,wh ich conve rged jus t sou t h ofTaos . The No rt h B ranch con t i nued nort h a l ong the east si de OfCo lorado

'

s San Lu i s Va l ley .

A We st Fo rk of the Nort h B ranch , w h ich carr ied an unknown amoun t Of t raffic be fo re 1 848 , ran al mos t

nort h a long B lac k Me sa t h rough the Carson Nat i ona l Forest and Tre s P ied ras, to reach the west s i de Ofthe San Lu is Val ley (map

The Northern Rou te con t i nued no rt hwest from Ab iqu iu para l le l w i t h presen t-day US . Hi ghway 84 for

se vera l mi les be fore tu rn i ng no rt hwe s t to Du lce , New Mex ico , and en te red Co lorado near the town of

C aracas .

Colorado

The Armij o Rou te en te red Co lorado near the Mon te zuma County/La Plata Coun ty l ine th rough a se r ie s

Ofarroyos (map Once up ou t Of the arroyos, the rou te ran we s tward acros s a le ve l p lateau areapara l le l i n g Grass Canyon . At the confluence OfUte , Grass, andMancos canyon s , w he re the re are anumbe r Ofspr ings, the rou te d ropped dow n i n to the Mancos Ri ve r dra i nage ,

fo l l ow i n g i t west and

sou thwe s t . Near the east end OfMancos Canyon and a few mi les beyond the Mancos Ri ve r Trad ing

Pos t (on the Ute Mounta in Ind ian Reservat i on) , the rou te veered sou th to re-en te r what i s now the S tate

OfNew Me x ico (map

The No rthe rn Rou te ente red Co lo rado along s t ream dra i nages, fo l l owed Carracas Canyon , cros sed theSan Juan Ri ve r, and tu rned nort hwest towards Durango (map The rou te fo l l owed the Mancos andDolore s r i ve r d ra i nages nort hwest past the presen t—day commun i t ies OfMancos , Dol ore s , Cahone ,

and

No rthdale , be fore ex i t i ng the s tate a long the rou te Of US . Hi ghway 666 .

From New Mex ico , the We s t Fork Ofthe No rt h B ranch Ofthe Old Span i sh Trai l ente red Col orado's San

Lu i s Val ley al ong the Rio San Anton i o (map The ma i n North B ranch rou te t rave led a l ong the we s t

edge Of the Sangre de Cri s to Range east Of the Rio Grande (map The North B ranch conve rged w i th i t s

wes te rn fork near the town Of Saguache , con t i nued northwe s t over Nort h CochetOpa Pass, and fol l owed

Tom ich i Creek in to the Gunn i son Ri ve r d rainage . The rou te fol lowed the Gunn i son Ri ver Bas i n wes t to

presen t-day Montrose . From Montrose , the Nort h B ranch genera l ly fol lowed the Uncompaghre Ri ve r,

14

ford i ng the r i ver near De l ta . Then the t ra i l fo l l owed what i s now US . Hi ghway 50 northwest t h rough

Grand Junc t i on to the Utah borde r .

The Arm ij o Rou te en te red Utah in an area that i s now part ofGlen Canyon Nat iona l Rec reat i on Area,

and c rossed the Col orado Ri ve r at the Cross i ng Of the Fathe rs (map Fo l l ow i n g dra inages west for

some d i s tance ,t rave le rs re-en te red Ari zona a l ong Kanab Creek . The rou te briefly reen te red the

sou t hwestern come r Ofthe s ta te , then fo l lowed the V i rg i n Ri ve r sou thwe s t into Ari zona .

Ente r ing w hat i s now Utah , the Northe rn Rou te proceeded nort hwes t to the v ic in i ty OfSpan i sh Val ley

and Moab , whe re i t c rossed the Colorado Ri ve r . The North B ranch ente red Utah th rough Grand Va l ley ,

and rejo ined the ma i n t rai l at Green Ri ve r . Ford i ng the Green Ri ve r at the town of the same name , the

Nort he rn Rou te t rave rsed the San Rafae l Swe l l and entered Cas t le Va l ley . The rou te t hen ascended

Wasa tch Pas s . D i rec t l y on the wes t s i de Of the pass , a later var ian t known as the Fi sh lake Cu toff sp l i tOffsou t h to rej o i n the ma i n branch near C i rc le v i l le , Utah (map

The Nort he rn Rou te tu rned sl i gh t l y sou th i n orde r to avo id the Saw tooth Narrow s OfSa l i na Canyon and

wen t on the Sev ie r Ri ve r . It then fo l lowed the Se v ie r sou t h and sou thwes t to Bear Va l ley Junc t i on and

tu rned we s t across the nort he rn end Of the Markagunt Plateau in to Parowan Va l ley (map The rou te

passed no rt h Of the Ante l ope Range and tu rned sou t h to c ros s Ari zona i n Beave r Dam Wash (map

Ar i z ona

The Armijo Rou te en te red presen t-day Ari zona i n the Fou r Come rs area, ski rted the nort h si de O f theCarr i zo Moun ta i n s , and headed we s t ac ros s Ch i n le Wash and up Laguna Creek to Marsh Pass (maps 3

and From the re , i t tu rned no rthwe s t th rough Navajo Nat i ona l Monumen t , cros s ing the state l ine i n to

Utah before ford i ng the Co lorado Ri ve r at the Cross i ng ofthe Fa the rs , above pre sen t-day Glen Canyon

Dam . It reen te red Ari zona near Fredon ia , sk i rted sou th of the S h i narump and Ve rm i l ion Cl i ffs, and

tu rned back i n to Utah near Col orado Ci ty . It t hen passed th rough the northwe s tern come r O f Ari zona,

fo l l ow ing the V i rgi n Ri ve r (map

The Mormon Road and the No rt hern Rou te and Armijo Rou te conve rged i n the far no rt hwest come r Of

Ari zona near pre sen t -day Li t t le fie ld, and fo l l owed the Vi rg i n Ri ve r sou thwest into Nevada (map

Nevada

The comb ined Nort he rn Rou te and Armij o Rou te fo l lowed the Vi rgi n Ri ve r a short d istance in to

Nevada be fo re d i v idi ng (maps 5 and The Armijo Rou te fo l l owed the Vi rgi n Ri ve r to the Co l orado

Ri ve r, and t hen tu rned we s t to sk i rt sou th O f Las Vegas (map The t ra i l ran th rough the Ivanpah

Va l ley . Near GoodsprlngS , i t c rossed the Spri ng Moun ta i n s and ente red pre sen t-day Ca l i fo rn ia (map

The combi ned Northe rn Rou te andMormon rou te fo l lowed the Vi rg in Ri ve r and Dry Lake va l leys

sou thwes t to Las Vegas (B ig Springs) and B lue D iamond (Cot tonwood ) Spring (see Figu re c ross i ng

the Spri ng Moun tai n s at Moun ta i n Spri ngs . The t ra i l en te red Ca l i forn ia by way Of the Pah rump Val ley

(map

A late r variant , the Kingston Cu toff, le ft the Northern Rou te wes t Of the Spri ng Mounta ins, andcon t inued sou th i n to Cal i fo rn ia (map

15

From Las Vegas , the Moj ave Road var ian t tu rned sou th a l ong mode rn US . Hi ghway 95 to the area Of

Need les, Ca l i fo rn ia,whe re i t j o ined an anc ien t t ra i l t o Los Ange le s (map 8 , and desc ri pt ion Of the

Mojave Road , be l ow) .

Ca lifornia

The Ann ijO Rou te me rged w i t h the Northern Rou te i n the Pah rump Val ley, and d i ve rged aga i n at

S i lur ian Lake . Goi ng clue sou th from the d ry lake , the Armijo Route encounte red the Moj ave Ri ve r and

fo l lowed i t sou t h and west to the YennO/Daggett area (maps 8 and

In the Piu te Va l ley, nort hwe s t OfNeed les , Ca l i forn ia, the Mojave Road i n te rsec ted i nd igenous rou tes

from the Moj ave Ind ian v i l lages on the Co l orado Ri ve r. From he re , a sho rt de tou r sou theast cou l d take

the t rave le r to the Col orado Ri ve r for ample wate r and pas tu re , as we l l as t rade opportun i t ie s . From the

Piu te Va l ley, the Mojave Road tu rned west ac ros s the de se rt , fo l l ow i ng an anc ien t trai l by way Ofse ve ra l Sp ri ngs , i nc lud in g Piu te , Rock, and Mar l . The rou te then wen t sou thwe s t t h rough the Ke l so

Moun tai ns v ia Jackass Canyon , and met the Armijo Rou te near Soda Lake . Th i s comb i ned tra i l

fo l lowed ex i st i n g Ind ian t ra i l s sou th and we s t a l ong the Moj ave Ri ve r from its si nk , th rough Afton

Canyon and past Camp and Cady spri ngs , to rej o i n the O the r rou te s at Ye rmo-Dagge t t (maps 8 and

Ori gi na l l y, the Moj ave Ri ve r rou te was a natu ra l t rave l co rr i dor t h rough the de se rt . The r i ve r d i sappears

be low the su rface O f i t s sand channe l and flow s unde rground for a grea t dea l Of i t s length , pe r i od ica l l y

formi ng large poo ls Of wate r or scan t i l y runn i ng s treams tha t we re v i ta l to t rave le rs (Wal ke r 1985 : i x) .

Just insi de the Califom ia/Nevada s tate l i ne , t rave le rs took e i the r the ma i n K i ngs ton Cu toff, wh ich was

i n troduced afte r 1848 ,sou t h and wes t th rough K i n gs ton Was h , or wen t due west ove r Tecopa Pas s i n

the K i ngs ton Range . The K i ngs ton Cu toff i n te rsec ted the No rt hern Rou te sou th Of Sa l t Spri ng , nearS i lu r ian Lake (maps 8 and

The Nort he rn Rou te ran west-sou thwest ac ross the Pah rump b i g spri ng and Ca l i fo rn ia va l ley s andove r the short , s teep inc l i ne at Immigran t Pass to Re s t i ng S pri ng . Then the rou te tu rned sou th at

pre sen t-day Tecopa on the Amargosa Ri ve r, and we n t th rough Amargosa Canyon and around the We s t

S i de Of the Dumon t Sand Dunes (maps 8 and

The trai l fo l l owed what is today Ca l i fo rn ia S ta te Hi ghway 127 sou th th rough the S i lu rian Va l ley . North

O f S i l ve r Lake , the Northem Rou te went due sou t hwe s t pas t Red Pass Lake (Mud Lake ) , ove r Red Pas s ,and down to B i t te r Spring w i t h i n presen t-day Fort Irw i n . The ma i n t rai l con t i nued sou thwest th rough

Span ish Canyon (cove r pho to ) . An a l te rnate rou te ran sou th around the eas t s i de OfA lvord Moun tai n

and rejo ined the ma i n t rai l near Man i x Lake . Near pre sen t-day YermO/Daggett at an area known as

Fork OfRoads ,”the Mojave Road , the Nort hern Rou te , the Armij o Rou te , the Mohave Rou te , and the

Mo rmon Road all conve rged to fo l l ow the Mojave Ri ve r sou thwe s t toward Caj on Pas s (maps 8 and

Near Oro Grande ,the main rou te crossed the r i ve r at the Uppe r Cross i ng , or Lane ’s Cross i ng

,and

ran sou thwes t toward Cajon Summi t . A maze ofd i ffe ren t rou tes, i nc lud i ng the Crowde r Canyon rou teand Caj on Canyon rou te , c rossed Caj on Pass . The t ra i l de scended Caj on Canyon to Sycamore Grove ,

then ran west-southwest to presen t-day Cucamonga , El Mon te , San Gabrie l , and fi na l l y Los Ange les

(map

16

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1 . Was the Old Span ish Tra il a tra il or rou te established by h istor ic use "

Th i s e lement Of the cr i te r i on i s met .

The i n ten t of th i s part of the c r i ter i on is to ensu re t hat the rou te be i n g cons i de red was i ndeed a

de fi nab le t ra i l u sed i n the h i s tori c pe r i od and not an arb i t rar i l y c reated en t i ty . Documen tat i on of the

e stabl i shmen t of all rou te s by h i s tori c use is c lear l y demons trated i n the h i s to rica l o verv iew .

The Old Span i s h Tra i l was primar i l y a horse , mu le , and bu rro pack rou te be tween New Mex i co and Los

Ange le s . It de ve l oped from a numbe r of ear l ie r rou te s fo l l owed by Ame ri can Ind ian s and Span i sh ,Mex i can , and Angl o-Ame rican exp lo re rs , t rappe rs , and t raders .

The Hi s tori ca l Overv iew sec t i on documen ts the deve l opmen t of the t ra i l from the ear l ie r route s to i t s

e s tab l i shmen t as a connec t i on be tween New Mex ico and sou thern Ca l i forn ia . Trave l al ong the rou te by

a var ie ty of i nd i v i dua l s and groups i s c lear l y i nd icated . As demonst rated i n the Hi s tor i ca l Ove rv iew

sec t i on , the“S tatemen t ofS i gn i ficance

” sec t i on , and the“Othe r Themes Cons ide red w i th Re spec t to

Nat i ona l S i gn i fi cance”sec t ion , the Old Span ish Trai l ex i s ted as a t ra i l i n the minds of the people duri n g

the h i s tori c pe ri od , as ev idenced by d i rec t re fe rence s to the tra i l i n h i s to ri c report s , maps , and o t he r

documen ts .

2 . Is the Old Span ish Tra il sign ifi cant as a resu lt of the use tha t establish ed it"

Th i s e lemen t of the c ri te r i on is me t .

In the S tatemen t of S i gn i fi cance sec t i on of th i s documen t , the Old Span i s h Tra i l w i l l be eval uated

w i t h respec t to nat i ona l s i gn i fi cance . At th i s leve l , i t i s on l y nece s sary to estab l i sh t hat O l d S pan i s h

Tra i l use was s i gn i fican t— t hat i s,that i t p layed a ro le i n and had some i nfluence on h i s to rica l e ven ts . A

find i ng ofs i gn i ficance at t h i s leve l does not imp l y that the requ i remen t for nat i ona l s i gn ificance i s met.

As descr i bed i n the Hi s tor i ca l Ove rv iew sec t i on , the Old Span i sh Tra i l evo l ved out ofa numbe r of

rou te s fo l l owed by Ame ri can Ind ian s and S pan ish , Me x i can , and Anglo-Amer ican e x p l ore rs, furt rappe rs , and o t he rs . The fi rst succe ss fu l New Mex ico t rade caravan i n 1 829 , led by An ton i o Armij o ,created a comp le te rou te be tween New Mex i co and the Los Ange le s area . The last known regu lar New

Mex i can trade caravan arr i ved i n Ca l i forn ia i n 1847 and re tu rned i n 1848 . Afte r 1 848 , the use of the

sec t i on of t rai l from New Mex ico to Utah fe l l i n to l imi ted , often l oca l , use , and the more no rt hern and

more sou thern t ra i l s to Ca l i forn ia became the pri mary rou te s of t rave l (Hafen and Hafen 1982 z 36 1 ) ,a l th ough some use ofparts ofthe Old Span i sh Tra i l c on t i nued . Subsequen t l y , t rave le rs to and from

Ca l i fo rn ia occasiona l l y used the rou te .

Trave l be tween New Mex ico and Ca l i fo rn ia a l ong the comple ted rou te a l so t ied in to othe r ac t i v i t ies

prev ious l y occu rr ing a l ong var i ous sec t ions ofthe t ra i l and beyond , i nc lud ing trade w i t h American

Indians, t rade in Ame r ican Ind ian s laves, the fur t rade , and i l lega l t rade i n horses and mu les . As on

othe r tra i l s across the Wes t , t rave le rs along the t ra i l con t r i bu ted to change s i n Ind ian l i feways and

re lat i on s be tween t r i bes and the Mex ican s and Amer ican s . Trade a l ong the Old Span i sh Tra i l t ied i n to

and cont r i bu ted to a broade r economic sys tem , i nc l ud i ng the San ta Fe Trail/Ch ihuahua Tra i l t rade andthe ranch i ng and mar i t ime t rade economy ofCa l i forn ia . Some i mm igrat i on occurred a long the rou te

i nvo l v i ng bo th New Mex icans and Ame r icans, i n wh ich they added to the popu lat i on ofCa l i forn ia and

became invo l ved in a var ie ty of soc ia l , po l i t ica l , economi c , and othe r ac t i v i t ies . The Old Span i sh Tra i l

t rade was part of the economie s ofCa l i forn ia and New Mex ico and was, at a min imum , of s tate-leve l

1 8

si gn i ficance unde r the c r i te r ia of the Nat iona l Reg iste r ofHistor ic Place s . (See d iscuss i on of Nat iona l

Register/National Histor ic Landmark cr i te r ia i n the“Ana l ys is ofNat i ona l Tra i ls System Act Cri te r ion

B sec t i on . )

3 . Is the loca tion of the rou te of the Old Spanish Tra il suffi ciently known "

Ove ra l l , th i s e lemen t of the c r i te r i on i s met .

The de te rminat ion Of the loca t i on of the t ra i l unde r the Nat iona l Trai l s S y s tem Ac t is re lated to theconcept of“ integri ty of loca t ion” unde r the Nat i ona l Register/National Hi s tor i c Landmark eva luat ion

proce sse s . Loca t ion is one of se ven aspec ts of i n tegr i ty .

“Loca t i on i s the p lace whe re the h i s to ric

e vent [s] occu rred . The re la t i onsh i p be tween the prope rt y and i t s l ocat i on is Often importan t to

unde rs tand i ng why the prope r ty was c reated or why some th i ng happened . The ac tual l ocat i on ofa

h isto ri c prope rty , complemen ted by its se t t i ng , is part icu lar l y importan t i n recaptu r ing the sense of

h i s tori c even ts and pe rsons”

(Na t iona l Park Se rv ice 1998 z44) . Othe r aspec ts Of i n tegr i ty are d iscu ssedi n the Ana l ys is ofNat i ona l Tra i l s Sy s tem Act Cri te r i on C”

sec t i on .

The i den t i fica t i on of the No rt he rn and Sou t he rn Rou tes of the Ol d Span i sh Tra i l and the i r se ve ra l

var ian ts was based large l y on t rave l d iar ie s and mi l i tary exped i t i on records . The most spec i fic of these

accoun ts are : Domingue z-Esca lante Orv i l le Prat t Gunn i son Hun t ington

Add ison Pra t t Cheesman Macomb and Par ley P . Pra t t

More recen t l y , h istor ians and archeo logi sts have s tud ied the var ious rou te s fo l lowed by trappe rs ,t rade rs, i mmigran ts, and mi l i tary e x pedi t i ons . For examp le , see Hafen and Hafen Crampton and

Madsen Sanche z Warren andWa l ke r

B ecause of the l imi ted and vague natu re of the d iar ies, i nsofar as geograph ic de ta i l s are concerned, i t i s

d i fficu l t or imposs i b le to de te rm ine the prec i se rou tes taken by many ind i v i dua l groups of t rave le rs,e spec ia l l y the New Mex ican pack caravans . Assumpt i ons must be made that late r trave le rs (afte r 1848 )we re t rave l ing the same rou te s that we re e s tab l i shed dur i ng the Old S pan i s h Tra i l pe r iod of

s i gni ficance . Many of the t rave le rs Of the Old Span ish Tra i l we re invo l ved i n i l lega l ac t i v i t ies such as

s lave t rad ing and horse or bu rro t he ft , and they may a lso have been taki ng measu re s to avo i d pay i ng

taxe s on t ransport ed goods . Consequen t l y , these t rave le rs le ft few w r i t ten reco rds . Othe r trave le rs on

di ffe rent t ra i l s connec ted w i t h the Old Span i sh Tra i l and fo l lowed segmen ts of i t ra the r t han runn ing the

ent i re length of the t rai l .

In p laces, the routes are defi ned by the topography that l i mi t s the poten t ial rou te s of t rave l . Mounta in

passes, rive r val leys and d i st i nc t i ve cross ing po i n ts, and spr i ngs have bee n used to de fine the spec i fic

rou te of the Old Span i sh Tra i l .

The known t rave le rs’

accoun ts he l ped iden t i fy l i ke l y maj or and varian t rou te s al ong the Old Span i sh

Trai l corr idor by de sc ri b i ng geograph ica l fea tu re s , cu l tu ra l s i te s , and peoples a long the t ra i l . Based ondi ffe r ing tran s lat i ons of Me x ican and Span i sh documen ts, and posses s i ng a know ledge of landmarks ,geography and geol ogy , and Ind ian tri be s , re searche rs have mapped l i ke l y O ld S pan i s h Tra i l rou te s

be tween New Mex ico and Ca l i fo rn ia . It is c lear from trave le rs'accoun ts that the rou te (s) we re d ic tated

by seve ra l fac tors , i nc lud i ng wate r sources, forage , ease of t rave l ( te rrai n and c l imate ) , pre sence of

tr i be s they though t of as“

friend l y (Often for t rad i ng pu rposes) , and absence of those t hey fe l t to be“host i le .

For purpose s of t h i s s tudy , the rou te de scr i p t i ons prov ided i n th is documen t gene ral l y fo l low the t ra i l

rou tes de fi ned by Crampton and Madsen Sénche z Wa l ke r Warren

S te ine r and Ke ss le r It shou l d be no ted tha t some rou te re searche rs , such as Crampton ,Madsen , Ke s s le r, and S te i ne r, fie l d te s ted poss i b le rou tes on the ground and rejec ted or accepted a

part icu lar rou te sec t i on based on co rre spondence w i th w ri t ten mate r ial s , or i n some case s based on

te rra i n fea ture s deemed too d i fficu l t or as l i ke l y obs tac le s to t rave l . Not all rou te s and rou te varian ts

have rece i ved the same leve l of sc ru t i ny , and some rou te sec t i on s , such as the Arm ijo Rou te , e spec ia l l y

be tween the Cross i ng ofthe Fa t he rs and sou thwes t Utah , wou ld bene fi t from fu rt he r on—the-ground

te s t i ng of poss i b le route s . Du r i ng scop i ng mee t i ngs for th i s s tudy , for examp le , i t was sugges ted that the

late r use of the Cross i ng of the Fa the rs on the Annijo Rou te wou l d have been imposs i b le for pack tra i n s

to negot iate , al t hough the Amrijo t rade caravan d i d success fu l l y use the c ross i n g .

An ton i o Armij o w rote tha t his part y improved s teps carved i n to the canyon wa l l by Dominguez andEsca lan te . The ascen t was fu rther improved by laterNew Mex i can caravan s , accord i ng to report s of

the Powe l l exped i t i on s , wh ic h que s t i oned l oca l s (Ke l l y 1948 l 949 : 350 ,n . Membe rs of the Powe l l

surveys of 1 869 and 187 1 re fe rred to"El Vado de los Padres as the

“old Span i sh c ross i ng or the

“old

Span i s h t rai l .” They d iscussed i ts use by Mormon s , who re fe rred to the c ross i ng as the

“ol d Ute Ford”

(Darrah 18 ; Gregory 1948- 1949 154, 98n) . Thu s , from the t i me t ha t Domi ngue z and Esca lan te

we re to l d of th i s t rad i t i onal Ind ian c ross i ng i n 1776 to the 1 8703 there was a t ransmi t ted know ledge and

ongo i n g use of the same c ros s i ng . The Crossi ng of the Fa the rs was, i n the 1 8703 , a rou te over wh ich

Navaj os s to le s tock from Mo rmon se t t lemen t s nort h of the Col orado Ri ve r . In orde r to protec t

t hemse l ves, the Mormons b lasted away a si gn i fi can t po rt i on of the approach to the rive r . On l y then d i d

the c ross i ng become i mpassab le (Gregory and Moore l 93 1 : 1 1 ; Bimey 193 1 : 1

Armij o ’s successfu l t rek was announced i n an offi c ia l pub l ica t ion Ofthe Mex i can gove rnmen t . It ended

w i t h the s tatemen t that such a road be tween New Mex i co and Ca l i fo rn ia wou l d be u se fu l to the nat i on

as a who le , as we l l as to New Mex ico (Es tados Un i dos de Mex i co 1 830 : The Armij o Rou te is an

importan t part of the Old Span ish Tra i l , because i t was the p i onee ring trade caravan be tween New

Mex ico and Ca l i fo rn ia . More re search may show tha t othe r t rade caravan s a l so fo l lowed th i s rou te , as

some researche rs have sugge s ted (Sanche z 1997 :

Al though the re are some d isagreemen ts among re searc he rs , and the re i s poten t ia l for o the r rou te

varian t s and some correc t i ons ofcommon l y i den t ified rou tes , i t i s reasonab le to conc lude that the

i dent i fied t ra i l rou tes we re l i ke l y u t i l i zed by the t raders or othe r t rave le rs a l ong the Old Span i s h Tra i l .Howeve r, w i th a few except ions, i n forma t ion abou t mos t of the t rade caravans and immigran ts i nd icates

t hat t hey le ft a part icu lar p lace in New Mex ico and arr i ved i n sou thern Cal i fo rn ia and/or that they left

Ca l i forn ia and arr i ved i n New Mex ico . Seconda ry h i s tori c accoun ts do prov ide some info rmat i on i n

i den t i fy i ng the t ra i l l ocat ion and i dent i fy ing i t as a p lace used by i dent i fied “Old S pan i sh Trai l

t rave le rs . On Oc tobe r 10 , 1 853 , Fi rs t Lieu tenant Edward G . Beckw i t h , who w rote the report ofthe

Gunn i son exped i t i on , recorded ,“The Span i sh Tra i l , th ough but se l dom used of late years i s s t i l l ve ry

d ist i nc t whe re the so i l washe s bu t s l i gh t l y . On some Space s today we coun ted from fou rteen to twen typara l le l t ra i l s , of the ord i nary si ze of Ind ian t ra i ls or horse-path s on a way ofbare l y fi fty fee t i n w i d th

”

(Beckw i th , in Chenowe t h 1999 z28 ) . Such a desc ri p t ion sugges ts that t here had been consi de rab le usea long the t rai l .

The Na t iona l Trai l s Sys tem Act does not requ i re t ha t the rou te of the t ra i l be known exac t l y , but on l y

su ffic ient l y to eva luate its potent ia l for rec reat i ona l use and h i s to ri c i n te rest . Th i s requ i remen t

recogn i zes that the locat ion of t ra i l s canno t a lways be de te rmined as prec i se l y as the l ocat i on ofspec i fi ch istor ic si tes because the rou te connec t i ng suc h si tes may have no v i s i b le or archeo log ica l remai ns .

20

Analysis ofNationa l Tra ils System Act Cr iter ion B

Background. The second of the th ree Nat iona l Tra i ls System Act cr i te r ia t ha t mu s t be met requ i re s

that a t ra i l :

(B ) must be ofnational significance w i th respec t to any ofseveral broad face ts ofAmerican h istory ,

such as trade and commerce , exp lorat ion, mi grat ion, and se tt lement , or mi l i tary campa i gns . To qual i fy asnat ional ly si gni ficant, h istoric use ofthe tra i l must have had a far reach ing effect on broad patterns ofAmerican cu l ture . Trai ls si gnificant in the h istory ofNat ive Americans may be inc luded .

Th i s c ri te r i on se t s out the cond i t i ons re lat i n g to nat i ona l s i gn i fi cance that must be me t for a rou te to

become a Nat i ona l Histor ic Tra i l . The te rms“

ofna t i onal s i gn i ficance ,

” “

broad face ts ofAme r i can

Hi s tory , and“far reach ing e ffec t on broad pat te rns of Ame r ican cu l ture

”c lear l y and spec i fica l l y define

the natu re of t hat t ra i l , and the h i gh standard i t mus t mee t . Thus , by its ve ry natu re , and by de fi n i t i on , a

Nat iona l Histor ic Tra i l must posse ss except iona l nat iona l va lues .

Nat i ona l Tra i l s Sys tem Act Cri te r ion B a l so prov ide s t hat : Tra i ls si gn i fican t i n the h i story of Nat i ve

Ame rican s may be i nc luded . The sen tence i n the c r i te r i on regard i ng t ra i ls si gn i fican t to Nat i ve

Ame rican s does not mean that all t ra i l s that had i mpac t s upon Ame r i can Ind ians are au tomat i cal l y

e l i g i b le for Nat i ona l Hi s tor i c Tra i l s tatus . Indeed , v i rtua l l y all h i s tori c t ra i l s had impac ts, o ften ve ry

seve re ,on t ri bes . In cons ide r ing the use ofa historic t ra i l , impac ts upon Ame r ican Ind ians wou l d be

cons i de red a l ong w i t h o t her h istor ic impac ts of t ra i l use , even w i t hou t th is language i n the Tra i ls act .

Those impac t s must be s t i l l be far reach i ng” and na t iona l i n scope .

The spec i fic language i n the act, howe ve r, recogn i zes t ha t the h isto ry of the Un i ted S tates d id not begi n

w i t h the arr i va l of Eu ropeans . Amer ican Ind ian s l i ved , t rave led , t raded , and i n te rac ted here for

th ousands ofyears prio r to con tac t w i t h Span i sh , and late r Engl i sh and o t he r, exp l ore rs and se t t le rs .

Tra i ls used by Ame r i can Ind ians prio r to and e ve n afte r con tac t are to be consi de red as poten t ia l lye l i g i b le for desi gna t ion as Na t ional Histor ic Tra i l s . Howeve r, t hey mus t s t i l l mee t all the cr i te r ia i n the

act, and must st i l l be found to have had“far reach i ng e ffec t s on broad pat te rn s ofAme r ican [or more

spec i fica l l y Ame r ican Indian] cu l tu re .

Nat iona l Hi s tori c Landmark c r i te r ia para l le l the concept s of the Nat iona l Tra i ls System Act, and

prov ide that :

The qual i ty ofnat ional significance is ascri bed to distric ts, si tes, bu i ldings, struc tures and obj ec ts thatpossess e xcep t ional value or qual i ty in i l lustrating or interpre t ing the heri tage ofthe Uni ted S tates inh istory , arch i tecture , archeo logy , technology and cu l ture ; and that possess a h i gh degree Of integri ty oflocation, design, se tt ing , materia ls, workmansh i p , fee l ing , and assoc iat ion

The re are a numbe r of i nd i v i dua l c r i te ria that have been deve loped for the Nat iona l Historic Landmark

program . Cri te rion 1 is appropriate for the primary e va luat ion of the Old Span i sh Tra i l . (Cri te r ion 2 w i l l

be d iscussed late r . ) Unde r Cri te ri on 1 , nat iona l si gn i ficance i s ascri bed to a prope rty :

That is assoc iated w i th events that have made a si gni ficant contribut ion to , and are ident ifi ed w i th , or tha toutstanding ly represent , the broad nat iona l patterns ofUni ted S tates h istory and from wh ich anunderstanding and apprec iat ion of those pa tte rns may be gained;

Gu ide l i ne s for the i n te rpre tat ion and app l i cat i on of these cr i te r ia are set forth i n two Nat i ona l Registe r

Bu l le t i ns ent i t led"

How to A p p l y the Nat i ona l Regi ste r Cri te r ia for Eva l ua t i on and How to

Prepare Nat iona l Histor ic Landmark Nom inat ions" ( 1999 )

2 1

The events assoc iated w i th the prOperty must be outstanding ly represented by that property and shou ld bere lated to broad national patterns ofUS . The property can be assoc iated w i th e i ther a spec ificevent mark ing an important moment in American preh istory or h istory or w i th a pat tern ofevents or ah istoric movement that made a significant contri but ion to the deve lopment ofthe Uni ted States.

The property that is be ing eva luated must be documented, through accep ted means of h istorical orarcheo log ica l research , to have ex isted at the t ime ofthe event or pattern ofevents and to have beenstrong ly assoc iated w i th these events. A property is not e l i g i b le i f its assoc iat ions are mere ly specu lat i ve .

Mere assoc iat ion w i th h istor ic events or trends is not enough to qual i fy under th is cri terion. The

property ’

s spec ific assoc iat ionmust be considered ofthe h i ghest importance .

A key pri nc i p le i n Nat iona l Hi stor ic Landmark s tud ie s i s t hat they be comparat i ve i n natu re . A

part i cu lar property be i ng evaluated shou l d be compared w i th o the r si mi lar propert ie s re lated to thesame con tex t (Nat i ona l Park Serv ice

Prope rt ies t ha t are not deemed to be of nat i onal s i gn i ficance may qua l i fy by be i n g of l ocal or s tate

s i gni ficance unde r the c ri te ria for the Na t iona l Reg i s te r ofHisto ric Places .

Nat i ona l Hi s tor i c Landmark Cri teri on 2 app l ies to propert ie s that are assoc ia ted impo rtan t l y w i t h the

l i ves of pe rsons nat iona l l y s ign i fican t i n the h i s tory of the Un i ted S tate s .

”

(Na t i onal Park Se rv i ce

1999 136)

Th is cri terion re lates to propert ies assoc iated w i th indi viduals whose spec ific contribu t ions to Americanh istory can be ident ified and documented. The person(s) assoc iated w i th the property must be indi vidual lyexcep t iona l ly si gnificant w i th in a nat iona l h istoric conte x t . The assoc iationmust be w i th the person’

s

product i ve l i fe , reflec t ing the t ime period when he or she ach ieved Each propertyassoc iated w i th an important indi vidual must be compared to o ther assoc iated propert ies to identi fy theone tha t best represents the person’

s nat iona l ly h istoric contri but ions . (Nat iona l Park Service

In app l y ing th i s c r i te r ion to a h i stor i c t ra i l , consi de ra t ion must be g i ven to the Nat i ona l Tra i ls Sys tem

Act, w h ich requ i res tha t the use of the t ra i l” mus t have had “far reach i ng e ffec t s on b read pat te rns of

Ame ri can cu l tu re . It i s not enough that a na t i ona l l y s i gn i fican t pe rson fo l lowed a t rai l ; rathe r, t hat

pe rson mu s t have engaged i n nat i onal l y s i gn i fican t ac t i v i t ies on that t ra i l i n a way tha t had a broad

impac t upon Ame r ica .

Nat i ona l Hi s tor ic Landmarks are evaluated for nat i ona l s i gn i fi cance by app l y i ng the appropriate c r i te r ia

to the prope rt y w i t h i n the framework of maj or themes i n Un i ted S tate s h istory . In 1996, The Nat iona l

Park Se rv i ce Themat ic Framework was rev i sed to prov i de a more comprehens i ve h i s tor ica l pe rspec t i vefor the eva luat ion of re sou rce s i gn i ficance , i n orde r to be t ter take into accoun t the d i ve rs i ty andcomplex i ty of the human e x pe r ience . The Nat i ona l Park Se rv ice has found that i n prac t i ce ,

i t is he l p fu l

to use the Rev ised Themat ic Framework i n conjunc t i on w i t h the 1987 Themat i c Framework , wh i ch

he l ps prov ides focus on a more basic , top i cal conceptua l i za t i on of the pas t w i t h i n the broade r themes .

The Old Span i s h Tra i l w i l l be eva lua ted w i t h respec t to a numbe r of themes and top ic s i n Amer ican

h i s to ry . Each ana l y s is w i l l con s i de r what the e ffec ts of the use of the t rai l are w i t h respec t to the themeand what e ffec t s are to be con s i de red of the h i ghe s t importance i n Ame r ican h isto ry i n compar ison too ther s i mi lar propert ie s . If the t ra i l is deemed to be na t i ona l l y s i gn ifican t , a pe r i od of s i gn i fi cance w i t h

respec t to the t heme w i l l a lso be i dent i fied . In the case ofCri te r i on 2 , the pe r i od of s i gn i ficance wou l d

22

be the t ime pe r iod i n w h ich the pe rson used the t ra i l . S pec i fic t he se s put fo rt h i n the l i te ratu re abou t the

si gn i ficance of the Old Span ish Tra i l w i l l be cons ide red whe re appropriate .

S tatement ofSignifi cance : Ana lysis/Conclusion .

S tatement ofS ignifi cance

The conc l u s i on of t h i s s tudy is t hat the Old Span i sh Tra i l i s nationally s ignifi cant w i th i n the theme of

the Changi ng Role of the Un i ted S tate s i n the World Commun i ty , and the top ics of t rade and

comme rce ,du r ing the pe r i od of 1829- 1848 . The refore , the Old Span ish Tra i l mee t s Cr i te r i on B , Sec t i on

5(b) 1 1 , of the Nat i ona l Tra i l s Sys tem Ac t .

The Old Span i s h Tra i l was the fi rst v iab le Euro-Ame r ican ove r land rou te be tween Me x i co ’

s i so lated

fron t ie r prov inces ofNew Mex ico and Ca l i forn ia . Fi rs t b laz ed by Hi s pan ic t rade rs in 1 829 , the Old

Span ish Tra i l t ied Califom ia’

s bu rgeon i ng ranc h ing economy to New Mex ico ’

s pas tora l i ndust r ie s , and,

i n the proce ss , was the fi na l l ink i n the fi rst ove r land i n te rna t iona l t rade ne twork to span the No rt h

Ame rican con t inen t . Po i sed at the we s te rn te rmi nus of the San ta Fe Tra i l , the northe rn end of the

Cami no Real , and the eas te rn edge of the Old Span ish Tra i l , San ta Fe , New Mex ico became the p i vo ta l

cog i n th is in te rnat i ona l comme rc ia l ne twork . Moreove r, northe rn var iants of the Old Span i s h Tra i l

i n tegrated e lemen ts of the Rocky Moun ta i n fur t rade i n to t h is comme rc ia l web on Me x ico’

s far

northern fron t ie r . Old S pan i sh Tra i l t rad ing ac t i v i t ies had profound impac t s on d i ve rse Ind ian groups

and i n te re thn ic re lat ion s . In many cases, inte re thn i c trade ac t i v i t ie s that had evo l ved ove r the prev ious

two cen turies and e ven ear l ie r unde rwen t sign i fi can t change . Old Span ish Tra i l t rade led to an inc rease

in i l l ic i t t rade in sto len he rds from Ca l i fo rn ia and Ind ian s lave ry , and the empowe rmen t ofce rta i n

t r i bes, such as the Ute , to the de t rimen t ofo the rs, such as the Pa iu te s . By the t i me of the US . conques t

and inco rporat i on ofMex ico ’

s nort he rn te rr i tor ies in 1848 , Ame rican t rade rs sough t more d i rec t and

accommodat i n g rou te s to Ca l i fo rn ia . Al though segments of the Old Span i s h Tra i l cont inued to be used ,

o the r, newe r rou tes ec l i p sed the t rai l’

s impo rtance as the ove r land trade l ink be tween New Mex i co and

Ca l i fo rn ia .

When Me x ico ach ieved its independence from Spai n i n 182 1 , the infan t nat ion inhe ri ted a vast northe rnfron t ie r tha t st re tched from the Pac i fic Ocean to the Gu l f ofMex ico . It i nc luded near l y a mi l l i on square

m il e s no rt h ofwha t , in 1772 , the Spani sh co l on ial admin i s t rator the Marque s de Rub i ca l led the

co l ony’

s l i ne ofe ffec t i ve occupat ion (Rub i : [ 1772] The lands we re d i verse but charac ter i zed

pr imar i l y by vast , proh i b i t i ve dese rts broken by huge , seemingl y i mpene t rab le mounta in range s . Good

cu l t i vab le lands we re rare oase s l i gh t l y se t t led by hardy , se l f- re l ian t Hispan i c se tt lers who learned to

su rv i ve w i t h on l y weak ass i s tance from the fede ra l gove rnmen t . The se sma l l popu lat i on cente rs

s t re tched l i ke grasp ing finge rs no rt hward from the re st ofMex ico . The mos t du rab le and i mportan t of

these we re the se t t lemen t s i n New Me x i co that ex tended from Ch i huahua a l ong the Cam i no Rea l andthe Rio Grande , and concen trated in and around the prov i nc ia l cap i ta l ofSanta Fe . Sma l l Hi span ic

popu lat i on cen te rs had a l so taken ho l d i n o the r prov i nc ia l areas such as Ca l i forn ia and Texas . Iso lat ion ,fede ral neglec t , and se l f— re l iance charac te ri zed all of t hem . Unde r S pan i sh ru le , co lon ia l regu lat ion and

env i ronmen t comb ined to cont ro l the front ie r towns’ connec t i on to the rest of the wor l d d i rec t l y sou th

to Me x ico Ci ty . At the t ime ofMex ican i ndependence , the art icu lat i on ofthe Mex ican nat i on s tate on

the no rthe rn fron t ie r was in dange r . The front ier towns ’ connec t i on to the cen tral repub l ic was weak

and the lack of inte r—prov i nc ia l t rade and commun icat ion enhanced the sen se of i so lat ion and

vu l nerab i l i ty . Moreove r, au tonomous or resi s tan t bands and t r i be s ofd i ve rse Ind ian grou ps often

compe ted w i th the Hi span ic se t t lemen ts for cont ro l of the de se rt s and mounta ins ofnort hern New Spa i n

and young Mex ico . Wh i le some had coe x i sted w i t h Hi span ic co l on ia l and ear l y nat i onal cu l tu ra lpat te rns, O the rs rema i ned h i gh l y au tonomous and res i s tant to any Hispan ic enc roac hmen ts i n t he i r

23

te rr i tory . Wa rfare and wary coe x i stence we re common featu re s of i n te re t hn i c re lat ions on the fron t ie r .

Wi th the except ion ofcerta i n t r i be s and bands near the Hi span i c se t t lemen t s and occasiona l t rad i ng

ventu res i n to the Ind ian terr i tor ie s , t he re was l i t t le at tempt to i n tegrate the more i so lated bands i n to the

Mex i can economy or cu l tu re .

Compound ing the th reat s to s tab i l i ty and deve l opmen t on the fron t ie r was the t h rea t of fore ign i n trus ion

i n to Mex ico’s lands . De fen se aga inst both re s i s tan t Ind ian bands and fore i gn encroachmen ts was

h istor ica l l y a s i gn ifican t reason for popu lat i on se t t lemen t on the nort he rn fron t ie r . Afte r the

independence of the Un i ted S tates, that nat i on’s expans i on ist tendenc ie s became c lear, and on the ve rge

ofMex ican i ndependence Spa i n hast i l y negot iated a t reat y t o protec t i ts co l on y’

s northe rn fron t ie r from

US . expan s i on . The new Mex ican na t i on al mos t immed iate l y fe l t pre s su re from the US ,whose

c i t i zens cove ted the r ich agricu l tu re lands that l i ned the r i ve r va l leys of Texas , the ri ch va l leys of

Ca l i fo rn ia, and the new Mex i can marke t s acce ss i b le ove r land from M i ssou ri to San ta Fe . Afte r S pain’

s

proh i b i t i ve co l on ial t rade po l ic ies e vaporated i n 182 1 , opportun i t ies for i n te rna t i onal t rade w i t h

no rt he rn Mex i co i ncreased . In the decades afte r Mex ican i ndependence , and be fore the US . conque s t

of far nort hern Mex ico i n 1848 and the en su i ng rush ofAme ri can se t t le rs ac ros s the We s t to Ca l i fo rn ia

and the othe r we s te rn te rr i to ries , t rade was the cata l yst for expans i on and i n te re th n ic con tac t on

Mex ico’

s northe rn fron t ie r .

The exp l os i on of t rade ac t i v i t ie s into Mex i co’

s no rt he rn prov i nces was i mmed iate . Fur t rappe rs pushed

in to the moun ta i n fore s t s and ri ve r bot toms across the fron t ie r i n searc h ofbeave r pe l t s , e s tab l i sh i ng

key t rade depo ts in Taos and o the r sma l le r po i n t s to the north . Most import an t , the fi rs t l i n k i n an

over land trade ne twork be tween the Un i ted S tate s andMex ico was e s tabl i shed i n 1 82 1 when trade r s

from Missour i b rough t manu fac tured goods to San ta Fe to t rade for s i l ve r from Mex ico and the bas i c

woo l goods New Mex icans produced . The fina l l i nk i n the ove r land ne twork was ach ieved in 1829

when the New Mex ican trade r An ton i o Armij o became the fi rs t Eu ro-Ame r ican to b laze a t ra i l for

comme rc ia l pu rposes be tween San ta Fe and Ca l i forn ia . The goa l had e luded Span i sh co l on ia l s and

Mex ican nat iona l s for gene rat i ons . Armij o ’s rou te was i n fo rmed by i n fo rmat ion ga the red by score s of

exp l orat i on and t rad i ng e x ped i t i ons that had emanated from New Mex ico to the no rt h and wes t i n the

proceed ing cen tur ies , and by prev i ous trade , m iss i onary , and exp lorat i on ac t i v i ty from Ca l i fo rn ia to

Sonora .

The s i gn i ficance of Armij o’

s fea t i n estab l i sh i ng the fi rs t varian t ofwhat became know n as the Old

Span i s h Trai l was apparen t t h roughou t the Mex ican repub l ic . The ach ieveme n t was announced i n the

fede ral gove rnmen t’

s offic ial new spape r, wh i c h noted the maj or step forward the t ra i l b laze r took i n

break ing down the iso lat i on ofthe no rt he rn fron t ie r prov i nce s (Es tados Un i dos Mex i canos : 1 830,

Othe rs qu ickl y fo l l owed . The fo l low i ng year, the fur t rappe rs Wi l l iamWolfskill and George Youn t leda t rade caravan to Cal i fo rn ia from New Mex ico . That group scou ted a more nort he r l y var iant of the

t ra i l , wh ich became the pre fe rred rou te for late r t rave le rs , a l t h ough some t rade rs may have con t i nued to

use the Arm ij o rou te . Du ring the nex t twen ty years , the Old Span i s h Tra i l and i t s var ian t s became theprimary ove rland trade rou te s be tween the fron t ie r te rr i tor ie s .

