Local Economy,Vol. 20, No. 2, 183–204, May 2005

Marketing Town Centres: Retailingand Town Centre Management

GARY WARNABY*, DAVID BENNISON** & BARRY J. DAVIESy

*School of Management, University of Salford**Manchester Metropolitan University Business School

yUniversity of Gloucestershire

ABSTRACT The role of town centre management (TCM) schemes in the UK hasexpanded to incorporate a more overt and explicit focus on marketing and promotion.This paper considers the marketing/promotional activities of TCM schemes in the UK.TCM schemes operate at the interface of the public and private sectors. Theimplications of this are discussed, including the need for a consensual approach by awide range of urban stakeholders, and the actual activities undertaken, influenced bythe funding imperative under which such schemes operate (which impacts on thefeasibility of certain activities and the efforts made to evaluate them). Comparisonsare drawn between specific place marketing practice by TCM schemes and widerplace marketing strategies.

KEY WORDS: Town centre management, place marketing, retailing, marketingcommunications

Introduction and Context

The concept of town centre management (TCM)1 has become one of themain ways in which traditional urban retail areas have attempted to counter

Correspondence Address: Gary Warnaby, School of Management, University of Salford,The Crescent, Salford, Greater Manchester M5 4WT, UK. Email: g.warnaby@salford.ac.uk1Synthesising various definitions, Warnaby et al. (1998, pp. 17–18) define town centremanagement as, ‘the search for competitive advantage through the maintenance and/orstrategic development of both public and private areas and interests within town centres,initiated and undertaken by stakeholders drawn from a combination of the public, privateand voluntary sectors’.

ISSN 0269–0942 Print/ISSN 1470–9325 Online � 2005, LEPU, South Bank University

DOI: 10.1080/13575270500053282

the threat from increased retail provision in off-centre2 locations, fromwhich it is estimated over a third of UK retail sales takes place (Birkett,2000; Howard, 2000). Over 450 TCM schemes currently exist in the UK(Hollins, 2004). The impact – economic, social and environmental – of retaildecentralisation has been extensively discussed (see Guy, 1998, for areview). In response, at the national level, government land-use policyrelating to retail development since the early 1990s sought to protectthe ‘vitality and viability’ (URBED, 1994) of traditional town centres, giventheir role in the provision of social infrastructure and cultural heritage(Guy, 1998). At the local level, it can be argued that TCM schemes areone of the prime organisational mechanisms for attempting to maintainthe ‘vitality and vitality’ of retailing in the urban core.In an economic development context, Williams (1992) acknowledges

an important role for retailing (and, in particular, for major retail devel-opments), while acknowledging that in the past it has not been regardedas a particularly high priority by those responsible for the marketing oftowns and cities (Williams, 1996). In an urban tourism context, retailinghas been conceptualised as a ‘secondary’ element of the place ‘product’(Jansen-Verbeke, 1986). However, this view has been contested byvarious authors (e.g. Getz, 1993; Shaw & Williams, 1994; Page, 1995).Indeed, Evans states that:

Retailing has recently proved the most dynamic and the most importanttown centre activity. Although town centres contain a variety of facilities andfunctions, most people go to town to shop (Evans, 1997, p. 17).

Given its importance to urban economies, retailing is perceived as anincreasingly important factor (and even a catalyst) in urban regeneration(Building Design Partnership, 2002; Henley Centre/British Councilof Shopping centres (BCSC), 2002; Jones et al., 2003). The potentialcontribution of retailing to the regeneration of deprived urban areas(and consequent addressing of the UK government’s ‘social inclusion’agenda), has been considered by various authors (Guy, 2001a; West,2002; Wrigley, 2002; Guy & Duckett, 2003; Mitchell & Kirkup, 2003).The importance of retailing to town centres in particular (Guy, 1998;

URBED, 1994; Experian, 2004) and the extent of retailer provision ofresource – both financial and help-in-kind to TCM schemes (Medway et al.,1999a, 1999b, 2000) – has led to an inevitable focus on retail-relatedissues. Indeed, the role of TCM schemes in taking prime responsibilityfor the marketing and promotion of the retail provision within town and citycentres has been identified (Warnaby et al., 2002).The activities undertaken under the aegis of TCM schemes can be

broadly classified into short-term and long-term functions (Wells, 1991;Page & Hardyman, 1996; Warnaby et al., 1998). The prime concernsof many TCM schemes (especially in their early stages) were essentially