The Old Span ish Tra i l had no tab le s i gn i ficance for Mex ico , the Un i ted S tate s , and the nume rous Ind ian

groups in the affec ted area . The e ffec t s of the c reat i on ofthe fi rs t ove r land t rade l i n k that spanned thecont i nen t and l i nked the front ie r t rade to the Cam ino Rea l and the re s t of Mex i co we re unmi s takab le .

Each area con tr i bu ted i t s own resource s to the t rade . Califom ia’

s s p raw l i ng ranches became as i gn i ficance sou rce for horse s , mu les , and o the r re lated breeds . New Mex ico’s pas tora l en te rp ri se s

supp l ied woo len goods to Cal i forn ia and marke ts to the eas t and sou th . From the north and nort hwe s t ,t rappe rs brough t fur pe l t s a l ong a varian t ofthe t ra i l cal led the North B ranch . Ove r the San ta Fe Tra i l ,

24

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st ra i ned to the u tmos t , examples Ofobed ience , and ofdu ty pe rfo rmed unde r t ry i ng c i rcumstances

(S tewart , 1962 , pp . 1 1 3

Essin a l so po i n t s out t hat the t rade al ong the Old Span i sh Tra i l was part ofa much w i de r trade i n horse s

and mu le s . The mu le i ndus t ry i n the Un i ted S tates began i n the late 17003 and the re we re cen te rs i n

Texas, Lou is iana , Kentucky , and Tennessee as we l l as i n Ca l i forn ia andNew Mex ico . Juan de Or'

i ate

brough t mu le s , jacks , and jenne t s to New Mex ico , as ear l y as 1598 . By the 18203 and‘303 , San ta Fe

had a good s tock for breed i ng mu le s , wh ich we re t raded on the San ta Fe Trai l . (Essin, 1999) For

example ,i n 1 823 the Coope r party re tu rned from San ta Fe w i t h 400 “

jacks , jenn ies , and mu les”

(Duffus, 193 1 , p . Accord i ng to Essin,the Mi ssou ri mu le i ndus t ry began as ear l y as 1 82 1 .

Missou rians bred for large mu le s u s i ng Portugue se and Mex ican de r i ved jacks . Mex i co a l so prov ided a

sou rce of mu le s for Texas andNew Mex ico . B ryan t , ( 1985 , p . 34) for example ,w h i le en rou te to

Ca l i fo rn ia i n 1846,report s pass i ng re turn i ng San ta Fe t raders d r i v i ng a he rd ofabou t mu les

wh ich they purchased i n Ch i huahua for $20 per head .

Santa Fe t raders and emigran ts a lso used oxen . No so l i d s tat i s t ics are ava i lab le as to the proport i on of

type s of stoc k u sed by the se groups . Un ruh ( 1993 p. 108) , Speak i ng ofemigran t groups says tha t“more

t han ha l f ofall ove r lande r’s wagon s we re pu l led by oxen . Horse s and mu le s , i n that orde r, fo l lowed i n

frequency ofuse .

” Some emigran ts brough t l i ve s tock from the i r home s i n the eas t . S tewart ( 1962 , pp .

1 13- 1 14) conc lude s tha t the de te rm i n i ng fac tor i n usi ng oxen was the comparat i ve l y h i gh price of

mu les .

Ove ra l l , however , the horse and mu le t rade a l ong the Old S pan i sh Tra i l was one of the key l i nks i n the

to ta l t rade and i t prov i ded some of the fi ne s t qua l i ty stock that wou l d be preferred by those that cou l d

afford i t . Price s we re h i gh enough to make the arduous jou rney to Cal i fo rn ia to trade and to ri sk the

dange rs ofengag i ng i n l i ve s tock the ft on a large sca le .

Perhaps the mo s t impo rtan t impac t t rai l t rade was on the Ame rican Ind ian popu la t i on s . Ev i dence has

ari sen show i n g that t rade rs who brough t New Mex ico’s woo len goods to t rade i n Ca l i forn ia ac t i ve l y

encouraged Ind ian groups to rai d the abundan t horse and mu le he rds around Califom ia’

s ranchos and

m issi ons . The se an imal s, go t ten e i t he r i n fa i r barter of th rough i l l i c i t t rade w i t h the Ind ian groups ,formed the bu l k of the goods brough t eastward ove r the Old Span i sh Tra i l . Ame r i can fur t rappe rs a l so

became invo l ved i n th is t rade . J im Beckwou rt h and othe rs ju s t i fied the i r i n vo l vemen t i n horse stea l i ng

as an at tempt to aid the US . war e ffort agai n s t Mex ico (Hafen andHafen , 1993 ,p . 245 Wh i le i t

may not have ac tua l l y had any mi l i tary impac t , the l i ve s tock theft , taken as a w ho le , ce rta i n l y had some

e ffec t . These such a scale by the 1 8403 , that t hey had bad l y weakened the Mex i can

ranchos by dep le t i ng the herd s . (Whi te , 199 1 , p . 43 ) B ryan t ( 1985 ,p . 445 ) report s tha t i n 183 1 t he re

we re horse s , mu le s , etc . i n Ca l i fo rn ia and by 1842 t he re we re

The lega l and espec ial l y i l lega l t rade a long the Old Span ish Tra i l con t inued and expanded ear l ie r

pat te rn s of t rade w i t h Amer ican Ind ians . Notab l y the New Mex i can trade rs t raded w i t h t r i be s ,pri nc i pa l l y the Ute , for s laves taken from othe r tr i be s, some of w hom we re taken to Ca l i forn ia (Hafen

and Hafen , 1993 , p.269) . S lave ra i d ing expanded w i t h the ex tens i on of the Ol d Span i s h Tra i l to

Ca l i fo rn ia (Ma l ou f and Fi nd lay , 1986 , p . In add i t i on to t rade for horse s , fur t rappe rs traded gu n s ,tobacco , kn i ve s and o the r goods w i th the Ute for furs . The t rade i n s laves and l i vestock he l ped some

t r i be s , princ i pa l l y the Ute , become st ronge r and othe rs , such as the Gos iu te and Sou the rn Pa iu te s,

suffe red as a resu l t . The Ute became a horse-r ich nat i on and horse s and mu le s they obtai ned we re

d ispe rsed th rough othe r Ind ian groups and sol d to othe r t rave le rs . The Ute cu l tu re qu ick l y adopted the

horse i n to i t s cu l tu ral and econom ic ac t i v i t ie s . The new mob i l i ty empowe red the Ute to the de t riment ofne i ghbor ing t r i be s . The rap id r ise in the numbe r of t rade rs into Ute te rr i tory qu ickened the inc lus i on of

26

the se per i phera l peop les in to the inte rnat iona l economy . Ute and o the r t ri ba l groups a long the Old

Span i s h Tra i l qu i c k l y learned the bene fi ts of trad i ng w i t h the annua l caravans . Trade rs fo l low i n g the

t ra i l more often inc luded stops in Ind ian Te rr i tory as part of t he i r t rad ing i t i nerary . Tragica l l y , Ind ian

ens lavemen t became a c r i t ica l part of th i s t rade as mo re powe rfu l Ind ian groups used Ind ian capt i ve s

for barte r i n the luc ra t i ve Old Span i sh Tra i l t rade .

Anothe r s i gn i fican t impac t to the Ame ri can Ind ians t r i be s a l ong the t ra i l was the effec t the heavy tra i l

t rade had on the l oca l env i ronmen t . The frequent passi ng of large herds of horse s and mu le s p layed

havoc on the sens i t i ve de se rt env i ronmen t . Scarce wa te r ho le s and pocke ts ofgrass lands u sed by

impove r ished t r i be s such as the Pa i u te we re rou t i ne l y dest royed by the passi ng caravans . Th i s enhanced

the i r vu lne rab i l i ty to at tacks from ne i ghbori ng tr i bes and subjec ted the t r i be s to more de spera te su rv i va l

ac t i v i t ies t hat i nc luded t rad ing the i r young for subs i s tence . (Van Hoak , 7 ; Ke l l y , 1976 : 9 1 )

The sign i ficance of the Old Span i sh Tra i l is comple x . Dur i ng its pe r iod of si gn i ficance , the t ra i l was

en t i re l y w i t h i n Mexico . The t rade ac t i v i ty tha t occu rred a l ong the t ra i l he l ped to break down the

i so lat i on be twee n Mex ico ’

s front ie r prov i nces and l i ke l y con t r i bu ted to the sense ofa nat iona l i den t i ty

on the fron t ie r . The two decade s that immed iate l y preceded the US . conque s t of the reg ion we re c ruc ia l

years i n the de ve l opmen t of the Mex ican nat i on and its fron t ie r, and i n the e vo l u t ion of t rade ,

se t t lemen t , commun ica t i on , and Ind ian re lat i ons . These fac tors had a d i rec t impac t on the manne r i n

wh ich the US . wou l d acqu i re th is te rr i tory . (Webbe r , 1979 , p. 1 35 ) The Old Span i sh Tra i l began as

essen t ia l l y a H ispan ic t rade rou te be tween two Mex ican te rr i tories . Bu t ove r t ime North Ame r i can

trade rs p layed a grea te r ro le in t rade and the t rai l became a mu l t i cu l tu ra l t rade rou te that fac i l i ta ted thet rans fe r and shar ing ofNo rt h Ame r ican, Mex ican , and Nat i ve Amer i can trade prac t ice s . Moreove r , the

t rade rou te c ros sed the terr i tories ofseve ra l au tonomous Ind ian groups and impac ted o the rs that we re

a l ready unde rgo ing s i gn i fi can t cu l tu ra l change as a re su l t of susta i ned con tac t w i t h S pan iard s andMex icans .

Per iod ofS ignifi cance : Trade and Commerce

Wi th i n the con tex t of nat i ona l t ra i l studie s , the per i od of s i gn i ficance i s the t ime pe r iod in wh ich the

nat iona l l y si gn i fican t use occu rred on the tra i l . Th is s tudy i den t i fies the pe r i od ofs i gn i ficance of theOld Span ish Tra i l as 1 829 to 1848 . Notab l y , dur i ng t h i s per i od the Old Span ish Tra i l was en t i re l y

w i th i n the te rr i tor ia l ju r isdic t i on of the Repub l i c of Me x ico .

The Old Span i sh Tra i l prov ided a comme rc ia l connec t ion be tween New Me x ico (and v ia the San ta Fe

Tra i l to the Un i ted S tate s) and Ca l i forn ia . It deve l oped out ofvar i ou s t ra i l s u sed ear l ie r by Ame r ican

Ind ian s , Span i s h exp l ore rs,and othe rs . The connec t ion was fi rs t comple ted in 1829 by the Armijo

exped i t ion, and the Wo lfsk ill-Yount part y comp le ted anothe r connec t ion i n 1830- 183 1 . The las t known

regu lar New Mex ican t rade caravan re tu rned to Santa Fe in 1 848 ,wh ich co i nc ided w i t h the end of the

War be tween the US . andMex ico and the estab l i shmen t ofUS . ju ri sd ic t i on ove r all port ions of the

t ra i l . After t h i s pe r i od , rou te s , bo th no rt h and sou th ,we re rece i v ing the bu l k of t rave l to Ca l i forn ia

(Hafen andHafen , 1993 , p. 36 1)

The easte rn part of the t ra i l was, for the most part , l i t t le used as a rou te to Ca l i forn ia afte r 1848 . Two

groups of t rave lers , both i n 1853 ,noted th is in the i r accounts . Gwynn Harr i s Heap repo rted ,

“At ournoon ha l t , we st ruck a t ra i l w h ich we supposed to be the ol d t ra i l from Abiqu iu to Ca l i forn ia ; but i t hasbeen so l ong d isused tha t i t is now a lmost ob l i terated (Heap , 1854 , p. 89) . Fi rst L ieu tenan t Edward G .

Beckw i t h in h i s repo rt ofthe Gunn i son e x ped i t ion w rote ; “The S pan ish Tra i l , t hough bu t se l dom usedof late years i s s t i l l ve ry d i s t i nc t whe re the so i l washe s bu t s l i gh t l y” (Chenowe th , 1999 , p.28 ) . Heapwas ac tual l y looking at the Fi sh lake Cu toff, a t ra i l var ian t that came into common use afte r 1848 , and

27

not the ma i n tra i l , but the quo te suggests that he cons i de red the old t ra i l from Abiqu iu to Ca l i fo rn ia tobe no longe r ac t i ve l y used .

Al though two groups are documented as taki ng sheep to Ca l i forn ia a long part or all of the Old Span i s h

Tra i l in the ear l y 18503 , th is ac t i v i ty a l so reflec t s the rep lacemen t of the t ra i l by othe r rou tes . Many

thousands more sheep we re taken to Ca l i fo rn ia primar i l y al ong the Gi la and othe r rou tes th rough

Ari zona . One group , i nc l ud i ng Kit Carson , took a he rd of sheep no rt h a l ong the Fron t Range i n

Co l orado and fo l l owed the emigran t t ra i l to Ca l i fo rn ia i n 1 85 3 . The y re tu rned a l ong the Gi la w he re

they passed thousands of sheep be i ng d ri ven to Cal i fo rn ia . B ax te r ( 1987) documen ts o t he r groups ,primar i l y u s i ng the rou te s th rough Ari zona i n the 1 8503 . The rou tes fo l l owed by a few groups are

unknown , a l t hough i t wou l d appear that the Gi la Rou te was prefe rred . The re was a lu l l du ri ng the C i v i l

War . Afte r the war, New Mex i cans resumed tak i ng sheep to Ca l i fo rn ia th rough Ari zona .

Use ofthe weste rn end of the t ra i l en te red a new era beg i nn i n g in the 1847-48 season , w i t h a

documen ted i ncrease i n use by 1850 . A wagon road was de ve l oped connec t ing Sa l t Lake Ci ty and the

Los Ange le s area . Used by Mormons, go l d seeke rs , emigran t s , and o the rs , th i s road u t i l i zed much of thewes te rn end ofthe Old Span i sh Tra i l pack rou te , but var ied i n p lace s from the pack t ra i l as wagon s

cou l d not a lways nego t iate the same te rra in as pack tra i n s .

The Mormon Road/Morm on Co rr i dor ove r laps much of the we s te rn end of the Old Span i sh Tra i l and i t s

use dur i ng the post 1848 pe r i od has some t ie s to the ear l ie r uses a l on g the Old Span ish Tra i l . Howeve r ,i t can a l so be cons i dered a separa te h i s toric rou te w i t h i t s own cohe ren t pa t tern ofu se s and its own

pe riod of s i gn i fi cance . As a rou te used by as many as go l d seeke rs and other Ca l i fo rn ia bound

emigrant s be tween 1849 and 1 869 (Lyman , 1999 , p . i t migh t more appropriate l y be con s i de red as

a var iant of the Ca l i forn ia Tra i l . As a rou te reflec t i ng Mo rmon se t t lemen t i t cou l d pe rhaps be

cons i de red as an ex tens i on of the Mormon Pionee r Tra i l . Inc lud i ng the Mo rmon Road i n the Old

S pan i sh Tra i l i gnores the sec t i on of the fo rme r from Sa l t Lake Ci ty to i ts junc t ion w i t h the Old Span i sh

Trai l . An evaluat i on of the en t i re Mo rmon Road i s ou t s i de the scope of th is s tudy .

The ac t i v i t ies of the many and d i ve rse groups of peop le who c reated the h istory of the Un i ted S ta tesinte rre late i n complex pat te rn s and the rou tes t ha t they fo l l owed form a ne two rk of t ra i l s t ha t i n te rsec t

and ove r lap . The re fore , for the purpose s of th i s s tudy , the Mo rmon Road i s cons i de red to be a separatehiStoric route tha t has suffic ien t h i s tor ica l i dent i ty to be eva luated on i t s own me ri t s as to whe the r or

not i t i s s i gn i fican t i n its own r i gh t , or an importan t c omponen t of the Cal i forn ia or othe r trai l .

Conceptua l l y , th is is a para l le l si tuat ion to the ove rlapp i ng ofothe r h i s toric t ra i l s . The Oregon ,Ca l i forn ia, and Mormon Pi onee r Nat i ona l Histo ric Tra i l s share the same rou te for a con s i de rab ledi s tance . The Che rokee Tra i l , used by emi gran ts to Ca l i forn ia i n the Gold Rus h , over laps the San ta Fe

Trai l , wh ich was primar i l y a t rade rou te . In both of the se examples each rou te ma i n ta i ns its i nd i v i dua l

iden t i ty and reasons for s ign i ficance .

The re fore , the sugge s ted pe r iod ofnat i ona l s ig ni ficance for the Old Span ish Tra i l i s 1829 t o 1848 .

A na lys is Of Na t ional Tra i l s Sy s tem Act C r iter ion C

Background. The th i rd Nat i ona l Tra i ls Sys tem Act cr i te r i on s tates t hat the rou te

(C ) must have significant potent ial for pub l ic recreat iona l use or h istorical interest based on h istoricinterpre tation and apprec iat ion. The potent ial for such use is general ly greater a long roadless segmentsdeve loped as h istoric trai ls and at h istoric si tes assoc iated w i th the trai l . The presence ofrecreat ional

28

po tent ia l not re lated to h istoric apprec iat ion is not suffic ient justification for desi gnat ion under th iscategory .

Potent ia l for pub l ic recreat i ona l use and h i s tor ic interest der i ves from se ve ra l fac tors, inc lud i ng the

ex i s tence ofac tua l t ra i l resource s and h istor ic s i tes t ied to the pe r i od ofs i gn i ficance ofthe t ra i l ;sec t i ons of the t rai l and s i te s w i t h good i n tegr i ty ; su ffic ient info rmat ion abou t the t ra i l as a w ho le andabou t spec i fic h i s tor ic S i te s and even ts found a long i t ; and po tent ia l for the deve l opmen t ofOpportun i t ie s for the pub l ic to re t race the ori g i na l rou te .

Analy s is. The conc l u s i on of th i s s tudy is t ha t the Old Span i s h Tra i l pos se sse s some s t rong

charac te r i s t i c s ofh i s tor ic i n te re s t and rec rea t i ona l po ten t ia l , and some t hat are weake r, but t hat ove ra l l

i t mee t s t h i s cr i te r ion .

A l i s t ofh i s tori c S i te s a l ong the t ra i l rou te i s i nc luded in th i s report i n the Archeo log ica l and Hi s tor i cResou rces sec t ion . Not all of the s i te s l isted wou l d be e l i g ib le for ce rt i ficat ion as component s of a

Nat i ona l Hi s toric Tra i l . The Old Span i sh Trai l cu rren t l y has fewe r documented h istor ic si tes re lat i ng to

some use rs w hen compared to o t he r h i s tor ic rou te s of s imi lar length , e s pec ia l ly w i t h respec t to si te s thatcan be t ied to the New Mex ican t rade caravans . No account s by New Mex ican trade rs have been found ,

excep t for the Arm ij o t ri p i n 1 829 , a l t hough the re are a few second-hand accounts descr i b i ng t rade

caravans and inc idents on the t ra i l . Wi thou t such accoun ts, know ledge is l im i ted abou t how the

caravans t rave led ,w hat was eaten , the i r encounte rs w i th Amer i can Ind ian s , w he re t hey camped ,

d i fficu l t ies they dea l t w i t h , d i sease s , deaths, wea the r, and all the othe r day- to —day occu rrence s on the

t ra i l .

S t i l l, the Old Span i s h Tra i l offe rs po tent ia l for i n terpre t i ng the s tory ofthe t ra i l as i t re lates to those

broad theme s i n Amer ican h isto ry i n wh ich i t p layed a part . Some s i te s (see the“Archeo l og ica l and

Histor ica l Resources” sec t ion ) prov ide good oppo rtun i t ies for he l p i ng peop le learn more abou t h i s tory

as i t re l ates to the l i ve s of the Angl o-Ame ricans, Hispan ics, Ame r ican Indian s , and o t he rs who t rave led ,t raded , and interac ted a l ong the rou te . In te rpre tat ion ofpre-tra i l -e ra t rave l can cont r i bu te to v isi tors

’

understand ing of the l i t t le-know n pol i t ics and prob lems the Span ish , and late r Mex ican , gove rnmen ts

encoun tered i n t ry ing to ho l d on t o far-fl ung nort he rn and we s tern te rr i tor ies in the pre-t ra i l pe r iod .

Wi th in a Nat i ona l Hi s tor i c Tra i l adm in ist ra t ion program , howeve r, interpre tat i on ofe vents leading to

the crea t ion of the t rai l is primari l y done to prov i de con tex t for the t ra i l ’s pe r i od of s i gn i ficance ,wh ic h

is the ma in focu s of interpre tat i on . Becau se much of the i n terpre tat ion of the Old Span ish Tra i l w i t h

respec t to ce rta in use rs i s n ot s i te spec i fi c and re lates to broad trailw ide stor ies, i t may be be s t

accomp l i shed in e x i st i ng museums and i n terpre t i ve fac i l i t ies a long the rou te .

The t ra i l has ve ry s t rong po ten t ia l for the de ve lopment of re t racemen t opportun i t ie s . Large sec t i on s ofthe t ra i l c ross t h rough undeve l oped te rra in, inc lud ing nat iona l fore s ts and Bureau ofLand Management

lands . Ove r mi les ofthe t ra i l are on lands managed by the Bureau of Land Managemen t ; the

USDA Fore s t Se rv ice manage s ove r 3 10 m i le s ; and the US . Fi sh and Wi ld l i fe Se rv ice manage a l most

120 mi les . Th is re lat i ve lack ofdeve lopmen t fac i l i tates pub l ic access , and m in im i zes poss i b le confl ic tsw i t h pr i vate land use s . Hiking/horseback t ra i l s cou l d be de ve l oped on pub l ic land whe re the re are

l onge r cont i nuou s sec t i on s ofthe h i s toric rou te . The re may a lso be sec t ions of the t rai l on pri vate land

th rough w h ic h such h i k i ng t rai l s cou l d a l so be deve l oped i f landow ne rs are w i l l ing . Such re t racemen t

trai l s cou l d be enhanced by appropriate i n te rpre tat i on .

Histor ic maps and d iar ies created by a few t rave lers— before ,dur i ng , and afte r the pe r iod of

s i gn i ficance— he l p document t ra i l l ocat i on s , and many segmen ts of the origina l rou te s and someassoc iated s i tes have been ident i fied . Pre sent-day h i ghways fo l l ow part s of the rou te , and phys ica l

29

remnan ts of the t rai l are pre sen t i n some areas . The Old Span ish Tra i l cu t s across var ied l i fe zones and

scen ic areas of the Colorado Pla teau ,the Great Bas i n , and the Mojave Dese rt . Port ion s of the t rai l

fo l l ow ex i s t ing roads , wh i le othe r part s prov ide opportun i t ie s for a more pr i st i ne w i l de rnes s expe r ience .

Th i s al l ows for a varied , i f gene ral , i n terpre t i ve expe r ience ofthe t rai l per i od .

Fi ve gu idebooks for all or part s ofthe Old Span ish Tra i l are a l ready i n ex i s tence : In Sea rch of the

Spanish Tra il. Santa Fe to Los Ange les, 1 829-1 848 , by C . Gregory Crampton and S teven K . Madsen

Re-Tracing the Old Span ish Tra il, North Branch , by Ron Kes s le r The Moja ve Road

Gu ide ,by Denn i s Caseb ie r wh ich cove rs the Old S pan i sh Tra i l

’

s sou t he rn fork across the

Mojave Dese rt ; Haro l d S te i ne r’s pub l icat i on , The Old Span ish Tra il Across the Mojave Desert: A

History and Gu ide and Backdoo r to Ca lifornia , by C l i fford Wal ker

The Old Span i s h Tra i l has po ten t ia l for bo th h i s torica l i n te res t and rec reat i ona l use re lated to h i s tor i cal

inte rest . A numbe r ofh i stor ica l organ i za t ion s and agenc ies a l ong the t ra i l have expre ssed support for

t ra i l desi gnat i on , thus i ndica t ing the type of grass roots suppo rt tha t is needed to de ve lop Nat i ona l

Hi storic Tra i l p rograms . A trailw ide organ i zat i on , The Old Span ish Tra i l Assoc iat ion , has been i n

ex istence for seve ra l years .

Nat i ona l Hi s tor i c Tra i l programs gene ra l l y focus primar i l y on the pe r i od of s i gn i fi cance . In te rpre tat i on

of the story of the broad cu l tu ra l he r i tage ofthe areas th rough wh ich the t ra i l passe s that are not

cove red i n Nat i ona l Hi s toric Tra i l program can s t i l l be carried ou t by othe r agenc ies and o rgan i zat i on s .

Integr ity ofResou rces. The poten t ia l for h isto r ica l intere s t and rec reat i ona l use re lated to h i s tor ica l

inte re s t is i n part a resu l t of the i n tegri ty of the t ra i l . In Nat ional Regi s ter ofHi s tor ic Place s

termi no l ogy , “

In tegri t y ofResou rce s” i s much more t han a s imp le de term i nat i on of resource cond i t i on .

Rat he r, the i n tegri ty ofa resou rce is the composite effect of seven d i ffe ren t qua l i t ies: locat i on , des i gn ,

se t t ing, mater ia l s , workmansh i p , fee l i n g , and assoc iat i on . These e lemen t s measu re the ab i l i ty Ofa

resou rce to convey its S ign i ficance . It is i mpo rtan t to ask whe the r the t ra i l today reflec t s the spat ia l

organ i za t ion , phys ica l componen t s , and h i s torica l assoc iat ions tha t i t at ta i ned dur i ng the h istoric peri od .

The concepts of de s ign , ma te r ial s , and workmansh i p are primari l y i n tended for the eva luat i on of

h i stor ic bu i ldings, fo rma l gardens, bri dges , and othe r s i mi lar prope rt ies tha t have been bu i l t by man .

Al though there may be l im i ted e v idence of road“bu i l d i ng on the Old S pan i s h Tra i l , i t canno t be

eva luated as an example ofa bu i l t road , but ra t he r as a p lace whe re h i s tori c e ven t s Occu rred . These

th ree e lemen ts of i n tegri ty w i l l not be consi de red becau se t hey are not re levan t to th i s ana l ys is .

Integri t y of locat ion i s eva luated i n the Anal y s is of Nat i ona l Tra i l s S ys tem Act Cri te r i on A sec t ion ,w i t h respec t to i ts re lat i on sh i p to Nat i ona l Tra i l s S ystem Act, See . 5 (b)( 1

For a t ra i l , se t t i ng , fee l i n g , and assoc ia t ion are c lose l y re lated . Se t t i n g i s defi ned as the physica l

en v i ronmen t ofa h i s toric prope rt y . Fee l ing i s a propert y’s expre ss i on of the e s the t ic or h isto ri c sen se of

a part icu lar pe r iod of t ime ; i t re su l ts from the presence of phys ica l featu res tha t , taken toge t he r , conveythe pro pe rty ’s h i s to ric charac te r . Assoc iat ion is the di rec t l i n k be tween an i mportan t h i s tor ic even t anda h i s to ric prope rty . A propert y re ta i n s assoc iat ion i f i t is the pl ace whe re the e ven t occurred and i f i t i s

suffic ien t l y i n tac t to convey that re lat ionsh i p to an obse rve r . Li ke fee l i n g , assoc iat i on requ i re s the

presence ofphys ica l featu re s that con vey a prope rt y ’s h i s toric charac te r . Assoc iat i on , l i ke fee l i ng ,depends on ind i v i dual pe rcept i on s .

The h i stor ic charac te r ofmuch of the Old Span i s h Tra i l is t ied to its rou te t h rough the natu ra l

env i ronment and the e x istence of landscape s re lat i ve l y unchanged from the t ra i l pe r i od . In some cases

(for e xample ,changes i n land use , e s pec ia l l y in the Las Vegas and Los Ange les areas) the se t t i ng has

changed d rama t ical l y . Howeve r , in areas of the rou te t hat are re la t i ve l y untouched by change s i n landuse — such as the mounta ins ofColorado and Utah and the we s te rn dese rts— the se t t ing rema ins much

as i t was h i stor i cal l y . Large-scale featu res such as mounta ins , rock format i on s , and dese rts, large lyunchanged ove r the past 1 50 years , he l p to g i ve the rou te much of its integri ty .

The awe some su rround ing landscapes and the modest ph ys i ca l rema ins ofthe rou te con t i nue to echo

and evoke the h i stor ic scene . The cumu lat i ve effec t of the se t t i ng moun ta i n s and dese rt , con t rast , and

vas t v i s tas— c reate s a sense of past t ime and p lace for any v isi tor w i t h su ffi c ient know ledge of the

h istori c t rave l t hat occu rred al ong the rou te .

Vege tat ion s t i l l show s a l i near pat te rn i ng a l ong the v i s i b le rou te segment s . Much present—dayvege tat i on a long the rou te i n the Mojave De se r t and away from popu lat i on cen te rs is s im i lar i n type ,

scale ,v i sua l effec t , and spec ies to that de sc r i bed h i s tori ca l l y in rou te narrat i ve s . For example , w r i te rs

desc r i bed reach ing the J oshua t rees on the slopes lead i ng up to Caj on Pass— and de sp i te i ncreas i ng

urban i za t ion , undeve l oped areas in Ca l i fo rn ia a long the rou te re ta in s tands of Joshua t rees .

The t ra i l s we re func t iona l . They led be tween wate r hole s and grazi ng areas , gene ra l l y ove r the eas ie s tand most economica l rou te s . In many areas, the mu le t ra i l has been ove r la in and ob l i te rated by late r

whee led ve h ic le t raffic . Al though the appearance of the si ngle t rack has been changed , the se t t ing and

fee l i n g rema in much the same as they we re for th i s h istor i c t ranspo rtat i on corri do r . B ecau se of thenature ofa pack t ra i l , these are subt le concepts , and v i s i tor apprec iat ion i s dependen t on kn ow ledge of

the e ven ts of the t ra i l pe r iod .

Taken as a who le , many sec t ions of the rou te s ofOld Span ish Tra i l today are not un l i ke t hey we re i n

tra i l days . Ove ra l l , the t ra i l has su ffic ien t i n tegr i ty of se t t i ng , fee l i ng , and assoc ia t i on to mee t the

requ i rements ofthe Na t iona l Tra i ls System Act

Feasib i l i t y and Desirab ility

Sec t i on 5 (b) of the Nat iona l Tra i ls System Act requ i res t hat o the r e lements ofa t ra i l des i gnat ion be

e x p lored in a t ra i l s tudy . The Nat iona l Trai l s S ystem Act conta i ns the fo l l ow i ng lan guage :

The feasi b i l i ty ofdes ignating a trai l shal l be de term ined on the bas is ofan eva luat ion ofwhe ther or not i tis p hys ica l ly possi b le to deve lop a trai l along a rou te be ing studied, and whether the deve lopment ofa trai lwou ld be financ ial ly feasi b le .

Whe t he r or not i t wou l d be phys ica l ly possi b le to de ve l op a Nat ional Hi s tori c Trai l a l ong the rou te ofthe Old S pan i s h Tra i l wou l d depend on the ab i l i ty to i den t i fy the h i s tori c rou te ac ross the landscape . It

wou ld al so depend on the poss ib i l i ty of prov id ing for pub l i c use and enj oymen t th rough the

e s tab l i shmen t ofa ne twork ofe x i st ing or proposed rec rea t iona l fac i l i t ies and in te rpre t i ve s i te s whe rev i s i tors cou ld see and t rave l remnant s of the t ra i l . The informat i on i n th i s documen t c lear l y

demonstra tes t ha t phy s ica l deve lopmen t ofa t ra i l is poss i b le ,because the h i s to ric rou te and some

assoc iated h i s tor i c s i te s are known . Add i t i onal s i tes may be i den t i fied w i t h fu tu re re search .

To de te rm ine the fi nanc ia l feasi b i l i ty , consi de rat i on must be gi ven to the cos t ofa managemen t p lan ,

Ope ra t iona l cos ts, and partne rsh i p i n vo l vemen t . The re are se ve ra l d i ffe rent approaches to de te rmin ing

the fi nanc ia l feasi b i l i ty of the Old Span i s h Tra i l as a Nat i ona l Hi s tor i c Tra i l . The in i t ia l fund ingneeded for a new t ra i l wou l d be for the deve lopment ofa comprehens i ve managemen t and use p lan . In

the pas t , the deve lopment of such p lans for e x is t ing Nat iona l Histor ic Tra i ls has co s t approx imate l y

3 1

to Pre l imi nary est imates for at least one ongoi ng t ra i l p lan projec t may exceed

those amoun ts . The re may be add i t i ona l p lann i ng cos ts re lated to the Old Span i sh Tra i l becau se the

much ofthe rou te is on federa l lands, and na t i onal h i s to ric t rai l des i gnat i on may requ i re rev i s i on s to

ex i s t i ng land use/management p lans .

Tra i l s requ i re a base ope rat i ng budge t for the fede ra l admi n i s te ri ng agency . On the bas i s of cu rren t

Nat i ona l Hi s tor i c Tra i l Ope ra t i on s , i t i s es t imated that annual l y wou l d be requ i red to prov i de a

min imum leve l ofprofe s s i onal s taff and support se rv i ces to ope rate a mu l t i-state Nat i ona l Hi s to ric

Tra i l . Experience w i t h ex ist i ng Nat i onal Hi s tor ic Tra i l s i nd i cates t ha t , as t rai ls deve l op succe ssfu l l y ,t he re is l i ke l y to be an inc reased demand by s tate and l oca l agenc ie s , organ i zat ion s , and landowne rs for

se rv ices and fund i ng for t ra i l p rograms .

Fund ing leve l s wou l d not i nc lude large-scale proj ec t s suc h as v ideo or fi lm produc t i on s , major exh i b i t

desi gn and produc t ion packages , or ex tensive re source pre se rvat i on . These k i nd s ofprojec t s wou ld

have to be funded th rough l i ne i tem congressiona l appropriat i on s or fu nd-ra i s i ng e ffo rt s . In recen t

years , Nat i ona l Histo ric Tra i l s have bene fi ted from the autho ri zat i on by Congress of fund i ng des i gnated

for C ha l lenge Cost-Share Programs based on a fi fty-fi fty matc h of fede ra l and non-fede ra l fu nd s .

Because the non-fede ra l s hare can be supp l ied th rough vo lun tee r t ime and o the r in-k ind se rv ice s , these

programs are espec ia l l y at t rac t i ve to the vo lun tee r t ra i l organ i za t ion s and h istor ica l groups who support

t ra i l s . Many sma l l p rojec t s have been accompl i shed a long the ex i st i ng Na t i ona l Historic Tra i l s t h rough

cost-share fund i ng .

In the des i gnat i on of a rou te as a Nat i ona l Hi s tor ic Tra i l , con s ide ra t ion mus t be gi ven to the need for

ove ra l l federa l coo rd i nat i on and ass istance , and the w i l l i n gne ss ofpub l i c agenc ie s , nonprofi t

o rgan i zat i on s , and i nd i v i dua l s to part i c i pate i n the pro tec t i on , i n terpre tat ion , and managemen t of the

tra i l .

Fede ra l coord i na t i on of and assistance w i t h v i s i to r use and preserva t ion i s addre ssed i n the"Al te rnat i ves" and "Env i ronmen ta l Consequence s " sec t i on s

The w i l l ingness and inte re s t on the part ofpub l ic agenc ies, pri vate organ i zat i ons , and i ndi v idua l s i n

part ic i pat ing i n the protec t ion , i n terpre tat i on , de ve lopmen t , and managemen t of the t ra i l have been

demonst rated by man y ac t i v i t ie s and projec ts that are under way or have been comp le ted , some ofwh ic h are documen ted i n the

“

Poten t ia l Partne rsh i ps” sec t i on . Those ac t i v i t ies are d i rec t l y re la ted to

the protec t ion and i n te rpre tat i on of resou rce s re lated to the Old Span i s h Trai l . As is ou t l ined i n th isstudy , i n the Ana l ys i s of Na t i ona l Tra i ls Sys tem Act Cri te r i on C

” sec t i on,there is good poten t ial for

publ ic rec reat ion and h i s torica l inte rpre tat i on a long the Old Span i sh Trai l .

Sec t i on 5 (b) of the t ra i l ac t a l so requ i res that the feas i b i l i ty s tudy addre ss the fo l l ow i ng e lemen ts . The

fo l l ow ing inden ted paragraphs are the e lements from the Na t i ona l Trai l s S ystem Act . They are fo l l owed

by a d iscuss i on of the 0 10 Span i sh Tra i l re lat i ve to each e lemen t . In a few case s , t he re may be fu rt he r

d iscuss i on of the e lement e l sew he re in the documen t .

( 1 ) the proposed route ofsuch trai l , inc luding maps and i l lustrat ions

Maps are prov ided in Append i x C of th i s documen t

(2 ) the areas adj acent to such trai ls, to be used for scenic , h istoric , natural , cul tural , or deve lopmentpurposes

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

(5 ) the est imated cost ofacqu isi t ion of land or interest in land, i f any

Li t t le or no fede ra l land acqu i s i t ion i s an t ic i pated . The managemen t of the Nat i ona l Hi s toric Tra i l

wou l d depend on coope rat i ve partne rsh i ps among the adm i n i s te r ing fede ra l agency , i n te re s ted prope rt y

ow ne rs or land manage rs , and othe r en t i t ie s .

(6) the p lans and costs for deve lop ing and ma inta ining the tra i l

See the i n t roduc t i on to th i s sec t ion for a d i scu ss i on ofp lans and cos t s .

(7 ) the proposed federa l adm inistering agency

The ass i gnmen t ofnat i ona l h i s tori c t rai l admi n i s trat i on du t ie s has genera l l y fo l l owed the

recommendat i on found in Sec t i on 5 (b) of the Na t i onal Tra i l S ys tem Ac t , wh ich state s that the Sec re tary

ofIn te r i or sha l l conduc t t ra i l feas i b i l i ty s tud ies “ th rough the agency mos t l i ke l y to adm i n i s te r such

tra i l .” The Secre tary ass i gned re spon s i b i l i ty for th i s feas i b i l i ty study to the Nat iona l Park Se rv i ce .

The estab l i shed prac t ice of assi gn i ng agency tra i l admi n i s t rat i on du t ie s is cu rrent l y under rev iew . The

Nat i ona l Park Se rv ice adm i n i s te rs 10 of the o the r 13 des i gnated nat iona l h i stor i c tra i l s . The Nat i ona l

Park Se rv ice Long D i s tance Tra i l s Group Office i n Santa Fe adm i n i s te rs or co-adrnin isters the Santa Fe

Tra i l and El Camino Rea l de Tierra Aden tro Nat i ona l Hi s to ric Trai l s . In ear l y 200 1 the Secre tary of

In te r i or d i rec ted the Nat i ona l Park Se rv ice and the Bureau of Land Managemen t to co-admi n iste r E l

Camino Rea l de Tie rra Adent ro Nat i ona l Histor ic Tra i l . Th i s approach to t ra i l adm in i s t rat ion i s

cu rren t l y in the p lann i ng stages . If the Sec re tary d i rec ts the Nat i ona l Park Se rv ice to admi n i s te r the OldSpan i sh Tra i l Nat i ona l Histo r ic Tra i l , then i t wou l d be appropr iate to admi n i s te r the t ra i l from the San ta

Fe office .

To protec t the resou rces a l ong the t ra i l and to prov ide for pub l ic use and i n te rpre tat i on, the lead fede ra l

admin iste ri ng agency wou l d work i n partne rsh i p w i th key t rai l -managi ng fede ral agenc ie s (such as the

Nat i ona l Park Se rv ice , Bu reau of Land Managemen t and the USDA Forest Se rv ice) ; the s tate s ofNew

Mex ico ,Co lorado , Ari zona, Utah , Nevada, and Cal i forn ia ; and o rgan i zat ion s and i nd i v i dua l s , to rende r

mutual suppo rt . Agenc ies , o rgan i zat ions, and pri vate landowne rs re ta i n managemen t respon s i b i l i ty forthe i r lands and part ic i pate i n t ra i l p rograms on a vo lun tary bas i s , assuming that fede ra l land acqu i s i t i on

is l im i ted . An ex i s t ing memorandum ofunde rstand ing prov id i ng for coope rat i ve ac t i v i t ie s a l ong

nat i ona l t rai ls among the Nat i ona l Park Serv ice , Bu reau ofLand Managemen t , and USDA Fore s t

Serv ice was rev ised and s t rengthened i n 200 1 , and now i nc ludes a l so the Fede ra l Hi ghway

Adm in i st rat i on and the Nat iona l Endowmen t for the Arts .

(8) The ex tent to wh ich a state or its po l i t ical subdi v isions and pub l ic and private organi zations migh treasonab ly be e xpec ted to partic i pate in acqu i ring the necessary land and in the adm inistrat ion the reof

Li t t le or no land acqu i si t i on i s env isi oned . Recen t Nat i ona l Hi s to ric Tra i l l egislat ion re s tr ic ts fede ra l

land acqu isi t i on to w i l l i ng-se ller/w illing-buye r s i tuat i on s . Donat i ons of land may occu r, and i t is

usua l l y bene fic ia l to have ownersh i p of such donated land rema in at the loca l leve l . Howeve r, based on

s tate , reg iona l , and l oca l support , s tates and count ie s , as we l l as nonpro fi t and ot her pub l ic

organ i zat ions, wou l d become more suppo rt i ve in the subsequent managemen t of the Nat iona l Hi s tor i c

Trai l . As i s men t i oned i n the “Po ten t ia l Part ne rs h i ps sec t ion,t he re is a grow i ng commi tmen t and

i nvo l vemen t on the part ofagenc ie s , organ i zat i ons, and ind i v i dua l s a l ong the tra i l .

(9 ) The re lat i ve uses ofthe land invo l ved, inc luding the number ofantic ipated visi tor-days for the ent i releng th of, as we l l as for segments of, such a trai l ; the number ofmonths that such trai l , or segmentsthereof, w i l l be open for recreat ion purposes; the economic and soc ial bene fi ts wh ich mi gh t accrue fromal ternate land uses; and the est imated man-years ofc i vi l ian emp loyment and expendi tures e xpec ted for thepurposes ofmaintenance , supervision and regu lat ion ofsuch tra i l

The des i gnat i on of the Old S pan i sh Trai l as a Nat i ona l Histor ic Tra i l probabl y wou l d lead to somei nc rease i n v isi tat ion and tou r i sm revenues. The inc rease wou l d probab l y not be s i gn i ficant on a

regi ona l and sta tew i de sca le . Tou r i sm cou l d inc rease i n loca l commun i t ie s a long the t rai l corr i dor .

Othe r fede ra l , s ta te ,loca l , and pr i vate en t i t ie s wou l d bene fi t from the ove ra l l coord ina t ion ofac t i v i t ies

to prese rve and pro tec t t ra i l -re lated re source s , to i n te rpre t the t ra i l , and to prov ide cons i s ten t

opportun i t ies for v i s i tor use . The coo rd i nat ion of v i s i tor se rv i ce s and i n te rpre tat ion cou l d po ten t ia l l y

i ncrease tour ism revenue .

Desi gnat ion wou l d have l oca l l y bene fic ia l effec t s on the soc i oeconomic env i ronmen t . Loca l

commun i t ies wou l d benefi t from some i ncreased recogn i t i on and poss i b ly greate r unde rstand ing ofcu l tural he r i tage , as we l l as from greate r oppo rtun i t ie s to inte rp re t the t rai l .

The effec ts on land va lue s re su l t i ng from des i gnat ion wou l d be few and l im i ted . As pre v i ous l y

men t ioned , l i t t le or no land acqu isi t i on i s ant ic i pated . Rest r ic t i ve lan guage i n the ac tua l t ra i l

des ignat i on legi s la t ion ,as i s the case w i th o the r Nat iona l Hi s tor i c Tra i ls, cou l d l im i t fede ra l land

acqu i s i t i on to w i l l i ng se l le rs on l y . Some landow ne rs migh t bene fi t from the sa le of lands and

easemen ts . It i s poss i b le t hat loca l munic i pal i t ie s wou l d proh i b i t incompat i b le de ve lopmen t that wou l d

adve rse l y affec t t ra i l resou rces . Landowne rs and de ve l ope rs cou ld be adve rse l y affec ted by such ac t i ons

of loca l gove rnmen ts . The ow ne rs ofadjacent prope rty mi gh t benefi t from such land use ac t ions .

Protec ted tra i l segments w i t h recreat iona l va lues migh t i ncrease nearby res iden t ia l p rope rty va lues . In

some cases, the re cou l d be a loss in prope rty va lue s because of v i s i tor use on adjacen t p ropert ie s ,a l though the s tudy team i s not aware of ev idence of th i s on cu rren t Nat i onal Histor ic Tra i l s . Adve rse

i mpac ts wou l d be m i t i gated by invo l v ing affec ted landowners and o the r i n te rest s i n the protec t i on ofthe tra i l and the natural and cu l tu ra l landscape s tha t are near the t ra i l .

( 10) The antic i pated impac t ofpub l ic outdoor recre at ion use on the prese rvation ofa p roposed Nat iona lH istoric Trai l and its re lated h istoric and archeo log ica l features and se tt ings, inc luding the measuresproposed to ensure evaluat ion and preservat ion ofthe va lues that contri bute to the i r nat iona l h istorica lsi gni ficance

Ifthe Old Span i sh Trai l is de s i gnated as a Nat i ona l Histor ic Trai l , a comprehensi ve managemen t anduse p lan wou l d be prepared that wou l d address the gene ra l l ocat i ons and leve ls of rec rea t i ona l use .

Mi t i gat ing measures wou l d be adopted to ensu re t ha t the re wou l d not be any degradat i on of resou rces .

Pub l i c use leve l s wou l d be managed so t hat resou rces wou l d not be adverse l y affec ted . Al l fede ra l l y

funded , approved , or sponso red projec t s on Nat iona l Hi s tor ic Tra i ls are subjec t to compl iance w i t h the

Nat iona l Env i ronmen ta l Po l icy Act, the Hi s toric Prese rvat i on Act, and othe r fede ra l and state resou rcepro tec t ion law s .

3 5

Poten t ia l Par t nersh ips

Nume rous t ra i l segmen t s are w i t h i n or adjacen t to fede ral l y ow ned land managed by agenc ie s such as

the USDA Fore s t Se rv ice , the Bureau ofLand Managemen t , and Nat i ona l Park Se rv ice ; and Defense

Departmen t i nstal lat i on s at Fort Irw i n i n C a l i forn ia, Ne l l i s A i r Force Range i n Nevada, andWh i te

Sands M i ss i le Range/U tah Launch Complex near Green Ri ve r, Utah .

In Co lo rado , the Bureau ofLand Managemen t (BLM) has worked on documen t i ng and i n te rpre t i n g the

rou te . For example , the Gunn ison Ri ve r B luffs pub l i c use p lan was drafted by the Bureau of Land

Management’

s Grand Junc t i on Fie l d Office ,w i t h i npu t and support from Mesa Coun ty p lanne rs and

commiss ione rs , the Me sa County Ri verfron t Commi ss i on , the Ci ty ofGrand Junc t i on , and nume rou s

o the r pub l i c and pri vate groups and inte re s ted c i t i zen s . Th i s p lan i nco rporated measu res for

inte rpre tat i on and pub l i c use ofsec t ions of the Old Span i sh Tra i l . The coun ty pu rchased land , t ra i l heads

were cons t ruc ted , and a brochure was deve l oped . Th i s succe ss fu l coope rat i ve e ffort has set as i de areas

ofopen space and prov ided for pub l i c educat i on and rec reat ion for the benefi t ofall .

BLM’

s San Lu i s Re sou rce Area manage s the Limek i l n Wagon Tracks si te i n the San Lu i s Va l ley . The

bureau has prov ided for cons truc t ion ofa park i ng l ot , road d i ve rs i on , and ove r l ook . The se pub l i c

fac i l i t ie s he l p to protec t these ex tan t re sou rce s wh i le he l p i ng the pub l i c to learn abou t the i r h isto ry .

The Mon trose D i s t ric t ELM researched Ol d Span i sh Trai l l ocat i ons w i t h i n the i r area, and e rec ted an

inte rpre t i ve k iosk for the pub l i c atWe l l s Gu l c h on US . Hi ghway 50 . B rochu res on the Old Span i sh

Tra i l have been deve loped and d i s t r i bu ted by the ELM’

s Anasaz i Her i tage Cen te r i n Do l ore s , Co lo rado .

The Bu reau of Land Managemen t su rveyed the rou te of the Old Span ish Tra i l from Las Vegas , Nevada,

to the Ca l i fo rn ia borde r, and documen ted e x tan t t ra i l segmen ts and assoc iated art i fac ts . The Ca l i fo rn ia

Dese rt D ist r ic t and the Barstow Fie l d Office of the ELM i n Ca l i forn ia have estab l i shed a h i k i n g t ra i l

al ong a segmen t ofthe Armagosa Ri ve r, and are wo rk i ng w i t h Friends of the Armagosa Ri ve r toward

w i l d and scen ic des i gna t i on for the r i ve r.

The USDA Fore s t Se rv ice and the BLM have j o ined the Rio Grande Coun ty Tou r i sm Board and the OldSpan i sh Tra i l Assoc iat i on as partne rs i n pre se rv ing , pro tec t i n g , and i n terpre t i n g the t rai l . These

part ners are p lann ing for he r i tage tou rism (for example , i n terpre t i ve S tat ions and artwork re lated to therou te) to enhance v i s i tors

'

expe r iences i n the San Lu i s Val ley .

One of the impo rtant campsites/water ho les a long the t ra i l , B i t ter Spri ng, is l ocated w i th i n the De fenseDepartmen t

’

s Fort Irw i n M i l i tary Rese rvat i on i n Cal i forn ia . Fort Irw i n pe rsonne l have arranged for s i te

invento ries, and have adopted pro tect i ve measu res for the s i te .

The Utah Hi s tori cal Soc ie ty is inte res ted i n deve l op i ng an offic ial , easi l y recogn i zab le s i gn l ogo .

The Old Span i sh Trai l Assoc iat i on report s more than 260 membe rs . The se membe rs h i ps i nc lude

h i s torians , archeo l og i s ts, pub l ic land manage rs, educa to rs , w ri te rs , photographe rs, and membe rs of thepub l ic . Th i s group has been ac t i ve in support i ng a Nat i ona l Histor ic Trai l de s ignat i on , and conduc ts

tours , confe rence s , and sem inars ; d ist ri bu tes new s le t te rs and educat ional b rochu res ; and ac t i ve l y

exp lore s and document s sec t ions of the rou te .

A group of i n te re s ted c i t i zens in Durango , Colo rado has e rec ted a memoria l marke r to the Old Span i s hTrai l , Dom ingue z-Esca lante , and J uan Ri ve ra .

36

The Grand Junc t i on chapte r of the Daugh te rs of the Ame r ican Re vo lu t i on donated funds to p lace a

bronze s tatue to memo r ia l i ze p i onee r women who ente red the Grand Va l ley ove r the North B ranch of

the Old S pan ish Tra i l . Th i s s tatue has been p laced i n a new c i ty park that ove r looks the Co l orado Ri ve r

and an i den t i fied stre tch ofthe Old Span i sh Tra i l .

The Grand Junction/Mesa County Ri ve rfron t Comm i ss ion passed a re so lu t i on des i gnat i ng the OldSpan i sh Tra i l (Northe rn B ranch ) as a h istor ic t ra i l . Th i s re so lu t i on was d i s t r i bu ted to all membe rs of

the Co lorado and Utah congress iona l de legat i ons .

Friends ofthe Mojave Road i n Essex , Ca l i fo rn ia, pub l ish a new s le t te r, conduc t tours , document s i te s

and road segment s , and ma i n ta i n a large re fe rence l i b rary ofmate r ia l s re lated to the Moj ave Road , and

to the Old Span ish Tra i l ofwh ich i t became a part .

The Las Vegas Va l ley Wate r D ist ric t has been ac t i ve i n support i ng the Moj ave Dese rt Pre se rve , and has

de ve l oped a mas te r p lan for its prese rvat i on . The d ist r ic t’

s No rt h We l l F ie l d , w i th in the pre se rve ,

con tains s ign i fican t preh i sto r i c and h i s tori c cu l tura l re sou rce s, inc lud i ng the B ig Spri ngs

Archaeo log ica l D ist r i c t . B i g Spri ngs was an i mportan t campi ng area on the Old Span i sh Tra i l

The rou te t rave rse s seve ra l Ind ian rese rva t ions, so t ri be s mi gh t be i n te re s ted i n coope rat i ve educat i on

and resou rce pre se rva t ion e fforts .

The Workman and Temp le Fam i l y Museum ,Ci ty of Industry, Ca l i forn ia, featu res art i fac ts and

i n te rpre tat i on re lat ing to the Workman fami l y, i nc luding the ir joumey a l ong the Old Span ish Tra i l .

Visi tors to t h is loca l h is to ry museum come to apprec iate the broad impac t that the t ra i l had on the

deve lopmen t ofCa l i forn ia and the Wes t .

Othe r spec ial i zed museums and arch i ves w i t h an ac t i ve i n te rest i n the Old Span ish Trai l inc lude the

D i ocese ofSan Bemardino Office ofArchives ; the San Bem ardino County Museum Assoc iat i on i n

Red lands , Ca l i forn ia ; the Ri ve rs i de Mun ic i pa l Museum ; and the Bars tow Ri ve r Va l ley Museum i n

Bars tow, Ca l i forn ia . The Utah Wes te rne rs have he l ped to l ocate and S i gn rou te segmen ts .

The mas te r p lan for San Bemardino County, Ca l i fo rn ia, i nc ludes recogn i t i on and interpre ta t ion ofthe

Old S pan ish Tra i l . In add i t ion , the Ci ty ofVic torv i l le i s worki ng on riverwalk t rai l s tha t may para l le l or

fo l l ow the ac tua l rou te of the Old Span ish Tra i l .

A new memoria l to the Old S pan i sh Tra i l on the Pueb lo de Los Ange le s Plaza was c reated th rough thecomb i ned effort s of pr i vate i nd i v i dua l s, Los Pob ladore s de Los Ange le s , and the O ld Span i s h Trai l

Assoc iat i on .

The Amigos de Anza and Los Califom ianos groups have expres sed i n te rest i n the Old Span i sh Tra i l .

The Vi rgi n Ri ve r Land Prese rvat ion Assoc iat ion (Utah ) i s work ing on an ex tens i ve t ra i l system in the

Vi rg in Ri ver Bas i n ,wh ich wou l d l i ke l y i nc lude t ra i l sec t i on s a long the Old Span ish Tra i l and the

Domingue z-Esca lante Rou te ,and key access poi n ts and fac i l i t ie s .

37

OTHER THEMES CONSIDERED WITH RESPECT TO NATIONAL S IGN IFICANCE

GENERAL

Al though t rade was the pr imary ac t i v i t y that occurred a l ong the Old Span i sh Trai l , i t was not the on l y

one . Those assoc iated w i t h othe r t heme s we re ana l yzed and found to have at least state or l ocal

s i gn ifi cance . In some cases , the de te rm i nat ion is that the t rave l is part ofa longe r rou te that ove rlaps

part of the Old Span i sh Tra i l , and i t is not appropria te to asc r i be the s i gn i ficance of the part icu lar t rave l

to the Old Span ish Tra i l .

Th roughou t the earl y h i s to ry ofthe Un i ted S tates , many peop le from d i ve rse backgrounds t rave led ove ra w i de ne two rk of t ra i l s . V i rtua l l y all of t hem we re engagi ng in ac t i v i t ies t hat , taken as a who le , had an

impac t on the deve l opmen t of our nat ion’

s h istory and cu l tu re . It sh ou l d not be conc luded , based on the

fo l l ow ing d iscuss i ons, t hat when the t rave l of part icu lar groups is de te rmi ned no t to be nat i ona l l y

s i gn i ficant th i s i nd i cates that the t rave l was not at some le ve l i mpo rtan t , or that the ach ievemen ts of

t rave lers are to be con s i de red i ns i gn i fican t . Indeed , anyone who t rave led long d istances across the We s t

in h i s tor i c t imes shou l d be gi ven consi de rab le cred i t for the i r cou rage , dar i ng , and tenac i ty . Howeve r,the goa l ofa nat i ona l t ra i l study i s to de termine these rou te s tha t we re not on l y pa rt of the impo rtan t

e vents in Ame r ica’

s h isto ry , bu t t ha t , by themse l ves, had broad impac ts on tha t h i story . Some t ra i l s maymee t the c ri te r ia for na t i ona l s i gn i ficance w i th in one theme ,

w h i le a lesse r numbe r mi gh t be sign i fi cant

w i t h respec t to more than one t heme . Many h isto ric t ra i l rou tes are me r i to r ious, and wou l d be

s i gn i fican t at the l ocal and sta te leve l s . A few t ra i ls wou l d be consi de red ou tstand ing , and thus wou ld

mee t the cr i te r ia for des i gna t ion as Na t iona l Historic Tra i l s .

Event s happen ing a l ong the Old Span ish Tra i l as a w ho le , bu t more frequent l y on l y a long sec t i on s ofthe t ra i l , p layed a ro le i n many of the broade r nat i ona l themes be i n g played out ac ros s the We s t ,i nc lud i n g exp l ora t ion , immigra t i on, comme rce , i mpac ts upon and re lat ions w i t h Ame ri can Ind ians , the

fur t rade , and more . Howeve r, when examined i n de ta i l , the e vents a l ong the Old Span i sh Tra i l can be

seen as part s of larger themes de ve l op i ng ac ross the We s t i n wh ich the t ra i l d i d not p lay a c r i t i ca l ro le .

The t ra i l wou l d have a loca l or state le ve l of s i gn i ficance w i t h respec t to the se t hemes , but wou l d not be

conside red to have an assoc iat ion of the“h i ghe st importance , or to have had “

far reach i ng e ffec t s on

broad pat te rn s of Ame r ican cu l ture , as ca l led for in the Nat iona l Hi s tor ic Landmark c ri te ria and the

Nat i ona l Trai l s System Act . As ide from the peop le who used the e n t i re t ra i l be tween New Mex ico and

Ca l i fo rn ia, other use rs of the Old S pan i s h Tra i l , such as late r mi l i tary su rveyors or Mormons on the

weste rn segmen t , we re engaged in t ri ps that on l y took them along sec t i on s ofthe t ra i l , as part of’

longer

joumeys . Many of the se j ourneys may be h i sto ric t ra i l s i n the i r own ri gh t , and the ins i gn i ficance s hou l dbe asc ri bed to the en t i re length of the particu lar joumey , not to the Old Span i sh Tra i l .

IMMIGRATION

Imm i grat i on to Ca l i fo rn ia on the Old Span i sh Tra i l by New Me x icans,Un i ted S tates c i t i zen s , and

o t he rs mu s t be ana l yzed i n the con te x t ofthe popu lat ion i n the reg i on,and the tota l movemen t ofpeop le

to the area a l ong the Old Span i sh Tra i l i n compar ison to othe r rou te s peop le used to move to Ca l i fo rn ia .

Popu lat i on est imates ofnon-Ind ians i n Ca l i forn ia be tween 182 1 and the Go ld Rush vary . Wh i le spec i fi cnumbe rs may not be comple te l y accura te , the ove ra l l t rends are cons i stent . Sanchez g i ve s thefo l low ing est imates :

in the late Spanish period the popu lat ion [ofCa l i fornia] was bare ly creep ing over peop leThroughout the 1 8403 the population ofCal i fornia fluc tuated probab ly reach ing around

maybe by the early days ofthe Go ld Rush . But by 1852 ,w i th the go ld rush , the population

ofCal i fornia swe l led to over inhab i tants .

Du r i ng the same pe ri od , New Me x ico had an est imated popu lat i on of i n 1 82 1 , and i n

1 846,show i ng on l y a percen t grow t h rate compared to 5 percen t for Ca l i fo rn ia and percen t for

Mex i co as a who le (Webe r 1982 : 195 ,

Webe r ( 1982 z206) g i ves an e s t imate for the Hi span i c popu lat ion ofCa l i fo rn ia of i n 182 1 and

in 1845 ,wh ic h i s s i mi lar to the c i ted by Dr . J oh n Marsh i n an 1 845 le t te r (S h i nn

A rat he r h i gh fi gure for the popu lat i on ofAlta Ca lifornia i n 1 836 of w i t h a

popu lat i on for Mon te rey of is found in the D ia r io Ofi c ia l (Es tados Un i dos de Mex ico 1836 1 1 80)i n Me x ico Ci ty . The Dia r io Ofl cia l a l so g i ve s fi gu res for Baja Ca lifornia of and New Mex i co of

w i th a popu lat ion i n San ta Fe of Faxon D . Athe rton g i ve s an 183 8 est i mate of

the Ca l i forn ia popu lat ion as probab l y abou t w h i te i n hab i tan ts , mos t l y de scendan t s of Spani s h

so ld ie rs [and] abou t 500 fore igne rs , ofw h i ch a[re ] hun te rs and sum [m]ary sa i lors”

(Ho l l i s 1999 ,

quo t ing from the Athe rton manu scr i p t co l lec t i on ) .

The fore i gn ma le popu lat i on not ofSpan i s h b l ood has been gi ven as 150 in 1 830 , 300 in 1 835 , 3 80 i n

1840,and 680 i n 1845” (B ancroft 1886b z 524) . Dr . John Marsh , in an 1845 le t te r , e s t i mates that t he re

we re abou t 900 fore i gne rs i n Ca l i forn ia, ofwhom abou t 700 we re Ame r ican (S h i nn -532)Abou t 1848 , the non—Hispanic/non

-Ind ian popu lat i on ofCa l i fo rn ia was around (Banc roft

1886b z524) .

Spai n andMex ico were not succes s fu l i n encou rag i ng co l on i s ts to move north to Ca l i fo rn ia,lead i ng to

a pol icy ofsendi ng conv ic ts nort h as se t t lers (Webe r Conv ic ts were sen t to San ta Cruz andSan Jose , Ca l i fo rn ia , i n 1795 . Some conv ic t col on i s t s arr i ved i n 1 825 , and i n 1829 a more systemat icprogram was i n i t iated . Abou t 150 conv ic t s came to Cal i fo rn ia i n 1829- 1830, lead i ng to pro tes ts fromthe c i t i zens of Ca l i fo rn ia . In 1842 , an add i t iona l 150 conv ic t s and the i r women reac hed Ca l i forn ia

(Webe r

Ano the r group Of se t t lers , pr imar i l y from the Mex ico C i ty area , came to Ca l i fo rn ia in 1834 . A to ta l of

239 col on ists we re recru i ted to e stab l ish a se t t lemen t i n northe rn Ca l i fo rn ia as a check aga i n s t theRuss ian se t t lemen t at Fort Ross . These se t t le rs i nc luded many w i t h profes s i ons and t rade s , such asteacher , lawye r , doc tor, carpen ter , and shoemake r . They arr i ved i n Ca l i fo rn ia by sh i p . The

e stab l i shmen t of the col ony fai led due to po l i t ica l d i spu te s , but mos t ofthe co lon i sts s tayed i n

Ca l i forn ia (Webe r 1982 : 185

Immigrat i on by Hi span i c New Mex ican s a l ong the Old Span i sh Tra i l was re la t i ve l y l im i ted ,a l t hough i t

wou ld appear that the re was l i t t le , i f any, New Mex ican imm i grat ion to Ca l i forn ia t hat d i d not use theOld Span i s h Tra i l . New Mex i can immi grat ion began i n the late 1 8303 , w i th the largest groups i n the18403 , wh ich led to the e s tab l i shmen t of the commun i t ie s ofAgua Mansa and La Plac i ta (Har ley

Based on known groups and ind i v i dua l s , i t wou l d appear that pe rhaps 200 to 400 New

Mex ican s are known to have moved to Cal i fo rn ia dur i ng the late 18303 and earl y 18403 . It i s d i ffi cu l t toest imate the tota ls because the record often on l y l i s t s numbe r of fam i l ies and not numbe r of i nd i v i dua ls .

Fu rt her research may he l p c lari fy the ac tua l numbe rs of i mmigrants from New Mex i co .

The commun i t ies ofAgua Mansa and La Plac i ta d id se rve as a buffe r agai nst i ncu rs ions by Ind ian

groups, and part ic i pated in pun i t i ve exped i t ions aga ins t such rai de rs . They a l so part ic i pa ted in at least

40

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Ove ra l l , non-Mex ican immi grat i on to Ca l i forn ia a l ong the Old Span i sh Tra i l was one part ofa d i ve rse

pat te rn of i mmi gra t i on u s i ng many rou tes i n the 18203 t h rough the 1 8403 . It was neve r the dominan t

rou te of immi grat i on , and wou l d the re fore qua l i fy as be i ng of state sign i ficance but not of nat i onal

s i gni ficance w i t h i n th i s con tex t .

The movemen t ofpeop le and se t t lement on the Old Span i s h Trai l and the impac t of th is movemen t

we re a smal l part of the w ho le . By i tse l f, t h i s movemen t was assoc iated w i t h h i s to rica l e ven ts ;howeve r , i t doe s not qua l i fy as nat i onal l y s i gn i fican t , because the spec ific assoc iat i on was not, by

i tse l f, when compared w i t h all o the r rou te s of i mmi grat i on , of the h i ghe s t impo rtance , wh ich is ca l led

for i n the Nat i ona l Landmark c r i te rion . It wou l d qua l i fy as hav i ng s tate-leve l s i gn i ficance .

THE AMERICAN CONQUEST OF CALIFORNIA

Some h isto rica l accoun t s (S z’

mche z 1999 , for example) sugge s t that the Ame r ican immi gran t s go i ng to

Cal i forn ia on the Old Span i sh Trai l p layed an i mportan t ro le , espec ia l l y pri or to 1840, i n the Ame ri can“ fi fth co lumn (Webe r wh ich he l ped promote the Amer i can takeove r ofCa l i forn ia . Mex ican

offi c ial s i n Cal i fo rn ia and Texas we re vo i c i ng the same sen t imen t i n the 18303 and 18403 . Howeve r,wh i le Amer i can s t rave l ing the Old Span i sh Tra i l d i d jo i n th i s

“fi fth co lumn ,

”so d i d those who en te red

Ca l i fo rn ia by means of the Gi la and o the r rou tes . The hundreds who arr i ved by sea s i gn ifican t l y

ou tnumbe red those who arr i ved by land

Wh i le some of t hose who i mmi grated to Ca l i forn ia on the Old Span i sh Tra i l p layed leade rsh i p ro les i n

the Ame r ican commun i ty , such as John Row land and Wi l l iam Workman (Hafe n and Hafen 1982 2 16

so d id many more who arr i ved by othe r rou te s , such as J ohn Marsh , Thomas Lark i n , J oh n Su t te r ,and Abe l S tearn s , all ofwhom we re major figu res among the Americans and o the r fore i gne rs i n

Ca l i forn ia (B i l l i n gton and Ri dge

The ac t i v i t ies ofOld Span i s h Tra i l t rave le rs i n Ca l i fo rn ia do not seem to derive d i rec t l y from the i r

t rave l on the Old Span i s h Tra i l as much as they d i d from the i r late r economi c , soc ial , and po l i t i ca l

ac t i v i t ie s i n Ca l i fo rn ia and a gene ra l suppo rt ofAme r i can expansion . Th i s wou l d h ol d t rue for many

othe r fore i gne rs who arr i ved by othe r rou te s , such as those coming th rough Arizona . Landow ne rsh i p

and o the r bus i ne ss i n te res ts prov ided incen t i ves for i ncreas i n g po l i t i ca l and economic powe r . What was

happen i ng i n Cal i fo rn ia can be compared to s imi lar ac t i v i t ies i n New Mex i co , i n w h ich some t raders

i n i t ial l y moved to New Mex ico i n orde r to cont i nue t he i r San ta Fe Trai l t rade ac t i v i t ies . The i r economic

incen t i ve for an Ame r ican takeove r i n New Mex i co was mo re d i rec t l y t ied to the i r San ta Fe Tra i l t radeac t i v i t ies . The c l ose tie be tween the Ame r i can takeove r ofMex ico and the San ta Fe t rade wase x pressed by Senator Thomas Hart Benton w i t h regard to the Mex i can-Ame r i can War:

“Our fi rs t care

in th i s sudden change i n our re lat i on s w i t h that coun t ry [Mex ico] was to try and take care of our San taFe t rade . For th i s pu rpose i t w i l l be proposed to the peop le ofNew Mex ico ,

Ch i huahua, and othe r

inte rna l prov i nces, tha t they rema i n qu ie t and cont i nue t rad i ng w i th us as usual , upon w h ich cond i t i on s

they sha l l be pro tec ted i n all the i r r i gh ts and t reated as fr iends” (Lamar 1966 z 57) . It does not appear tha t

the con t inuat i on of t rade and t rave l on the Old Span i s h Tra i l was a s imi lar conce rn i n the ac t i v i t ies ofthe fore i gne rs i n Ca l i fo rn ia, a l though cont i nued i nvo l vemen t i n the tal l ow and h ide t rade ,

land

specu lat i on , and landowne rs h i p we re incen t i ve s . Th i s sen t i men t is i l lus t rated by a say i ng among

Ame rican me rc han t s i n Ca l i forn ia who conve rted to Catho l ic i sm for the sake of t rade ,A man mus t

leave h i s consc ience at Cape Horn (Wh i te

Trave le rs in the Ame r ican unde rground who used the Old Span ish Tra i l to get to Ca l i fo rn ia we re asmal l part ofa muc h large r group who arr i ved a long nume rous rou tes and who we re invo l ved i n si mi lar

42

ac t i v i t ie s . The i r ac t i v i t ie s we re t ied more d i rec t l y to po l i t ica l and economic i n terest s i n Ca l i fo rn ia, and

the re i s l i t t le tie be tween the se late r ac t i v i t ies and the i r use of the Old S pan i sh Tra i l .

THE DEVELOPMENT OFWESTERN TOWNS

It has been suggested that the deve l opmen t of towns such as San Bernard i no , Las Vegas , Cedar C i tyMoab , Durango , and othe rs on the Old Span ish Tra i l was s i gn i ficant (Gough Gough suggests

that i n the ar i d We s t , town s tha t deve l oped a long t ra i l s tend to t h r i ve w h i le those not along the se rou tes

do not . Th i s process can be compared w i th the re lat ion sh i p ofwate rways to the deve l opment of townsin the Eas t . Some town s and c i t ie s a l ong the Old Span i s h Tra i l predate the t ra i l era . For e xamp le , Santa

Fe was se t t led i n 16 10 and was not then d i rec t l y a l ong a maj or t ra i l , and Los Ange les was se t t led by sea

i n 1769 . Ove ra l l , th i s i dea may have some me r i t w i t h regard to many we ste rn t ra i l s .

The deve l opment of such trai l -re lated towns t ie s to many fac to rs, i nc lud i ng ava i lab le re sou rces, wate r

and othe r fac tors, such as ra i l roads . Cedar C i ty , for example ,was founded as part of the Mormon

C hu rch ’s Iron M ission large l y because of the resou rce s ava i lab le in the area , and was not d i rec t l y a

resu l t of the Old Span i sh Tra i l t raffic be tween New Mex i co and Ca l i forn ia . The town of Durango was

p l ot ted out as a ra i l road town i n 1 880 . Moab was fi rst se t t led by a group ofMormons in 1 855 ; t heywe re forced to leave , and se t t le rs d id not re tu rn unt i l 22 years late r . The S pan i sh estab l ished se ve ra l

miss ions in the San Bemardino va l ley . Hispan ic se t t lemen t i n the San Bemardino val ley wasencou raged as a “

sh ie l d aga i nst unwanted i n trude rs pass ing ove r the Cajon Pass on the Old Span i sh

Tra i l”

(Gough 19992 3 ) and se t t le rs from New Mex ico ,who t rave led the Old Span ish Tra i l , estab l i shed

commun i t ie s in the area . Mo rmon s establ ished a co l ony at San Bemardino in the ear l y 1 8503 .

Wh i le the ove ral l se t t lemen t of the West by Euro-Ame r i can s migh t be con s ide red nat i onal l y s i gn i fican t ,the deve lopmen t of towns such as San Be rnard i no , Las Vegas, Moab , Cedar C i ty , Durango , and o the rs

a l ong the Old Span i sh Tra i l wou l d not be deemed to have a“far reach i ng effec t on bread pa t te rn s of

Ame r i can cu l ture , as is requ i red by the Nat i ona l Tra i ls Sys tem Act, or to be of the“h i ghe s t

importance , or ou t s tanding l y represent” these even ts . These towns are fai r l y typ ica l weste rn tow nscompared to othe rs of s im i lar s i ze ,

a l t hough i n recent years, many have been th ri v ing because of

rec reat iona l , economic , l i fe s ty le , and othe r con temporary reasons . They wou ld qua l i fy as be i n g of loca l ,or i n some cases ofstate , si gn i ficance .

M ILITARY EXPEDITIONS AND TRAVEL

The Old Span ish Tra i l was used by a numbe r ofm i l i tary groups and groups w i t h mi l i tary as soc ia t ions .

Most of th is t rave l invo l ved the use ofsec t ions of the t ra i l ofvary ing lengths as part s of l onge r t r i ps .

Eva luat ion of the s i gn i fi cance of these var i ous and un re la ted t ri ps requ i re s a compar i son w i t h thesign i ficance of s i mi lar mi l i tary t rave l du ring the same t ime pe r iod . Most of these e x pedi t i ons used on l ypa rt of the Old Span i s h Tra i l . The re are two issues to cons ide r : One is de te rm i n ing the s i gn i ficance ofa

part i cu lar t ri p ; the second is whe t he r the s i gn i ficance of tha t e x ped i ti on is to be asc r i bed to the OldSpan i sh Tra i l or to the en t i re rou te of the t ri p be ing con s i dered .

In evaluat i ng the m i l i tary e x pedi t ions on the Old Span i s h Tra i l,i t i s importan t to no te tha t the re we re

many mi l i tary expedi t ions ac ross the We s t tha t d i d not i n vo l ve the O ld Span i sh Tra i l , wh ic h are we l l

documented by Goetz mann ( 1966 and Othe r ra i l road su rve y e x ped i t i ons i n 1853 inc lude Parke( 1853 ) and Pope both along the 32nd paral le l ; and S te vens andMcCle lland,

bo t h al ong 47 thand 49th paral le ls . Ex ped i t ions around the t ime of the Mex ican-Ame r icanWar inc lude Fremont

43

Abe rt Emory-Keamy and Cooke Late r exped i t i on s i nc lude S tan sbu ry

S itgreaves Marcy-S impson Warren ( 1 855 , 1 856, Rayno l ds ( 1859 and

Parke ( 1 859 A comple te anal y s i s ofthe s ign ificance of the exped i t i on s that u sed part s of the Old

Span i sh Trai l wou l d requ i re a theme ana l ys i s and compari son w i t h the se other s i mi lar exped i t i on s .

A number of Mormon War exped i t i on s we re sen t out to fi nd rou te s i n to Utah i n an t ic i pat i on of the

need to supp l y manpower for the US . Army t roops tha t we re part ofAlbert S i dney J ohn ston’

s Army of

Utah , i nc lud i ng Macomb ’

s t r i p (Goet z mann Johnston’

s t roops were sen t to Utah i n

ant i c i pat i on ofa Mormon revo l t . Accord i ng to Goetz mann l 96oz 3o6) , the 1858 exped i t i on led by

Lieu tenan t J oseph Ch r i s tmas Ives was one of the most importan t of these exped i t ions, lead i ng to the

fi rs t Eu ro-Amer i can exp l orat i on s of the bo t tom of the Grand Canyon . Dr . Newberry , who had been w i th

Macomb , was a lso the geo l ogi st on t h is exped i t i on . A maj or accompl ishmen t ofMacomb’

s exped i t i on

was sc ien t i fi c obse rvat i on s by geo l og i s t Joh n S . Newbe rry . Goetz mann sugge s ts t hat Macomb’

s

exped i t i on was a lmos t equal i n importance to that of Ive s . Anothe r “Mo rmon War”exped i t i on was the

Great Bas i n exp lorat i on led by Capta i n Jame s Hervey S impson , wh ich a l l owed geol ogi s t Hen ry

Enge lmann “an opportun i ty to make a comp le te t ran scon t i nen ta l p rofi le from the M iss i ss i pp i to the

Pac i fi c (Goetz mann l 966 z 3o9) .

Fremon t ’s j ou rney ofexp l ora t i on i n 1 843-1844 ove r lapped segmen t s of the Old Span i s h Tra i l a l on g i t s

weste rn ha l f. Th i s and Frémonts 1 842 exped i t ion have often been c i ted as h i s most s i gn i fican t . In h i s

publ i s hed report , w h ich came out i n ear l y 1845 , he named the Old Span i s h Tra i l for the fi rs t t ime to the

Amer ican publ ic . Mo re import an t l y , the report i den t i fied correc t l y the Grea t Bas i n , thu s fi l l i ng the las t

vo i d i n con temporary maps of the cen tra l North Ame r ican con t i nen t . Goetz mann ( 1959 : 103 ) says tha t

Fremon t’s mos t impo rtan t i nfluence was not on gove rnmen t offi c ia l s bu t on the pub l ic . His repo rt

he l ped fue l the u rge for westward expan s ion, and h i s report and maps we re used by some i mmi gran ts as

gu ides i n the i r we s tward t rek (Goetz mann Fremon t’s glow i n g report of the Great Sa l t Lake

area i nsp i red B righam Young to bring the Mo rmon s the re to se t t le (Goe tz mann The re are

reports that some caravan commanders on the Old Span i s h Tra i l carr ied cop ie s ofFrémont’

s report as a

gu i debook (Wylly Howeve r , i t i s doubtfu l t ha t h i s s ho rt j ou rney a l ong a segmen t of the Old

Span ish Tra i l was the mos t i mportan t part ofh i s t ri p , as compared to the segmen t a l ong the Oregon

Tra i l . In 1846, a map based on Frémont’

s data was publ ished show i n g the Oregon Tra i l i n grea t de ta i l

and th i s map was w i de l y used by weste rn t rave le rs (Goe tz mann 1959 : 105 His report d i d i nduce

some t rave le rs to fo l l ow i n h i s foots teps on the varian t rou te a l ong the Amargosa Ri ve r across part o f

the Mojave De se rt (Warren and many immigran ts fo l l ow i ng the road from Sa l t Lake Ci ty to

Los Ange les did take cop ie s o f h i s w r i t i ngs a long .

A fu l l anal y s i s of the s i gn i ficance ofFremon t’

s entire joumey and his o the r exp lorat i ons i s beyond thescope Of th i s s tudy . The re is no doub t that he was i nd i v idua l l y a s i gn ificant h i stor ica l fi gu re , and thathis exp l orat i on s we re s i gn i ficant in Ame rican h i s tory . Goetz mann ( 1966 z240) sugge s t s t ha t Fremon t

’s

exp l orat i on s be tween 1842 and 1845 may e ven surpas s the importance of the Lew i s and Clark

exped i t i on i n“the calcu la ted use of exp l ori ng exped i t i ons as d i p l omat i c weapons .

”Robert Ut ley agree s ,

and, in re fe rr i ng to Fremont’

s accompl i shment s i n his 1842 and 1843 - 1844 exped i t ions, sugge s ts t ha t

Fremon t“

ranks w i t h a hand fu l ofpremie r exp l ore rs of the Ame r i can Wes t . (Ut ley 1997 : 202)Howeve r , i t i s the entire route ofFrémont

’

s exped i t i on to w h ich s i gn i ficance shou l d be ascr i bed , and

not the en t i re Old Span i sh Tra i l from New Mex i co to Ca l i fo rn ia,when on l y part s of t hat t ra i l we re

ac tua l l y used by Fre’

mon t .

Gunn i son’

s tri p has been de scri bed as the wors t d i saste r su ffe red by the Army i n the We s t u p to that

t ime ,and the pub l ic i ty i t rece i ved was a se ve re b low to advocate s ofa cen tra l rai l road rou te

(Goetz mann Fi rst L ieu tenant Edward G . Beckw i t h,who w ro te the report of the Gunn ison

44

exped i t ion , became the leader of the rema i nder of the e x ped i t ion afte r Gunn i son ’s dea th . Beckw i t h

exp l ored the Wasa tch , and then , w i t h the add i t i on of su rv i vors ofFremon t’

s second d i saste r,”he took

the group we s t from Sal t Lake Ci ty a l ong the 4 l st para l le l an t ic i pat ing the ac tua l rou te taken by thefi rst t ranscont inenta l ra i l road . Howeve r, he d i d not put cost e s t imate s i n h is fina l repo rt , and i t was“v i rtua l l y i gnored

” i n the fi na l eva luat ion of the ra i l road su rveys (Goetz mann l9o6 z288 ) .

Accord i ng to Goetz mann ( 1959 z295 the ra i l road exp l orat i on exped i t ions d i d not have t he i r

de s i red e ffec t of prov i d i ng a conc lusi on regard ing the bes t rou te for a ra i l road- a l t hough the 3 8th

para l le l rou te was e l im i nated earl y as a resu l t of Gunn i son’

s su rvey . Ove ra l l , Goetz mann ma i n ta i n s , the

rou te se lec t i on was i l logical , and the info rmat ion co l lec ted was some t i mes inaccu ra te , and ofdub i ou s

va lue in mak ing a se lec t ion . Po l i t ics and regi ona l boos te r i sm con t i nued as the su rvey s we re e va luated .

In the end, the con t roversy ove r wh ich was the bes t rou te con t inued . Ul t imate l y , the Cen tra l Pac i fi c

Ra i l road , bu i l d i ng eastward from Ca l i forn ia , and the Un ion Pac i fic Ra i l road, mov i ng westward acros s

Nebraska andWyoming , comple ted the i r own su rveys to de te rm i ne the fi na l rou te pr ior to the i r h i s to ricmee t i ng at Promontory Po i n t i n Utah .

The re we re nume rous exped i tions primar i l y led by the US . Army ’

s Corps ofTOpographic Engi nee rs .

They i nc luded a var ie ty ofsc ien t i sts, i nc lud i ng geol og i s t s , zoo logists, and botan i s ts . They brough t back

cons i de rab le i n format i on abou t the West . A comple te eva luat i on of the s i gn i ficance ofa ll t hese

e x ped i t ions and o the r mi l i tary t rave l i s beyond the scope of th i s s tudy . It wou l d requ i re a large t heme

study , done w i t h i n the gu i de l ine s of the Nat i ona l Regi s te r program , i n wh ich a compara t i ve studywou l d be conduc ted to de te rmi ne the re la t i ve S ign i ficance of the ind i v i dua l t r i ps .

The carry i ng ofd i spatches, such as was done by Kit Carson a long the Old Span ish Tra i l , was a rou t i nemi l i tary ac t i v i ty . Indeed , the tri p was not hu rr ied , and upon arr i v i ng i n Taos , Carson spent a few days

w i t h h i s fami l y be fore cont i nu ing on (Hafen and Hafen In 1846 , he carr ied d i spatche s from

Ca l i forn ia eas t a l ong the Gi la Rou te i n Ari zona , and he fo l lowed the same rou te aga i n i n earl y 1847

(Hafen and Hafen Othe r mounta i n men engaged i n s i mi lar ac t i v i ty . J im Beckwou rth , for

example , carr ied d i spatche s for the mi l i tary be tween San ta Fe and Fo rt Leavenwort h a long the San ta Fe

Tra i l (Wi lson 1972 1 109- 1 Tri ps such as Co lone l Lori ng’

s we re , i n the contex t of the day , also

re lat i ve l y rou t i ne t rave l for mi l i ta ry un i t s . Hav i ng fi n ished the i r ass i gnmen t i n Utah , they were s imp l y

t rave l ing to Fort Un ion , as o rde red .

Car le ton’

s campa i gn aga i n s t the Pa iu te was not un l i ke nume rous o the r m i l i tary campai gns aga i nst

various Amer ican Ind ian t ri bes . Tragica l l y , the se campa i gns we re all too common . Ove ral l ,“ t he re was

l i t t le long-te rm effec t” ofCar le ton’

s campa i gn (C henowe t h l999 z 3o Car le ton’s campai gn can be

compared to the 1 849 exped i t i on unde r Co lone l J ohn M . Wash i ngton as a pun i t i ve exped i t ion aga i n s t

the Navaj o who we re ra i d i ng ou t l y i ng New Mex ican se t t lements, wh ich had much mo re de vastat ing

con sequences . The t roops i n vaded the st rongho l d of the Navajo at Canyon de Che l l y,and sound l y

defeated the Ind ians (Goetz mann l 966 z275 ) . Carle ton ’s efforts can a l so be compared to the 1864

exped i t i on aga inst the Navaj o led by Kit Carson, dur ing wh ich the t r i be’

s crops were bu rned ,the i r

l i ves tock ki l led , and they we re rounded up and forc i b l y removed and he l d i n capt i v i ty i n eas te rn NewMex ico afte r the i n famous Long Wa l k (Trafz er

It wou l d not appear warran ted to asc ri be nat i ona l si gn i ficance to the en t i re Old Span i s h Tra i l from New

Mex ico to Ca l i forn ia on the bas is ofthe mi l i tary use of the t rai l . The re wou l d seem to be no compe l l ing

reason to ascr ibe to the en t i re Old Span i sh Tra i l from New Mex ico to Ca l i forn ia the broad si gn i ficanceofmi l i tary t rave l in the We s t , or the s i gn i fi cance of an en t i re s i ngle exped i t ion w hen i t on l y used partsof the Old Span ish Tra i l as a part of l onge r t r i ps . The t ra i l was not a s t rategic mi l i tary rou te . The

S ignificance ofa part i cu lar exped i t ion rou te be l ongs to the en t i re rou te ac tua l l y used by that exped i t i on ,not to the en t i re ty ofeach tra i l the exped i t i on may have u sed to a l i mi ted degree .

SIGNIFICANT PERSONS

In e valuat i n g the Old Span ish Tra i l unde r Nat iona l Hi stor ic Landmark Cri te r i on 2 , i t i s appropriate to

look at the two be s t known t rave le rs on the Old Span i s h Tra i l : John C . Fremon t and Kit Carson .

The sign i ficance ofFremon t’s e x p l orat i on s i s d i scussed briefly above , and a l t hough a comple te s tudy of

h i s l i fe and exped i t ions wou l d be requ i red , i t i s l i ke l y tha t he was“excep t i onal l y s i gn i fican t w i t h i n” the

con tex t ofmi l i tary exped i t i on s of the We s t . He rose to promi nence based on his t rave l s, and was

popu larl y known as“The Path fi nde r .

”His t rave l s had s ign i fi can t impac t on pub l ic v iew s of the We s t ,

and the reby he l ped spu r we s tward ex pan s i on . Clai ms re lat i n g to h i s exped i t i ons’

sc ien t ific and

geograph ic accompl i shmen t s may not have been as s i gn i fi can t (Goetz mann 1979 : 10 1 Fremon t

late r became a cand idate for the Pres i dency , al t hough he l ost .

As men t ioned , a more de tai led s tudy ofFrémont’

s s i gn i fi cance and conc lus ions re lated to i t i s beyond

the scope of th i s s tudy . His 1 843- 1 844 exped i t i on mi gh t be con s i de red the rou te that be s t represen ts his

h i storic con tri bu t ions. Howe ver , as noted’

above ,the s i gn i fi cance of that t r i p s hou l d be ascri bed to the

ent i re j ou rney , wh ich on l y ove r lapped segmen ts of the O ld Span ish Tra i l on i t s weste rn ha l f, and cannot be a t t ri bu ted to the en t i re Old Span i s h Tra i l from New Mex ico to Ca l i forn ia . The pe r i od of

s i gn i fi cance for th i s exped i t ion wou ld be l i m i ted to 1843- 1844 .

In h i s l i fe , Kit Carson t rave led many weste rn t ra i ls . He became one of the be s t known of the mounta i n

men, and came to New Mex ico on the San ta Fe Tra i l i n 1 826 . He t rave led to Ca l i fo rn ia w i th Ew ing

Young th rough Ari zona i n 1829- 1830 ; accompan ied Frémont i n 1843-1844,wh ich i nc luded trave l on

parts of the Old Span i sh Tra i l , and t rave led into the coun try ofthe Ye l low s tone , B i ghorn , Mi ssou r i , and

B ig Snake r i ve rs ; and much mo re . As me n t i oned , he carr ied rru'

litary d i spatches on the Old Span i sh

Tra i l and th rough Ari zona on the Gi la Rou te du ri ng the Mex ican-Ame r i can War . He jo i ned the army

during the Ci v i l War and fough t at the ba t t le ofVa l verde (Ves tal In 1863 ,Carson led the

campa i gn aga ins t the Navaj o , wh ich u l t imate l y led to the remova l of the Navaj o on the Long Wa l k

(Trafz er

Carson ach ie ved nat iona l prominence for the to ta l i t y ofh i s many roles i n the West as a t rappe r, gu i de ,

so ld ie r, and more . Kit Carson may be consi de red a nat i ona l l y s ign i fi cant i nd i v i dua l (his house i n Taos

i s a Nat i onal Hi s tor ic Landmark) , but t h is doe s not mean that all the t ra i l s he fo l l owed qua l i fy as

Nat i ona l Historic Trai l s . Nor doe s i t mean that any part icu lar t ra i l he fol l owed ough t to be a Nat i ona l

Historic Tra i l . A fu l l s tudy of Carson’

s t rave l s wou l d be requ i red and a de te rmi nat i on made as towhe t he r his use of any part icu lar t rai l (s) led to

“far reach i ng impac ts on broad pa t te rn s ofAme r ican

cu l tu re , as is requ i red i n the Nat i ona l Tra i l s Sys tem Ac t,fo l l owed by a de te rm i nat i on as to w h ich t ra i l ,

i f any , bes t exempl i fied th is .

A cursory ana ly s i s wou l d suggest , for examp le , t hat Carson’s campa i gn aga i nst the Navaj o was more

s i gn i fican t than h i s tri ps on the Old Span i sh Trai l . Th i s campai gn led to the remova l o f the Navajo from

the i r home lands on the Long Wa l k . In 1 868 , after o ri g ina l l y propos i ng to move the Navajo to Ind ian

Te rr i tory i n present-day Oklahoma , the US . Gove rnmen t s i gned a t reaty a l low i n g them to re tu rn to

the i r home lands . Th i s was an unusua l reve rsa l ofnorma l fede ra l Ind ian po l icy of the t ime .

46

GENERIC TRAIL

It has beien-.sugge s ted that the Old Span i s h Tra i l i s nat i onal l y s i gn i fican t because Ofthe var ie ty ofu sesthat occu rred a l ong i t or p ieces of i t . Many wes te rn t rai l s w i t nes sed a mu l t i tude ofuse s . The Na t iona l

Historic‘

Landmark c ri te r ia focu’

s on de te rmin i ng nat i ona l s i gn i fi cance , occu rri ng i n a defi ned pe ri od of—t

‘

i me ,w i th i n a prescr i bed h i storica l t heme . Whi le a h i s tor i c s i te , or t ra i l , cou ld be s i gn i fican t unde r more

than one theme , h i s toric e vent s that do not fi t w i t h i n the part icu lar theme be ing eva luated do not

con t r i bu te to s i gn i ficance unde r that the-me . As ment ioned ear l ie r , some i nd i v idua l use s and re lated

t ra i l resou rce s wou l d appear to mee t Nat i ona l Registe r ofHisto r ic Place s c r i ter ia for state- leve l

s i gn i fi cance .