2Guy (1994, p. xiv) defines ‘off-centre’ as ‘any site outside the limits of a town centre or otherestablished retail area’

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‘day to day management for immediate revenue enhancement’ (HenleyCentre/BCSC, 2002, p. 21). This would have an immediate impact onthe ‘shopability’ of an area, in order to remedy some of the perceiveddeficiencies in relation to off-centre retail provision (see McGoldrick& Thompson 1992a, 1992b; Evans, 1997). While still an importantelement of TCM activities, this ‘day to day management’ has to operatein conjunction with a more long term, overtly strategic perspective(Henley Centre/BCSC, 2002). This role of TCM schemes has long beenrecognised (Association of Town Centre Management, 1996; Page &Hardyman, 1996; Paddison, 2003; Whyatt, 2004). Indeed, the UK Associa-tion of Town Centre Management (ATCM, 1997a, 1997b) emphasises theimportance of business planning for the town centre at the inception ofa TCM scheme.The Henley Centre/BCSC identify two key elements ‘of the strategic

vision that contribute to the long-term competitiveness and differentiationof the town centre’ – managing occupier mix, and promotional & marketingactivities. They argue that

. . . a successful town needs to have the right mix of social, civil, residentialand leisure facilities. Successful retail destinations, in particular, need theright mix of outlets and anchor stores (Henley Centre/BCSC, 2002, p. 22).

The increasing homogeneity of town centres, arising from the ubiquity of themultiple retailer (see O’Brien & Harris, 1991; Brown, 1992; Evans, 1997;New Economics Foundation, 2004) has meant that the importanceof marketing and promotion in differentiating urban retail provision hasincreased. TCM schemes have long been active in this area,3 and theimportance of marketing and promotion is well attested in the literature (e.g.ATCM n/d a, 1994, 1996, 1997b; ATCM/Oxford Brookes University, 1995;Page & Hardyman, 1996; Paddison, 2003). Indeed, it can be argued thatcompetition for individual town centres is not only confined to off-centre retailprovision, but also to those neighbouring town centres that are developingsuch strategies themselves, thereby raising the competitive stakes moregenerally. Certainly, the already strong town and city centres in the UKappear to be getting stronger (Hillier Parker 2000, 2001; Experian, 2004).Consequently, competition for retail spending among towns and cities in theUK will further intensify, thus making the retail-oriented marketing role ofTCM schemes even more important into the future.

3Stubbs et al. (2002) identify various promotional and marketing activities that TCMs mayundertake. They divide these activities into three broad categories: ‘footfall builders’(intended to bring an increased number of customers into the town); ‘awareness builders’(aiming to improve potential customer awareness of what the town has to offer); and‘participation building activities’ (designed to increase support for the TCM scheme bydemonstrating the applicability and relevance of the TCM concept to town centrestakeholders, and retailers in particular). The importance of this latter activity in terms ofmarketing the concept of TCM to what may be termed ‘internal’ audiences (comprisingvarious urban stakeholders) in order to increase participation and minimise ‘free-riding’is also emphasized by Forsberg et al. (1999).

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Marketing Urban Places: Theoretical Considerations

In seeking to market the town centre retail provision TCM schemes interactwith other bodies responsible for strategic development and marketing(Warnaby et al., 1998; 2002). Thus, TCM marketing activities will have tobe planned and implemented within the context of wider place marketingstrategies.The marketing of urban places over the last 30 years has been

characterised by increased sophistication and professionalism (Wilkinson,1992; Griffiths, 1998; Ward, 1998) as urban places have had to becomemore entrepreneurial in the face of an increasingly competitive environ-ment (Kotler et al., 1993, 1999; Ward, 1998; van den Berg & Braun, 1999).Ashworth & Voogd (1990a, p. 27) define urban place marketing as:

. . . a process whereby urban activities are as closely as possible related tothe demands of targeted customers so as to maximise the efficient social andeconomic functioning of the area concerned in accordance with whatevergoals have been established.