47

00 UI

'

C B lue D iamond Spring ,Nevada .

48

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

The Hispan ic commun i ty ofCh imayo , famou s for i t s weav i ng, was founded on the si te ofan Old Tewa

pueb l o . Ch imayo’

s San tuari o de Nues t ro Senor de Esqu i pu l as , noted for i t s reported curat i ve powe rs ,was bu i l t be tween 18 13 and 18 16, and i s now a Nat i ona l H i s to ri c Landmark (NHL) (Fugate and Fugate

1989 z259

Taos Pueb l o , i n ex i s tence i n 1540 when Coronado en te red the regi on , was the scene ofan annua l Ind ian

t rade fa i r . Taos , now a Nat i ona l Hi s tor i c Landmark and World He r i tage S i te , se rved as the headquarte rs

for fur t rappers after abou t 1 820 , and fi gu red prominen t l y i n the Old Span i sh Tra i l t raffic . The Chu rc h

of S t . Franc i s ofAssis i was bu i l t i n Ranchos de Taos i n the 17703 as a m i s s i on for the conve rs i on of

Taos Ind ians (Fugate and Fugate The church i s a l so a Nat i ona l Hi s to ri c Landmark . The

earl y e i gh teen th cen tu ry v i l lage ofTal pa (LA393 1 ) is fi ve mi le s west ofTaos , near the mou th of the

Rio Ch iqu i to , and was se t t led as part of the occupat i on ofthe Ranches de Taos (Fugate and Fugate

1989 z25 1) .

Kit Carson ’s home i n Taos* (LA3929) was bu i l t i n 1 825 and purchased by Carson i n 1 843 . Carson

was among the mos t renowned of the moun ta i n men/trappers- turned- t ra i l -gu i de s during the second

quarte r ofthe n i ne teen th cen tury . The home i s a Nat iona l Histori c Landmark .

San ta Cruz was the second v i l la es tab l i shed i n Mex i co , i t s popu lace drawn from immigran t fami l ie s

from Zacatecas . The Old Span i sh M i s s i on ,“a mas s i ve c ruc i fo rm chu rch bu i l t i n con ta i n i n g

re l i g ious art of the Span ish co l on ia l pe ri od , domi nate s the p laza i n San ta Cruz (Fugate and EUgate

The town ofTe suque da tes from 1740, and was named for the nearby Tewa pueb l o founded

some t ime around AD . 1300 . The Pueb lo Revol t of 1680 began at Tesuque Pueb lo (now on the Nat i ona l

Registe r) . Nambe Pueb lo , cen tra l l y located on the Nambe Indian Re se rva t i on , was one of the fi rst

m i ss i ons i n New Mex i co . Ru i n s and archeo logica l rema i ns a t test t o the l ong h i s to ry of th i s Na t i ona lRegi s te r s i te . Accord i ng to the Crampton andMadsen maps Macomb ’s camp numbe r 2 was at

San Juan Pueb l o* on the San Juan Ind ian Re se rvat ion . George Rux ton t rave led the Old Span i sh Tra i l i n

1847- 1848 and de scr i bed San Juan Pueb l o , as we l l as Taos and i t s d ist i l le ries . The we s tern fork of the

North B ranch of the Old Span i s h Trai l veered off to the northeas t at San Juan Pueb l o , now a Nat i ona l

Regi ste r prope rty .

The farm i ng commun i ty ofQuesta*(LA5200) (origi na l l y ca l led San An ton i o de l Rio Co l orado) dates to

around 1829 , and was an importan t s topp i ng p lace on the t ra i l . Se ve ra l ear l y 18003 s i te s rema i n i n

A rroyo Hondo , inc lud ing Pen i tente moradas and S imon Tu r ley’

s mi l l and d ist i l lery . S imon Tu r ley

estab l i shed a ranch in 1830 , bu i l t up he rds of cat t le and s heep , and p lan ted corn and whea t . Tu r ley’s

wate r-powe red gri s tm i l l p roduced flou r and co rnmeal , the l ooms and sp i nn i n g whee l s produced woo len

goods, and the d ist i l le ry produced"Taos Lightning .

" The se produc t s we re used in New Mex i co t rade onthe Old Span i sh Trai l .

The approx imate l ocat i on of old Fo rt Lowe l l l ie s sou theast ofE1 Vado S tate Park i n Rio ChamaRec reat ion Area . Th i s fo rt was on the rou te fo l lowed by Macomb (Crampton and Madsen ,

A t the Ab iqu iu c ross i ng of the Rio Grande , the Workman-Row land party pu rchased 150 sheep for mea t

on the j ou rney to Cal i fo rn ia . They a lso h i red Me x ican se rvants to he l p w i th oddjobs (Hafen and Hafen1982 z209) . Rancho Ab iqu iu and the fa l len adobe wa l l s ofthe mid-e i gh teen th -cen tu ry San ta Rosa deLima Chape l l ie s on the t ra i l east ofpresen t-day Ab iqu iu . The Ab iqu iu Me sa Grid Garden s and thechape l are l i s ted on the Nat i ona l Regi s ter .

An intac t v is i b le segmen t of the Old Span i s h Tra i l's ma i n rou te* l ies just east of the Abiqu iu Rese rvo i r

in the gene ra l v ic in i ty of the Dominguez-Esca lan te commemorat i ve marke r (Madsen 1998a) . The

50

landmark known as*Ojo de Navajo ,

ment ioned by Macomb i n 1 859 ,was iden t i fied near Macomb

’

s

Camp numbe r 6 .

La Pue rta Grande , an i mpo rtan t landmark , prov ided a re lat i ve l y leve l pa thway be tween the large north

sou th trend i ng me sas forme r l y known as Los San t is ima Tri n i dad . La Pue rta Grande connec ted w hat i s

now El Vado Rese rvo i r on the eas t w i t h S t ink i ng Lake ( forme r l y Lago Hed iondo) on the we s t

(Crampton andMadsen l994 z 1 9 The cartographe r for the Dominguez-Esca lan te e xped i t i on ,

Be rnardo y Pacheco ,documen ted E1 Vado (the ford of the Rio Chama) . Ano the r landmark , Ce rro de l

Pede rnal (Abiqu i u was ske tched by the Macomb exped i t ion i n 1859 (Crampton and Madsen

l 994 : 18) .

Colorado

Arm ijo (Southern) Rou te . No s i tes or tra i l t race s have been documen ted a long the Armijo Rou te i n

sou thweste rn Co lorado .

Nor thern Rou te— Nor th Branch . Fo rt Massachuse t ts was bu i l t i n 1852 near the Old S pan i s h Tra i l to

protec t roads and se t t le rs of the San Lu i s Va l ley from Ind ian a t tacks The fo rt was v i s i ted and

descr i bed by trave le rs such as Heap and Gunn i son , but was abandoned not l ong afte r its cons t ruc t i on

due to ex treme l y marsh y cond i t ions . It was rep laced by Fort Gar land , now a Na t i onal Reg i ste r prope rty

(Kessler

A sho rt segmen t of the Eas t Fork of the North B ranch* of the Old Span i sh Tra i l can be seen north of

the town ofB lanca in the San Lu i s Val ley . Wh i le the two- t rack ru ts are di fficu l t to d i s t ingu i sh on the

ground ,t hey are c lear l y v i s i b le from the air (Ke ss le r l998b) . Th i s segmen t is though t to have connec ted

w i t h Fort Massac hu se t t s (5CT30) .

The North B ranch through the San Lu is Val ley deve l oped from Indian t rai l s , and was late r used by

explorers, t rappers , and t rave le rs . Be tween 1694 and 1825 , at least fi ve indi v idual s or groups are known to

have t rave rsed part s ofthe San Lu i s Val ley from what i s now New Mex ico over the Taos Tra i l or

Trappers’ Road , a rou te that later became the Old Span i sh Tra i l , North B ranch . AS l isted by Kessle r( l 998az5 ) , these groups are : don D iego de Vargas Roque Madrid Juan Bau t i s ta de Anza

Zebu l on Pike and Jacob Fow le r In 1822 , Fow le r reported see ing at

the lower Band of th is large val ly [San Lu is Val ley] to the River De lnort about 6 mi les to our Righ t asWe

Have been go ing down that R iver a Smal l Spanish vilege but abandoned by the Inhabctance for feer oftheIndeans ( 1822 , quoted in Kessler l998a z92) .

George Rux ton t rave led a long the No rt h B ranch th rough the San Lu i s Va l ley i n the dead of w inte r,Decembe r 1847 . He desc r i bed camps i tes* near La Cu lebra and El Val lec i to le ft by a Mormon group

who had preceded h im . A camps i te at the foot ofMosca Pas s * (SAL3O3 ) near the Grea t Sand Dunes,was used by at leas t th ree Amer ican e x p l orers ove r a pe r i od of46 years— Zebu l on Pi ke J oh n

Fremon t and J oh n Gunn ison Hafen and Hafen fn 12) and Kessle r

( l 998a : 140) both suggest t ha t George D . B rewe rton (accompany ing Kit Carson ) t rave led from LosAnge les to San ta Fe i n 1848 by mean s of the No rt h B ranch of the Old Span ish Tra i l .

The Guadalupe (Conejos) Land Grant was estab l i s hed i n 1 83 3 . Co lon i zat ion was at temp ted by thefami l y gran tees ofno rt hern New Me x ico i n 1833 and 1 842- 1843 a long the weste rn fork of the No rt hB ranch ofthe Old Span i sh Tra i l . Co lon i zat i on fa i led because ofInd ian at tacks unt i l the late 18403 or

earl y 18503 , w hen se t t le rs from Ab iqu iu and El Ri to came to se t t le the area . Guadalupe Plaza

5 1

(5CN490) a l ong the Conej os Ri ve r near Conejos , marks t h i s ear l y se t t lemen t . The La Va l le town s i te

(5CT 128 ,San Franc i sco , or Ri to de l os Ind ios) near San Lu i s was an 1 846 Ind ian se t t lemen t .

In the v ic i n i ty ofDel Norte ,deep ru ts e tched into bedrock mark the forme r rou te of wagon trave l , wh ich

probab ly fol l owed much the same rou te as ear l ie r mu le t ra i n s may have trave led on the we s te rn fork ofthe

Nort h B ranch . (The"Limek i l n Wagon Tracks

" have been documen ted as archeol ogica l s i te 5RN539 . 1 . )

A large bou lde r beari ng the i nsc ri pt ion“1 858 was found i n th i s v ic i n i ty , but noth i ng i s known of those

who left th i s i n sc ri pt ion beh i nd . Loca l i n formant s sugges t i t i s possi b le that Euro-Ame rican trave l on the

weste rn fork of the Nort h B ranch dates to as ear l y as 1779, when Juan Bau t i s ta de Anza passed th rough en

rou te to subdue the Utes . Research suggest s th is t rai l probab l y crossed the Rio Grande near De l Norte i nan area v i s i b le on aeri al pho tographs . One of Fremont

’

s campsi tes* has been recorded as s i te SRN393 , i n

the v ic in i ty ofDe l Norte . Farthe r north , near La Gari ta, sec t ions of the rou te* are aga i n v i s ib le as fai n t

two-track depress i ons . Gw i nn Hani s Heap desc ribed th i s segmen t of the trai l i n 1 853 :

We proceeded immediate ly on our journey , and coasting up the left bank ofthe De l Norte [Rio G rande ]about tenmi les, left i t where i t made a bend to the westward, di rec ting our course north by west to theSahwatch [Saguache ] va l ley The p lain was as leve l as the sea to the foot ofthe mountains, wh ich inc loseSan Luis val ley In fourteen mi les from the po int w here we left the river [Rio Grande ] , we crossed a finebrook ofc lear and coo l water -the Rio de la Garita. In tenmi les from the Rio Gari ta,

we came to an abundantSpring , surrounded by good grass at the spring we found a trai l leading to the Sahwatch val ley . The val leyofSan Lu is, to the commencement ofthe Sahwatch , is singu lar ly leve l and has two entrances from that ofSan Luis. The one wh ich we se lected [was] cal led El Rincon de l Sahwatch (the corner ofthe Sahwatch)(Heap 1853 , quoted in Kessler 1998a: 170 (Heap's account was also inc luded w i th Co lorado state si te

form 5RN539 . 1 ; the above quote uses a comb ined version of tex t from both the si te form andRon Kessler'spub l ication. )

A numbe r of the h isto ric commun i t ie s i n the val ley , such as De l Norte (La Lorna de l Norte) , Camerio ,

Conejos (se t t led around and El Came ro or La Gari ta (Torre s t rad ing post at La Gari ta, 1858 , si te

SSH1032) , grew up around the camping areas estab l ished du ri ng ope rat ion ofthe Old Span i sh Tra i l . Near

La Gari ta is Cap i l la de San Juan Bau t i s ta (5SHI2S) , a s i te l i s ted on the Nat iona l Regi s ter . Th is chu rch i s

al so known as La Inglesia de La Gari ta and S t . John’

s chu rch , andwas bu i l t i n the 18703 on the remai n s of

the earl ie r se tt lement , w h ich i s marked by adobe ru ins and a sma l l ceme te ry .

S i te SSH130 1 has been documented as the probable l ocat i on of John Char le s Fremon t’

s Groundhog Creek

Camp Ofthe 1848- 1849 e xped i t ion . The s i te consi s t s of 1 1 s tumps , c rude l y hewn away w i t h an axe some

distance above the ground . A nearby log rec tangle may have been the remai n s ofa c rude s truc tu re bu i l t by

Frémont’

smen for eme rgency she l ter, as ment ioned in an exped i t ion diary . Othe r rema i n s of Frémont’

s

camps in th is area inc lude a c rude l y made sled , mu le ske le ta l materi a ls, ev idence of heart h s , and the date

1848 inscribed on a rock ou tcrop . Frémont was seeki ng a cent ra l all—weathe r rai l road rou te to the Pac i fic

when the party became trapped by bl i zzards i n the La Gari ta Mounta i n s , sufferi ng the loss of 1 1 men, 100

mu les, andmost of the i r supp l ies . Rescued by one ofthe Canadian French mounta i n men,the surv i vors are

thought to have retumed to Taos fo l l ow i ng the No rth B ranch Rou te eas t from the La Gari ta area,ac ross

the San Lu i s Va l ley to the Sangre de Cristo Range , and then sou th to New Me x ico along the Nort hB ranch .

In 1837 , Wi l l iam Pope ,Isaac S love r, andWi l l iamWolfskill (Hafen andHafen -1 82, 198)

trave led the North B ranch . George Frede rick Ru x ton noted the w ind and col d and described landmarks onh i s 1847 j ou rney th rough the San Lu i s Val ley en route to Pueblo by means of the Trappe r’s Road (Ru x tonquoted i n Kess ler l 998az ] Othe r trave le rs who went th rough the San Lu is Val ley and descri bed its

te rra i n and landmarks i nc lude : Heap and Beale John Wi l l iams Gunn i son and Jacob He i nrich

52

Sche il Fremon t and Brewe rton and Kit Carson ( 1848) (Kess ler l 998az l 39- l40 , 175 , 2 13

2 14, 2 19 ; Hafen and Hafen fn12) .

The Sou the rn Ute Ind ian Agency near Conej os (5CN488) was bu ilt around 1859 ,and p layed an i mpo rtant

ro le in ini t ial at tempts to remove the Ute s from the San Lu i s Val ley . The agency was moved to theSaguache area to fu l fi l l the Ute Treaty of 1868 (SSH102 1 )

Traces ofthe rou te* are v i s ib le on a h i l l s ide i n the CochetOpa v ic i n i ty . The word CochetOpa means“Buffal o Cross i ng

”

or“Buffal o Pass , a te rm used by Ind ian groups who used the route to move be tween

the San Lu i s and Gunn ison va l leys . Cochetopa Pass* (al so known as

“

Marcy’

s Crossing”

) was an

importan t landmark a long the Nort h B ranch ofthe Old Span i sh Trai l . The h i storic pass , recorded as

Co l orado s i te SSH 1025 ,was su rveyed by Gunn ison and Fremon t , and crossed by Marcy , Loring , Marcu s

Wh i tman , and other earl y exp l ore rs . Fremont c rossed the pass fo l l ow i ng Gunn ison’

s wagon t racks

(Kess ler 1998a z263 ) .

Over t ime , segmen ts of the Old Span i sh Tra i l be tween the Lake Fork ofthe Gunn ison Ri ve r and the

Uncompaghre Ri ve r became known as the Old Sa l t Lake Road*

. In Co lorado , th is rou te was used to

transport l i ve s tock , supp l ies, and mi l i tary pe rsonne l , part icu lar ly be tween Fort Gar land and the Ute Ind ianAgency . In h i s accoun t ofhisMay 1853 j ou rney , Heap a l so prov i ded exce l len t desc ri p t i on s of the areanear La Gar i ta, the Saguache Va l ley , and Cochetopa Pass .

The Ute Memoria l S i te,sou th ofMontrose , occup ie s part of the ranch ofthe Ute leade r Ch ie f Ou ray . The

onsi te museum commemorat ing the long h istory ofthe Ute Ind ians i s l isted on the Nat i ona l Registe r of

Historic Places .

The Old Span ish Tra i l forded the Uncompahgre Ri ve r just sou th ofOlathe . Other ri ve r fords whose

genera l l ocat i on i s known i nc lude the Uncompahgre Ri ver cross i ng sou t h ofDe l ta , and the cross ing of the

Gunn ison Ri ve r jus t to the west ofDe l ta . Fort Roub ideau (Rob idoux) was a tradi ng post be l onging to the

brothe rs Robidoux ; i t was bu i l t i n 1828 , and used unt i l i t was bu rned i n 1844 . Th i s fort was a few mi les

west ofthe town ofDe l ta on the Gunn ison Ri ve r . The recons t ruc ted fort , now known as Fort

Uncompahgre , is located in De l ta . By the late 18203 , Anto i ne Rob idou x was mak ing regu lar pack tri psbe tween S t . Lou i s and Fo rt Uncompahgre , fol l ow i ng w hat wou l d become the North B ranch , be tween the

crOssing of the Sangre de Cri sto Mounta ins and the vic i n i ty ofpresen t-day De l ta ,Colorado . Fort

Uncompahgre* , de s i gnated s i tes 5DT606 and 5DT746 , i s i n the v ic i n i ty ofthe Roub idoux Wi ld l i fe

Refuge , but flood ing and farmi ng are though t to have des troyed the physica l rema ins . Gw inn Harri s

Heap’

s jou rna l ofthe Beale exped i t ion in 1853 notes the presence ofold“Fort Roubideau

”and othe r

landmarks i n the v ic i n i ty ofthe present-day commun i t ies of De l ta, Gunn ison , and Grand Junct ion (Heap

quoted i n Kess ler 1998a : 180 ,e t seq . )

A numbe r of rock ca lm s are a l ong the rou te be tween De l ta and Grand Junc t ion . Wh i le shee phe rde rs or

preh i s tor ic peop le s may have p laced them , some re searc he rs suggest that the se ca lms cou l d have been

p laced to gu i de t rave le rs a l ong the O ld Span ish Tra i l . Nume rou s t rappe rs and t rade rs late r used th isSec t ion of t ra i l be tween De l ta and Grand Junc t ion .

Trave lers i nc lude miss ionary Marcus Whi tman,who c rossed the Col orado Ri ve r near presen t-day

Grand Junc t i on i n 1842 en rou te from Oregon to Wash i ngton , D C ,by way of Fort Uncompahgre .

Wh i tman used segmen ts of the O ld Span ish Tra i l . S i te 5ME .775 * was al so known as the Wh i tman,

Pat t ie , and Gunn i son t ra i l . Abou t 1977 , the Bu reau ofLand Managemen t deve loped a map of the

Wh i tman Rou te , bu t the rou te was not documented on the ground . The Old Span i sh Trai l near Grand

5 3

Junc t ion* was mapped by the Gunn i son exped i t i on of 1 853 ; on Sep tembe r 19 of that year they campedat the Co lorado Ri ve r c ross i ng . Th i s c ross i ng and the adjacen t t ra i l segmen t s have been desi gna ted

Co lorado s i te 5ME775 . 1 * . A numbe r of t rappe rs and t rave lers left the Old Span i sh Trai l at its

i n tersec t i on w i th the Kannah Creek dra i nage u s ing the Kannah Creek Trai l (5ME 1 1 87) , wh ich ran wes t Of

Grand Junc t ion , nort hward a l ong Sal t Creek .

Mul t i p le ,para l le l wagon ru ts and t ra i l t race s* on and near Foo l

’

s Hi l l (abou t ha l fway be tween De l ta

and Grand Junc t ion) have been documen ted as the Old Span ish Trail/Salt Lake Wagon Road (s i te s

5DT854 , 5DT854 . 1 , 5DT854 .2 ,and 5ME775 . 1 ) . Accord i ng to S teven Meh ls ( 1982 z9) , Pedro Mora,

Gregor i o Sandova l , and Andres Muni z t rave led th i s port i on of the t ra i l i n the e i gh teen th cen tu ry . These

Span i s h t rade rs fo l lowed the Rio Grande nort h from San ta Fe to the v ic in i ty of the presen t-day t own of

Alamosa,and t rave led north into the Saguache area and ove r Cochetopa Pass to the Gunn i son Ri ve r .

From the re they fo l l owed the Gunn i son R i ve r to the presen t s i te ofGrand Junc t i on . The rou te was later

t rave led by a numbe r of t rappe rs and t rade rs , was the ma i n acce ss rou te to Fort Uncompahgre , and

e ven tua l l y became the Nort h B ranch ofthe Old Span i sh Tra i l .

Accord i ng to l oca l i n forman ts, a camps i te though t to date to the Old Span i sh Trai l peri od is i n the

v i c i n i ty ofKannah Creek , an area whe re Ute tra i l s i n te rsec ted the Old Span ish Tra i l . Anothe r

temporary , repeated l y u sed camp (5DT8’

53 ) was as soc iated w i t h the Sa l t Lake Wagon Road

(5DT854 . 1 ) wh ich , i n tu rn , fo l l owed the Old Span i sh Tra i l th rough th i s area .

Some au thors (such as Chenowe t h 1998) have i dent i fied tra i l remnan ts a long the Gunn i son Ri ve r sou th

ofGrand Junc t i on* . Chenowe th a lso has i den t i fied the Wh i tewa ter Hi l l Road*, sou theas t of Grand

Junc t ion , as a remnan t of the Old Sa l t Lake Wagon Road . The North B ranch left Co l orado we s t of

Grand Junc t ion .

Nor th ern Route (th rough Du rango) . A numbe r ofcampsi tes re la ted to the O ld Span ish Tra i l have

been ident ified al ong the San Juan and Los Pi nos ri ve rs by researche rs Sanchez and Erickson ( 1998b)and Crampton and Madsen Howe ve r , no archeol og i ca l rema i n s re lated to the se s i te s have , as

ye t, been iden t i fied . Dominguez and Esca lan te are known to have c rossed the An imas Rive r near

Durango on August 8-9 , 1776 . The probab le locat i on of the c ros s i ng has been de s i gnated s i te 5LP197 1 ,and marked w i th a p laque .

Onl y a few traces rema i n of ori gi na l si ngle - track mu le trai l s , becau se mos t of the rou tes were later used by

wagon t raffic , and du ri ng the twen t ie th cen tu ry , off-road-veh ic le t raffic has furthe r obscured ori gi nal tra i ls .

A short sec t ion ofthe mule t rai l (see Figu re 1 ) has been i den t ified by researchers Crampton andMadsen

( 1994) in the Durango v ic i n i ty .

* The Animas Ri ve r ford used by Old Span i sh Tra i l t rave lers i s al so

though t to be i n th i s area*

Remai n s of an old stage stat i on have been iden t ified near Ye l l owjacke t S pri ng i n Monte z uma County .

Nearby Ye l lowjacke t Pueb l o Ru i n s is a l so si tuated on the Old Span i sh Tra i l and was fi rs t documented by

Dr. J . S . Newben'

y of the Macomb e xpedi t ion in 1859 (Crampton andMadsen Th i s ru i n ,consist ing of a group of assoc iated preh istoric Me sa Verde cu l ture masonry rubb le mounds and features, i s

l i s ted on the Nat i onal Regi s ter ofHi s tori c Places .

As the route led north and west into Do lores County,l i t t le fresh wate r was ava i lable for trave le rs and the i r

l i vestock , so there had to be more re l iance on Spri ngs . Trave le rs usi ng the vari ous wagon roads that

repl icated or para l le led the Old Span i s h Tra i l be tween Ye l l ow Jacke t and Cahone (the 1884 Utah Road ;the 19 13 Utah Road ; the 19 16 Old Utah Road ; the 19 13 Mon t ice l l o-to-Dol ores Road) depended upon the

54

spri ngs at Cross Canyon for wate r . A number of these t rave le rs insc ri bed the i r names on the canyon wa l l sat Cross Canyon .

The Old Span i sh Tra i l ente red Cross Canyon by way ofAlka l i Canyon*,where seve ral short se gmen ts of

the t rai l are s t i l l v i s i b le . On one segmen t , dry-lai d cobb le s we re u sed a l ong the lower si de ofthe single

track to improve and leve l the t rai l surface for mu le t raffic , and to check e ros i on . Near Irw i n S pring* in

Do lore s Coun ty , some of the orig i nal t rai l is s t i l l v isi b le , al though some sec t i ons appear to have had late r

usage as a two-t rack road (Madsen 1998a) .

Arm ijo (Sou thern) Route . Arm ijo fo l lowed the Dominguez-Esca lante Rou te i n some areas ofNew

Mex ico and Utah , and th i s rou te has been mapped and i n terpre t i ve s igns e rected at key poi n ts (Mi l le r

Several au thors (Ol sen 1965 : 12 , Sanche z 1999b) th i nk i t l i ke l y that Armijo s topped at Pi peSpri ng*

, and Dominguez and Escalan te are known to have camped sou thwe s t of the spri ng .

Domingue z and Esca lan te crossed the Co lorado Rive r at El Vado de los Padres* (the Cross i ng of theFathers) , as did Arm ijo . Armij o’s men improved the s teps carved i n to the canyon wa l l by Dom inguez and

Escalan te some ha l f a century ear l ie r . The const ruc t ion ofGlen Canyon dam, begun i n 1956,flooded El

Vado de l os Padres unde r Lake Powe l l , wh ich today fo rms part ofGlen Canyon Nat ional Rec reat i on A rea .

Nor thern Route ( including the Nor th Branch ) . Because of i t s s teady flow ofgood wa te r , Piu te

Spri ngs* (“Ute

” Spr i ng i n far easte rn Utah ) was an i mpo rtan t s toppi ng place on the O ld Span i sh Tra i l ,and t ra i l t race s are s t i l l v i s i b le i n the v ic in i ty (Cramp ton and Madsen Iden t i fiab le landmarks

a long th is sec t i on of the rou te i nc lude Ojo Ve rde*, Hatc h Rock*, Summi t Po in t*, Sou th Canyon*, and

Canyon Pi n tado* , and a numbe r of large , red,w ind-shaped sands tone promontor ies (Casa Colo rado ,

Red Rock , and Looki ng Glas s Seve ra l researche rs (Crampton andMadsen Pie rson

re l ocated Las Ti naj as* , or wate r tanks (Choteau/Pratt’

s“tewaja

”and Macomb ’

s La Tenejal) ,wh ic h we re used by Old Span ish Tra i l t rave le rs. The tanks are si tuated in the base of the sands tone

dra inage s sou th ofCasa Co lo rado , and segmen t s of t ra i l are v isi b le near Casa Co l orado Wash* . Pie rson

ident i fied one of the th ree crossi ngs ofMu le Shoe Wash* as the area whe re the t ra i l c rossed

afte r head i ng nort h from Looki ng Glass Rock . Near Looki ng Glass Rock , se vera l segment s of the

dugou t wagon road have been documented as Utah s i te 42Sa 1 1 566 . The roadbed is cu t i n to the

sands tone bedrock on its uph i l l s i de and is bu i l t up w i t h dry- la i d sands tone masonry on the dow ns lope

s ide .

Al though the gene ra l loca t i on has been i den t i fied ,no archeol og ica l rema i n s of the O ld Span i s h Tra i l

Co lo rado Ri ve r C rossi ng near Moab have been documen ted . In a canyon a few m i le s no rth of the t ra i l

and the Co l orado Ri ve r, an i n sc ri p t ion was carved into the sandstone c l i ffs . The insc r i p t i on reads :

Anto ine Rob idoux pas se i c i le 13 Novembre 1837 pou ir etablire ma i son traitte a la Rv . ve rt ouw i(y) te

"

("

Anto i ne Rob idoux passed here Novembe r 13 , 1837 , to e s tab l i sh a house or trade/trading pos t

at the Green Ri ve r orWinte Th i s s i te (42Gr2302 ) is l isted on the Nat i ona l Regi s te r .

A round 30 mi les northwe s t of Moab is a long segmen t ofwagon road cons ist i ng ofa l inear path ofleve led ground w i t h two low so i l be rms a l ong bo th margi ns . Th i s t ra i l segmen t has been documen ted as

s i te 42Gr263o* .

In the San Rafae l area, there are ru t s across San Rafae l Swe l l . Some of these two-track ru ts have been

documented as archeologica l si te 42Em l 485* . A 3 -mi le sec t ion of the Cas t le Dale-Green Ri ve r Wagon

5 5

Road* is l i s ted on the Nat i ona l Regi s te r as part of the O ld Span i sh Trai l . Rus t s tai n s , cu ts, fi l l s , and

wagon-whee l ruts e tched i n to the sandstone are v i s i b le i n many areas .

A rcheo logical s i te 42Sv2245* i s a grave l road across the sou the rn Cas t le Va l ley . Th i s road fol lowed the

course of the Gunn i son Route and Old Span i sh Trai l as the rou te s con verged toward Iv ie Creek and Sal i na

Canyon . The Iv ie Creek Canyon p ic tograph s* were descri bed by Gunn i son i n 1 853 , and agai n i n 1 855 by

the Hun t ington exped i t ion (a membe r of th i s expedi t i on , I. M . Behun i n , a l so i n sc ri bed h i s name on the

canyon wal l s (Crampton andMadsen Ear l y coun ty su rvey s i den t i fy th i s road as Gunn i son’sRou te* , and Gunn i son ident i fie s the rou te as the Old Span i sh Tra i l .

Crampton andMadsen documen ted o the r segmen ts of trai l*eas t ofCast le Dale i n Emery Coun ty ; on

Buckhom Flat ; i n Furn i ture Draw ; on Wa l ke r Flat ; at Iron Spri ngs Camp ; and at B i g Hole (Madsen

Several trai l remnan ts are v i s i b le a l ong Urn Creek and near the Spring eas t of Koosharem* .

Several names reported l y we re carved i n the wa l l s of Col orado Wash 11 ; mi le from the t rai l near Moore ,

Utah . The se i n script i ons i nc lude crosses and the names"M [au ric i o] Arze J . W . Gunn i son , J .

Fremont 1 844 "

(Crampton Col lec t i on , Box Un iden t ified trave le rs i n 183 1 (Ke l l y 1950 z22) left

another set of i n scri p t i on s ( i n i t ia l s) i n a canyon near Paragonah* .

Kane Spri ngs*, ano the r import an t stopp ing place on the route , i s at the base ofa large sandstone

promonto ry des ignated S t . Lou i s Rock”

by a group ofMormon trave le rs i n 1855 . A sec t i on of the Old

Span ish Tra i l and a dugway are preserved i n th i s v ic i n i ty . (The dugway was const ruc ted for wagon t rave lalong the rou te i n The t ra i l ran th rough what i s known today as

“

Span i sh Va l ley ,”a name

appear i ng i n the Hayden su rvey maps of 1 877 . Late r wagon road s fo l l owed the Old Span i s h Tra i l in

th i s area, and have been documen ted as s i te 428 a 1

Extan t po rt ions of the rou te i n Wash i ngton Coun ty have been documen ted (42Ws2528)* i n the vic i n i ty ofMounta in Meadow , i nc lud ing segmen ts near the c ross i ng of Dan S i l l Creek . The rou te ran th rough the

cen ter ofthe Hambl i n townsi te . The remnan ts are e l i gible for the Nat i ona l Regi s ter because of the i r

assoc iat i on w i th themes ofUtah transportat i on , as we l l as w i th Hambl i n and the Moun ta i n Meadows

Massacre . Moun ta i n Meadow* was a favored campsi te for caravans , and was men t i oned i n trave le r’

s

diaries, i nc lud ing those ofFremont , B rewerton , and Prat t (Madsen 1998a) . Orv i l le Prat t de scri bed the

area say ing “There i s fine tende r grass enough grow i ng on th i s Vegas to fat ten a thousand head of

horses or cat t le” (Crampton andMadsen The Hambl i n Ranch ( 1855-1870) was al so on the rou te

be tween Ho l t Canyon and Moun ta i n Meadows . Accord ing to the archeol ogical s i te form

th i s sec t i on of the Old Span ish Tra i l i s i n pri st i ne cond i t ion .

”The en t i re s i te ( i nc lud ing the tra i l segmen t)

is e l i gib le for the Nat i ona l Regi s te r .

A t Camp Spring, near Shivw itz , numerous trave lers carved the i r in i t ia ls on the nearby rocks . Wh i le these

inscript ions gene ral l y pos t-date the major use of the Old Span ish Tra i l , they are i n an area known to havebeen used by both Fremont andWhee ler (Madsen

Near Newcast le , Utah , a s ign mark i ng the S i te of B lacksm i th Shop on the Old Span i sh Tra i l 1800-1850was erec ted by town speople i n 1950 . Al though the locat ion l ies on the t ra i l rou te ,

no archeologica l

ev idence was found to i nd icate the presence ofa blacksmi th shop i n th i s area (Nay lor A “pi onee r

registe r”

on rocks near Camp Spri ng documen ts mi l i tary pe rsonne l and othe r trave le rs du ri ng the ear ly18603 .

56

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h i sto rica l l y , and from 1830 th rough 1848 , i t was v i s i ted by commerc ia l Mex ican trad ing caravan s

fol low i ng the Old Span i sh Trai l .

After the Old Span i sh Trai l Opened th i s area to trave le rs , Mormon se t t le rs bu i l t a fort i n the B ig Spri ngs

dra inage i n 1 855 to protec t se t t le rs and tra i l t rave lers . It was used un t i l 1858 . One ofthe ori gina l bu i ld i ngs

and the s i te are prese rved as the Old Las Vegas Mo rmon Fort S tate Hi s torica l Park . Extens i ve

archeol ogical re search has uncove red remnan ts of the ori gina l 150-foot- l ong fort ; both the spri ng and the

fort are l i s ted on the Nat ional Register (si te 26CK12 14) .

Spring Moun tai n Ranch S tate Park* i s a l so l isted on the Nat ional Registe r because of i t s assoc iat i on w i th

an a l te rnate” rou te of the Old Span i sh Tra i l . B lue D iamond Spri ngs (see Fi gure 3 ) (26CK20 1 1 )*

(Cottonwood Spri ng) , we s t of Las Vegas , was a we l l -known camping spot on the tra i l , and was i den t ified

by Frémont as hav i ng exce l len t grazi ng . Ru t s* are presen t i n th i s area (Myhrer, e t al . , Good water

cou l d al so be obtai ned at Moun ta in Spri ngs*, s i tuated at the summi t ofthe c rossi ng of the Spri ng

Mounta i ns Range . A short d i s tance ins i de the Ne vada l i ne , Stump Spri ng and the su rround i ng de se rt

furn i shed sporad i c wate r and feed for caravans . S tump S pri ng a l so was know n as Escarbado , or Aqua

Escarbada, a Span ish te rm mean i ng"

to d i g or scra tch , imp l y i ng that the wate r had to be obta i ned by

d i gg i ng (Crampton andMadsen 1994 z95 ) . S tump Spri ng has been mod ified si nce the 18303 and 18403 ,but s t i l l prov ide s wate r for l i vestock . S tump Spri ng is recorded as Old Span i sh Tra i l si te 26CK3 848*, and

segments ofthe t rai l are v i s i b le i n the v ic i n i ty ofthe spri ng . C rampton andMadsen documen ted traces* of

the trai l on the nort heas t approach to the d i v i de be tween the Cal i fo rn ia Val ley and the Pah rump Val ley .

Mojave Road Variant of the Old Spanish Trail . Accord i ng to h i s torian Denn is Casebie r, good

examples ofthe mu le t rai l , worn i n to sol i d rock , can be seen i n Piu te Wash*, we s t of B u l l head Ci ty .

California

Mojave Road . Piu te S p rings* l ies just i n s ide the Califom ia/Nevada borde r on the Mojave Road . The

springs, w i th the i r numerou s pe troglyphs , we re regu lar s topp i ng place s for t rave lers , i nc lud ing Garces ,Sm i th , Whi pp le , and Beale . One h i s toric i n scri p t i on reads : STUART,

4TH INFT . MAY 16185 1 and documen ts m i l i tary use of th i s rou te . Piu te Pass Archeologica l D i s tric t i s on the

Nat i onal Regi s te r .

Archeo l ogi s t s have documented segmen ts of the Moj ave Road* (CA-Sbr-4928-H) runn i ng we s t ac ross

Soda Lake to Soda S p rings, and then fo l l ow ing or para l le l i ng the Armij o Rou te sou t hwest i n to Afton

Canyon , a l ong the Mojave Ri ve r. (Soda Spr i ngs i s a landmark at the juncture of the Moj ave Road and

A rm ij o Rou te . ) There are beau t i fu l l y preserved trace s of the t rai l i n the Sal t S prings area (Wal ke r

Unfortunate ly , the reconst ruc t ion ofCal i fo rn ia S tate Hi ghway 127 ob l i te rated some of the rema ins .

Mar l Springs* was one ofthe mos t impo rtant water source s be tween the Mojave Ri ver and the MojaveV illages/Fort Mojave . Wnipple v isi ted the spri ngs i n 1854 (Ca l i forn ia Departmen t ofParks

Com b ined Nor thern and Arm ijo Rou tes. A large Pa iu te Ind ian w i n te r v i l lage was l ocated at

Pah rump Spri ngs .

A t Emigrant Pass* i n the Nopah Range (see Fi gu re 4) are we l l -de fined two-t rack ru t s ( sou t h of the

pre sen t h i ghway) and a we l l -prese rved mu le t ra i l t race (on the nort h si de of the h i ghway) . Th i s sec t i on

of the t ra i l was desc r i bed by the Bea le su rvey i n 1853 (Madsen l 998b :5 ) . Trai l s as soc iated w i th mu le

t ra i ns* on the Old Span ish Trai l are v i s i b le sou th ofTecopa,Ca l i forn ia (Wal ke r

5 8

Numerous on-the-ground t races ofOld Span i s h Tra i l rou te s have been i dent i fied , i nc lud i ng tra i l

segmen ts a long Ca l i forn ia S tate Hi ghway 127* and at the easte rn base of the Avawatz Moun ta ins

(be tween Tecopa and S i lu r ian Lake)*

Accord i ng to loca l info rmants , traces rema in ofboth the mu le t rai l and the two-t rack wagon road near

Rest i ng Spring (Godsha l l Re s t i ng Spri ng is a ve rdan t oas i s s i tuated in a bad lands area at the

sou th end of the Res t ing Spr i ng Range . Wate r wou l d a l so have been avai lab le at Tecopa Hot Spr i ngs,and a long the Armagosa Ri ve r. The Pa iu te v i l lage ofYaga

*at Tecopa Hot Spr i ngs was v i s i ted by

Armij o i n January of 1830 . From he re Armij o tu rned sou t h to fo l low the Amargosa Ri ve r, a s t ream he

named Rio de l os Payuches (Ri ve r ofthe Paiutes) (Mad3en 1998b z6) . Frémont’

s 1844 exped i t i on noted

the confluence of Ch i na Ranch Creek and the Amargosa Ri ve r* .

S i tuated at the sou t h end ofthe Dumont Dunes, Armagosa Spri ng* was a c ruc ia l wate r source for

t rave le rs and t he i r l i ve s tock . Nearby Sa l t S pr ing* con ta i ned a ve ry h i gh concen trat i on of sod iumch lor ide . In 1 849 ,

Add i son Prat t d iscove red go l d i n the Sa l t S pri ng Hi l ls, prec i p i tat ing a sh ort -l i ved

go ld rush at “Mo rmon D i gg ings . Heap reported the min i ng s i te s abandoned in 1853 , but the area st i l l

show s ev idence of the mid- 18003 min i ng act i v i ty .

B i t te r Spri ng* i s s i tuated w i t h i n the Fo rt Irw in Mi l i tary Re se rva t ion at the northeaste rn s i de ofa

geo logic fo rmat ion known today as “The Wha le

”for its d i st i nc t i ve shape . B i t te r S pr ing was the on l y

surface wate r supp l y i n an area nearl y 70 mi les square , and was a maj or stepping p lace for caravan s

(Madsen l998b z9) . Fremon t labe led the wate rhole“

Agua de Tomaso ; othe rs corrupted the name to"Agua de Tie Me sa . Rock calms, rock s t ruc tures, and trace s ofthe redoubt bu i l t at B i tte r Spring i n the

18603 du ring the “Pa i u teWar” are s t i l l v i s i b le today . The s i te i s on the Nat ional Regi s te r .

Camp Cady (Ca l i forn ia Regi s tered Hi s tori c Landmark #9 95) was bu i l t i n 1860 to pro tec t t rave le rs alongthe rou te . The s i te l ies 15 or so mi les to the sou th of B i t te r Spri ng , east of the trai l . The locat i on ofCamp

Cady can be de term i ned , but flooding (Madsen 1998b : 10) dest royed s t ruc tural rema ins ofthe fort

bu i l d i ngs . The grassy oasi s at the Camp Cady s i te are though t to have been used as a wate r stop by Padre

Franc i sco Garces Jed Smi th and John Fremon t

The t ra i l ran th rough Span i sh Canyon (see photo on cove r) , a broad , flat, sandy wash separa t i ng two of

the seve ral large fo rma t ions t hat make upAl vord Mounta in . At the nort h end of the canyon,we s tbound

trave le rs had t o ascend a stee p s lope ; at the apex of the slope the te rrai n was mod i fied to a l l ow eas ie r

passage into the canyon . Two- t rack ru t s and mu le t ra i l s* are v i si b le i n the canyon and sou th a l ong the

rou te ; the se t ra i l t races are documen ted as CA-Sbr-655 1 , CA—Sbr—4272-H, and CA-Sbr—44 l l -H.

A s i ngle bur ia l , da t i ng to the 1 8703 , was found on a t ra i l sec t i on eas t OfAlvord Mounta in . Th i s suggests

tha t an al te rnate , late r rou te ran due sou t h around the eas t s i de of A l vord Mounta i n and rej o i ned thema i n Ol d Span i s h Tra i l i n the v ic in i ty ofMan i x Lake . The Span i sh Canyon Rou te was eventua l l y

abandoned due to washou ts (Mikke l sen and Hal l l 990 :66) . Segmen t s of the a l te rna te rou te have been

recorded as CA-Sbr—44 1 1-H and CA-Sbr 4272-H .

Abou t fou r m i le s east of present-day Ye rmo and sou t h of I- 15 , the Moj ave Road , two var iat ions of the

Old Span i sh Tra i l , the Armij o Rou te , and the Mormon Road conve rge to fo l low the Moj ave Ri ve r. Th is

is the area known as Fork ofRoads”* (Madsen l 998b : 10) . The te rm “Fork ofRoads

”was used

h istorica l l y by the Whee le r exped i t ion to desc r i be the flat area near Ye rmo at the Mojave Ri ve r whe rethe Old S pan i s h Trai l and the Moj ave Tra i l (Road) jo i ned (Crampton and Madsen In t h is

area,numerous one-and two- t rack tra i l t race s dat i n g to the Old Span i sh Trai l period have been

documen ted archeol og ica l l y as part of s i te CA-Sbr-4928/CA-Sbr-3033-H (Mojave Read) , CA-Sbr

4272-H (Old Span i s h Tra i l ) , or CA-Sbr-44 1 1-H (Mormon

In th is area , a c lay ree f forced the wate r ofthe Mojave Ri ve r to the su rface , c reat ing the Pun ta de Agua

(po in t ofwate r) (Madsen 1998b : 10) . Pre sen t-day we l l s are t h ough t to mark the s i te of the caravan stepused du r i ng the 1829— 1 850 pe ri od* . Madsen ( 1998b : 1 1 ) i den t i fies seven d i ffe ren t names t hat we re used

for the Mojave Rive r : Rio de los Mart i res (Garces Las An imas, or Rio de lasAn imas (Lt .

Gabrie l Moraga, Inconstan t Ri ve r (Jed Smi th A rroyo de las Hayatas (Armij o

Mohahve Ri ve r (Fremon t Amahabo Creek (B . Chateau andMahave Creek (Prat t

S i te records i n the San Bemardino Coun ty Museum Archeo l og ica l Cen ter show segmen ts of the rou te

fo l l ow ing al ong the cen te r ofthe Mojave Ri ve r bed or the we s t S i de of the r i ve r un t i l reach i ng a

landmark known as Po in t ofRocks*, c l ose to He lendale ,w he re the t ra i l c ros sed to the east si de of the

ri ve r. Po i n t ofRocks , a prom i nent b l uff, se rved as a landmark for t rave le rs . A pi onee r supp l y sta t ion

was e s tab l ished he re du ri ng the 18503 or 1 8603 (Haensz el The He lena Fau l t , w h ich can be

seen from the air, was fo l lowed by the t ra i l because the fau l t l i ne a l l owed wate r to come to the su rface

in an o the rw i se ar i d area (Wa l ke r (These landmarks are shown on At las S hee t No . 73 of the

Whee le r su rvey

A short d i s tance out of Barstow , an area near the Mojave Ri ve r i s be i n g set as i de and ded ica ted to the

county for a marke r commemorat i ng the Old Span ish Tra i l c ross i ng of the Mojave Ri ve r . The late r

wagon road i s s t i l l v i s i b le i n t h i s area* . From th i s area,the rou te gene ra l l y ran sou thwe s t a l on g w hat i s

now Old Rou te 66 and the Nat iona l Tra i l s Hi ghway .

Near Oro Grande , the rou tes postu lated by d i ffe ren t au t hors conve rge , and the conj o i ned t ra i l c ros se s

the r i ve r at the uppe r c rossing , or as i t came to be know n late r, Lane’s afte r Capta i n A .

G. Lane ,who c la i med the adjacen t lands , and bu i l t a home and t rad i ng post i n the area . Lane

’s S tat ion ,Spri ng Ranch , and Ade lan to Spri ngs are l i s ted on the Nat i ona l Regi s te r . (The si te may have been the

h i s toric Se rrano or Vanyume Ind ian v i l lage know n as Topipab it. ) A . G . Lane ra ised hay for t rade to

trave lers a l ong the Old Span ish Tra i l , and, i n an e ffort to pro tec t h i s l i ves tock , was one of the

pe t i t i one rs who u rged keep i ng Ind ians away from the wate rho le s (Wa l ke r He estab l i shed a storeonthe t ra i l i n 186 1 .

Just past presen t-day Vic torv i l le , Frémont encoun te red the s tands of Joshua t rees that mark the weste rn

l imi t s ofthe Mojave Dese rt . It was the re that Fremon t ’s party connec ted w i th the S pan i sh Tra i l , runn i ng“

di rec t l y nort h”

(Madsen 1998b : 1 1 ) .

From Lane’

s Cross i ng , the t ra i l ran sou t hwest toward Caj on Summi t and sp l i t i n to a maze of rou te sc ros s ing the pass . Record s at the San Bemardino Museum Archeo l og i ca l Records Cen te r show a

poss i b le Old Span ish Trai l rou te (CA-Sbr-44 1 1 ) runn i ng no rtheas t from the Lane '

s Cros s i ng area,up the

Be l l Mounta i n Wash , and connec t ing w i t h the ma i n rou te eas t ofBars tow. A sho rt d i s tance sou thwe s t of

pre sent-day Mounta i n View Ac res, the road forked. As desc r i bed by Lt . Bea le i n 1853 , the road

forks abou t ten m i les from the ri ver. The left fork , wh ich we took , fo l lows the O ld Spanish Trai l , wh i lstthe other, wh ich had been opened recently by the Mormons, makes a bend to avo id a rough portion ofcountry. They both jo in again in the Cajon Pass (Heap , quoted in Beatt ie and Beatt ie 1939 z 33 3 ) .

Two ofthe shortest , mos t d i rec t , and probab l y most used rou tes led to San Bem ardino by way ofCrowder Canyon and Cajon Canyon ( the se two rou te s have been desi gnated part of si te CA-Sbr

60

(Cajon Pass has been ca l led El Cajon de los Mejicanos the Cajon and El Cajon de

Muscupiabe . Flood i ng du ring the 19303 washed away much ofUS . Rou te 66 and othe r ear l y roads . )On the no rt h si de ofCaj on Pas s , wagon ru ts or i g ina l l y i dent i fied by the Mojave Hi s torica l Soc ie ty as

part of the Old Span i sh Tra i l have now been e rased by off-road ve h ic le t raffi c (Wa l ke r

Fragmen tary t races of late r wagOn and au tomob i le roads , such as John B row n’

s to l l road and Old Rou te

66, are v is i b le a l ong certai n areas of the canyon .

Du r i ng the 18403 , Li t t le HorsethiefCanyon (s i tuated eas t of and perpend icu lar to Crowde r Canyon )was used as a h id i ng p lace for l i vestock s to len by Wakara and Pegleg Smi th . Ca t t le we re dri ve n to the

Wolfskill Ranc h ove r anothe r, un iden t i fied rou te“ th rough the b ru sh

”and d i d not pass t h rough the to l l

road (St . J ohn ,

In 1853 ,Gw i n n Harr i s Heap desc r i bed two of the en trance s to C ajon Pass then i n use - the Sanford

Cross i ng and the Old Span ish Tra i l . The Span i sh Trai l rou te was favored by pack tra i n s and ho rsemen

becau se of its Sho rte r d istance ,wh i le the We s t Cajon c rossing was used by wagons (Beat t ie and

Beat t ie

A marke r at the junc t ion ofCrowde r and Caj on canyon s commemorates the 500 Mormon p ionee rs whoused the Mormon Road . In 1849 , the Mo rmon p i onee rs came up the Old Span ish Tra i l fo l l ow ing the

pack tra i l . In the eas t Caj on Narrow s , they we re forced to d ismant le the i r wagons , load the con ten ts

on to pack an imal s , and d rag the wagon bodie s downh i l l th rough Crowde r (Coyo te ) Canyon* on po les .

The Mo rmon wagon rou te know n as the Sanford Cu toff came ove r Ba l dy Mesa Ri dge andWest Cajon

Fo rk . Th is rou te was deve l oped by Wi l l iam T. B . Sanford, and was u sed from 1852 unt i l comp le t ion of

the Joh n B rown to l l road in 186 1 . (Th i s rou te has been de si gnated Ca l i forn ia State Histor ic Landmark

J ohn B row n’

s to l l road* was la i d out on the most d i rec t l i ne , that of the Span ish Tra i l t h rough

the Eas t Cajon”

(Bea t t ie and Beat t ie 1939 z 337 ) . Anothe r wagon road a mi le fart he r we st was bu i l t i n

1855 to accommodate add i t iona l fre i gh t wagons from Sal t Lake C i ty .

West of today ’s In te rstate I- 15 i s the wagon road or i g ina l l y known as the San Bemardino to Sa l t Lake

Road of 1855- 1856 (the San ford Pas s Rou te ) . Th is a l te rna te rou te led from the Mo rmon Rocks area up

and over Cajon Pass to rejo in the ma in road near Vic torv i l le . It was cons idered the easiest wagon rou te

down i n to the San Bemardino Va l ley .

On the west side ofCaj on Pass, the Old Span ish Tra i l descended the narrow canyon by means of the

rou te take n by presen t—day I- 15 . Mormons who t ra i led ove r Caj on Pas s i n 1 85 1 camped for severa l

mon ths near the lowe r end of the pass at the s i te of the pre sent Sycamore Grove wh i le negot iat i n g the

pu rchase ofSan Bemardino . Fray José Maria Zalv idea fi rs t documen ted the Se rrano rancher i’

a of

Musc0 piab it, one ofa se r ie s ofarea Ind ian camps, i n 1806 .

From the Cajon Pass area, the ori g i na l rou te headed offwe s t-sou thwest to reach presen t-dayCucamonga, and t hence to E l Monte , San Gabrie l , and fina l l y, Los Ange le s . Today

,the few rema in ing

Old Span i sh Tra i l landmarks* i nc lude the San Gabrie l and San Bemardino moun ta i ns, the De S ienaSpri ngs si te (s i te of the Vi ncen te Luge adobe on the San Be rnard i no Rancho) , Missi on Dri ve and

Mi ss ion Road , Mission San Gabrie l , the Agua Mansa ceme te ry, and the ru ins of the o ld San Sa l vador

Church . Politana was a buffer se t t lemen t ofNew Mex icans es tab l i shed to cu rta i l Ind ian ra i d s on

l i vestock . From 1833 to 1848 , th i s se t t lemen t was the rendezvous and rest stop for t rad i ng caravans . It

was named afte r Polite , or Hi po l i to ,who was i n s t rumen tal i n br i ng i ng the co l on i s t s from New Me x ico .

The co l on i s t s moved from th i s , the Luge Rancho ,to the Jurupa Rancho (Agua Mansa) in 1845 . Agua

Mansa commemorates Don Juan Bandini’

s gi ft ofpart ofh is Jurupa Rancho to the co loni sts . The

6 1

commun i ty of Agua Mansa was des t royed i n an 1862 flood , bu t the ceme te ry and arc heol og ica l remai n s

of the chu rch rema i n (Ca l i fo rn ia Hi s to ric Landmark La Plac i ta de Truj i l l o was part ofthe same

se t t lemen t , but was si tuated acros s the San taAna Ri ve r.

San Bemardino Asi s tenc ia* was bu i l t abou t 1830 on the San Bemardino Rancho . Du r i ng the 1 8403 , i t s

bu i l d ings we re u sed by José de l Carmen Luge as part of the Rancho Gran t . Later i t was so ld to the

Mormons .

The Los Ange le s P laza* (on the Nat i ona l Reg i s te r) was re l ocated to its presen t l oca t ion i n 1 8 15 . The

p laza was the focal po in t of ac t i v i ty and the grow th ofLos Ange les th roughou t the Span ish , Mex ican ,and ear l y Amer i can e ras . The Plaza Chu rc h is on l y one ofa number of s i gn i fi can t s t ruc tu re s i n the p laza

area repre sen t i ng th i s Span of t i me .

Kingston Cu toff. The Ki ngs ton Cu toff was deve l oped i n the post- t ra i l era to accommodate wagon

t raffic”

(Madsen l 998b z 8 ) . Springs a l ong t h i s cu toff i nc l uded (from eas t to we s t) Horse Th ief, Beck ,Crys ta l , and Rabb i t Ho le s . Th i s rou te , de sc ri bed by Carva l ho i n 1 854 , ski rted the sou the rn edge of the

Dumon t Hi l l s . It rej o i ned the ma i n rou te toward the north end of the S i lu rian Va l ley just sou th of the

Dumon t Dunes , anothe r area documen ted by trave lers . Chand le s s fo l l owed the K i n gston Spri ngs

variant (Cu toff) from the Mormon Road i n 1 856, and the Whee ler Party u sed i t i n 1 869-1 873 . Whee le r

campsi te numbe r 66 was l oca ted a l ong th i s rou te .

Landmarks a long the ma i n K i ngs ton Cu toff i nc luded Ki n gs ton Spri ngs and Coyo te Ho le s .

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESOURCES

Othe r than the New Me x i co pueb los and the Moj ave v i l lages, no spec i fi c s i te s a l ong the Old Span ishTrai l t hat may be assoc ia ted w i t h the t ribes that occup ied terr i to ry al ong the Old Span i sh Tra i l du r i ng

the ear l y 1 8003 have been l i s ted . There are seve ra l reasons for th i s emission. Tri be s have i den t i fied few

si te s d i rec t l y assoc iated w i th the t ra i l rou te . In add i t ion , e th nograph ic s i te s are often p laces ofworsh i p

( sac red s i tes) , or they may be s i te s whe re spec ia l re sou rces may be ob ta i ned or whe re bat t les or

impo rtant even ts took p lace . In a l most all case s , tri be s p refer t hat e th nograph ic s i tes not be l i s ted or

t he i r loca t ions pub l ic i zed .

Trade rs , t rappe rs , e xp lo re rs , and i mmigran t s on the Old Span ish Tra i l fo l l owed t rade and t ransportat i onrou te s deve l oped by Ame r ican Ind ians, many of w hom s t i l l l i ved i n the v i c i n i ty of the rou te du r i ng i t s

primary per i od ofuse . Nume rous Ind ian pueb l os , many dat i n g back cen tu rie s , are s i tuated a l ong the Old

Span i sh Tra i l i n no rthe rn New Mex i co . Dur i ng the se ven teen th and e i gh teen th cen tu r ie s , the Span i sh

e s tab l i shed mi ss ions and ranchos i n or near mos t of these pueb l os , con vert i n g many of the re s i den ts toCatho l i c i sm and he l p i ng to transp lan t Hi span ic cu l tu re i n to northern New Mex i co . San ta Fe and

v i l lages such as Ab iqu iu and Taos se rved as trad i ng cen te rs , where t rade goods we re col lec ted fort ranssh i pment . The major i ty of these pueb l os and Hi span i c v i l lages re ta in much of t he i r cu l tura lhe ri tage and are occup ied by descendant s of the groups who cont ri bu ted some of the labor and goods

t hat made comme rce on the Old Span i sh Tra i l possi b le .

62

Apache te rr i tory once cove red a large port i on ofnort he rn New Mex ico and sou the rn Co lorado i n wh ich

the Apache ma i n ta i ned a t rad i ng re lat ionsh i p w i t h Pueb lo groups . Gradua l l y , Apache ra i d ing ac t i v i t ie s

i nc reased , as warfare w i t h the Comanc he and expansi on ofNew Mex i can (and late r Ame r ican ) se t t le rs

ont o Apache te rr i to ry decreased the i r ava i lab le re sou rce base . Du ring the mid to late 18003 , the

A pache became fie rce gue rr i l la fi gh te rs and mas te rs of su rv i va l . S i tes i mportan t to the Apache peop leare found w i t h in the J icar i l la Apache Re se rvat i on just sou th of the Colorado/New Mex ico borde r i n

north-cen t ra l New Mex ico .

By the t i me ofMex ican i nde pendence , the Ute (Utah ) Ind ian s had become sk i l led horsemen, occupy inga te rr i to ry of ove r Square mi le s , most on the Colorado Plateau , i n presen t-day Co l orado and

Utah . At leas t se ven d i ffe rent bands occup ied part s of sou the rn Co l orado a lone .

The Ute Ind ian s are t hough t to have t raded w i th the Pueb l o Ind ian s ofNew Mex ico before the Span i sh

arr i ved . The S pan i s h probab ly j o i ned the t rade in the ear l y seven teen th cen tu ry , we l l be fore any Engl i s h

or Ame r icans we re i n the area . Late r, the New Mex ican s ’ t rade w i t h the Ute s was a l so a means of

secu ri ng the nort he rn borders ofNew Spa in aga i n s t pe rce i ved th rea ts from the B ri t i sh and the

Ame ricans, and as a way to con tro l trade in guns . At fi rs t , the var ious Ute bands we re friend l y w i t h theAme r ican trappe rs and the New Mex ico trade rs, and often trave led i n to New Mex ico to secure t rade

i tems . It is poss i b le t hat qu i te a b i t of the rec i p roca l t rade be tween New Mex i cans and Ute s , e spec ia l l y

in s laves and fu rs , moved a long pa rt s of the Ol d Span ish Tra i l . Some Ute band s p rofi ted great l y fromthe slave t rade , and by captu r ing or acqu i r i n g ho rses from Euro-Ame r icans . B y 1846 , as Eu ro-Ame r ican

se t t le rs crowded into Ute te rr i tory , and as game and o the r re sou rce s dec reased , the Utes began mak i ng

foray s aga i n s t se t t lemen ts i n no rt hern New Mex ico and sou the rn Co l orado . Years ofconfl ic t fo l lowed ,

and even tua l l y the Un i ted S tates governmen t concen trated the Ute on re servat i ons in Co lo rado and

Utah .

B y the fi rst ha l f of the n ine teent h centu ry , at least 16 i dent i fiab le groups ofSou the rn Pa iu te ( i nc lud ingthe Chemehuev i ) occup ied the Grea t Bas i n i n a broad st r i p of te rr i tory ex tend i ng ac ross sou the rn Utah

and sou the rn Nevada,and sou thward i n to Ca l i fo rn ia and Ari zona (Ke l l y and Fow le r l 986 : 368) .

Re lat i onsh i ps w i t h the i r l ingu ist ic cousins , the Ute , we re ambi va len t and some t i mes host i le . The

Sou the rn Pa iu te lacked the horses he l d by the Ute , and

were in the unfortunate posi t ion ofbe ing be tween Ute raiders on the north and east and Navajos on thesouth . There

.

were a lso astride a port ion ofthe Old Spanish Trai l , wh ich Opened for commerce in the1 8303 and became a route for slaving ac t i vi t ies [Pa iute women and ch i ldren] we re “hunted in thespring ofthe year, when weak and he l p less (Ke l ly and Fow ler l 986 :3 86) .

By the beginn ing of the twent ie th cen tu ry , most of the Sou the rn Pa iu te ancest ra l te rr i tory had been lost

to se t t le rs and ranche rs , and even to the Navajo , i n wha t wou l d become the Weste rn Navajo

Re se rvat i on (Ti l le r l99oz2 13 ) . Today,ten sma l l S ou the rn Pa i u te groups occupy separate rese rvat i on s or

commun i t ie s in Utah and Ari zona in the San Juan/Colorado Ri ve r d ra i nage bas i n .

The Navajo acqu i red horses and shee p from the Span ish i n the 16003 , and became part of the comp lex

trading/raiding/slav ing ne twork duri ng the earl y 18003 . Fol l ow i ng Ame r i can acqu i s i t i on of the

Sou thwe s t , the Navaj o were rounded up and forced on the i n famous“Long Wa l k

”

to Fort Sumner , New

Mex i co .

The Moj ave Ind ians occup ied the Moj ave Val ley,wh ic h ex tend s th rough Califom ia ,

Nevada,and

Ari zona . They farmed al ong the Colorado Ri ver near Fort Mohave . They traded w i t h coasta l Ind ians,

and deve l oped many of the t ra i l s connec t ing de se rt wate r ho le s . The i r se t t lements we re sma l l and we re

o ften i n termi t ten t l y occup ied . A numbe r of t rave le rs a long the Old Span i sh Tra i l v i s i ted the Mojave

v i l lages ; the Mojave pe r i od ica l l y occup ied Cot tonwood Island , above Fort Mohave . Today , Mojave

people l i ve on or near the Fort Mojave and Col orado Ri ve r rese rvat i on s a l on g the Co l orado Ri ver i n

Ca l i fo rn ia,Ari zona, and Nevada .

Afte r 1 830 , the Chemehuev i had moved i n to the sou the rn part of the wes te rn Mojave De se rt . Th i s

movemen t b roke up the t rad i t i onal t rad ing and t rave l pat tern s of the Mojave Ind ian s . B y the 1 8403

areas suc h as Wi l l ow Spri ngs had“become i n te rm i t ten t camps i te s for Chemehue v i and othe r Piaute

l i vestock ru s t le rs”

(Love and De Wi t t B y the begi nn i ng of the twen t ie th cen tu ry , the

Chemehuev i we re d i spersed as non-Ind ian s moved i n to the i r lands . It was not un t i l 197 1 that a

re se rva t i on was set as i de for th i s group near Havasu Lake , Ca l i fo rn ia . Today , some Chemehuev i resi de

j o int ly w i t h groups ofHe p i , Mojave , and Navaj o Ind ian s on the Co lorado Ri ver Ind ian Rese rvat ion i n

Cal i fo rn ia and Ari zona .

The Se rrano Vanyume Ind ians occup ied part s of the wes te rn Mojave De se rt , the eas te rn San

Bemardino Moun tains, Cajon Pass, and the San Bemardino area (Bean and Smi t h 1978 z 570) . Be tween

1 820 and 1 834 ,many ofthe Weste rn Serrano and the Vanyume we re moved by the Ca lifornios i n to the

various mi ss i ons Presen t-day Se rranos l i ve on re se rvat i ons i n Ca l i fo rn ia .

CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

Through u rban deve lopmen t and h i ghway con s t ruc t ion , rec reat i ona l ac t i v i t ies, con st ruc t i on of dams ,and agricu l ture ,

much of the landscape a l ong the Old S pan i s h Tra i l has changed rad ica l l y s i nce the18003 . Howeve r, i n a number ofareas, the land forms , vege tat ion , and gene ra l con figurat ion of the t ra i l

rema in much as they we re du r i ng the heyday of the t ra i l . In no rt he rn New Mex i co , the adobe dwe l l i ngs

of Indian pueb l os and Hi span ic v i l lage s a long the r i ve r con tras t w i t h the backd rop of snow-capped

moun ta i n s ; these p laces st i l l re ta in t he i r h i s toric charac te r and fee l i n g .

Some of the ro l l i n g pastu re lands of the wes tern San Lu i s Va l ley rema i n remote and large l y

unde ve l oped . Away from the freeways and fence l i ne s i n weste rn Co l orado , sou t he rn Utah , and

northe rn Ari zona, the s tark landscape st re tches to the far hor i zon , and appears to have changed l i t t le for

M a 150 years . Landmarks such as Casa Colorado and Looki ng Glass Rock we re men t i oned by

t rave le rs, and con t inue to be v i sual rem i nde rs of the c ri t ica l importance landmarks p layed i n what was a

large l y uncharted w i lde rness .

On Utah’

s San Rafae l Swe l l , the ex tens i ve rock forma t i on s and natura l tanks at B i g Holes , s t i l l used for

stock wa te r ing , are on l y one of the many t ra i l si de landscape s that con t i nue to re ta i n the i r charac te r andintegr i ty . In sou thwe s te rn Utah , se lec t i ve v iewsheds rep l icate scenes desc r i bed by t rave le rs a l ong the

Old S pan i s h Tra i l . Many areas of the t ra i l t hat t rave rse the seve ral Ind ian Re se rvat i on s a l ong the rou te

also re ta i n the fee l ing ofthe ori g i na l j ou rney .

The ex tremes ofdese rt heat and cold in the Mojave De se rt , the d i ffi cu l t ove r land trave l t h rough sand

and rocks, the importance of the scat te red wate rhole s , and the long-range v i s tas ofmass i ve s tone bu t te s

and me sas have changed l i t t le ove r the pas t cen tu ry and a ha l f. Th i s landscape evoke s in mode rn

t rave le rs who t rave rse segment s of the Old Span ish Tra i l a s t rong sense ofp lace— a p lace of s tark

beau ty fi l led w i t h s truggle and d i fficu l ty . The v iew from the top of Emi grant Pass canno t he l p but c rea tein observe rs a sen se of empathy for ear l ie r t rave le rs who s t ruggled to su rmoun t the pas s

,on l y to then

l ook sou t hwest at yet anot he r st re tch ofar i d dese rt . These landscapes commun icate the story of therou te v i sual l y, emo t ional l y, and i n a heart fe l t way that no words can adequate l y e x p re s s .

64

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Like the Great Bas in ,bas i n ranges and i n terven i ng de se rt p la i ns charac te ri ze the Sonoran De sert .

Howe ve r, the a l t i tude is l owe r, the ranges are sma l ler and more iso lated , and rock ped imen ts are more

prevalent . It i s an area ofex t reme l y low ra i n fal l . In sou thern Ca l i fo rn ia, the Mojave De se rt is drai ned

by the Mojave Ri ve r, w h ich flows most l y beneat h i t s grave l bed, su rfac i ng on l y where t he re i simpe rv i ou s rock . The weste rn end of the Mojave (An te l ope Va l ley) has subs tan t ia l supp l ie s of

subsurface wate r.

Once the t ra i l crosse s Caj on Pas s i n the Los Ange le s moun tai n ranges (consi st i ng of narrow moun ta i n

ranges and broad fau l t b l ocks paral le l ing the coas t l i ne ) , i t d rops rap i d l y down on to the alluv iated

l ow lands borde red by the Pac i fic Ocean .

The e leva t i ona l grad ien t a l ong the t ra i l can range from near sea leve l in the Mojave De se rt to ove r

fee t i n the Col orado Rocky Moun ta ins . The eas te rn port i on s of the rou te ave rage be tween

and fee t i n e levat i on ; the we s te rn desert port i on s ofthe rou te are much lowe r, w i th some areas of

the Nevada and Ca l i forn ia de se rt s measu r i ng le s s than 500 fee t above sea leve l . Gene ral l y, the grad ien t

runs from h i ghe r to l owe r as one t rave l s wes t .

So i l types inc lude the arid a l ka l i ne brown so i l s found i n the bas i n and range coun try of New Mex ico ,

Colorado ,Utah , and Arizona ; the t h i n , stony moun ta i n so i l s ( l i t h oso l s) ofthe Col orado and Utah h igh

coun try ; the gray, often ve ry a l ka l i ne dese rt so i ls (h i gh i n l ime or gypsum) ofAr i zona , Utah , and

Ca l i forn ia ; and the Pac i fic Va l ley so i l s found i n the val leys adjacen t to the Los Ange le s range s of

moun ta ins .

Vegetation

Nat i ve p lan ts vary great l y al ong the rou te s , due to d ifferences i n e levat i on , moi stu re , area geo logy, and

so i l s . (Informat i on on p lan t s was syn the s i zed from se lec ted Na t iona l Park Se rv i ce pub l i cat ions, as we l l

as Flora ofNorth Ame r ica ( 1993 ) and Barbou r and B i l l i n gs Gene ral l y, howe ve r, vege tat i on

types can be l i nked to regiona l phy s iography . For example , vege tat i on a l ong the t ra i l rou te i n the

moun ta i nous areas ofnort he rn New Mex i co is charac te ri zed by con i fe rou s t ree s , i nc lud i ng ponde rosa

p ine park land w i t h a Gambe l oak understo ry i n h i ghe r e le vat ions, grad i ng i n to m i xed p ihe n -jun i pe rwood lands on lowe r, d rie r s lopes . Cottonwoods and w i l l ow s domina te ri parian p lan t commun i t ie s .

Othe r common trees inc lude aspen, Douglas fi r, sp ruce , and wh i te fi r. In the l owe r, d rie r e levat i on s of

the Bas i n and Range Prov ince ofnorthweste rn New Mex ico , vege tat ion may inc l ude cac tuses , c reosote

bush , greasewood , grama grass , mesqu i te , shadsca le , yuccas , rabb i tb ru sh , and sage .

In Colorado ’s San Lu is Va l ley, the North B ranch ran th rough a typ i cal rabb i tb rush prai r ie (w i t hoccas iona l cac tuses and sparse pe renn ial grasse s) . Close r to the moun ta i n s i s a foo th i l l p lan t commun i ty

i nc lud ing pifion-jun i pe r woodlands , ponde rosa p i ne , s t reams ide co t tonwoods, and a few grove s of

aspen . Limbe r p ine ,wh i te fi r, Douglas fi r, and Englemann Spruce occur fart he r ups l ope .

In no rt hwe s te rn Co lo rado , typ ica l semiar id con i fe rou s cover inc lude s pifron-jun i pe r wood land w i t h

inte rm i ngled Douglas fi r and an unde rstory of sca t te red bmsh such as Gambe l oak ,se rv i ceberry,

moun tai n mahogany, Mormon tea , sagebrush , rabb i tb ru sh , and grasse s and herbs . Vege tat i on i n

sou thwes te rn Co l orado is typ ica l of the t rans i t i on l i fe zone of the h igh p lateau coun t ry . In h i ghe r

e levat i on s , mountain/shrub vege tat ion inc ludes Gambe l oak and var i ous grasse s, inte rspe rsed w i t h

se rv icebe rry and o the r sh rubs . Lowe r port i on s of the p lateau suppo rt a matu re pifion pine/Utah jun i pe r

forest w i th scat tered sma l l s tands ofDouglas fi r and occas i ona l aspen . Grass lands are domi nated by

he rbaceous vege tat i on ; major grasse s are Western wheatgras s , b l ue grama,junegrass, muttongrass, and

needle-and- th read grass, w i t h sagebrush and chaparra l i n d r ie r areas .

66

Tra i l rou te s in Utah cut t h rough a numbe r of d i ffe rent eco l og ica l zone s , but gene ra l l y wate r i s scarce .

B lackbrush , shadsca le ,andMormon tea cove r much ofthe eas t-cen tra l area of the state , a l ong w i t h

Ind ian r i cegrass, need le and th read , ga l le ta,and grama gras ses . B i g sage , rabb i tb rush , and greasewood

i nhab i t sandy-so i led benche s that have a good groundwate r supp l y . In areas where c re v ices prov ide

more mo istu re ,p inons and jun i pers , c l i ffrose , moun ta i n mahogany, barbe rry, and snowbe rry ex ist . Near

the Green and Colorado ri ve rs are commun i t ies ofcot tonwood,w i l l ow, and tamar i sk . Weste rn mon tane

con i fe r fo rest s occupy the cen tra l part of the state .

Plan t s ofthe Intennountain Great B as i n ofwe s tern Utah are princ i pa l l y cold dese rt sh rubs, grading into

the Mojave'

s warm de se rt sh rubs i n the sou t hweste rn come r of the s tate and i n nort hweste rn Ari zona .

Woody spec ies of sagebrush , sa l tbush , and greasewood are the most charac ter ist ic and w i de spread

p lants in the nort he rn part of the area ; pifion and jun i pe r appear th roughou t the region in sca t te red

areas .

In sou th -cen tra l Utah , a mosa ic ofdese rt gras s land , warm de se rt sc rub , andMadrean wood lands and

sc rub lands appears . Becau se of the i r w i de e levat iona l d i ffe rence s and lat i tud i na l span , the Mojave

warm dese rt p lants of sou thwes tern Utah , no rt hwestern Ari z ona , sou thern Nevada, and sou t he rn

Ca l i forn ia make up a w i de var ie t y of vege tat i on type s . Howeve r, the mos t common assoc ia t i on of

p lant s i s dom inated by creoso te bush and w h i te bursage . The loca t ions ofb ig sageb rush , shadsca le ,

sa l tbush , and b lackb rus h commun i t ie s fou nd th roughou t the Mojave are based on tempe ra tu re ,

e le vat i on , mo isture , and so i l . Sp iny de se rt pl ant s such as menodora , wo lfbe rrie s , Mormon tea , ratany,goldenhead Fremon t da lea , catc law, and ye l l ow pape r da isy are common . Many cac tuses appear in t h i s

area, inc l ud ing cho l las, beavertail , and barre l cac tus , a l ong w i t h var ious type s ofyucca . D ist r i bu t ion of

Joshua t ree s e ssen t ia l l y ou t l i nes the Mojave Dese rt , but i s e levationally rest r ic ted to h i ghe r s i tes .

The Ca l i fo rn ia de se rt conta i n s the same p lan t commun i t ies, a long w i t h i nd i go bushes and burroweeds .

Fores ted areas at h ighe r, mounta inous e levat i on s con ta i n aspen , co t tonwood , fi rs , jun i pe rs, p inons,p i nes , sc rub oaks, spruces ,

and a l de rs. Cal i forn ia chaparra l domina te s the footh i l l s from the S ie rra

Nevada to the Pac i fic Ocean . Chapparral”is a co l lec t i ve te rm used for a numbe r of e ve rgreen sh rub

spec ies such as manzan i ta , sc rub oak , buckbru sh , lemonadeberry, lau re l sumac ,and moun ta in

mahogany .

Anima ls

Nume rou s d i ffe ren t types ofan ima ls are pre sen t a l ong tra i l rou tes . Wi ld l i fe spec ies common to areas

a l ong the Old Span i sh t ra i l are l i sted i n Append i x E .

Th reatened or Endangered Species

The US . Fish andWi ld l i fe Se rv ice offices i n each trai l s tate have been con tac ted to i den t i fy th reatened

and endange red an ima l and p lant s pec ies that may ex i s t a long the O ld Span i s h Tra i l . To ensu re t ha t

such spec ies wou l d be pro tec ted , s i te-spec i fi c su rveys wou l d be requ i red before any t ra i l-re la ted ac t ionsare taken . A comple te l i st i ng of th reatened and endange red p lant and an imal spec ies found a long the

rou te i s ava i lab le upon reque s t to the Nat i ona l Park Se rv i ce Long D istance Tra i l s Group Office SantaFe .

67

Wi th i n New Me x ico coun t ie s crossed by the t ra i l , one mamma l , two b i rds , th ree fi she s (w i t h de s i gnated

cr i t ica l hab i tat) , and two p lan ts are fede ral l y l isted as endange red spec i e s ; two b i rds are l i s ted as

fede ra l l y th reatened spec ies ; and one bi rd has been proposed for l i s t i n g as th reatened . One mammal and

one amph i b ian are fede ra l cand idate spec ie s . The US . Fi sh andWi ld l i fe Se rv i ce cons i de rs 13

mamma l s , 1 1 b i rds , th ree fi shes , one rep t i le , fou r i n vertebrates , two amph ib ian s , one sna i l , one c lam ,

and 14 p lan ts as spec ie s of conce rn .

One mamma l , one b i rd , fou r fishe s , and th ree p lan ts are fede ra l l y l isted as endangered spec ie s i n

Co lorado . Threatened spec ie s i nc lude two b irds and two plan ts . One mamma l and one b i rd are proposed

for l i s t i ng as th reatened Spec ies ; one amph i b ian and one p lan t are cand i date spec ies ; and the US . Fish

andWi ld l i fe Se rv ice l ist two b i rds as sen s i t i ve spec ie s .

Spec ie s federa l ly l i s ted as endangered w i th i n the State of Utah i nc lude two b i rds, one mamma l , se venfi she s , and four p lan ts . Threatened spec ies i nc lude one rep t i le , two b i rd s , one mammal , and seven

p lan ts . Two p lan ts are cand idate spec ies . One fi sh and one amph i b ian are be i ng managed unde r

conse rvat i on agreemen ts and s t rategie s .

In Ari zona, 16 spec ies are fede ra l l y l isted as endange red (fou r mamma ls, two b i rds , one snai l , fi ve

fishes , and four p lan ts) . Threatened specie s i nc l ude th ree b i rds , one rept i le , th ree fi she s , and six p lan ts :

one b i rd is proposed for l i s t ing as a th rea tened spec ies . Cand idate spec ies i nc l ude one amph i b ian and

four p lan t s . The Ca l i forn ia condor is c las s i fied as an expe r i men ta l popu lat ion , and one p lan t is be i ng

managed unde r a con se rvat i on agreemen t .

In the two Nevada coun t ie s c rossed by the Old Span ish Tra i l , th ree b i rds , 14 fi she s , and one p lan t are

fede ra l l y l i s ted as endange red spec ie s ; two of the fishes have de s i gna ted cri t i ca l hab i tat . Threa tened

spec ies i nc lude two b i rds, fou r fi she s , one rept i le , seven p lan t s , and one i n vertebrate . One b i rd has been

proposed for l i s t i ng as a t h rea tened spec ie s , and one p lan t and one amph ib ian are cand idate spec ie s .

Nume rous spec ies are l i s ted as “spec ies of concern , i n c l ud i ng 4 1 mamma l s , 20 b i rds , 20 fi she s , fou r

amph i b ians, s i x rept i le s , 46 i n ve rtebrate s , and 97 p lan ts .

Federa l l y l isted endange red spec ie s for th ree Ca l i fo rn ia coun t ies i nc lude one mamma l , fou r b i rds , onerept i le , one amph ib ian , fou r fishes, one i n vertebrate , and 10 p lan ts . One mamma l , two b i rds , two fi she s ,and one p lant are endangered spec ies wi th c ri t ica l hab i ta t . Cri t ica l hab i ta t has been proposed for oneendange red spec ie s of fi sh . Two b i rds, two fi she s , one amph i b ian , and e i gh t p lan t spec ie s are l i s ted as

t h reatened . In add i t i on , one rept i le ( th reatened spec ie s) has had c r i t i ca l hab i ta t desi gnated ; cr i t i ca l

hab i tat is proposed for one b i rd spec ie s l isted as th reatened . One b i rd spec ie s is proposed for l i s t i ng asth reatened . One p lan t i s a cand i date spec ie s .

Floodpla ins andWet lands

The Old Span i sh Tra i l con ta i n s some lands t hat are i n a floodp lai n and/or are we t lands . On the leve l onwh ich t h i s study was conduc ted , i t i s no t poss i b le to de te rm i ne w i th any prec i s ion how many of t he seareas are on the t ra i l . Howeve r, any fede ra l agency invo l ved i n t ra i l deve l opmen t wou l d be requ i red to

fo l l ow Execu t i ve Orde r 1 1988 ,"

Floodpla i n Managemen t .” Th i s requ i re s fede ral agenc ie s to avo i d , tothe e x ten t poss i b le , the l ong and sho rt-te rm adve rse impac t s as soc iated w i t h the occupancy andmod i ficat i on offloodp la i n s whe reve r the re is a prac t ica l a l te rnat i ve . Al so

,fede ra l po l icy v i rtua l l y

proh i b i t s federal agenc ies from tak ing ce rta i n ac t i on s i n a 500-year fl oodp la i n,inc l ud i ng the s torage of

i rrep laceab le cu l tura l art i fac t s .

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SOCIOECONOMIC RESOURCES

The Northe rn and Sou t hern Rou te s of the Old Span ish Tra i l pass th rough the New Mex ico , Co lorado ,

Utah , Ari zona,Nevada,

and Ca l i forn ia coun t ies l isted be l ow . The rou te (s) begi n in San ta Fe , New

Mex ico , curren t popu lat i on At its weste rn termi nus , the rou te t rave rses the me t ropo l i tan area

w i t h i n and su rround i ng Los Ange le s i n Ca l i forn ia w i t h i n the count ies of San Bemardino (popu la t i on

and Los Ange le s (Popu lat i on sta t i s t ic s for these and the fo l low i ng commun i t ie s

are taken from the Un i ted State s Census tab les for Sma l le r c i t ies a long the rou te inc l ude Grand

Junc t i on , Colorado St . George , Utah Las Vegas, Nevada and Bars tow

and Vic torv i l le Ca l i fo rn ia . Wh i le mode rn h i ghway s often fo l l ow or para l le l the

rou te s , and c i t ies and tow n s are s i tuated a long the corr i do r, a great dea l of the o r i g i na l t ra i l l ie s w i t h i n

undeve l oped areas hav i ng ve ry low popu la t i on dens i ty .

The t ra i l passe s th rough the fo l low ing coun t ie s .

New Mex ico : San ta Fe , Taos, Rio Arr i ba , Sandova l , San Juan .

Col orado : Al amosa, Archu le ta , Conej os, Cos t i l la,De l ta , Do lores, Gunn ison , La Pla ta, Mesa ,

Mon tezuma, Mont rose , Rio Grande , Saguache .

Utah : Eme ry Garfie l d , Grand , Iron , Kane , Piu te , San Juan , Sev ie r, Wash i ngton .

Ari zona: Apache , Cocon ino , Mohave , Navajo .

Nevada : Clark .

Ca l i forn ia: Inyo , Los Ange les, San Bemardino .

Seven ty pe rcen t ofNew Mex ico ’s gross state produc t is gene rated by se rv ice indust r ies . Many of the

se rv ice i ndustries are assoc iated w i th tour ism and are e spec ial l y importan t to the state’

s economy .

Several m i l l i on tou r i sts v i si t the s ta te each year, cont r i bu t ing b i l l i on s of do l lars to i t s economy . Much of

the s tate’s farm i ncome comes ma in l y from cat t le , da i ry produc ts, and sheep , a long w i t h grai n s , legume s

and peppe rs , fru i t , and nu t s . New Mex ico is the nat ion’

s major produce r ofu ran ium , pe rl i te ,and po tash

ore , and na tura l gas and pe t ro leum are the state’

s mos t importan t m i ne ra l produc ts . Fede ra l and defense

proj ec ts prov ide important income for the state .

The Colorado economy inc lude s agricu l tu ra l i ncome from ca t t le ,w i n te r wheat , and farm produce .

Min i ng and m ine ra l p roduc ts and min ing equ i pmen t are important sou rces of income , as are the

manu fac tur ing of m i l i tary equ i pmen t and de fense and ae rospace e lec t ron ics . Fou r-fi fths ofthe gross

s ta te produc t i s gene rated by se rv ice i ndus t r ies ; i nc lud i ng commun i ty, business , and pe rsona l serv ice s ;who le sale and re ta i l t rade ; fi nance ; i n surance ; rea l estate ; and fede ra l , state , and loca l government s . The

tour ist indu s t ry is the t h i rd large s t i n the s tate ,w i th ove r 7 m i l l i on v i s i tors per year. In 1995 ,

d i rec t

tour ist-re lated spend ing gene rated $6 b i l l i on in revenue for the s tate ,

Tour i sm re lated to Sa l t Lake Ci ty and the s tate’

s ski resort s i s an importan t source of income . Min i ng

(o il, coa l , natu ra l gas, and me ta l s) is a l so a major cont ri bu to r to Utah’s economy . A re lat i ve l y sma l l

amoun t ofarab le land i n Utah produce s l i ves tock (primar i l y cat t le , sheep , and turkeys) and farm

produce such as wheat and o the r grains , sugar bee ts, hay, vege tab le s , and orchard fru i ts . The t imbe r

i ndust ry harvestsWe s tern softwoods,pr imari l y con i fe rs . Manu factu r i ng i nc lude s food p rocessing ,

me tal process i ng , and fabr icat ion , a long w i t h h i gh-tec h e lec t ron ic s . Seventy — fi ve pe rcent ofUtah ’

s

69

gross s tate produc t i s gene rated by se rv i ce indust rie s , wh i ch i nc lude commun i ty, bu s i ne s s , and pe rsonal

se rv ice s ; who lesale and re ta i l t rade ; fi nance ; i n su rance ; rea l es tate ; and fede ra l , state , and loca l

gove rnment s . The se are concen trated i n the urban areas of the S tate .

Ente rta i nmen t and touri sm are by far the large s t segment of the Nevada economy, at t rac t ing more than

30 m i l l i on v i s i tors a year to the Las Vegas and Rene areas . Eigh ty-one pe rcen t ofNevada’s gross s tate

produc t i s gene rated by se rv i ce i ndus tries , wh ic h i nc lude commun i ty, bu s i ne s s , and pe rsona l se rv i ce s ;who lesa le and re ta i l t rade ; fi nance ; i n su rance ; rea l estate ; and fede ra l , s tate , and l oca l govemments .

-The

state ’s pri mary agricu ltu ra l cas h produce r is cat t le and sheep ranch i ng , a l ong w i th some gra i ns and

t ruck vege tab les . Min i ng (for example , coppe r and gold) is a maj o r i ncome produce r.

Ari zona’s economic base i nc ludes min i ng and mi ne ra l s (espec ia l l y copper) ; the manufac ture ofe lec t r ica l , e lec t ron ic , and ce ramic produc ts and equ i pmen t ; and agr icu l tu re (feeds tocks , cot ton

vege tab les , and fru i t s , and bee f and da iry produc t s) . Seventy-s i x percen t ofAr i zona’s gross s tate

produc t is gene rated by se rv ice i ndust ries, w h ich i nc l ude commun i ty, bu s i ness, and pe rsona l se rv ice s ;who lesa le and re ta i l t rade ; hea l t h care ; fi nance ; i nsu rance ; rea l e s tate ; and fede ra l , s tate , and l oca l

gove rnmen ts . Tou r i sm brings in mo re t han $500 m i l l ion to the s tate annua l l y

Seventy-n i ne pe rcen t of Califom ia’

s gross s ta te produc t is gene rated by se rv i ce i ndus t r ies , wh ich

inc lude commun i ty, bus i ne ss, and pe rsona l se rv ice s ; who lesa le and re ta i l t rade ; fi nance ; i nsu rance ; rea l

e s tate ; and fede ra l , s tate , and l oca l gove rnmen t s . Part of the se rv ice indust ry i nc ludes tou rism ,w h ich

amoun ted to 250 mi l l i on people i n 1995 . Manufac tur i ng and agricu l tu re are al so importan t to the

s tate ’s economy .

LANDOWNERSHIPAND LAND USE

Approx ima te l y mi le s of the Nort he rn and Armijo Rou te s of the Old Span i sh Tra i l are w i t h i n

fede ra l land (pr imari l y na t i onal fores t s and parks , and land managed by the US . Departmen t ofInte ri or

'

s Bu reau ofLand Management) . Tota l t ra i l mi les are more than An add i t i onal 500 mi le s

of the t ra i l run th rough sta te lands and Indian re se rvat i ons , and most of the re s t of the t ra i l’s mi les

are on pri vate land . Some of the t ra i l segmen ts lie w i t h i n s tate or coun ty road r i gh ts-of—way. The t ra i l

c ros ses se ve ra l geograph ic reg i on s , i nc lud i ng the Rocky Mounta ins , the Col orado Plateau , a sma l l

segmen t ofthe Great Bas i n , the Mojave De se rt ,and the Los Ange le s Bas i n . Land use a long rou te

a l i gnmen ts var ies , from de se rt s used primar i l y by recreat ion ist s and the mi l i tary, gras sy and shrubbyrange lands , i n tens i ve agricu l tu re , graz ing , low-dens i ty ru ra l re s iden t ia l areas , to indus tr ia l u ses .

New Mexico

Almos t a t h i rd ofNew Mex ico’

s land square mi le s) is fede ral l y owned ; Ind ian t r i be s and

indi v i dua l s own or have in t rus t a lmos t e i gh t mi l l i on acre s . On l y a frac t i on of the s tate ’s land has been

de ve l oped , and t h i s deve l opmen t is focused i n the maj or r i ve r va l leys . Mos t of the s tate i s c lassed asru ra l , w i t h range land occupy i ng the large s t pe rcen tage of the to ta l . Fo rt y s tate parks and fi ve s tate

monumen ts occupy acre s , and 10 nat i ona l monumen ts and seven nat iona l fo re s t s take up a

l i t t le ove r 10 mi l l ion ac re s .

70

Colorado

A l i t t le ove r one-th i rd of the square mi le s of land i n Co lorado is fede ral l y owned or managed ;much of th i s land (

‘

ove r 16 mi l l i on acre s) l ies w i t h i n the s tate’

s na t iona l fo re s ts . The re are acre s

ofInd ian land i n the state . Sma lle r acreage s are w i t h i n the sta te park acre s) and nat i ona l park

ac re s) sy s tems . De sp i te e xtens i ve deve l opmen t a long the Fron t Range , mos t ofColorado i s

rura l , w i t h range land , c rop land , and forest s occupy i ng most of the land area . Around two-fi ft h s of

Colorado’s land is devoted to agricu l tu re .

Ove r s i x ty-th ree pe rcen t ofUtah’

s square m i les is fede ra l l y owned or managed ,and Ind ian

t ri bes and i nd i v idua ls have abou t two-and—one-th i rd mi l l i on ac re s of land . The re are six fede ra l

re se rvat ion s i n Utah . Sta te parks and recreat i on areas occupy abou t ac res of land ; nat i ona l

parks cove r ove r two m i l l i on ac re s ; and the nat iona l fores ts occupy ove r n ine mi l l i on ac res .

Nevada

On l y abou t ac res ofNevada land had been deve loped by 1990 , and mos t of the land area i s

c lassed as range land . Eigh ty-fi ve pe rcent ofNevada land ( to ta l ing square m i les) is fede ra l l y

owned or managed, and ove r a mi l l ion ac re s are Ind ian owned or he l d in trust . Abou t ac res are

in s tate parks and recrea t ion areas ; toge the r, the nat iona l parks and forests occupy around six mi l l ion

ac res .

Arizona

In Ari zona,ove r 20 mi l l ion acres of the state

’

s to ta l square m i les are Ind ian owned or he ld in

t ru s t for tr i bes . Forty-t h ree pe rcen t ofthe land area w i t h i n the sta te is federal l y owned or managed . Th is

inc lude s land managed by the Bu reau ofLand Managemen t ; nume rous nat i onal h istor ic S i tes, parks ,memor ia ls, monument s , w i l d l i fe re fuges, and recreat i on areas ; and se ve ra l nat i ona l forest s . Th i rty -n i ne

thousand acres ofAri zona land is w i t h in s tate parks and rec reat ion areas ; and 14 m i l l i on acres are i nnat i ona l parks and na t iona l forests . S l i gh t l y over a m i l l ion acre s i s i n deve loped land,

most l y i n the

Maricopa Va l ley (Phoen i x and Tucson me t ropo l i tan areas) and Flags taff areas . The re st of the ac reage is

d i v ided among rura l land , range land , and fore s t lands, w i t h a sma l l pe rcen tage i n c rop land and

pastu re land .

Ca lifornia

A l i t t le less than ha l f per cen t ) ofCa l i forn ia square m i les) is fede ra l l y owned or

managed . Ind ian-owned or t ru s t lands to ta l ac res . S tate parks and recreat i on areas occupy

acre s ; and nat i ona l parks and forest s hol d around ac re s . Ove r fou r and one ha l f

m i l l ion ac re s ofthe s tate are deve loped ; but more than 49 m i l l ion acre s are c lassed as ru ral . Most of th i s

l and is i n c ro p s , range land , and forest s . Much of the land a long the eas te rn segmen t of the t ra i l ( in

Ca l i forn ia) i s undeve l oped . At the we s t end of the rou te , the Los Ange les Bas i n i s heav i l y deve l oped

and popu lated , w i t h pri vate homes , bus i ne sses, manufac tu r i ng , t ranspo rtat ion indus tr ies, and so fort h .

7 1

ALTERNATIVES

ALTERNATIVE A : NO ACTION

The h isto ry, mean ing, and s ign i ficance of the Old Span i s h Trai l are be i ng i n terpre ted , commemorated ,and pre se rved i n vary i ng degrees a l ong the t ra i l . Protec t i on and commemorat i on of the Old Span i sh

Tra i l wou l d con t i nue to be le ft to i n i t iat i ves by fede ra l agenc ies, state and l oca l governmen ts , and

o the rs .

Managem ent

S i te s,st ruc tu re s , and t ra i l segmen ts assoc iated w i t h the Old Span i sh Tra i l are curren t l y owned by

fede ra l , s tate , and l oca l governmen ts , as we l l as by the pri vate sec tor.

Vis itor Use and Interpretation

A numbe r of deve l oped and undeve l oped h i storic s i te s and t ra i l segmen ts can be found a l ong the t ra i l

and se vera l gu idebooks ex i s t . Wi th the curren t i n te re s t i n the t ra i l , othe r v is i tor use opportun i t ie s are

l i ke l y to be deve l oped . The O ld-

Span i sh Tra i l Assoc ia t i on promotes v i s i tor use , in te rpre tat ion ,prese rvat i on, and commemorat i on ofthe t ra i l . The as soc iat i on has chap te rs tha t work on the loca l leve l ,and has a new s le t te r and webs i te . Many o ther organ i za t i on s and agenc ies are taki ng ac t ion at the loca lleve l to recogn i ze and commemo ra te the Old Span ish Tra i l (see

“

Potent ia l Partne rsh i ps”sec t i on ) .

Var i ou s leve l s of i n terpre tat i on on the O ld Span i s h Tra i l can be found a l ong rou te s of the t ra i l . The

qual i ty of i n terpre tat i on var ies from area to area, and no one area te l l s the en t i re Old Span i sh Tra i l

sto ry .

Re source Preser vation

Many Old Span i sh Tra i l resou rces have not been loca ted or documen ted . S i te s , st ruc tu res, and t ra i l

segments con t i nue to be damaged and dest royed , part i cu lar l y i n areas ofu rban deve l opment .

Opportun i t ies are l os t to record and documen t tangi b le remains of the t ra i l . A numbe r of s i tes ,st ruc tu res, and t rai l segmen ts rema i n under the con tro l of fede ra l , s ta te ,

loca l , and pri vate-sec tor

organ i zat ions that con t i nue to protec t the areas . In forma t i on e valuated i n th i s study he l p s to unde rscore

that the Old Span ish Tra i l has s tate and l oca l h isto r i ca l si gn i fi cance ,mak i ng its rou tes and s i te s

potent ia l l y e l i g i b le for nominat i on to the Nat i ona l Regi s te r ofHi s tor ic Place s .

Es t ima ted Costs

The re wou ld be no d i rec t cost s for new programs , but ava i lab le federal , s tate ,l ocal , and pri vate funds

are be i ng spen t on a var ie ty ofprograms, but there is no cen tra l coord i nat i on . The prec i se cos ts cannot

be de te rmi ned because the pre se rvat i on and i n te rpre tat i on of the Old Span i sh Tra i l are componen ts of

large r pre servat i on and i n terpre t i ve programs by var i ous organ i zat ions .

72

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The commi ss i on cou l d en l i s t the support of commun i t ies, vo lun tee r groups , spec ia l i n te re s t s such as

schoo l d i s tr i c t s , and o the rs to j o i n an umbre l la organ i zat ion in support ofOld Span i sh Tra i l

i n te rpre tat i on and commemorat i on . Greate r part ic i pat i on wou l d support a w i de varie t y ofprogramming

and ac t i v i t ies , i nc lud i ng pre se rvat i on , i n te rpre tat i on , and ce lebrat i on ofOld Span ish Tra i l re sou rce s .

Ex per ien t ia l ac t i v i t ie s , fe s t i va l s , commun i ty ac t i v i t ies, and othe r programs wou l d offe r local peop le . as

we l l as na t iona l v isi tors , the opportun i ty to bo th v i s i t the t ra i l and part ic i pate i n ac t i v i t ie s year-round .

Add i t i ona l l y, v i s i tors wou l d have access to“ take-home

”i n te rpre t i ve mate ria l s emphasi z i ng trailw ide

contex t and mean i ng beyond regi ona l , s i te-spec i fi c , and rou te i n format ion . The Old S pan i sh Trai l

comm i ss ion wou l d have the au tho r i ty ove r ac t i ons such as Offi c ia l l y recogn i zi ng part ic i pat i ng s i tes andsegmen t s , coord i nat i n g w i t h part ic i pat i ng state governmen ts , so l i c i t i ng and d i s t r i bu t i ng funds, and

deve lop i ng a copyr i gh ted logo and s i gns .

The commi ss i on cou l d se rve as a c learinghouse to prov i de techn ica l and gran t i n format i on concern i ng

the prese rva t i on ofOld Span i sh Trai l re sou rce s . The commi s s ion cou l d deve l op a catal og ofall Old

Span i sh Tra i l s i te s and t ra i l segmen ts , s tart i ng w i th t hose named i n th i s s tudy and ex tend i ng new

research to i den t i fy add i t i ona l s i te s and segmen t s , and gene ra l h istory . Th i s re search cou l d ex tend to

scho larl y work i n Spa i n , Mex ico , and the Un i ted States , and cou l d add to the body of know ledge on the

t rai l .

Visitor Use and Interpretation

Unde r t h i s a l ternat i ve , peop le wou l d fo l l ow marked state h i s tor i c trai l s or new rec reat i ona l t ra i l s

commemorat i n g represen tat i ve Old Span i sh Tra i l segmen ts . The primary v i s i tor expe rience wou ld

inc lude t rave l i n g th rough landscapes and v is i t i ng s i tes and othe r resou rces assoc iated w i t h the Old

Span i sh Tra i l s tory . Ind i v i dua l land manage rs and agenc ie s wou l d deve l op t ra i l opportun i t ies and

propose t hem for recogn i t i on by the Sec re tary of the In te r io r as Na t i ona l Rec reat i onal Tra i l s .

The e x tent of t ra i l deve l opmen t migh t vary depend i ng on the i n te re s t of the i nd i v i dua l s ta te s and thefede ral agenc ies on whose land the Old Span ish Tra i l is found . Th i s concept cou l d primar i l y i n vo l ve

using e x i s t i ng t ra i l s and roads, w i t h some new t ra i ls be i ng deve l oped u s i ng fund i ng from governmen tand non-

govemment sou rce s . State s cou l d be encouraged to des i gnate commemorat i ve h i ghways that

para l le l t ra i l rou tes . Hi ghway s that mee t the appropriate c r i te r ia cou l d be des ignated as scen i c byway s .

Th i s cou ld prov ide the poten t ia l to garne r fede ra l c os t-share funds th rough s tate h i ghway departmen ts

to he l p i n te rpre t the t ra i l and prov ide rec reat i on opportun i t ies .

Inte rp re tat i on wou l d focus on the Old Span ish Tra i l and the broad h i s tor ic he r i tage a long the t ra i l

corr idor. A tra i l gu i de cou l d be deve loped to lead people from one si te or cu l tu ra l or natu ral re sou rce to

anot he r. Ind i v idua l si tes or segments wou l d be i n terpre ted i n a var ie ty ofways , i nc lud i ng gu i ded tou rson the t ra i l (s) , or med ia i den t i fy ing and inte rpre t ing cu l tura l and na tu ra l fea tu res a l ong the t ra i l ( s) .

An inte rre lated ne twork of s tate h istor i c and nat i ona l rec reat i on t ra i l s wou l d offe r a range of t ra i l

re lated ac t i v i t ie s . The t ra i l s cou l d be i n , or acce s s i b le to , u rban areas , or w i t h in fede ra l and s ta te parks ,fore s t s , or othe r rec reat i ona l areas . Whe reve r poss i b le , s i gn i fican t natu ra l and cu l tu ra l featu res

assoc iated w i t h the Old Span i s h Tra i l in the area wou l d be i ncorpora ted into the t ra i l ne twork . Tra i lscou l d be l ocated i n suc h a way as to take advan tage of abandoned r igh t s-of—way, ex ist i ng t ra i l s , ande x i s t i ng roads, t h ough these may not fo l low h i s tor i c rou te s . Add i t iona l l y, the t ra i l s wou l d be des i gned

for a var ie ty ofuse rs .

74

Resou rce Pre ser vation

There wou l d be no add i t iona l fede ra l funds for prese rvat ion under th i s concept , and no fede ra l land

acqu i s i t i on wou l d be au t hor i zed . Howeve r, the desi gnat i on ofNat i onal Rec reat ion Tra i l (s) wou l d carry

w i t h i t the recogn i t i on ofbe ing part of the Nat iona l Tra i l s S ystem . State and loca l gove rnments, as we l l

as the pri vate and non-profi t sec tors, may be encou raged by the se des i gnat ions t o se t a h i gh pr i or i ty for

p rojec ts that i nc lude resou rces re lated to the O ld Span i s h Tra i l .

The i n format ion fou nd on t ra i l s i tes and segmen ts i n th i s documen t cou l d be used by the State Hi s to r ic

Pre servat i on Offices or o the rs to begi n work on Na t iona l Regi s te r ofHi s to ric Places nominat i on fo rms

for s i te s and segmen t s of the t ra i l . Th i s de s i gnat i on wou l d a l l ow for add i t iona l pro tec t i on and

recogn i t ion of the se areas , and cou l d resu l t i n fund i ng for the i r prese rvat ion .

Es timated Costs

A numbe r of fede ra l cos t-shar i ng programs cou l d be u sed to de fray expen ses of t ra i l deve l opmen t and

inte rpre tat ion, and state and loca l or pr i vate — sec tor fund ing sou rces cou l d be sough t to imp lemen t t ra i l

p rograms . Projec ts cou l d qua l i fy for fund ing from Fede ra l Hi ghway Adm in i st ra t ion enhancemen t funds,

wh ich are gene ra l l y adm i n iste red th rough state h ighway departmen ts . Nat iona l Rec rea t i on Trai l s are

e l i g ib le for l imi ted Nat iona l Park Se rv ice C ha l lenge Cost—Share Program fund ing th rough the Ri ve rs ,Tra i ls, and Conse rva t ion Ass istance Program unde r Nat i ona l Park Se rv ice coope ra t i ve agreemen t

au t hor i t ie s . Projec ts on lands managed by the Bureau ofLand Managemen t , the USDA Fo re s t Se rv ice

and the Nat i ona l Park Se rv ice migh t qual i fy for cost-share or o ther fund i ng by the se agenc ies .

S hou l d the managemen t opt i on to estab l i sh a commi ss i on to admin i ste r the des i gnated rec reat ion tra i l

be chosen— the re wou l d be ope rat ing cost s for the commi ss i on . Based on the focu s and dec isions of the

commi ss i on, and the fund i ng they rece i ve from fede ra l aid and pri vate con tri bu t i ons, the cost may vary .

Na t i ona l Park Se rv i ce expe r iences w i th ope rat ing commi ss i on s sugges t that the basic opera t i ng

expense s wou l d be i n the range of to per year.

ALTERNATIVE C : ESTABLISH AN OLD SPANISH TRAIL NATIONAL HISTORIC TRAIL

Th i s feasi b i l i ty study finds that the Old Span i sh Tra i l is nat i onal l y si gn i ficant,mee ts the c r i te r ia for

de s ignat ion as a Nat iona l Histor ic Trai l , and proposes t ha t Congres s cou l d enac t leg islat i on to au t hori zethe Nat i ona l Hi s tor i c Tra i l . Unde r t h i s al te rnat i ve ,

the O ld Span i sh Tra i l from Santa Fe to Los Ange le s ,i nc l ud i ng the Northe rn Rou te , the No rt h B ranch and the Arm ijo Rou te wou l d be des i gnated by

Congress as the Old Span i sh Tra i l Nat i ona l Hi s tor ic Tra i l and wou l d become a un i t o f the Nat i ona l

Trai l s Sy s tem .

Othe r i dent i fied var iant s of t he se route s were stud ied in the prepara t i on of th i s feas i b i l i ty study ,inc lud i ng the we s te rn fork ofthe North B ranch , the Fish lake Cu toff, and the Ki ngston Cu toff. These

th ree variant s are i nc l uded as part of the ove ral l study area and me t the c r i te r ia for Na t iona l Histor ic

Trai l desi gnat i on, but are not recommended for de s i gnat i on at t h is t ime , because data i s lacki ng to show

that t hey we re u sed i n conduc t i ng trade and comme rce be tween New Mex ico and Cal i fo rn ia du ring theper i od 1 829-1848 . Fu tu re i n ve s t i gat ions may uncove r add i t i ona l i n format i on on these variant s that

Shows they we re used for t rade and comme rce during the pe ri od of s i gn i ficance . Because t hese rou te s

have me t all o the r s tudy requ i rement s ofthe Nat iona l Tra i l s System Act, th i s a l te rnat i ve i nc ludes thesuggest ion t hat any leg islat ion de ve loped to desi gnate the O ld Span i sh Tra i l shou ld a l so au t ho r i ze the

75

Secre tary to admin ist rat i ve l y add these t ra i l var ian t s to the Nat i ona l Hi s tori c Tra i l if suffic ien tdocumentat ion is presen ted to ve r i fy t he i r assoc iat ion and use .

Managem ent

When des i gnat ing the rou te ,Congre s s wou ld iden t i fy a lead fede ra l agency to admin i s te r the t ra i l i n

coope ra t i on w i t h a var ie ty ofmanagemen t partners , i n c lud i ng s tate , loca l , and othe r fede ra l agenc ie s ,Ame r ican Ind ian tr i bes, l oca l commun i t ie s , pri vate landowne rs , and othe rs .

The admi n i s t rat i ve ac t i v i t ies wou ld inc lude prepari ng a comprehen s i ve managemen t and use p lan ;i den t i fy i ng s i te s and segmen t s w i t h s i gn i fi can t poten t ia l for pub l ic rec rea t i onal use or h istor ica l i n te re s t ;deve l op i ng Cooperat i ve agreemen ts ; cert i fy i ng qual i fied s i tes ; and s t imu lat i n g , ass i s t i ng , and

coord i nat i ng prese rvat ion and i n te rp re t i ve ac t i v i t ies . The admin i s te r i ng agency wou l d a l so deve l op a

un i fo rm marke r ( l ogo) and,w he re appropriate , mark the t rai l and au to tou r rou te and manage the

offi c ia l l ogo for prope r use . Othe r ac t i v i t ies i nc lude prov id i ng techn i ca l and l imi ted fi nanc ia l

ass i s tance ; ass i st ing and conduc t ing h i stor ica l and archeo l ogica l re search ; carry i ng out mon i to ring to

ensure the pre se rvat i on and qua l i ty ofce rt ified s i tes , segmen ts, and fac i l i t ie s ; and estab l ish i ng

approache s to i n te rpre tat ion and prepar i ng inte rpre t i ve materia l s .

The pu rpose of the comprehen s i ve managemen t and use p lan wou l d be to he l p ach ieve cons isten t and

effec t i ve prese rvat ion , pub l ic use , and i n te rp re t i ve s trateg ies . Sec t ion 5 (f) of the Nat iona l Tra i ls System

Act (Append i x A) i den t ifie s the i tems to be add res sed i n such a p lan .

The comprehensi ve managemen t and use p lan cou l d i nc lude prov i s i on s to work coope rat i ve l y w i t h s tateand l oca l gove rnmen ts and landow ne rs to he l p pre se rve the na tu ra l landscape s along the Old Span i s h

Trai l .

The vo lun tary process for cert i fy i ng s i tes a long the proposed Old Span i sh Tra i l Nat i onal Histo ric Trai l

wou l d be simi l ar to the proce s s u sed for o t he r Na t i ona l Hi s tor i c Tra i l s . Ce rt ified t ra i l p rope rt ie s wou l d

be non—fede ra l h istor i c s i tes, t ra i l segmen ts, and i n terpre t i ve fac i l i t ies tha t mee t the s tandards of the

admi n iste r ing agency for re sou rce pre se rvat ion and pub l i c enj oymen t . Cert i ficat ion is a partne rsh i p or a

type of cooperat i ve agreemen t tha t has the flex i b i l i ty to mee t the landowne r ’s needs wh i le he l p i ngensu re protec t i on and appropr ia te pub l ic use . Unde r the Nat iona l Tra i ls System Ac t , pri vate owne rs of

ce rt i fied s i tes may be en ro l led in the agency ’s vo l un teer program . Vo lun tee r s tatu s p rov ide s l iab i l i typro tec t ion for ac t i v i t ies that are w i t h i n the scope of the vo lun tee r agreemen t .

V is ito r Use and Interpretation

A range of v i s i tor use oppo rtun i t ies cou l d be deve l oped on approp riate pub l ic lands and pri vate

prope rt ies that have been ce rt i fied w i t h landowne r con sen t . Easemen ts mi gh t a l so be acqu i red to

prov ide for pub l ic use . Such use wou l d be managed so that t he re wou ld not be any degradat ion ofarcheo logica l or h i s tor i c s i te s . Ex i st ing tra i l systems cou l d be expanded for ac t i v i t ies such as h i k i ng andhorseback rid ing , and new t ra i ls cou ld be deve loped to al l ow re t racemen t of the ori g i na l rou te .

In te rpre tat ion re fe rs to ac t i v i t ies des i gned to convey importan t i n format i on ,to educate ,

to revea l

re lat ionsh i ps re lated to natu ra l and cu l tu ra l resource s , and to fos te r fu rt he r i nqu i ry and s tewardsh i p . The

inte rpre tat i on ofthe Old Span i sh Tra i l wou l d focus on th ree areas ; the story and s i gn i ficance ,the p lace

and landscape,and the peop le .

76

From a distance ,much of the landscape of the rou te of the Old Span i sh Tra i l today gene ral l y resemb les

its appearance dur i ng its pe r iod of S i gn i ficance . De s i gnat i on as a Nat i ona l Hi sto r ic Tra i l wou l d prov ide

Opportun i t ies for v i s i tors to re t race the h i s to ric rou te and see the same pat te rns today . They cou l d

imagi ne the fee l i ngs of t rave l i ng th rough the fores ted moun ta i ns or across the seem ingl y barren Mojave

De se rt . Many of the same ent ic ing v i s tas , coo l r i ve rs, and hot, de se rt ex panse s are s t i l l t here for v isi torsto expe r ience and apprec iate .

Fu tu re p lann i ng e fforts wou l d iden t i fy i n te rpre t i ve fac i l i t ie s and med ia . Con s i s tency wou l d be needed

i n info rmat i on , de s i gn, and v i s i tor use gu i de l i nes . Med ia and program de s ign shou l d be accompl i shed

w i t h the i n vo l vemen t of i n te re sted and know ledgeab le groups and i nd i v i dual s .

Fac i l i t ie s wou l d i nc l ude v i s i to r cente rs, con tac t sta t i ons , and unat tended kiosks . The fede ra l

admi n i s ter ing agency norma l l y wou l d not const ruc t or operate v i si to r fac i l i t ie s for the t ra i l un le s s i t was

i n partne rsh i p w i t h appropriate s tate and pri va te organ i zat i on s w i t h broad pub l i c support and a

demons trated abi l i t y to ra i se the funds needed to bu i l d and Ope rate such fac i l i t ie s . Howe ve r , the fede ral

agency cou l d prov i de , based on the ava i lab i l i ty of funds , techn ical and financ ia l assi stance t o othe rs in

the p lann i n g , deve l opment , and ove ra l l approach to inte rpre tat i on , i nc lud i ng mu seum exh i b i ts w i t h

ori g ina l or rep l ica art i fac t s , te x t and graph ic pane l s, aud iov isua l programs , i n te rac t i ve compu te rprograms, mode l s , d ioramas , and othe r med ia . Trave l i n g exh ib i ts wou l d a l so be poss i b le .

The fede ra l admi n iste r i ng agency cou l d a l so deve lop , i n partnersh i p w i t h o the rs,ou tdoo r inte rpre t i ve

med ia . A standard i zed exh i b i t de s i gn wou l d be used to reflec t the flavor of the Old Span ish Tra i l and to

he l p re inforce the pub l ic’s pe rcept i on of an i n tegra ted tra i l system . Ways i de exh i b i t s are ou tdoor pane l s

that gene ral l y con ta in te x t and graph ics . Aud i o s tat i ons can a lso be deve loped at ou tdoor l ocat ions .

Such exh i b i t s and aud io wou l d be consi de red at any l ocat i on s tha t met the fo l low i n g c r i te ria: some th ing

importan t and i n te res t i ng happened he re ,was he re , or i s v i s i b le from he re ; and the locat i on i s acces s i b le

and safe for v is i to rs . Way s i de s can be p laced at road pu l l ou t s , v i s tas , h i s tor ic si tes or fea tu res, or

t ra i l heads and a long t ra i ls .

Inte rpre t i ve pub l ica t ions cou ld a lso be deve loped , such as a trailw ide brochu re , as we l l as a var ie ty of

books , pamph le ts, and si te fo lde rs . Othe r i n terpre t i ve med ia i nc lude aud io tape/audio com pac t d i sctou rs, mu l t imedia CD-ROM programs, and a t ra i l web page .

Resou rce Preser va t ion

The adm in iste r ing agency wou l d work coope rat i ve l y w i t h landowne rs and land manage rs to pro tec t therema in ing h i storic re sou rces of the t ra i l i nc lud ing , whe re appropriate , the t ra i l landscapes . Unde r the

Nat i ona l Tra i l s S ys tem Ac t , the admi n iste r ing fede ra l agency cou l d prov ide techn ica l ass i stance and

l im i ted financ ia l assistance for resou rce projec ts and cou l d ensure t hat de ve l opment is done in a manne r

tha t w i l l avoi d or mi t i gate resource impac t s . The agency can a l so ass i s t w i t h deve lopment of re sou rce

i nven torie s and mon i toring , t rai l mapp ing and Geograph ic Informat i on Sys tems, studies of v i s i to r

carry ing capac i ty , archeo l og ica l su rveys , and othe r resou rce stud ies .

Fede ra l l y ass i s ted , sponsored , or funded projec ts wou l d be subjec t to comp l iance w i t h a var ie ty of

re source prese rvat i on law s inc lud ing the Nat i ona l Env i ronmen ta l Pol icy Act , the Endangered Spec iesAct, and the Histor ic Pre se rvat ion Act . Tra i l s i te s and segment s cou ld be s tudied and nominated to the

Nat iona l Regi ste r ofHi s to ric Places

Land acqu i s i t ion and easement s can be used to pro tec t re sou rces on Nat iona l Hi stor ic Tra i ls . Recent

t ra i l de s i gnat ion legi s lat ion has l im i ted fede ra l land acqu i si t ion to w i l l ing-sc lle r/w il ling— buye r

77

si tuat ion s . Landow ne rs cou l d donate land or easemen ts to fede ral , s tate , and l oca l agenc ies or to pr i vateorgan i zat i on s , suc h as h i s tori ca l soc ie t ies or land t rust s .

Es tim ated Costs

Na t iona l Hi sto ric Tra i l costs are d iscussed i n more de ta i l i n the Feasi b i l i t y and Desi rab i l i ty sec t i on . It

i s e s t imated tha t annual l y wou l d be requ i red to prov i de a min imum leve l of profes s i onal s taff

and sup port se rv i ce s to ope rate a mu l t i -s tate Nat i ona l Historic Tra i l such as the Old Span i sh Tra il .Deve l opmen t of the t rai l

’

s Comprehens i ve Managemen t and Use Plan wou ld cost abou t ove r

a two-year pe riod . Because the much of the rou te i s on federa l lands, nat i ona l h i s to ric t ra i l des i gnat i on

may requ i re rev i s i on s to ex i s t ing land use/management p lans, resu l t i ng i n add i t i onal p lann i ng cos t s for

affec ted agenc ies . Fund i ng for large-scale projec t s such as maj or museum e x h ib i t s , fi l ms , and so fort hwou l d requ i re spec ia l au thori zat i on . Depend i ng on the ava i lab i l i ty ofannua l c ost-share funds , severar

sma l l p rojec t s cou ld be done annual l y .

78

Fi gu re 4 : Em i grant Pass , C a l il’

o rniz-i

7 9

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES

ALTERNATIVE A : NO ACTION

Visitor Use and Experience

A coord i nated fede ra l p rogram wou l d n ot be unde r taken to mark the rou tes and s i te s assoc iated w i th-the

Old Span i sh Tra i l , and no v i s i tor fac i l i t ies or i n te rpre t i ve programs focused on the Old Span i sh Trai l

wou l d be prov ided . In te rp re t i ve effort s wou l d con t i nue to be i d i osync rat i c and carri ed out on a l oca l

bas i s , and focu s on loca l O l d S pan i sh Tra i l re sou rces . It wou l d the re fore be d i fficu l t for v isitors to

apprec iate and unde rs tand the fu l l sto ry of the Old Span i s h Tra i l and how i t affec ted the peop le t hat

used i t . Howeve r, v i s i tors mi gh t ga i n apprec iat ion ofone or more i so lated s torie s assoc iated w i t h the

Old Span i sh Tra i l . In add i t i on , few deve l oped recreat i onal opportun i t ies wou l d be avai lab le for th ose

know ledgeab le abou t the Old Span i sh Tra i l

Some confus ion and mi sunde rs tand i n g on the part of v i s i tors wou l d resu l t from the absence of

coord i nated inte rpre t i ve programs and the l i ke l i hood tha t t he re wou l d con t inue to be d i ffe ren t and

some t imes w i de l y vary i ng i n te rpre tat i onsofthe h i s tory . It i s poss i b le that the re migh t be l ocal

de si gnat ions ofs i te s and segmen ts t ha t may not have been a part of the Old Span i sh Tra i l . It i s a l so

poss i b le that the pe rspec t i ve s of d i ffe ren t e t h n ic groups, i nc lud i ng the de scendan ts of i nd igenous

peop le , Hispan i cs , and o the rs , wou l d not be fu l l y pre sen ted .

Natural and Cu ltu ra l Resou rces

Unde r A l te rnat i ve A , No Ac t i on , the re wou l d be no add i t i ona l i mpac t s on natu ra l resou rce s (such as

so i l s , vege tat i on , air qua l i t y, wa te r qual i ty, w i l d l i fe , and th reatened and endange red spec ies) on

Nat iona l Park Serv i ce lands from de ve l opment or v i s i tor use ; and natu ra l re sou rce pro tec t i on wou ld

cont i nue to vary on non-Nat iona l Park Se rv ice s i tes .

A l so unde r the No Ac t i on al te rnat i ve , pro tec t ion of s i gn i fican t h i s tor ic s i te s , s truc tu res, and t ra i l

segment s wou l d cont inue to be fragmen ted and uncoord i na ted , and i n most areas, fund i ng and pub l i c

educa t ion wou l d be inadequate . Howeve r, ove r one-th i rd of the t ra i l i s on ex i st i ng fede ral lands and,

whe re si tes and t rai l segmen ts are on the Na t i onal Reg ister of Hi s tor ic Places or po ten t ia l l y e l i g i b le for

nominat ion , t hey wou l d rece i ve some protec t i on unde r ex ist i n g fede ra l resou rce prese rvat i on law s .

Re sponsi b i l i ty for protec t i on wou l d l ie w i t h l ocal c i t i zen s , o rgan i za t ions , and governmen ts . The rewou ld be l imi ted opportun i ty to expand the numbe r ofdocumen ted s i tes and t ra i l segmen ts .

Ethnograph ic and cu l tura l landscape resou rces m i gh t cont i nue to rece i ve l i t t le at ten t i on . Howe ve r, the

Old Span i s h Tra i l Assoc iat i on , l oca l h i s torica l groups , and others wou l d cont i nue to encou ragescholarl y researc h re lat i n g to the t ra i l and promote t ra i l ac t i v i t ie s to the ex tent poss i b le .

There wou l d be l im i ted coord i nated research , protec t i on , s tab i l i zat ion , or managemen t of archeol og ica l

s i te s , un less unde rtaken by an ent i t y such as the Old Span i s h Tra i l Assoc iat ion unde r Al ternat i ve A .

S i te s cou l d con t i nue to be subjec t to vandal ism and inappropr iate uses , and resou rce s mi gh t be

des troyed or i rre t rievabl y l os t i f the ind i v i dua l landowner ’s i n te re s t in re sou rce protec t i on i s l i m i ted .

Wi thou t the bene fi t ofadd i t iona l pro tec t i on , some h istoric s i tes and s truc tu re s and t rai l segmen t s

s i gn i fican t to the Old Span i sh Tra i l cou l d fa l l in to d isrepa i r and even tua l l y l ose i n tegri ty .

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Natu ra l and Cu l tu ra l Resources

Unde r A l ternat i ve B , con s t ruc t i on of i n te rpre t i ve ways i de s and s i gn s wou l d have mi n ima l i nc remen tal

e ffec ts on natu ra l resources from the s tandpo i n t of acreage d i s tu rbed . These sma l l , s imp le fac i l i t ies

probab l y cou ld be bu i l t w i t h i n ex i s t i ng ri gh t s-of—way or d isturbed areas .

Ove ra l l i mpac t s on vege tat i ve and w i l d l i fe commun i t ies wou l d be mi n ima l . If the con struc t i on of t ra i l

fac i l i t ies i nc l uded tra i l s and park i ng areas , i t c ou l d d i sp lace and d i s tu rb so i l s i n and around cons t ruc t i on

s i te s . Any adve rse impac ts on prime and un i que farm lands as a re su l t of con s t ruc t i on and use wou ld

probab l y be mi nor. The ex ten t of so i l impac t s i s not known at th is t ime . D istu rbed so i l s cou l d be

revege tated . Vege tat i on wou ld be subjec t to d i s tu rbance at con s truc t ion s i te s , i nc l ud i ng those of t ra i l s ,roads , and park i ng areas .

An ima l s i n con s truc t i on areas cou l d be temporari l y d istu rbed by equ i pmen t and pe rsonne l . Migrat i on

and use pat tern s wou l d be expec ted to reestab l ish fo l l ow i n g deve l opmen t . Some morta l i ty of res i den t

i nd i v i dua l s , suc h as roden ts , cou ld occu r du ring con s t ruc t i on , al th ough th i s shou l d not negat i ve l y affec t

popu lat i on s or commun i t ie s .

Unde r t h i s a l te rnat i ve ,the re wou ld probab l y be mi nor, i nd i rec t effec t s on ove ra l l hab i tat capac i ty

caused by any new loss of vege ta t ion and food sou rce p lan ts . Fo rage wou l d be lo s t due to c lear i ng for

t ra i l , road , and park i ng area const ruc t i on ; areas d istu rbed but unobst ruc ted w ou l d even tual l y revege tate

and be used by w i l d l i fe .

Some hab i tat for sma l l ground and t ree-dwe l l i ng mamma l s and b i rds wou l d be pe rmanen t l y los t ,cau s ing a dec rease i n the s i ze of l ocal w i l d l i fe popu lat i on s that wou l d be propo rt iona l to the hab i tat

lost . Fol l ow i n g cons t ruc t ion , rec la imed areas shou l d e ven tua l l y be re inhab i ted .

Long-te rm impac ts wou l d i nc lude hab i tat fragmen tat i on from i nc reasi ng de ve l opmen t and human use of

hab i tats— e spec ial l y i n pre v ious l y unde rde ve l oped areas .

The primary wate r qua l i ty concerns assoc iated w i t h new cons t ruc t i on are e rosion and i ncreased

sedimentat ion affec t ing nearby wate rway s . Minor, temporary dec rease s i n wate r qua l i t y wou l d be

caused by runoff from bare so i ls i n to wate rway s . Such impac ts wou ld gene ra l l y be short te rm . S i l t

depos i ted in st reams and ri ve rs wou l d e ven tua l l y be moved dow nst ream by natu ra l flus h i ng ac t i on . No

long-te rm impac ts on wate r qual i ty wou l d be ant i c i pated unde r t h is a l ternat i ve .

Paved park ing areas, t ra i ls, and ent rance and ex i t roads wou ld i ncrease the amoun t of impe rv i ous

su rface , the reby inc reas i ng the amount of s torm runoff. Norma l l y, the amoun t of i mpe rv i ous su rfacewou ld be sma ll in compari son to the s i ze of the l oca l d ra i nage basi n ; thu s , the i nc rease i n runoff wou l d

a l so be sma l l .

The Ope ra t i on of heavy equ i pment wou l d i ncrease the potent ia l for tox ic o rgan ic compounds to en te r

loca l wate rways . Acc i denta l sp i l l s ofd iese l fue l , gasol i ne ,hydrau l ic flu i d , or othe r pe t ro leum-based

produc ts cou l d re su l t i n e levated but temporary concen t rat ions of these subs tance s . Post-const ruc t i on

wate r qua l i ty c hange s wou l d be min ima l .

Unde r th i s a l te rnat i ve , there wou l d be minor, local i zed , sho rt— te rm dec rease s i n air qual i ty caused by

dus t , part i cu lates , fumes , and no i se produced by con s t ruc t i on equ i pmen t du r i ng s i te deve lopmen t . Th i s

impac t wou l d be minor, because di stu rbed areas at the de ve lopment s i te wou l d be re lat i ve l y sma l l .

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Volat i le hydrocarbon s and othe r organ ic compounds in aspha l t wou l d ente r the a rea for a short t ime

afte r comp le t i on Ofcons t ruc t ion .

Unde r A l te rnat i ve B”

, archeo l ogica l re sou rce s wou l d not be affo rded add i t iona l p rotec t ion . Howeve r ;any add i t i ona l Nat i ona l Register

i

ofHi s tor ic Place s desi gna t ions deve loped as part Of the al te rnat i vecou l d he l p to pro tec t t ra i l re sou rce s . One—th i rd of the t ra i l is on e x ist ing fede ra l lands and,

whe re si tes

and t rai l segmen ts are on the Nat i ona l Reg i s te r OfHi s tor i c P laces or poten t ial l y e l i gi b le for nomina t ion

they wou l d rece i ve some protec t i on unde r e x i st ing fede ral re source pre se rvat i on law s . The re wou l d be

no coord i nated trailw ide re search , pro tec t ion , stab i l i zat ion , or managemen t ofarcheo log ica l s i tes .

Protec t i on of s i gn i fi can t s i te s wou l d con t i nue t o be the re spons i b i l i t y Of loca l c i t i zen s , organ i zat ions,t r i bes, and governme n t agenc ies . Howe ve r, use of the comm i s s i on managemen t opt i on cou l d a l l ow for

the add i t iona l pro tec t ion ofa rcheo logica l re sou rces . Th i s wou l d occu r because ofthe po tent ia l for

assi s tance in resou rce pro tec t ion to non-fede ral areas . In te rpre t i ve mate r ia ls cou l d i n form v is i to rs abou t

the i mportance of he l p i ng to pro tec t archeo logica l s i te s and re sou rce s . Th i s wou l d be l i mi ted on l y to the

areas des i gnated as Nat i ona l Recreat i on Tra i l (s) .

Unde r th is al ternat i ve , add i t iona l pro tec t ion for h i s tori c and e th nograph ic resou rces cou l d occu r, w i t h

i ncreased recogn i t i on Of the l ocat ion Of resou rce s and i nc reased inte re s t i n the t ra i l on the part Of

agenc ie s , organ i zat i on s , and i nd i v idua l s . Howe ve r, th i s protec t i on Of h i s tor i c s i te s wou l d con t i nue to befragmen ted and uncoord i na ted , and in most areas, fundi ng and pub l ic educat i on wou l d be variab le .

Howe ve r, use Of the commiss ion managemen t Opt i on cou l d al l ow for add i t i ona l p ro tec t ion Of h istor i cre sou rces . Th i s wou l d be l im i ted on l y to the segments i nc luded as Nat i ona l Recreat ion Tra i l (s) .

Unde r comm iss ion managemen t , or w i t h a s t rong cen tra l t ra i l o rgan i za t ion ,grea te r emphasi s on h isto ry

cou l d be prov ided . Many Of those fo l low i ng the t rai l (s) migh t be i n te rested and read ahead Of, du ri ng ,or afte r the i r v isi t , or tu rn to suc h en t i t ie s as museums and arts for i n te rpre tat ion Of the Old Span i sh

Tra i l . Loca l i t ie s m i gh t be insp i red to prov ide fund in g in conjunc t ion w i t h presen tat ions such as spec ial

even ts and gu i debooks .

Socioeconom ic Resou rces and Land Use

Under t h i s a l te rnat i ve , the re migh t be a modest inc rease in v i s i tat ion , w i t h subsequent econom ic

benefi ts to loca l commun i t ie s . Stud ies have shown that rec reat i ona l t ra i l s can have cons i de rab le

economic benefi t s depend ing on marke t i ng , locat ion , qua l i ty, acce s s to popu lat i on centers, and o t he r

fac tors ; thu s , i t i s d i ffi cu l t t o p rojec t soc ioeconom ic bene fi ts w i t h ou t more informat ion abou t thespec i fic l ocat i ons and charac ter i s t ics of the recrea t iona l t ra i l to be deve loped . The deve lopment ofnew

t ra i l s , parki ng areas , and roads cou l d resu l t i n econom ic bene fi t s for loca l commun i t ies th rough

employment , re ta i l t rade , and se rv ice indust ry inc reases . The add i t i on Ofbroad he r i tage touri sm t ies

cou l d fu rt her enhance the benefi ts of t h is a l te rna t i ve . Rec reat i ona l t ra i l s i n urban and suburban areascan enhance hous i ng value s .

Al te rnat i ve B wou l d not have much impac t on the cu rrent t rends in land use s a l ong the Old Span i sh

Tra i l . The i ncremen tal conve rs i on ofagricu l tu ra l lands, espec ia l l y c rop , o rchard , and pastu re— to

subd i v i sion s and s im i lar deve l opment wou l d l i ke l y con t i nue . The rate Of th i s t ransi t ion wou l d dependon agri cu l tu ral marke t t rends and changi ng land value s . The de ve lopment of recreat iona l t ra i ls migh t

con tr i bu te s l i gh t l y to i ncreas i ng loca l land va lues . It shou l d be noted that most Nat iona l Rec reat ion

Tra i l s are on gove rnmen t lands , al t hough there are notab le ,succe ss fu l t ra i l s t hat i nvo l ve p ri vate lands,

at leas t in part . Ra i l and t ra i l conve rs ions may be poss i b le i n some areas . Fede ra l , s tate ,loca l , and non

profi t agenc ies working w i th pri vate owne rs may be ab le to de ve lop s t rategie s to p rotec t cu rren t land

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use . Strategie s these groups mi gh t be ab le to empl oy, depend i ng on the i r expe rt ise and lega l au th ori ty,cou l d inc lude tech n ica l ass i s tance , Cooperat i ve agreemen t s , scen ic easemen t s , grant s , tax i ncen t i ves

such as pre fe ren t ia l as se s smen t , and acqu isi t ion Of land i n te re s t s . These ac t i on s wou l d have a long- te rm

bene fic ia l e ffec t on the protec t i on of t ra i l and adjacen t re source s , e spec ia l l y cu l tura l landscape s .

The pre sence Of rec reat i ona l t ra i l s i n an area migh t con tr i bu te to the overa l l at t rac t i veness of the area,

espec ia l l y for re t i ree s and vacat ione rs . Th i s cou l d re su l t i n a s l i gh t i nc rease in the rate Of landconve rs ion i n t hese areas to comme rc ia l or re s iden t ia l use . The an t ic i pated gradua l i n c rease ofv i s i tation

to area a t t rac t ions around t ra i l deve l opmen t cou l d re su l t i n an i nc rease i n demand for suppo rt se rv ices

such as food , lodgi ng , and gas . Th is wou l d have min ima l i mpac t , i f th i s type O f de ve lopmen t we re partofh i stor ic use pat te rns, but i t migh t have s l i gh t l y negat i ve impac t s i f these ac t i v i t ies we re i n troduced i n

areas that had t rad i t i ona l l y been undeve l oped or used for agri cu l tu re .

ALTERNATIVE C : ESTABLISH AN OLD SPANISH TRAIL NATIONAL HISTORIC TRAIL

Des i gnat ion ofan Old Span ish Tra i l Nat i ona l Hi s tor ic Tra i l cou l d he l p e nsu re the protec t i on and

i n te rpre tat ion Of the t ra i l i n a more con s i s ten t and coord i na ted manne r . The pub l i c and fu ture gene ra t i on

wou l d benefi t from the pro tec t ion of O ldSpan i s h Trai l s i te s and segmen ts . The focus on ove ra l l

i n te rpre t i ve t heme s wou l d enable a w i de range Of the pub l i c to apprec iate and unde rstand the

si gn i ficance and i mpo rtance of the Old Span i s h Tra i l . Expe r ience w i t h O the r Na t i ona l Hi s to ric Tra i lshas shown that not all pr i vate landowne rs , organ i zat i on s , and state and loca l agenc ies c hoose topart i c i pate i n trai l p rograms , a l t hough fede ra l agenc ies genera l l y do part ic i pate . On l y those non-fede ra l

s i te s and t ra i l segmen t s for w h ic h the owne r or manag i ng en t i ty part i c i pate i n t rai l p rograms w i l l tend to

bene fi t from or be i mpac ted by tra i l programs .

V i s itor Use and Exper ience

Like Al te rnat i ve B , a w i de var ie ty ofexper ience s wou l d be ava i lab le t h rough Altemative C ; howeve r, a

maj or commi tmen t Of t ime wou l d be requ i red to v i s i t the s i tes and feature s . Most l i ke l y, v i s i tors wou l d

fol l ow the t ra i l on l y i n a regi on or l ocal area . Expe rience s cou l d vary cons i de rab l y i n qua l i ty depend ingon the degree Ofcoord i nat i on a long the t ra i l of thema t ic coo rd i nat ion and ove ra l l t ra i l i dent i ty .

Unde r t h i s al te rnat i ve , peop le wou l d be ab le to v i s i t an i den t i fiab le geograph ic area tha t con ta i n s

mu l t i p le Old S pan i sh Tra i l resou rces, or the en t i re t ra i l . Agenc ie s , organ i zat ions, and so forth wou l d be

encouraged to i n tegrate h i s tor i c and natu ra l re sou rce s re lat i ng to the p rimary pe ri od of s i gn i fi cance of

the t ra i l i n to t ra i l p rograms .

As i n Al te rnat i ve B , v i s i to rs cou l d ga i n an unde rs tand ing of how a joumey a long the Old Span i sh Tra i l

migh t have been . They cou l d see the phy s i ca l re lat ionsh i p among the rou te s and wate r sou rces, as we l las unde rs tand the k inds of phy s i ca l and soc ia l cha l lenge s tha t t ra i l t rave lers encoun te red . Landscape

featu res such as r i ve rs, fores ts, dese rts, and gras s lands cou l d be i n terpre ted and v isi ted by mean s of

rou te s s imi lar or i den t ica l to ones ac tua l l y taken by t rave le rs on the t ra i l .

Vi s i tor expe r ience s and i n terpre tat i on at part ic i pa t i ng Nat i onal Hi s to ric Tra i l s i tes wou l d have somecons i s tency i n te rms Of qua l i ty ofs i te deve lopment s and i n terpre tat ion . A base leve l of i n te rpre tat i on of

the t rai l s tory wou l d be prov ided to every v i s i tor, w i t h add i t iona l si te-spec i fic inte rp re tat i on deve l oped

as appropr iate . The re wou l d be Opportun i t ies t o v is i t commun i t ie s , landscape featu res , and o the r

resou rces assoc iated w i t h the t ra i l . Var iat ion from t ra i l area to t ra i l area wou l d be pos s i b le becau se of

geograph ic l oca t i on and d i ve rse natura l and cu l tu ra l re sou rces and landscape s . Vi s i t s to more t han one

84

t ra i l po rt ion wou l d re su l t i n a greate r unde rs tand ing of the range and di ve rsi ty ofthe s to ry . Eac h tra i l

segment cou l d pre sen t its own un i que i n te rpre tat ion . Interpre tat i on ofo the r h i sto r ic t hemes wou l d be

left to loca l commu n i t ies, agenc ie s , and organ i zat i on s .

Cu ltu ral and Natu ra l Resou r ces

The de s i gnat i on of the t ra i l as a Nat i onal Hist or ic Tra i l wou l d encourage add i t i ona l p ro tec t ion Of

resource s th rough promot i on Ofpub l ic i n te re st , st imu la t i on Ofgrassroo t s managemen t , research

regard i ng the s i gn i fi cance Of s i tes and segmen ts, techn ica l ass i s tance i n p re servat ion , prov isions forpub l i c use (whe re appropriate) , and poten t ia l fund i ng . Re sou rce s on fede ra l lands wou l d rece i ve

i ncreased protec t i on , and des i gnat ion wou l d l ead to add i t i onal mechan i sms , i ncen t i ves, and

Opportun i t ies t o protec t re sou rces on non— fede ra l lands . De s i gnat i on as a Nat iona l Hi sto r ic Trai l a l so

wou l d lead to i nc reased pub l i c awareness and recogn i t i on , wh ich wou l d he l p to ensu re greate r

protec t i on of resources . Peop le migh t become more fami l iar w i t h and connec ted to the i r cu l tu ra l

he r i tage and the re fo re migh t be more l i ke l y to part i c i pate i n the pro tec t ion ofthe resou rce .

The desi gnat i on O f the t ra i l wou l d resu l t i n i nc reased v i s i tat ion . Wi th prope r management , such an

increase wou l d not be l i ke l y to cause adve rse i mpac ts on t ra i l re sou rces . Ifv isi tor fac i l i t ie s and v i s i to r

Oppo rtun i t ie s we re expanded w i t hou t sound p lann i ng and e ffec t i ve coord i nat ion , t he re wou l d be a

po ten t ia l for bo t h na tu ra l and cu l tu ra l resou rces to be adve rse l y affec ted . Vege ta t i on,w i l d l i fe

,air and

wate r qual i ty , wood lands , so i ls, t h reatened and endange red Spec ie s , cr i t ica l hab i tat , floodp la ins,we t lands , prime farmlands , and h istoric and archeo logica l resou rce s cou l d be negat i ve l y affec ted bydeve l opmen t and v i si tors . Ifdeve lopmen ts we re cons ide red or proposed for the se resource areas,fu rt he r ana l ysis, unde r the Nat iona l Env i ronmen tal Pro tec t ion Act, the Hi s tor ic Prese rvat i on Act, and

s imi lar laws wou l d be done on a s i te-spec i fic bas i s i n consu l tat ion w i t h affec ted part ies to m i t i gate anyimpac ts .

Construc t ion of inte rpre t i ve ways ide s and s i gns wou ld have m i n ima l i nc remen ta l effec t s on natu ra l

resources from the standpo i n t of acreage d isturbed . These sma l l , s imple fac i l i t ie s probab l y cou l d bebu i l t w i th in ex ist ing ri gh ts—of—way or d isturbed areas .

Ove ra l l impac ts on vege tat i ve and w i l d l i fe commun i t ie s wou l d be min ima l . If the const ruc t i on of t rai l

fac i l i t ies inc luded t ra i l s and park i ng areas, i t cou l d diSplace and d i stu rb so i l s i n and around con s t ruc t ion

s i tes . Any adve rse impac t s on prime and un ique farmlands as a re su l t ofconst ruc t ion and use wou l d

probabl y be m i nor. The ex ten t Of soi l impac ts is not known at t h i s t ime . D istu rbed so i ls cou l d be

revege tated . Vege tat ion wou l d be subjec t to d istu rbance at con s truc t i on s i tes, i nc lud i ng those of t ra i l s ,roads , and park i ng areas .

An imal s in cons t ruc t i on areas cou l d be temporari l y d i s tu rbed by equ i pment and pe rsonne l . Migrat i onand use pat tern s wou l d be expec ted to rees tab l i sh fo l l ow i ng de ve l opmen t . Some mortal i ty of re s ident

ind i v i dual s, such as roden ts , cou ld occur duri ng const ruc t i on , a l though th i s shou l d no t negat i ve l y affec t

popu lat i ons or commun i t ie s .

Unde r th i s a l terna t i ve , t he re wou l d probab l y be mino r, i nd i rec t e ffec ts on ove ra l l hab i ta t capac i tycaused by any new l os s o f vege tat i on and food sou rce p lan ts . Forage wou l d be l os t due to c learing for

t rai l , road , and park ing area const ruc t ion ; areas d istu rbed but unobs truc ted wou l d eventua l l y revege tateand be used by w i l d l i fe .

85

Some hab i ta t for sma l l ground and t ree-dwe l l i ng mamma l s and b i rd s wou l d be pe rmanen t l y l os t ,

causi ng a dec rease i n the s i ze O f l oca l w i l d l i fe popu lat ions that wou ld be proport i ona l to the hab i tatl ost . Fo l low i ng cons t ruc t i on , rec la imed areas shou l d e ven tua l l y be re- i n hab i ted .

Long- tenn impac ts wou l d inc lude hab i tat fragmen tat i on from i nc reas i ng deve l opmen t and human use of

hab i tat s— e spec ia l l y i n pre v i ous l y unde rdeve loped areas .

The primary wate r qual i ty conce rn s as soc iated w i t h new cons t ruc t ion are e rosion and i nc reased

sed imentat i on affec t ing nearby wate rways . Minor,temporary dec reases i n wate r qual i ty wou ld be

caused by runoff from bare so i ls i n to wa te rways . Such impac t s wou l d gene ra l l y be s ho rt te rm . S i l t

depos i ted i n s t reams and r i ve rs wou l d e ven tua l l y be moved dow nst ream by natura l flush i ng ac t i on . NO

l ong— tenn i mpac t s on wate r qua l i ty wou l d be ant ic i pated unde r t h i s a l te rna t i ve .

Paved park i ng areas , t ra i l s , and en trance and e x i t roads w ou l d i nc rease the amoun t of i mpe rv i ou s

su rface ,the reby i nc reas i ng the amoun t of s torm runoff. No rma l l y , the amoun t Of impe rv i ou s surface

wou l d be sma l l i n compar i son to the s i ze ofthe loca l d ra i nage bas i n ; thu s , the i nc rease i n runoff w ou l d

also be smal l .

The Ope rat i on Of heavy equ i pmen t wou ld i ncrease the poten t ia l for tox i c organ i c compounds to en te rloca l wa te rways . Acc i den ta l sp i l ls ofd ie se l fue l , gaso l ine , hydrau l ic flu i d , or othe r pe t ro leum-based

produc t s cou l d re su l t i n e le va ted but temporary concen tra t ion s of these substances . Post—const ruc t i on

wate r qua l i ty changes wou ld be min ima l .

Unde r th i s a l ternat i ve , the re wou l d be minor, loca l i zed, short- term decrease s i n air qua l i ty cau sed by

dus t , part i cu late s , fumes , and no i se produced by construc t ion equ i pmen t du ring s i te deve l opmen t . Th is

impac t wou l d be minor, because d i stu rbed areas at the de ve lopmen t s i te wou l d be re la t i ve l y small .Volat i le hydrocarbon s and othe r o rgan i c compounds i n aspha l t wou l d en ter the area for a sho rt t ime

afte r comp le t ion ofconst ruc t ion .

Unde r th i s a l te rna t i ve , add i t i ona l p ro tec t ion for h i s toric , cu l tu ral , archeol og i ca l , and e t h nograph ic

re sou rces cou l d occu r, w i t h i nc reased recogn i t ion Of the l ocat i on of re source s and i nc reased in te rest i nthe t rai l on the part ofagenc ie s , organ i zat i on s , and i nd i v i dua ls . Al l t ra i l p rojec t s wou ld be subj ec t to

comp l iance w i t h the Histor ic Prese rva t i on Act, and con su l tat i on and projec t rev iew wou l d occu r w i th

the S tate Histo r ic Prese rvat ion Office r . Impac t s to cu l tu ra l re sou rces wou l d be avo i ded or mi t i gated asappropr iate . Consu l tat ion wou l d a lso occu r w i t h Ame r ican Ind ian t r i be s to en su re appropriate

protec t ion Ofcu l tu ra l and re l i g ious si tes .

The avai lab i l i ty o f i n format i on abou t t ra i l -re lated resou rces migh t i ncrease the probab i l i ty that s i tes

cou l d be vanda l i zed and des t royed . Adverse impac t s wou l d be avo i ded th rough prope r si te se lec t i on ,prope r de s ign, managemen t of v i s i tor use , law enforcemen t , si te stewardsh i p programs and con su l tat ion

w i th s tate h i s toric preservat i on offices and the Adv i so ry Counc i l on Hi s toric Pre se rvat i on . Desi gnat i on

and subsequen t ce rt ificat ion as a Nat iona l Hi s tor i c Tra i l componen t wou l d prov i de the Oppo rtun i ty for

landowne rs and loca l gove rnmen ts to rece i ve tech n ica l as s i s tance i n p re se rv i ng and pro tec t ion the i r

re sou rce s . Th i s wou l d he l p avert i mpac ts from deve lopmen t and v i s i tors on t ra i l re sou rce s on non

fede ral lands .

Unde r A l te rnat i ve C , archeol ogica l and h i s toric re sou rce s at s i tes that do not part ic i pate i n t ra i l

programs wou ld not be afforded add i t iona l pro tec t ion , un le ss a spec ific federa l law mandate s

cons ide rat ion of nat i ona l t ra i l p ro tec t ion . Ex pe rience on othe r Nat i ona l Hi s to ri c Tra i l s has shown tha t

w i t h awarene s s of the ex i stence of the t ra i l , agenc ies comp le t ing Env i ronmenta l Impac t S tatemen ts or

Env i ronmenta l Asse ssme n ts may contac t the t ra i l’

s admi n i ste r ing agency . Nat iona l Regi s te r o f Hi s tor ic

Place s des ignat ion s deve loped as part of the a l te rnat i ve cou l d he l p to pro tec t t ra i l re sou rce s . Such

nom inat i on s may be done ,w i t h the owne rs

’

con sen t , even i f the owne rs are not i n tere s ted i n hav ing

the i r s i tes cert i fied as componenis ofthe Nat i ona l Histo r ic Tra i l . Protec t ion ofo the r si gn i ficant s i te s

wou l d cont i nue to be the re sponsi b i l i ty of l oca l c i t i zens, o rgan i za t i on s , t r i be s , and gove rnmen t agenc ie s .

Socioeconom ic Resources and Land Use

De s i gnat i on of the t ra i l p robab ly wou l d lead to some inc rease in v i s i tat ion and tou ri sm re venues . The se

i nc rease s wou l d not nece ssar i l y be si gn i fican t on a regi ona l and s tatew i de sca le . Tou r i sm cou ld

inc rease in loca l commun i t ies a long the t ra i l corr i dor . The coordiantion ofv isi tor se rv ice s an

i n terpre tat ion a l ong the t ra i l cou l d poten t ia l l y i nc rease t ou r i sm , and thus tour i sm revenue s .

The e ffec ts on land va lues resu l t i ng from de s i gnat i on wou l d be few and l imi ted . Li t t le land acqu i s i t ion ,i f any,

wou l d be recommended . Restr ic t i ve language i n the ac tua l t ra i l de s i gna t ion leg i s lat i on , as has

been used for othe r Nat ional Histo r ic Tra i l s, cou l d l im i t fede ra l land acqu i si t ion to w i l l ing se l le rs on l y .

Some landowne rs w ou l d bene fi t from the sale of lands and easemen ts . It is possi b le t hat loca l

mun ic i pa l i t ie s wou l d proh i b i t i ncompat i b le deve lopmen t that wou l d adve rse ly affec t t ra i l resou rce s .

Landowne rs and deve lope rs cou l d be adve rse ly affec ted by such ac t i on s of l oca l gove rnmen ts . Owne rs

ofadjacen t prope rty migh t benefi t from such land use ac t ions . Pro tec ted tra i l segmen ts w i th

recreat i onal va lue s m i gh t increase nearby res i dent ia l p rope rty va lues . In some cases, t he re cou l d be a

los s i n prope rty va lues becau se of v i s i tor use on adj acen t p rope rt ie s . Adve rse impac ts wou l d be

m i t i gated by i nvo l v i ng affec ted landowne rs and o the r inte rests i n the protec t i on of the t ra i l and the

natura l and cu l tu ra l landscapes that are near the t ra i l .

87

CONSULTATION AND COORDINATION

Duri ng the prepara t i on of th i s feas i b i l i ty study , the Nat i ona l Park Se rv i ce rev iewed the projec t scope

and i den t i fied pub l i c agenc ie s , organ i zat i ons, and i nd i v i dua l s w i t h i n te re s t s i n the projec t . Mee t i ngs

w i t h the se pub l ic agenc ie s and organ i zat i on s were used to fu rt he r refi ne issues t ha t the study shou l d

addre ss , exchange i n fo rmat i on abou t re lated projec ts and programs, re v iew h i s to ri ca l re search and

a l ternat i ve s , seek i nfo rmat i on on s i tes and rou te s , and i n form agenc ies of the s tatu s and scope of the

s tudy . Nat i onal Park Se rv ice and non—Nat i ona l Park Se rv i ce h istor ians , archeo l og ists, t ra i l re searc hers ,and loca l i n forman ts i n the var i ou s s tates were consu l ted regard ing poten t ial resou rce s , and background

and s i gn i ficance of the t ra i l . Archeol og ica l s i te record s we re researched i n all s i x s tate s . Hi s tor ian s

rev iewed the pre l im i nary draft to en su re accu racy and fa i rnes s i n d iscu s s i on of the h i s tor i cal e ven ts and

p laces .

At the t ime ofprojec t in i t iat i on , le t te rs we re sen t to Ame ri can Ind ian tr i bes a l ong the rou te and th ose

w i t h h i s tori c t ies to lands c rossed by the t ra i l reque s t i ng the i r commen t s . Later i n the projec t , phone

ca l l s we re made to t riba l headquarters to update t ri ba l represen tat i ve s abou t projec t s tatu s .

A scop i ng new s le t te r was prepared and d i s tri bu ted i n Feb ruary 1998 . The new s le t te r, wh ich i nc luded a

summary of the pu rpose and scope of th i s s tudy and the proce s s u sed i n i t s p reparat i on ,con ta i ned a

respon se form to fac i l i tate i n pu t and commen t . The Na t i ona l Park Se rv i ce d i s t r i bu ted abou t 500

newsle t ters, and 3 1 8 respon ses we re rece i ved .

Almos t all ofthe re sponse s we re support i ve Of the des i gnat ion of the Old Span i s h Tra i l as a Nat i ona lHistoric Tra i l , the protec t i on of resou rces , and programs to he l p commun i t ie s be t ter apprec iate the i r

he ri tage . Typ ica l commen ts cen te red upon the need to preserve the t ra i l as a l i n k to our Nat i on ’s

h i s to ry , create new rec rea t i ona l opportun i t ies , i n vo l ve vo lun tee rs , enhance academic and educa t i ona l

i n terest , and he l p a i l i ng loca l economie s by inc reas ing tou r i sm . Many commentors fe l t t ha t the t ra i l

desi gnat ion was cruc ia l to acknow ledge the d i ve rse charac te r ofour nat i ona l he r i tage— i nc lud i ng

ind ians , Span iards, and Me x icans— a part of h i s to ry that had been prev ious l y neglec ted . Two

commen to rs fe l t t ha t the t rai l was on l y of regiona l , not nat i ona l , s i gn i ficance , and thu s shou l d not bedesi gnated

News le t te rs and o the r t ra i l - re lated informat ion , bo th hard copy and e lec t ron ic ve rs i on s a l so we re sen t to

all the nat i onal parks along the rou te , and to app l icab le Na t i onal Park Se rv i ce reg iona l O ffice pe rsonne l

and long-d i s tance t ra i l office s taff.

The Nat iona l Park Se rv ice comp le ted and re leased for pub l i c rev iew the fi rs t d raft of the Old Span i sh

Tra i l Nat i onal Hi sto r ic Tra i l Feasi b i l i ty S tudy in ear ly Spring 2000 . In the ensu ing mon th s the Nat i ona l

Park Se rv ice rece i ved 196 re spon ses and re v iew commen ts . The ove rwhe l m i ng maj or i ty of re sponden tssupported des i gnat ion of the Old Span i sh Tra i l as a Nat i ona l Hi s to ric Trai l . Ten responden ts sugge s ted

the Old Span i sh Tra i l lacked suffic ient documentat i on or fa i led to mee t the c r i te r ia for nat i ona l

si gn i ficance , and favo red commemorat ion of the t ra i l th rough loca l or s tate e ffort s .

As part of the rev i ew and consu l tat ion process,the Nat i onal Park Se rv ice con tac ted all affec ted states

’

h istor ic preservat i on O ffice rs and t r i ba l en t i t ies , e i t he r by le t te r or phone . In many cases , con tac t s we re

fo l l owed by add i t i ona l phone ca l ls or le t te rs . On l y a handfu l ofcontac ted office s rep l ied , and t he i r

respon ses we re compi led and accoun ted for a l ong w i t h th ose of the gene ral pub l i c .

88

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Othe r re sponden ts d i sagreed w i t h the Nat i onal Park Se rv ice’

s de te rm i nat ion that m i grat i on pat terns

a long the Old Span ish Tra i l t ha t led to the se t t lemen t ofNew Mex icans and Angl o—Ame r icans i n

Ca l i fo rn ia was not nat i onal l y s i gn ifican t w i t h i n the top i c of i mmi grat i on or the t heme ofPeop l i ng

Place s . Re sponden t s al so ma i n tai ned that when , i n 1 847 , Kit Carson carr ied the fi rs t ove r land

d i spatche s from Ca l i forn ia to Wash i ngton u s ing , i n part , the Old Span ish Tra i l , t ha t ac t i v i ty made thet ra i l nat i ona l l y s i gn i fi can t . The Nat i ona l Park Se rv i ce s tands by i ts ana l y s i s t ha t i den t i fies t he se

ac t i v i t ie s as hav i ng loca l or s tate , bu t not nat i onal , s i gn ificance . It a l so reason s that a comp le te ana l y s i s

of Carson ’s l i fe t ime ach ie vemen ts is requ i red before the tra i l cou l d be deemed nat iona l l y s i gn ifican t

because of its assoc iat ion to t h i s unden iab l y si gn i fican t pe rsona l i t y .

Re sponden ts a l so ra i sed que s t i on s on the pe r i od ofs i gn i ficance the Nat i onal Park Se rv ice i den t i fied for

the t ra i l . Some re sponden ts ca l led for ex tend i ng the pe r i od of s ign ificance back i n t ime to recogn i ze the

t ra i l ’s Span ish and Ind ian an teceden ts . Othe rs ca l led for i nc lud i ng i n the per i od of s i gn i ficance

ac t i v i t ie s that occu rred afte r 1848 , such as Mormon ac t i v i t ies on the western ha l f ofthe t ra i l , or m i l i tary

exp l orat i on ac t i v i t ie s on the Nort h B ranch . On l y th ose ac t i v i t ies that made the tra i l nat iona l l y

s i gn ifican t are u sed to define a pe r iod of s i gn i fi cance , as exp la i ned i n the s tudy'

s S ta temen t of

S i gn i ficance .

Many re sponden t s agreed w i t h the Na t i ona l Park Serv i ce ’

s recommenda t ion that add i t i ona l research

need s to be comple ted for the t ra i l . In fac t , seve ra l responden t s we re un sat i s fied w i th the depth of

research conduc ted by the Nat i ona l Park Se rv ice . Some responden ts recommended add i t iona l sou rces ,and some of these sou rces were i nc luded i n the final s tudy . A few re sponden ts ca l led for more research

to ident i fy add i t i ona l rou tes, part icu lar l y a l ong the North B ranch . The Na t i ona l Park Se rv ice recogn i ze s

the need for add i t i ona l research . Th i s s tudy i s not an ex haust i ve ana l ys i s ofall rou te s and ac t i v i t ie s on

the t ra i l . Rathe r, i t i s des i gned to de te rm i ne the t ra i l’s feas i b i l i ty as a Nat i ona l Hi s tori c Tra i l . If

de s i gnat i on occu rs , t hen fu rt he r re search may i den t i fy add i t iona l rou te s and ac t i v i t ies . In t h i s same ve i n

of the need for add i t iona l re search , a few responden ts we re unsat isfied w i t h the bread th of the s tudy ’s

asse ssmen t of the natura l resou rce s that cou l d be i mpac ted by tra i l de s i gnat i on . The env i ronmen ta l

as se ssmen t comp le ted for a t ra i l feas i b i l i t y s tudy i s appropr iate for th is leve l ofp lann i ng . Ifthe Old

Span ish Tra i l becomes as nat i ona l h i s to ri ca l t ra i l , t hen a more comprehen s i ve Env i ronmen ta l Impac t

S tatemen t w i l l be comple ted to accompany the Compre hensi ve Managemen t and Use Plan .

The mos t importan t need for add i t iona l research i s i n the top ic Of the t ra i l ’s i mpac t on the affec tedInd ian cu l tu re s . The Nat i ona l Park Se rv ice concu rs that the ac t i v i t ie s that impac ted the Indian tr i besa l ong and abou t the t ra i l were nat iona l s i gn i fican t . Howe ve r i t a lso acknow ledges seve ra l re sponden ts

’

c la ims t ha t addi t i ona l consu l tat i on and ex tens i ve research wou l d he l p e x pand the unde rstand ing ofjusthow profound and w idespread these i mpac t s we re . The feasi b i l i ty study recommends that t h is l i ne of

invest i ga t i on shou l d be at the fore fron t ofany re search p lan for the Nat i ona l Histor ic Trai l .

Othe r commen ts po i n ted to the need to recogn i ze the t ra i l for its intri ns ic cu l tu ra l va lue becau se i t ac ted

as an avenue of accu l turat ion and opened Ca l i fo rn ia to the Mex ican and Ame r ican popu lat i on s to theeast . Wh i le Califom ia

’

s cu l tu re and economy we re a l ready we l l known to man y due to ex ten s i vecontac t t h rough mar i t ime channe ls, add i t i ona l cu l tura l m i x i ng resu l ted from the comple t i on ofthe t radeconnec t ion be tween New Mex ico and Ca l i fo rn ia . Th i s i s a subtheme that can be i n tegrated i n to late r

nat i ona l h istor i c t ra i l i n terpre t i ve programs .

Those respondents who d i sputed nat iona l s i gn i ficance based the i r c la i ms on seve ral i ssue s . An

importan t cons ide rat i on some responden ts ra i sed was tha t the re was s imp l y insu ffic ien t ev idence to

make a de te rm ina t ion of nat i ona l s i gn ificance ,and seve ra l doubted whe the r the accumu lat ion ofdata

90

wou l d eve r warran t a c lai m of nat i ona l si gn i ficance . A sma l l group of responden ts compared t rade on

the Old S pan i sh Tra i l t o that ofot he r Mexico/US . comme rc ia l t ra i l s, such as the San ta Fe Trai l and the

Camino Real de Tie rra Adent ro (both Nat i ona l Histor i c Trai l s) . .The se responden ts found the amoun t of

t rade on the Old span i sh Tra i l tobe i n s i gn i fi can t i n compari son . Th i s was pe rhaps the mos t importan t

i ssue the Nat iona l Park Se rv i ce had to addre ss in i t s ana l ysis of the Old Span i sh Tra i l . The re is no

benchmark for when a m in imum amoun t of t rade become s nat i onal l y s i gn i fican t . Wi thou t data to t rack

the amoun t of t rade on the Old Span ish Tra i l , i t was near l y imposs i b le to de te rm i ne how i t affec ted the

fron t ie r prov i nces i n te rms ofpri ce and profi t leve l s . None the les s , the Nat i ona l Park Se rv ice u l t i mate l y

de te rm i ned that the t rade on the Old Span i s h Trai l was nat iona l l y s i gn i ficant and de te rm ined that the

data ava i lab le suggested that in some years the horse and mu le t rade was con s i de rab le . More importan t,

the s tudy found that the t rade was s i gn i fi can t w i t h i n the con tex t ofthe e vo lu t i on of the northern

Mex i can fron t ier and the Ind ian cu l tu res, and the expan s i on of the US . These we re unquant i fiab le

impac ts tha t reached the p lateau ofnat i ona l s i gn i ficance i n t rade and comme rce .

Fina l l y , a handfu l of responden ts adaman t l y c la imed that the te rm inology , the Old Span ish Trai l , i s a

mi snome r , and perpe tuates s te reo types abou t the reg ion and i t s peop le . C lear l y,the t ra i l was ne i t he r o ld

nor Span ish w he n i t was in use . It was comple ted i n 1829 , and named the Old Span i sh Tra i l i n 1845 by

Fremont , w hen i n fac t i t was at its he i gh t Ofuse . Du ri ng i t s en t i re pe r iod ofsi gn i ficance i t was w i t h i n

the Mex i can nat i on . Angl o-Ame r icans popu lar i zed the te rm Old Span ish Tra i l afte r 1 848 . The name

has come into common use and is now cons idered the appropriate name for the t ra i l .

9 1

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Land ofthe B lue Sky People . In The Monte Vista Journa l. Monte V i s ta,Cal i forn ia .

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APPENDIXES

APPENDIX A : NATIONAL TRA ILS SYSTEM ACT

[See Sect ion 5 (c) (38 ) for speci fic language about the Old Spanish Trai l )

NATIONAL TRAILS SYSTEM ACT

Pub l ic Law(16 U .S .C . 124 1 et seq . )

as amended

through P.L. 104—33 3 , November 12 , 1996

AN ACT

To estab l ish a Nat ional Trai ls System, and for other purposes.

assemb led,

SHORT TITLE

SECTION 1. Th i s Act may be c i ted as the National Trai ls System Act .

STATEMENT OF POL ICY

SEC . 2 . (a) In order to provide for the ever-increasing outdoor recreat ion needs ofan expanding popu lation andin order to promote the preservat ion of, pub l ic access to, trave l w i th in, and enjoyment and apprec iation ofthe open-air,

ou tdoor areas and h istoric resources ofthe Nation, trai ls shou ld be estab l ished (i ) primari ly, near the urban areas Of theNat ion , and ( i i ) secondari ly , w i th in scenic areas and along h istori c trave l routes of the Nat ion wh ich are often moreremote ly located.

(b ) The purpose of th is Act is to provide the means for attaining these object ives by inst i tut ing a nationalsystem ofrecreat ion, scenic and h istoric trai ls, by designating the Appalach ian Trai l and the Pac ific C rest Trai l as theinitial components of that system,

and by prescrib ing the methods by wh ich , and standards according to wh ich ,addi tional components may be added to the system.

(c) The Congress recognizes the valuab le contributions that vo lunteers and private , nonprofi t trai l groups havemade to the deve lopment and maintenance ofthe Nation’

s trai ls . in recogni t ion of these contri but ions, i t is further thepurpose ofth is Act to encourage and assist vo lunteer ci tizen invo lvement in the p lanning , deve lopment, maintenance ,

and management,where appropriate , of trai ls.

NATIONAL TRAILS SYSTEM

SEC . 3 . (a) The national system of trai ls shal l be composed ofthe fo l low ing

(1) National recreation trai ls, estab l ished as provided in section 4 of th is Act, wh ich w i l l provide a variety Ofoutdoor recreation uses in or reasonab ly accessib le to urban areas .

(2) National scenic trai ls, estab l ished as provided in section 5 of th i s Act, wh ich w i l l be extended trai ls solocated as to provide for max imum outdoor recreation potent ial and for the conservat ion and enjoyment of the national lysignificant scenic , h i storic , natural , or cu l tural qual i t ies ofthe areas through wh ich such trai ls may pass. National scenictrai ls may be located so as to represent desert, marsh , grassland, mountain,

canyon,river, forest , and other areas, as we l l

as landforms, wh ich exh i b i t signi ficant characteristics of the physiograph ic reg ions of the Nation .

(3 ) National H istoric Trai ls, estab l ished as provided in sect ion 5 of th is Act, wh ich w i l l be extended trailswh ich fol low as c lose ly as possib le and practicab le the orig inal trai ls or routes of trave l ofnationa l h istoric significance .

Designation ofsuch trai ls or routes shal l be continuous, but the estab l ished or deve loped trai l , and the acqu isi t ion

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thereof, need not be continuous onsi te . Nationa l H istoric Trai ls shal l have as the i r purpose the identification and

protection ofthe h istoric route and its h istoric remnants and art i facts for pub l ic use and enjoyment . Only those se lectedland and water based components ofa h istoric trai l wh ich are on federal ly owned lands and w h ich mee t the NationalH istoric Trai l cri teria estab l ished in th is Act are inc luded as Federa l protection components ofa Nationa l H istoric Trai l .The appropriate Secretary may ce rtify other lands as protected segments ofan h istoric trai l upon app l ication from Stateor local governmental agenc ies or pri vate interests invo lved i f such segments mee t the National H istoric Trai l cri te riaestab l ished in th is Act and such cri teria supp lementary thereto as the appropri ate Secretary may prescri be , and are

administered by such agenc ies or interests w i thou t expense to the Uni ted S tates .

(4 ) Connect ing or side trai ls, estab l ished as provided in section 6 of th is Act, wh ich w i l l provide addi tionalpoints ofpub l ic access to national recreation,

national scenic or Nationa l H istoric Trai ls or wh ich w i l l provideconnect ions between such trai ls .

The Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary ofAgricu l ture , in consul tat ion w i th appropri ate govemmental agenciesand pub l ic and private organizations, shal l estab l ish a uni form marker for the National Trai ls System .

(b) For purposes of th is section, the term ex tended trai ls’

means trai ls or trai l segments wh ich total at least onehundred mi les in length , excep t that h istoric trai ls of less than one hundredmi les may be designated as extended trai ls.

Wh i le it is desi rab le that extended trai ls be continuous, studies ofsuch trai ls may conc lude that i t is feasib le to proposeone or more trai l segments wh ich , in the aggregate, consti tute at least one hundred mi les in length .

(c) On October 1, 1982 , and at the beg inning ofeach odd numbered fiscal year thereafter, the Secre tary of theInterior shal l submi t to the Speaker of the Uni ted S tates House ofRepresentatives and to the President of the Uni tedS tates Senate ,

an ini t ial and revised (respec tive ly) National Trai ls System p lan . Such comprehensive p lan shal l indicatethe scope and ex tent ofa comp le ted nationw ide system of trai ls, to inc lude (1) desi rab le national ly significant scenic andh istoric components w h ich are considered necessary to comp lete a comprehensi ve nat ional system , and (2) other trai lsw h ich wou ld balance out a comp le te and compre hensive nationw ide system of trai ls. Such p lan, and the peri odicrevisions thereto, shal l be prepared in fu l l consu l tation wi th the Secretary ofAgricu l ture , the Governors of the variousS tates, and the trai ls communi ty .

NATIONAL RECREATION TRAILS

SEC . 4 . (a) The Secre tary ofthe Interior, or the Secretary ofAgricu l ture where lands administered by him are

invo l ved, may estab l ish and designate nat ional recreation trai ls, w i th the consent ofthe Federal agency, S tate , or po l i tica lsubdi vision having jurisdiction over the lands invo lved, upon finding that

( i ) such trai ls are reasonab ly accessib le to urban areas, and, or

( i i ) such trai ls mee t the cri teria estab l ished in th is Act and such supp lementary cri teria as he may prescri be .

(b ) As provided in th is sect ion, trai ls w i th in park , forest, and other recreation areas administered by the Secre tary ofthe Interior or the Secretary ofAgricu l ture or in other federal ly admini stered areas may be estab l ished and designated as"National Recreation Trai ls" by the appropri ate Secre tary and,

when no Federal land acqu isi t ion is involved

( i ) trai ls in or reasonab ly accessib le to urban areas may be designated as National Recreation Trai ls by theappropriate Secretary w i th the consent of the S tates, the i r po l i t ical subdi visions, or other appropri ate administeri ngagenc ies;

( i i ) trai ls w i th in park , forest , and other recreat ion areas owned or adm inistered by States may be designatedas National Recreation Trai ls" by the appropriate Secre tary w i th the consent ofthe S tate ; and

( i i i ) trai ls on pri vate ly owned lands may be designated N ational Recreation Trai ls’by the appropriateSecretary w i th the wri tten consent of the owner ofthe property invo lved.

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fo l low the h istoric route , but may deviate somewhat on occasion ofnecessi ty to avo id di fficu l t routing throughsubsequent deve lopment, or to provide some rou te variations offering a more p leasurab le recreational experience . Suchdeviations shal l be so noted on si te . Trai l segments no longer possib le to trave l by trai l due to subsequent deve lopmentas motorized transportation routes may be designated and marked onsi te as segments wh ich l ink to the h istoric trai l .

(B ) I t must be ofnat ional significance w i th respect to any ofseveral broad facets ofAmerican h istory , suchas trade and commerce , exp lorat ion, migration and sett lement , or mi l i tary campai gns. To qual i fy as nat ional lysignificant, h istoric use of the trai l must have had a far-reach ing effect on broad patterns ofAmeri can cu l ture . Trai lssignificant in the h istory ofnat ive Americans may be inc luded.

(C ) I t must have significant potent ia l for pub lic recreat ional use or h istori cal interest based on h istori cinterpretation and appreciation. The potential for such use is general ly greater along roadless segments deve loped ash istoric trai ls and at h istoric si tes associated w i th the trai l . The presence of recreat ion potential not re lated to h istoricapprec iation is not sufficient just ification for designation under th is category .

(c) The fo l lowing routes shal l be studied in accordance w i th the Objectives out l ined in subsection (b) of th issection.

[paragraphs naming 37 trai ls have been de le ted]

(38 ) The Old Spanish Trai l , beg inning in Santa Fe , New Mex ico , proceeding through Co lorado and U tah , andending in Los Ange les, Cal ifornia, and the Northern B ranch of the O ld Spanish Trai l , beg inning near Espano la, New

Mex ico ,proceeding through Co lorado , and ending near Crescent Junction, U tah .

[a paragraph nam ing 1 trai l has been de leted]

The Secretary charged w i th the administration ofeach respect ive trai l shal l , w i th in one year ofthe date ofthe addi t ion ofany nat ional scenic or National H istoric Trai l to the system, and w i th in si x ty days of the enactment ofth issentence for the Appalach ian and Pacific Crest Nat ional Scenic Trai ls, estab l ish an advisory counc i l for each such trai l ,each ofwh ich counc i ls shal l exp i re ten years from the date of its estab l ishment, excep t that the Advisory Counci lestab l ished for the Idi tarod Historic Trai l shal l exp i re twenty years from the date ofits estab l ishment . If the appropri ateSecre tary is unab le to estab l ish such an advisory counc i l because of the lack ofadequate pub l ic interest , the Secretaryshal l so advise the appropri ate commi ttees ofthe Congress. The appropri ate Secretary shal l consu l t w i th such counci lfrom t ime to time w i th respect to matters re lating to the trai l , inc luding the se lection of righ ts-of-way, standards for theerection and maintenance ofmarkers along the trai l , and the administration ofthe trai l . The members ofeach advisorycounc i l , wh ich shal l not exceed th i rty-five in number, shal l serve for a term of two years and w i thout compensat ion assuch , but the Secretary may pay, upon vouchers si gned by the chai rman of the counc i l , the expenses reasonab ly incurredby the counc i l and its members in carry ing out the i r responsib i l i t ies under th is sect ion. Members ofeach counc i l shal lbe appo inted by the appropri ate Secretary as fo l lows :

( 1 ) the head ofeach Federal department or independent agency administering lands through wh ich the trai lroute passes, or his designee ;

(2 ) a member appointed to represent each S tate through wh ich the trai l passes, and such appo intments shal l bemade from recommendations of the Governors ofsuch S tates;

(3 ) one or more members appo inted to represent pri vate organizations, including corporate and indi viduallandowners and land users, wh ich in the op inion ofthe Secretary, have an estab l ished and recognized interest in the trai l ,and such appointments shal l be made from recommendations ofthe heads ofsuch organizat ions: Provided,

That theAppalach ian Trai l Conference shal l be represented by a sufficient number ofpersons to represent the various sections ofthe country through wh ich the Appalach ian Trai l passes; and

(4) the Secretary shal l designate one member to be chai rman and sha l l fi ll vacanc ies in the same manner as theorig inal appo intment .

(e ) W i th in two comp lete fisca l years of the date ofenactment of leg islation desi gnat ing a nat ional scenic trai l ,excep t for the Continental D i vide National Scenic Trai l and the Nort h Country National Scenic Trai l

,as part ofthe

system , and w i th in two comp lete fiscal years ofthe date ofenactment of th is subsec tion for the Pac ific C rest and

106

Appalach ian Trai ls, the responsi b le Secre tary shal l , after fu l l consu ltation w i th affected Federal land manag ing agencies,

the Governors of the affected S tates, the re levant advisory counci l estab l i shed pursuant to section 5 (d) , and theAppalach ian Trail Conference in the case of the Appalach ian Trai l , submi t to the Commi ttee on Interior and Insu larAffai rs ofthe House ofRepresentat ives and the Commi ttee on Energy and

V

Natural Resources ofthe Senate , a

comprehensive p lan far the acqu isi t ion,management , deve lopment , and use of the trai l , inc luding but not l imi ted to , the

fo l low ing i tems:

( 1 ) specific objecti ves and practices to be observed in the management ofthe trai l , inc luding the identificationofall significant natural , h istorical , and cu l tura l resources to be preserved (along w i th h igh potent ial h istori c si tes andh igh potential route segments in the case ofNational H istoric Trai ls) , detai ls ofant ici pated cooperat i ve agreements to beconsummated w i th other ent i t ies, and an identi fied carry ing capaci ty ofthe trai l and a p lan for its imp lementat ion;

(2) an acqu isi t ion or protect ion p lan, by fiscal year, for all lands to be acqu ired by fee ti t le or lesser interest ,along w i th de tai led exp lanation ofanticipated necessary Cooperat ive agreements for any lands not to be acqu i red; and

(3 ) general and si te-speci fic deve lopment p lans inc luding antic ipated costs.

(f) W i th in two comp lete fiscal years ofthe date ofenactment of leg islation designating a Nat ional H istoricTrai l or the Continental D ivide National Scenic Trai l or the North Country National Scenic Tra i l as part ofthe system ,

the responsib le Secretary shal l , after fu l l consu l tation w i th affected Federal land manag ing agenc ies, the Governors ofthe affected States, and the re levant Advisory Counci l estab l ished pursuant to section 5 (d) of th is Act, submi t to theCommi ttee on Interi or and Insu lar Affairs ofthe House ofRepresentatives and the Commi ttee on Energy and NaturalResources ofthe Senate , a comprehensi ve p lan for the management, and use of the trai l , inc luding bu t not l imi ted to, the

fo l low ing i tems:

( 1 ) speci fic objectives and pract ices to be Observed in the management ofthe trai l , inc luding the ident ificationOfall significant natural, h istori cal , and cu l tural resources to be preserved, detai ls ofany ant ic i pated cooperativeagreements to be consummated wi th S tate and local gove rnment agenc ies or pri vate interests, and for national scenic orNational H istoric Trai ls an identified carry ing capaci ty of the trai l and a p lan for its imp lementation;

(2) the process to be fo l lowed by the appropriate Secretary to imp lement the mark ing requi rements estab l ishedin section 7 (c ) of th is Act;

(3 ) a protection p lan for any h igh potential h istori c si tes or h igh potential route segments; and

(4 ) general and si te-speci fic deve lopment p lans, inc luding ant ici pated costs .

CONNECTING AND S IDE TRA ILS

SEC . 6 . Connect ing or side trai ls w i th in park , forest , and other recreat ion areas administered by the Secretaryofthe Interior or Secretary ofAgricu l ture may be estab l ished, designated, and marked by the appropriate Secre tary ascomponents Ofa national recreat ion, national scenic or National H istoric Trai l . When no Federal land acqu isi tion isinvo lved, connecting or side trai ls may be located across lands administered by interstate , State , or loca l governmentalagencies w i th the i r consent, or, where the appropri ate Secre tary deems necessary or desi rab le , on pri vate ly owned landsw i th the consent ofthe landowners. App l ications for approval and designation ofconnecting and side trai ls onnon-Federal lands shal l be submi tted to the appropriate Secretary .

ADM IN ISTRATION AND DEVELOPMENT

SEC . 7 . The Secre tary charged w i th the overal l administration ofa trai l pursuant to section 5 (a) shal l ,in administeri ng andmanag ing the trai l , consu l t w i th the heads ofall other affected State and Federal agenc ies . Noth ingcontained in th is Act shal l be deemed to transfer among Federal agenc ies any management responsib i l i t ies estab l ishedunder any o ther law for federal ly administered lands wh ich are components ofthe National Trai ls System. Any transferofmanagement responsib i l i ties may be carried out between the Secretary ofthe Interior and the Secretary ofAgri cu l tureonly as provided under subparagraph (B ) .

(B ) The Secre tary charged w i th the overal l administration ofany trai l pursuant to sect ion 5 (a) may transfermanagement ofany specified trai l segment ofsuc h trai l to the other appropriate Secre tary pursuant to a jo int

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memorandum ofagreement containing such terms and condi tions as the Secre taries consider most appropriate toaccomp l ish the purposes of th is Act. During any period in wh ich management responsib i l i t ies for any trai l segment aretransferred under such an agreement , the management ofany such segment shal l be subject to the laws, ru les, andregu lations ofthe Secretary provided w i th the management au thori ty under the agreement excep t to such ex tent as theagreement may otherw ise expressly provide .

(2) Pursuant to section 5 (a) , the appropriate Secretary shal l se lect the ri gh ts-Of-way for national scenic andNat iona l H istori c Trai ls and shal l pub l ish not ice thereof ofthe avai lab i l i ty ofappropriate maps or descri pt ions in theFederal Reg ister; Provided, That in se lecting the ri gh ts-of-way fu l l consideration shal l be g i ven to minimi z ing theadverse effects upon the adjacent landowner or user and his operation. Deve lopment andmanagement ofeach segmentof the National Trai ls System shal l be designed to harmonize w i th and comp lement any estab l ished mu l ti p le-use p lansfor the spec i fic area in order to insure continued max imum benefi ts from the land. The location and w idth Ofsuchrigh ts-of-way across Federal lands under the juri sdiction ofanother Federal agency shal l be by agreement between thehead of that agency and the appropriate Secre tary . In se lecting righ ts-of-way for trai l purposes, the Secretary shal lobtain the advice and assistance of the States, local governments, private organizations, and landowners and land usersconcerned.

(b) After pub l icat ion ofnot ice of the avai lab i l i ty ofappropri ate maps or descri p t ions in the Federal Reg ister,the Secre tary charged w i th the administrat ion ofa national scenic or Nationa l H istoric Trai l may re locate segments ofanational scenic or Nat ional H istoric Trai l righ t-of-way,

w i th the concurrence of the head of the Federal agency havingjuri sdiction over the lands invo l ved, upon a de term inat ion that : ( i ) Such a re locat ion is necessary to preserve thepurposes for wh ich the trai l was estab l ished, or (i i ) the re location is necessary to promote a sound land management

of—way for such trai l shal l be by Act ofCongress.

(c) National scenic or National H istoric Trai ls may contain campsi tes, she l ters, and re lated-pub l ic—use faci l i ties.

O ther uses along the trai l , wh ich w i l l not substantial ly interfere w i th the natu re and purposes of the trai l , may bepermi tted by the Secre tary charged w i th the administration ofthe trai l . Reasonab le efforts shal l be made to providesuffic ient access opportuni ties to such trai ls and, to the ex tent practicab le , efforts be made to avoid activi tiesincompat ib le wi th the purposes for wh ich such trai ls were estab l ished. The use ofmotori zed veh ic les by the generalpub l ic a long any national scenic trai l shal l be proh ib i ted and noth ing in th is Act shal l be construed as authori z ing the useofmotori zed veh icles w i th in the natura l and h istorical areas of the nationa l park system , the nat ional w i ldl ife refugesystem, the nat ional w i lderness preservation system where they are presently proh i b i ted or on other Federal lands where

the administration ofsuch trai l shal l estab l ish regu lations wh ich shal l au thori ze the use ofmotorized veh icles when, in

h is judgment , such ve h ic les are necessary to mee t emergencies or to enab le adjacent landowners or land users to have

nat ional scenic, or Nat ional H istoric Trai ls by Cooperative agreement ofa landowner shal l not preclude such owner fromusing motori zed veh ic les on or across such trai ls or adjacent lands from time to time in accordance w i th regu lations tobe estab l ished by the appropri ate Secre tary . Where a National H istoric Trai l fo l lows ex isting pub l ic roads, deve lopedrigh ts—of—way or waterways, and simi lar features ofman’

s non-h istorical ly re lated deve lopment , approx imat ing theorig inal location ofa h istoric route , such segments may be marked to fac i l i tate retracement of the h istoric route , and

where a National H istoric Trai l paral le ls an ex isting pub l ic road, such road may be marked to commemorate the h istoricroute . O ther uses along the h istoric trai ls and the Continental D ivide National Scenic Trai l , wh ich w i l l not substantial lyinterfere w i th the nature and purposes ofthe trai l , and wh ich , at the t ime ofdesignat ion, are al lowed by administrativeregu lat ions, inc luding the use ofmotori zed veh ic les, shal l be permi tted by the Secretary charged w i th administration ofthe trai l . The Secre tary ofthe Interior and the Secretary ofAgricu l ture , in consul tation w i th appropri ate governmentalagenc ies and pub l ic and private organizations, shal l estab l ish a uni form marker, inc luding thereon an appropriate anddistinct ive symbo l for each national recreation, national scenic, and National H istori c Trai l . Where the trai ls cross landsadministered by Federal agenc ies such markers shal l be erected at appropriate po ints along the trai ls andmaintained bythe Federal agency administering the trai l in accordance w i th standards estab l ished by the appropri ate Secretary andwhere the trai ls cross non-Federal lands, in accordance w i th wri tten Cooperat ive agreements, the appropriate Secretaryshal l provide such uni form markers to cooperating agenc ies and shal l requ i re such agenc ies to erec t and maintain themin accordance w i th the standards estab l ished. The appropriate Secretary may also provide for trai l interpretation si tes,wh ich shal l be located at h istori c si tes along the route ofany national scenic or Nationa l H istoric Trai l , in order topresent information to the pub l ic about the trai l , at the lowest possib le cost , w i th emphasis on the port ion of the trai lpassing through the S tate in wh ich the si te is located. Wherever possib le ,

the si tes shal l be maintained by a S tate agencyunder a cooperati ve agreement between the appropri ate Secre tary and the State agency .

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The Secretary charged w i th the administration ofa national recreation, national scenic, or NationalH istoric Trai l shal l provide for the deve lopment and maintenance ofsuch trai ls w i th in federal ly administered areas andshal l Cooperate wi th and encourage the States to Operate , deve lop , and maintain port ions ofsuch trai ls wh ich are locatedoutside the boundaries offederal ly administered areas. When deemed to be in the pub l ic interest , such Secre tary mayenter wri tten cooperat ive agreements w i th the States or the i r pol i t ical subdi visions. landowners, private organi zations, or

individuals to operate , deve lop , and maintain any portion ofsuch a trai l e i ther w i th in or outside a federal ly admin isteredarea . Such agreements may inc lude provisions for l imi ted financ ial assistance to encourage part ic i pation in theacquisi t ion,

protection, operation, deve lopment , or maintenance ofsuch trai ls, provisions providing vo lunteer in the parkor vo lunteer in the forest status ( in accordance w i th the Vo lunteers in the Parks Act of 1969 and the Vo lunteers in theForests Act of 1972) to individuals, private organ izations, or landowners part ic ipating in such activi ties, or provisions ofboth types. The appropri ate Secre tary shal l also ini t iate consu l tat ions w i th affected States and the i r po l i tica lsubdi visions to encourage“

(A ) the deve lopment and imp lementat ion by such enti t ies ofappropriate measures to protect pri vatelandowners from trespass resu l ting from trai l use and from unreasonab le personal l iab i l i ty and propert y damage causedby trai l use , and

(B ) the deve lopment and imp lementation by such enti ties ofprovisions for land practices, compat ib le w i ththe purposes of th is Act,

for property w i th in or adjacent to trai l ri gh ts-of-way. After consu l t ing w i th S tates and the i r po l i t ical subdivisions underthe preceding sentence , the Secretary may provide assistance to such ent i t ies under appropriate Cooperative agreementsin the manner provided by th i s subsect ion.

(2) Whenever the Secre tary of the Interior makes any conveyance of land under any of the pub l ic land laws, hemay reserve a righ t-Of-way for trai ls to the ex tent he deems necessary to carry out the purposes of th isAct .

( i ) The appropri ate Secretary, w i th the concurrence of the heads ofany other Federal agenc ies administeringlands through wh ich a national recreation, nationa l scenic, or National H istori c Trai l passes, and after consu l tation w i ththe S tates, local governments, and organi zations concerned, may issue regu lations, wh ich may be revised from t ime totime , governing the use , protection, management , deve lopment , and administration of trai ls ofthe Nat ional Trai lsSystem . In order to maintain good conduct on and along the trai ls located w i th in federal ly administered areas and toprovide for the proper government and protection ofsuch trai ls, the Secretary ofthe Interi or and the Secretary ofAgricu l ture shal l prescribe and pub l ish such uniform regu lat ions as they deem necessary and any person who vio latessuch regu lations shal l be gu i l ty ofa m isdemeanor, and may be punished by a fine ofnotmore $500 , or by impri sonmentnot exceeding six months, or by both such fine and imprisonment . The Secre tary responsib le for the admini stration of

any segment ofany component of the National Trai ls System (as determ ined in a manner consistent w i th subsection(a)( 1 ) of th is section) may also uti l ize au thori ties re lated to uni ts ofthe national park system or the national forestsystem, as the case may be , in carry ing out his administrat ive responsib i l i t ies for such component .

(i) Potential trai l uses al lowed on designated components ofthe Nationa l Trai ls System may inc lude , but are

not l imi ted to , the fo l low ing : b icyc l ing , cross-country sk i ing , day h ik ing , equestrian activi ties, jogg ing or simi lar fi tnessactivi ties, trai l b iking , overn igh t and long-distance backpacking , snowmob i l ing , and surface water and underwaterac tivi ties. Veh ic les wh ich may be perm i tted on certain trai ls may inc lude , but need not be l imi ted to, motorcyc les,b icyc les, four-whee l drive or all-terrain off-road veh ic les. In addi t ion, trai l access for handicapped indi viduals may beprovided. The provisions of th is subsection shal l not supersede any other provisions of th is Act or o ther Federal laws, orany S tate or local laws.

(k ) For the conservation purpose ofpreserving or enhanc ing the recreat ional , scenic, natural , or h istorica lvalues ofcomponents ofthe National Trai ls System, and envi rons thereof as determined by the appropriate Secretary,landowners are authori zed to donate or otherw ise convey qual ified real property interests to qual i fied organizationsconsistent w i th section ofthe lntemal Revenue Code of 1954 , including , but not l imi ted to,

righ t-of-way, Openspace , scenic , or conservation easements, wi thout regard to any l imi tation on the nature ofthe estate or interestotherw ise transferab le w i th in the jurisdiction where the land is located. The conveyance ofany such interest in land inaccordance w i th th is subsect ion shal l be deemed to further a Federal conservat ion po l icy and yie ld a si gnificant pub l icbenefi t for purposes ofsection 6 ofPub l ic Law 96-54 1 .

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STATE AND METROPOLITAN AREA TRA ILS

SEC . 8 . (a) The Secretary ofthe Interi or is di rected to encourage S tates to consider, in the i r comprehensi vestatew ide ou tdoor recreation p lans and proposals for financial assistance for S tate and local projects submi tted pursuantto the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act, needs and Opportuni t ies for estab l ish ing park , forest, and other recreat ionand h istoric trai ls on lands owned or administered by States, and recreation and h istori c trai ls on lands in or near urbanreas. The Secre tary is also di rected to encourage S tates to consider, in the i r comprehensive statew ide h istoricpreservat ion p lans and proposals for financial assistance for S tate , local , and private projects submi tted pursuant to theAct ofOctober 15 , 1966 (80 S tat . as amended, needs and opportuni t ies for estab l ish ing h istoric trai ls. He is

further directed in accordance w i th the au thori ty contained in the Act ofMay 28 , 1963 (77 S tat . to encourage States,

po l i tica l subdivisions, and pri vate interests, inc luding nonprofi t organizations, to estab l ish such trai ls.

(b) The Secretary ofHousing and Urban Deve lopment is directed,in administering the program of

comprehensi ve urban p lanning and assistance under sect ion 70 1 ofthe Housing Act of 1954 , to encourage the p lanningofrecreation trai ls in connect ion w i th the recreation and transportat ion p lanning for metropo l i tan and o ther urban areas .

He is further di rected, in administering the urban openspace program under ti t le V I I of the Housing Act of 196 1 , toencourage such recreation trai ls.

(c) The Secre tary ofAgricu l ture is di rected, in accordance w i th authority vested in him, to encourage Statesand local agencies and pri vate interests to estab l ish such trai ls .

(d) The Secretary ofTransportation, the C hai rman ofthe Interstate Commerce Comm ission, and the Secre taryofthe Interior, in administeri ng the Rai l road Revi tal izat ion and Regu latory Reform Act of 1976 , shal l encourage S tateand local agencies and pri vate interests to estab l ish appropriate trai ls using the provisions ofsuch programs . Consistentw i th the purposes of that Act, and in furtherance ofthe national po l icy to preserve estab l ished rai l road righ ts—of‘way for

future reactivation ofrai l service , to protect rai l transportat ion corri dors, and to encourage energy effic ient transportationuse , in the case of interim use ofany estab l ished rai l road ri gh ts-of—way pursuant to donation, transfer, lease , sa le , or

o therw ise in a manner consistent with the Nat ional Trai ls System Act, i f such interim use is subject to restorat ion or

reconstruction for rai l road purposes, such interim use shal l not be treated, for purposes ofany law or ru le of law , as an

abandonment ofthe use ofsuch righ ts-of-way for rai lroad purposes. If a S tate , pol i t ical subdi vision, or qual ified privateorganization is prepared to assume fu l l responsib i l i ty for management ofsuch rights—of-way and for any legal l iab i l i tyarising out ofsuch transfer or use, and for the payment ofany and all taxes that may be levied or assessed against suchrigh ts-of-way, then the Commission shall impose such terms and condi t ions as a requ i rement ofany transfer orconveyance for interim use in a manner consistent w i th th is Act, and shal l not perm i t abandonment or discont inuanceinconsistent or disruptive Ofsuch use .

(e ) Such trai ls may be designated and su i tab ly marked as parts of the nationw ide system oftrai ls by the Statesthei r po l i tical subdi visions, or other appropri ate administeri ng agenc ies w i th the approval of the Secre tary of the Interi or.

RIGHTS—OF—WAY AND OTHER PROPERTIES

SEC . 9 . (a) The Secretary ofthe Interior or the Secre tary ofAgricu l ture as the case may be , may granteasements and righ ts-of—way upon, over, under, across. or along any component of the National Trai ls System inaccordance w i th the laws app l icab le to the national park system and the national forest system,

respect ive ly : Provided,

That any condi t ions contained in such easements and righ ts-of-way shall be re lated to the po l icy and purposes of th isAct.

(b ) The Department ofDefense , the Department ofTransportation, the Interstate Commerce Commission, the

Federal Communicat ions Commission,the Federal Power Commission, and other Federal agenc ies havingjuri sdiction

or contro l over or information concerning the use , abandonment, or disposi tion ofroadways, uti l i ty righ ts-of-way, or

other propert ies wh ich may be su i tab le for the purpose of improving or expanding the National Trai ls System shal lCooperate w i th the Secretary of the Interior and the Secretary ofAgricu l ture in order to assure , to the ex tent pract icab le ,

that any such propert ies having values su i tab le for trai l purposes may be made avai lab le for such use .

(0 ) Commenc ing upon the date ofenactment of th is subsection, any and all righ t , t it le ,interest , and estate of

the Uni ted S tates in all righ ts-of-way ofthe type descri bed in the Act ofMarch 8 , 1922 (43 U .S .C . shal l remain inthe Uni ted S tates upon the abandonment or forfe iture ofsuch righ ts-of-way, or port ions thereof, except to the extent that

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any such righ t-of—way , or port ion thereof, is embraced w i th in a pub l ic h ighway no later than one year after ade terminat ion ofabandonment or forfe i ture , as provided under such Act.

All righ ts-of-way, or port ions thereof, re tained by the Uni ted S tates pursuant to subsection (c) wh ich arelocated w i th in the boundari es ofa conservat ion system uni t or a Nat ional Forest shal l be added to and incorporatedw i th in such uni t or National Forest and managed in accordance w i th app l icab le provisions of law , inc luding th is Act.

(2 ) A ll such retained righ ts-oi -way, or port ions thereof, wh ich are located outside the boundaries ofaconservation system uni t or a National Forest but adjacent to or contiguous wi th any port ion of the pub l ic lands shal l bemanaged pursuant to the Federal Land Po l icy and Management Act of 1976 and other app l icab le law , inc luding th issection .

(3 ) All such retained ri gh ts-of-way, or port ions thereof, wh ich are located outside the boundari es ofaconservat ion system uni t or Nationa l Forest w h ich the Secretary of the Interior de term ines su i tab le for use as a pub l icrecreational trai l or other recreat ional purposes shal l be managed by the Secretary for such uses, as we l l as for such otheruses as the Secre tary determines to be appropriate pursuant to app l icab le laws, as long as such uses do not prec lude trai luse .

The Secre tary of the Interior is authori zed where appropri ate to re lease and qu i tc laim to a uni t ofgovernment or to another enti ty meet ing the requ i rements of th is subsection any and all righ t , ti tle , and interest in thesurface estate ofany portion ofany righ t-o i-way to the extent any such ri gh t, ti t le , and interest was retained by theUni ted States pursuant to subsect ion (c) , i f such port ion is not located w i th in the boundari es ofany conservation systemuni t or Nationa l Forest . Such re lease and qu i tc laim shal l be made only in response to an app l ication therefor by a uni t ofS tate or local government or another enti ty wh ich the Secre tary of the Interior determines to be legal ly and financ ia l lyqual i fied to manage the re levant portion for pub l ic recreational purposes. Upon rece i p t ofsuch an app l ication, the

Secretary shal l pub l ish a notice concern ing such app l ication in a newspaper ofgeneral ci rcu lat ion in the area where there levant portion is located. Such re lease and qu i tc laim shal l be on the fo l low ing condi t ions:

(A ) If such uni t or enti ty attemp ts to se l l , convey , or otherw ise transfer such ri gh t , t i t le , or interest orattempts to perm i t the use ofany part ofsuch port ion for any purpose incompatib le w i th its use for pub l ic recreation,

then any and all ri gh t, ti t le , and interest re leased and qu i tc laimed by the Secretary pursuant to th is subsection shal l revertto the Uni ted S tates.

(B ) Such uni t or enti ty shal l assume fu l l responsib i l i ty and ho ld the Uni ted S tates harmless for any legall iab i l i ty wh ich migh t arise w i th respect to the transfer, possession, use , re lease , or qui tc laim ofsuch righ t-of-way .

(C ) Notw i thstanding any o ther provision of law , the Uni ted S tates shal l be under no du ty to inspect suchport ion prior to such release and qui tc laim, and shal l incur no legal l iab i l i ty w i th respect to any hazard or any unsafecondi t ion ex ist ing on such portion at the time ofsuch re lease and qu i tc laim.

(2 ) The Secretary is authorized to se l l any portion ofa ri gh t-of-way re tained by the Uni ted S tates pursuant tosubsection (c) located outside the boundaries ofa conservation system uni t or Nat ional Forest i f any such port ion is

(A ) not adj acent to or contiguous w i th any port ion ofthe pub l ic lands; or

(B ) determined by the Secretary , pursuant to the disposal cri teria estab l ished by section 203 ofthe FederalLand Po l icy and Management Act of1976, to be su i tab le for sale .

Prior to conduc ting any such sale , the Secretary shal l take appropri ate steps to afford a uni t ofS tate or local governmentor any o ther ent i ty an opportuni ty to seek to obtain such port ion pursuant to paragraph (1) of th is subsection .

(3 ) All proceeds from sales ofsuch retained righ ts ofway sha l l be deposi ted into the Treasury ofthe Uni tedS tates and credi ted to the Land and Water Conservation Fund as provided in section 2 of the Land and WaterConservation Fund Act of 1965 .

(4 ) The Secre tary ofthe Interior shal l annual ly report to the Congress the total proceeds from sales underparagraph (2) during the preceding fiscal year . Such report shal l be inc luded in the President ’s annua l budge t submi ttedto the Congress .

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VOLUNTEER TRAILS ASS ISTANCE

SEC . 1 1 . In addi t ion to the Cooperative agreement and o ther authori ties contained in th is Act, theSecretary ofthe Interior, the Secretary ofAgri cu l ture , and the head ofany Federal agency administering Federal lands,are authori zed to encourage vo lunteers and vo lunteer organizations to p lan, deve lop , maintain, and manage ,

w hereappropri ate ,

trai ls throughout the Nation.

(2 ) Wherever appropri ate in furtherance ofthe purposes of th is Act, the Secre taries are authorized andencouraged to uti l ize the Vo lunteers in the Parks Act of 1969 , the Vo lunteers in the Forests Act of 1972 , and sect ion 6of the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965 (re lating to the deve lopment ofS tatew ide Comprehensi veOutdoor Recreat ion P lans) .

(b) Each Secretary or the head ofany Federal landmanag ing agency, may assist vo lunteers and vo lunteersorganizat ions in p lanning , deve lop ing , maintaining , and managing trai ls. Vo lunteer work may include , but need not be

l imi ted to

( l ) p lanning , deve lop ing , maintaining , or manag ing (A) trai ls w h ich are components of the National Trai lsSystem, or (B ) trai ls wh ich , i f so deve loped and maintained, cou ld qua l i fy for designation as components ofthe NationalTrai ls System; or

(2) operat ing programs to organize and supervise vo lunteer trai l bu i lding efforts w i th respect to the trai lsreferred to in paragraph conducting trai l-re lated research proj ec ts, or providing education and training to vo lunteerson methods of trai ls p lanning , construct ion, and maintenance .

(c) The appropriate Secre tary or the head ofany Federal land manag ing agency may uti l ize and make avai lab leFederal fac i l i t ies, equ i pment, too ls, and technical assistance to vo lunteers and vo lunteer organizations, subject to suchl imi tations and restric tions as the appropriate Secre tary or the head ofany Federal land manag ing agency deemsnecessary or desi rab le .

SEC . 12 . As used in th is Act:

( 1 ) The term h igh potential h istoric si tes means those h isto ric si tes re lated to the rou te , or si tes in c loseprox imi ty thereto , wh ich provide opportuni ty to interpret the h istoric significance of the trai l duri ng the period ofitsmajor use . C ri teria for considerat ion as h igh potent ial si tes inc lude h istoric significance , presence ofvisib le h istoricremnants, scenic qual i ty, and re lat ive freedom from intrusion.

(2) The term h igh po tential route segments means these segments ofa trai l wh ich wou ld afford h igh qual i tyrecreation experience in a port ion ofthe route having greater than average scenic va lues or affording an opportuni ty tovicariously share the experience ofthe orig inal users ofa h istoric rou te .

(3 ) The term S tate means each Of the several S tates of the Uni ted S tates, the Di stri ct ofCo lumb ia, the

Commonweal th ofPuerto Rico , the V i rg in Islands, Guam, American Samoa, the Trust Terri tory ofthe Pac ific Islands,the Northern Mariana Islands, and any other terri tory or possession of the Uni ted S tates.

(4 ) The te rm w i thout expense to the Uni ted States means that no funds may be expended by Federal agenc iesfor the deve lopment of trai l re lated fac i l i t ies or for the acquisi t ion of lands or interest in lands outside the exteriorboundaries ofFederal areas . For the purposes of the preceding sentence , amounts made avai lab le to any S tate orpo l i t ical subdi vision under the Land andWater Conservation Fund Act of 1965 or any other provision of law shal l notbe treated as an expense to the Un i ted S tates.

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APPENDIX B : EXPEDITION CHRONOLOGY BETWEEN NEWMEXICO ANDCALIFORNIA

November 6 Anton io Arm ij o and 60 men leave from Ab iqu iu , New Mex ico , for Ca l i fo rn ia and arr i ve

the re afte r 86 days of t rave l . They took t rade b lanke t s and scrapes to t rade for 100 horse s and mu les

and fo l l owed a rou te across No rt he rn Ar i zona and Sou the rn Utah , arr i v ing at San Gabrie l , Ca l i fo rn ia on

January 30 , 1 830 .

José An ton i o Ch avez de Vaca leads an exped i t i on i n 1 830 to Ca l i fo rn ia bu t i s den ied en trance to Los

Ange les by au t hori t ie s .

Gregor io Mon toya arr i ve s i n Ca l i fo rn ia from New Mex ico in 1 830 .

Wolfskill and Youn t and 20 t rappe rs leave New Me x ico i n Septembe r 1830 and arr i ve in Ca l i forn ia in

February 1 83 1 . They apparen t l y fo l lowed port ions of the rou te ofDominguez and Esca lan te on t he i rway to Ca l i fo rn ia .

Apr il 25 An ton i o Armij o re tu rns to New Mex ico .

J une 30 Albe rto G ilber ofBe len buys horses i n no rt he rn Ca l i fo rn ia to take back to New Mex ico .

March 3 1 Cal i fo rn ia offic ia l comp la ins of horse th ieve s from New Mex ico .

Apr il 23 An ton io San t i -Este van and 30 men from New Me x ico trade woo l for l i ves tock in Ca l i fo rn ia .

The exac t rou te of t h is t r i p rs unc lear .

May 6 Franco de Fou ri, Bau t ista Sa i n t—Ge rman, Bau t i s ta Gue rra , Zacarias Ham, Lu is Burton , Samue l

S h ie l d s , Zebedia B ranc h , and Juan Lobe r arr i ve in Ca l i fo rn ia . Hafen andHafen l i st t he se ind i v idua l s asbe i ng w i t h Wo lkskill and Youn t .

Friar Cabo t of M ission San Migue l reports that New Mex icans t raded woo l for horses i n Ca l i forn ia ; heal so c la imed t hat M i s s i on San Migue l had 108 horse s and mu le s s to len and t hat at the Rancho of

Asunc ion had reported fou r co l t s and a mu le sto len .

August 1 3 San t iago Mart in goe s to Cal i fo rn ia from New Mex i co w i t h 15 men . Hi po l i t o Esp inosa

( late r a se t t le r ofAgua Man sa) i s w i th the party . No documen tat i on found for o the r caravans du r i ng th i s

yean

1 15

Juan de Je sus Ch ino Pando V i l la l pando leads an exped i t i on from New Mex ico to Cal i fo rn ia by wayof the An imas Ri ve r Rou te on the

“Carnino de Nuevo Mex ico or

“Road to New Mex ico .

Ca h'

fornio Anton i o Avi la and fi ve men i n spec t re turn ing New Mex i cans’

he rds of sheep , horse s and

mu les bound for New Mex i co .

Feb ruar y 2 Fe l i pe Lugo and 12 men t ry to catch upw i t h New M ex icans who had s to len an ima l s

from Ca l i forn ia . They we re t rave l i ng on the“Camino de Nuevo Mexico

”or the “

Road to New

Me x ico .

Feb rua ry 26 Je su s Uze ta,Perfec to Archu le ta, and Tomas Salazar from New Mex ico s tea l 430

an ima l s from Ca l i forn ia and we re reported bound for New Mex i co .

Oc tober 27 J0 36 Av ieta and 1 25 men w i t h se rapes leave New Mex ico for Ca l i fo rn ia arr i v i ng i n Los

Ange les on Decembe r

Jacob Leese and n i ne men leave Ca l i fo rn ia w i th 450 ho rses and mu les, l ose all but 27 an ima l s to

Ind ians , and re turn to Ca l i fo rn ia . A few days earl ie r, a part y of 19 t rade rs encoun te red Ind ian s wh i le

re tu rn i ng from Ca l i forn ia to New Mex ico and fi ve we re k i l led .

J anuary 2 1 J osé Av ieta and 124 men from New Mex ico arr i ve i n Ca l i fo rn ia and t rade scrapes,

34 1 b lanke t s , 17 1 bedspreads , and othe r i tems such as woo l for horses i n Ca l i fo rn ia . They re fused to

pay the a lcaba la , a tax on t rade ,man i fe s t ing a copy of the Dec re to de 1830 ,

wh ich they c la imed

e xempted them from the charge . Some of h i s men wen t as far north as San Jose’

,w he re they are though t

to have been stea l i ng horses .

1 835-1 836

A Decembe r 2 , 1837 , Sandwich Islands Ga z ette s to ry re fe rs to New Mex icans i n Ca l i fo rn ia for a

numbe r of years past .” Th is may i nd i cate that New Mex ican s con t i nued coming to Ca l i forn ia du r i ng

1835- 1836 .

Wi l l iam Pope and Isaac S l ove r t rave l to Cal i fo rn ia by way of the North B ranch w i t h wagon s .

J anuary 16 Party of30 men led by Jean Bapt i s te Cha l i foux en te rs Ca l i fo rn ia from New Mex ico

arr i v i ng at San Gabr ie l . Cha l i foux stea l s to Ca l i fo rn ia mu le s and horses and re turns to

New Mex ico .

Ap r il J osé Maria Chavez and his brothe r J u l ian Chave z w i th fam i l y membe rs and seve ra l O the rse scape New Mex ico by way ofUtah to Ca l i forn ia . They had been s i ng led out for execu t i on for s i d i ng

w i th Gove rno r A l b ino Pe rez who was s la i n i n the New Mex ico Rebe l l ion of 1837 . A year late r, on

March 24 , 1838 , JoseMaria Chavez and his New Mex ican s , know n by the Ca lifornios as the“Yegue ros , found themse l ves on the rebe l side of a Ca l i fo rn ia rebe l l i on at the Bat t le of San

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Manue l Mart inez and S i smos pe t i t i on to s tay i n Ca l i fo rn ia .

Ju l ian Chavez, who had been in Ca l i fo rn ia , dec i des to rema i n i n Ca l i fo rn ia as a c i t i zen ofLos Ange les .

He late r wo rks for Abe l S team s as a r i gh t-hand man (see

Feb ruar y 21 Ca lifo rnios report tha t New Mex i can s had s to len horse s from Ca l i fo rn ia .

Apr il 4 Ca lifornios report that New Mex ican s leav i ng Los Ange le s had passed th rough Puerta de l

Cajon on the i r way back to New Mex ico .

Apri l 4 75 men depart Cal i forn ia for New Me x i co .

April 1 4 The Tomas Sa lazar exped i t i on leave s Ca l i forn ia and re tu rns to New Mex ico w i t h herds of

horses and mu le s (see 1839 and

May 1 5 Chaguanosos s tea l an ima l s from San Lu i s Ob i spo . The Chaguanosos, i nc l ud i ng

Angl o and French trappe rs and Utes, we re assoc iated w i t h New Mex ican trade rs who s to le or en t iced

o the r peop le to stea l for them . That mon th th i s group s to le some horse s .

Row land-Workman party , i nc lud ing immigran ts, t rave l to Cal i forn ia . Caravan s were used for t rade and

i mmigrat i on afte r 1 84 1 (Law rence l 930s30) . Among the t rave le rs i s J . Manue l Vaca,who founded

Vacav i l le ,Ca l i fo rn ia . It is reported that a party of200 New Me x ican s and 60 or more Nort h Amer i can s

a rr i ved i n Los Ange les i n Novembe r .

Feb ruar y Joseph Wa l ke r arr i ve s i n Ca l i forn ia from New Mex i co w i t h a party of 14 men, i n tend i ng to

stay two mon th s and pu rchase horses .

Feb rua ry 1 0 Cal i forn io offic ia l s report at leas t two and poss i b l y more exped i t i on s reach i ng

Ca l i fo rn ia from New Mex ico .

August 1 1 J ohn Row land g i ven safe conduc t to go to Ca l i forn ia from New Mex ico .

September 6 Franc isco Estevan V ig i l and a part y of t rade rs and o the r t rave le rs depart New Mex ico

and arr i ve i n Los Ange les i n Novembe r (see

Septem ber 6 Ca l i fo rn ia de tachmen t t racks New Mex ican th ieves to the Rio San Pascua l , poss i b l y

the Sev ie r Ri ve r .

Novem ber Commande r ofSan ta Barbara Pres i d i o repo rted l y braces for the arr i va l ofNew Mex ico

t rade rs .

November 30 A caravan from New Mex ico arr i ve s i n Cal i fo rn ia w i t h 1 34 people on the exped i t ion .

1 18

The ma in co l on i zing party from Ab iqu iu New Mex ico for Agua'

M ansa arr i ve s . Many of them se t t ledat Politana,

wh ich ear l ie r had been founded by Hi po l i to Esp i nosa .

San t iago Mart inez leads 19 fami l ie s to Ca l i fo rn ia . Th i s group i s as soc iated w i t h Franc i sco Es tevan

Qu i n tana,who p lanned to se t t le i n San Bemardino area . The se fami l ie s e ven tua l l y se t t led San Lu i s

Obispo .

José An ton io Garc ia re tu rn s to Ca l i fo rn ia for t rade i n 1842 (See

J ohn Row land re tu rns to New Mex ico w i t h 300 sto len an i ma l s . Row land is i n Santa Fe in Ju l y 1842 .

Offi c ia l Ca l i forn ia records i nd i cated t hat the Row land party was i n spec ted and had th ree horse s

confi scated .

Feb ruary 1 0 Juan Band i n i recove rs sto len horse s from New Mex ican trade rs .

Feb rua r y 1 2 Franc isco Este van Qu intana re turn s to New Mex ico to get h is fam i l y . He re turns w i th

them and se t t les near San Lu i s Ob i spo .

Apr il 1 6 Franc isco Estevan V i g i l party leaves Los Ange le s for New Mex ico w i t h 194 New Mex icans

and pu rchases an ima ls . Afte r be i ng i n spec ted by Ca l i forn io offic ia l s , t hey depa rt Caj on on Apri l2 1 w i t h an ima l s . Nine we re confi sca ted .

J une 3 Ca l i fo rn ia offi c ia l s i nspec t i ncoming caravan from New Mex ico for woo len goods for t rade

for horses “as has been done on o the r occas ions .

James P . B eckwou rth from M issour i leaves New Mex ico w i th a caravan of40 mu les to Ca l i forn ia byway of Utah some t i me in 1 843 . He arr i ves i n Ca l i fo rn ia i n January 1 844 . Beckwourth

’

s exac t rou te is

not know n . The nex t year Beckw ourt h w i l l re tu rn from Ca l i fo rn ia w i t h horse s .

J anuar y 1 5 John Row land arr i ve s from New Me x ico w i t h a con s i de rab le numbe r ofNew Me x icans .

Poss i b l y 10 fami l ies from New Mex i co arr i ve i n Ca l i fo rn ia w i t h th i s exped i t i on . That same year,Row land and B . D . Wi l son leave Ca l i forn ia bound for New Mex i co ; t hey c ross the Grand and Green

r i vers above the i r confluence .

March 6 24 peop le leave Ca l i fo rn ia for New Mex ico w i t h 252 an ima l s .

Novem ber 30 A company ofmen from Cal i fo rn ia is gi ve n perm i s s i on to leave Ca l i forn ia and t rade i n

New Mex i co .

Decem ber Tomas Salazar and 170 men arr i ve i n Los Ange le s from New Mex ico w i t h woolen goods .

The group is compri sed of 165 men and 10 fam i l ies from New Mex ico . They brough t se rape s andwoo len goods to t rade and re tu rned to New Me x ico in Apri l 1844 (see 1839 and

1 19

Fi ve fam i l ies arr i ve i n Agua Man sa from New Mex ico .

La Plac i ta,near Agua Man sa, i s e s tab l i shed by New Mex i cans led by Loren zo Truj i l lo. Ori g i na l name

ofthe s i te was La Plac i ta de los Truj i l l os .

J im Waters , Ind ian t rade r, use s the Old Span i sh Tra i l to go to Ca l i forn ia and return s w i t h pack mu les

and aba lone she l l .

J anuary 2 New Mex i can caravan re turns t o New Mex ico from Ca l i fo rn ia .

J anuary 1 1 Ca lifornios repo rt t hat a New Mex ican caravan , poss i b l y Beckwourth’

s, arr i ve s i n

Ca l i fo rn ia .

Apr il 2 1 John C . Fremon t repo rts mee t i ng New Mex i can s , part icu lar l y Andre s Fuente s and a sma l lparty , a long the Mojave Ri ve r .

November 1 0 Lu is Rob i doux i s gran ted a pas spo rt to go to Ca l i fo rn ia w i th t rade rs , and the caravan

depart s from the Lu is Lope z se t t lemen t .

October 2 1 -New Mex icans at Agua Man sa prepare t o defend aga i nst Ute s .

Mi les Goodyear take s pack t rai n of h i des from no rt hern Utah sou th to Old Span i sh Tra i l and t hen on to

Ca l i forn ia . Th is l i ke l y occu rred i n late 1846 or ear l y 1 847 . Goodyear learned abou t the t ra i l from

fe l l ow moun ta in men/horse t h ie ves such as B i l l W i l l iams and J oseph Wa l ker .

March Cal i fo rn ia offi c ia l s report that head of horse s have been sto len and taken th rough Cajon

by “

los Yutas”i n the prev i ou s th ree mon ths . Ano t he r repor t says that Utes t rave l among New

Me x icans .

J u ly 3 Ca lifornios repo rt on New Mex i cans l i v i ng i n Ca l i forn ia .

Kit Carson and Lieu tenan t Geo rge D . B rewe rton carry me ssages abou t the Un i ted S tate s-Mex ico War

us i ng the Old Span i s h Tra i l dur i ng th i s year and the nex t year .

November Po rte r Rockwe l l goe s sou th from Sa l t Lake Ci ty to Old Span i s h Trai l w i t h d i rec t i on s from

Mi les Goodyear . Jeffe rson Hu n t is a membe r . Th i s shows d i rec t i nfluence of moun tai n men i n

begi nn i ng ofMorm on Rou te

December Mi le s and Andrew Goodyear t rave l same rou te to Ca l i fo rn ia to t rade for horse s .

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APPENDIX C : MAPS

1 : NorthFrn Rou te , Armrjo Rou te , and North B ranch in New Mex ico

2 : Northern Rou te , Armijo Rou te , and North B ranch i n Co l orado

Northe rn Rou te and Armijo Rou te i n the Fou r Co rne rs regi on

Nort he rn Rou te and North B ranch i n Utah

Armijo Rou te and Northe rn Rou te in Ari zona and Uta-h

6 : No rt he rn Rou te and Fish lake Cu toff i n Utah

7 : Armijo Rou te , Northe rn Rou te , Mojave Road , and K i ngs ton Cu toff i n Ari zona,Nevada, and

Ca l i fo rn ia

Map 8 : Armij o Rou te , Nort he rn Rou te , Mojave Road , and K i n gston Cu toff i n Ne vada and Ca l i forn ia

Map 9 : Northe rn Rou te and Armijo Rou te i n Ca l i fo rn ia

ll:u.

)

l

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GrandJunction

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Sect ion 6 of 9

Northom Routo m

Fish lake Cutoff

(possible additional route)

Producedby thoNdlonalPark Sen/toe

IntermomtalnRogon, 0 8 011109

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APPENDIX D : SELECTEDWILDLIFE SPECIES

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APPENDIX E : EXISTING PUBLIC USE AREAS

There are many ex i s t i ng pub l ic use s i tes a l ong the Old Span ish Tra i l , i nc lud i ng s tate and nat i onal parks,h i s toric s i tes , monumen ts, recreat i on areas , h i ghway h i s tori ca l marke rs , h i stor ic dist r ic t s , campgrounds,p icn ic areas , nat i ona l fores t s , scen ic roads, and museums (see be l ow) . A numbe r of t hese pub l i c uses i te s (such as s tate and na t iona l parks, h i s tor ical marke rs , and museums) have some themat ic

re lat i on sh i p e i t he r d i rec t l y or i nd i rec t ly w i th the Old Span i sh Tra i l . Othe rs (such as nat i ona l parks andp icn ic areas) do not re late d i rec t l y to the h istory ofthe t ra i l , but cou ld offe r opportun i t ie s for the pub l ic

to learn abou t , see , expe r ience , and apprec iate the tra i l . Not all pub l ic use si tes wou l d qual i fy asoffic ial l y ce rt ified or fede ra l componen t s of a Nat i ona l Hi s tor i c Tra i l .

The fol l ow i ng pub l ic use si te s are i n or near the corr i dors of the branches ofthe Old Span i s h Tra i l .

Na tional Pa rk Service Areas, Na tiona l Fores ts , ofGrand Junct ion)Bu reau ofLand Managemen t Areas Continental D ivide National Scenic Trai l

Crawford S tate Recreation AreaSee Appendi x G for a l isting ofNat ional Park Service Crow Canyon Archeolog ical Centerareas, national forests and Bureau ofLand Cumbres and To l tec Rai lroadManagement resource areas. Curecanti National Recreation Area

Fort Garland Museum and V isi tor CenterAmerican Indian Lands Grand Mesa Scenic Byway

Gunn ison River B luffs Trai l Spanish Trai lPueb los and other Ameri can Indian lands, except for Los Caminos Antiguostri bal parks and designated pub l ic use areas, are Lowry Indian Ru insgeneral ly c losed to the pub l ic e xcep t during spec ial Monte V ista National W i ldl ife Refugeeven ts. See appendi x G for a l isting of tri bes found on P laza de San Luis de la Cu lebra Historic Districtor near the trai l . Some tri bal parks are found in the Ridgeway State Recreation Areafo l low ing l isting .

Saguache County Museum

San Juan Skyway Scenic BywayO th er Pa rks, Monumen ts, and Si tes San Lu is Museum and Cu l tural Center

Swe i tzer Lake S tate Recreation AreaAnge l Peak National Recreation Area Trai l Ofthe Anc ients HiSlOfiC BywayContinental D ivide National Scenic Trai l Ute Indian ParkEl Rancho de las Go londrinas L iving History West Elk LOOP Scenic BywayMuseum Zapata Fal ls

El Vado State ParkFort Burgw in Research Center Museum Arizona Stri p V 15 1l0 f CenterFort Marcy Park Four Comers MonumentHyde Memorial S tate Park Inscri pt ion House Ru inJemez State Monument Monument Val ley Navajo Tribal ParkKi t Carson Memorial S tate Park Monument Val ley Scenic BywayKit Carson Historic Museums

Museum of Indian Arts and Cu l ture Beaver Canyon Scenic Byway (U-1 53 from BeaverNavajo Lake State Park Elk Meadows)

Onate Monument and V isi tor Center B i g C0 110"W0 0 9 Canyon Scenic BywayPalace of the Governors B rian Head-Pangu i tch Lakes Scenic Byway (U- l 43

Puyé C l i ff Dwe l l ings from Parowan to Pangu i tch)Rancho de Taos Cedar B reaks Scenic Byway (U- 148 )

Rio C hama W i ld and Scenic River C leve land L loyd Dinosaur QuarryRio Grande Gorge National Recreation Area Co lorado River Scenic BywayRio Grande Gorge State Park Dead Horse Po int State ParkSanta Cruz Lake National Recreation Area Desert Lake B i rd RefugeSanta Fe River S tate Park Ecc les Canyon Scenic Byway (U-264)

Santuario de Ch imayo Church Fish lake Scenic Byway (U-25 to Fish lake andJohnson Reservo i r)

A lamosa National W i ldl i fe Refuge Gob l in Val ley State ParkCo lorado River State Park , C l ifton, CO (southwest G reen River S tate Park

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Gunlock S tate Park US-89 from Kanab to Junc t ion ofU- l Z/US-89 ScenicHighway 12 Scenic Byway BywayHuntington Lake S tate Park U tah Lake S tate ParkJ . Hamb l in Home State Park Young Home S tate ParkKo lob Fingers Road Scenic Byway Zion Park Scenic Byway (U-9 from I- IS to M t .Li ttle Cottonwood Canyon Scenic Byway Carme l Junct ion)Loa to Hanksvi l le Scenic BywayMarkagunt Scenic Byway (U- l 4 from Cedar C i ty to Gypsum CaveJunct ion w i th US-89) Las Vegas Mormon FortM i l lsi te S tate Park Las Vegas SpringMountain Meadows Massacre S i te Red Rock Canyon State ParkNebo Loop Scenic Byway Spring Mountain Ranch S tate ParkNewspaper Rock State Historic Monument Sunrise Mountain Natural AreaOtter Creek State Park Val ley ofFi re State ParkParowan Gap Petrog lyphsP iute Lake S tate Park Afton Canyon Natural Area ( inc ludes the Mojave)Potash Scenic Byway National Old Trai ls HighwayProvo Canyon Scenic Byway Providence Mountain S tate Recreation AreaSan Rafae l Swe l l Shoshone Museum

Snow Canyon S tate Park O ld Spanish Trai l H ighwayU-2 1 l to Squaw Flats Scenic Byway

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Great Sand Dunes National Monument, COHovenweep National Monument , CoJuan Bautista dc Anza National H istoric Trai l , CA ,

Lake Mead National Recreation Area, NV

Long Distance Trai ls Office, UTMesa Verde Nationa l Park , COMoj ave Nationa l Preserve , CA

P ipe Spring National Monument, AZRainbow B ridge National Monument, UTSanta Fe National H istoric Trai l , NMYucca House National Monument, COZion Nat ional Park , UT

STATE AGENC IES

Ari zona S tate Historic Preserv ation Officer,Phoeni x , AZ

Cal i fornia S tate Historic Preservation Officer,Sacramento , CA

Co lorado S tate Historic Preservation Officer,Denver, CONevada S tate Hi stori c Preservation Officer, CarsonC ity , NV

New Mex ico S tate Historic Preservation Officer,Santa Fe , NMU tah S tate Historic Preservation Officer, Sal t LakeC i ty , UTTrai ls Coordinators, se lected states

AMER ICAN INDIAN TRIBES

Agua Cal iente B and ofCahu i l la IndiansAtsugew i Peop leAugustine Band ofCahu i l la TribeCabazon B and ofM ission IndiansCahu i l la Band of IndiansCedar C ity Paiute B andC hemehuevi Indian Tribe OTHERCo lorado River Indian Tri besDeath Val ley Timb i -Sha Shoshone Band O ld Spanish Trai l AssociationFort Mohave Tribal Counc i lGoshute Tribal Counc i l

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Havasupai TribeHop i Tri beHualapai Tri beIndian Peaks Paiute BandJemez Pueb loJ icari l la ApacheKaibab-Paiute TribeKanosh Paiute BandKoosharem Paiute BandLas Vegas Indian CenterLas Vegas Paiute TribeLone Pine Paiute Shoshonehdoapa

Morongo B and ofM ission IndiansNambe Pueb loNat i ve American Heri tage CommissionNavajo NationPaiu te Indian Tri bePaiute-Shoshone of the Lone P ine Communi tyPechanga Band ofLu iseno IndiansPicun

’

s Pueb loRamona Reservation, Cahu i l la Band ofM issionIndians

San I ldefonso Pueb loSan Juan Pueb loSanManual B and ofM ission IndiansSanta C lara Pueb loSanta Rosa Band ofM ission IndiansSh i vw i ts Paiu te BandS ierra Nati ve American Counc i lSku l l Val ley Rese rvationSoboba Band ofM ission IndiansSou thern Ute TribeTaos Pueb loTesuque Pueb loTorres Mart inez Band ofM ission IndiansTwenty-nine Palms Band ofM ission IndiansU intah Ouray TribeUte Mountain Indian Tribe

APPENDIX G : NATIONAL PARK SERVICE STUDY TEAM/CONSULTANTS

DENVER SERVICE CENTER

Larry Beal ( forme r Job Capta i n)J ohn PaigeD iane Rhodes

”Ri c hard Wi l l iams

Micheal LeBoume ( fo rme r Projec t Manage r)

LONG-DISTANCE TRAILS GROUP OFFICE SANTA

Dav id Gaine s

J ohn ConoboyAaron Mah r Yane z

INTERMOUNTAIN REGIONAL OFFICEB rian Carls t rom

Art Gomez

Je remy Kuen zi

Ke rri M ich

Pat rick O’

B rien

Bob Spude

Ly sa Wegman-French

Bart Barbour

SPANISH COLONIAL RESEARCH CENTERJoseph P. Sanche z

B ruce A . Erickson

ACADEM IC CONSULTANTSDona l d C . Cu t te r, Un i ve rs i ty of New Mex ico

Richard Griswo l d de l Cas t i l l o , San D iego State Un i ve rsi tyHoward R. Lamar, Ya le Un i ve rs i tyDav id J . Webe r, Sou thern Me thod i s t Un i ve rsi ty

Edi t ing services provided by Recreat ion and Partnersh ip Program,

lnterrnountain Support Office-Santa FeNat ional Park Service

Jane Harvey, Wri ter-Edi torYear 2000

z oos . Gove rnme nt Printing O ffice : 200 1 -84 56 48

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United States Department ofthe Interior Nationa l Park Se rvice