There is a degree of consensus in the literature that the operationalisationof the marketing concept within this context requires modification ofgeneral marketing theory and techniques if it is to be effective (e.g.Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a; Ashworth, 1993; Corsico, 1993; van den Berg& Braun, 1999). This need arises from the specific characteristics of urbanplaces.The complexity of the urban place product (and consequent difficulties

in its definition and delimitation), is a key theme in the literature(e.g. Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a, 1990b, 1994; van den Berg et al., 1990:Ashworth, 1993; Paddison, 1993; van den Berg & van der Meer, 1993;Ward & Gold, 1994; van den Berg & Braun, 1999). Van den Berg & Braun(1999) identify ‘three levels’ of urban place marketing. The first levelcomprises the individual urban goods and services. The second levelcomprises clusters of related services. The third level constitutes the urbanagglomeration as a whole, which (unlike the previous categories) may notin itself be a well-defined product and is, consequently, open to variousinterpretations. This third level is mainly concerned with identity and imagebuilding for the urban place as a holistic entity (van den Berg & Braun,1999). The specific activities of TCM schemes in marketing the town centreretail provision could be regarded as occurring at the second level, andthus contributing to the third level.Another distinguishing feature of urban places relates to their govern-

ance. Short & Kim (1999) identify a ‘political economy’ perspective as a keytheme in the literature, reflecting the complexities of the organisationalmechanisms for urban place marketing. The most important organisationalmechanism whereby entrepreneurial place marketing activities are plannedand implemented is public–private sector partnership agencies (Peck &Tickell, 1994; Paddison, 1997; Hubbard & Hall, 1998). TCM schemesare no different in this regard, with a partnership being the most

186 Gary Warnaby et al.

common organisational form (URBED, 1997; Warnaby et al., 1998; Whyatt,2004), with the potential problems that this entails.4

The need for urban place marketing to be informed by a strategicperspective is a recurring theme (e.g. Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a, 1994;van den Berg et al., 1990; Ave, 1993; Corsico, 1993; Fretter 1993; Kotleret al., 1993, 1999; van den Berg & van der Meer, 1993; Fitzsimons, 1995;van den Berg & Braun, 1999). Figure 1 outlines indicative strategic marketplanning processes from two of the key texts – Ashworth & Voogd (1990a)and Kotler et al. (1999).A crucial element is the articulation of a vision, which according to Fretter

(1993, p. 165) should provide ‘a clear understanding of what is desirable,of what you want to achieve’. The development of the vision shouldbe inclusive and participative (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a; Fretter, 1993;Schmidt, 1993), although one of the urban stakeholders may need to take alead in the process (Fretter, 1993; van den Berg & Braun, 1999). Linked tothis need for vision is what van den Berg et al. (1997) and van den Berg &Braun (1999, p. 995) have termed ‘organizing capacity’, defined as

. . . the ability to enlist all actors involved and, with their help, to generate newideas and to develop and implement a policy designed to respond to fun-damental developments and create conditions for sustainable development.

Van den Berg & Braun state that an effective local government alone isnot enough to develop organising capacity, arguing that ‘strategic net-works’ involving both public and private sector actors, are equallyimportant. The need for integration between these various actors leadsvan den Berg & Braun to conclude that an ‘integral vision and strategy’is crucial in order to eliminate any inconsistencies in policy making.The iterative and ongoing nature of the strategic planning of urbanplace marketing is emphasised by both Ashworth & Voogd (1990a) andKotler et al. (1999).The vision and strategy has to be developed with a view to what is

possible and desirable, hence the importance of the audit process in theearly stages of the process (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a; Schmidt, 1993;Kotler et al., 1999). Here, the principles of market segmentation, targetingand positioning are crucial (Fretter, 1993; Kotler et al., 1993, 1999),especially if a differentiated market position is to be achieved.

4There have been a number of critical assessments of the partnership modus operandi.Partnerships, despite variations in size, number and organisation, usually represent anarrow range of local interests (Peck, 1995), and in particular the privileging of a business-led agenda (Sadler, 1993). Peck (1995) and Peck & Tickell (1994) have cast doubts on thelongevity of partnership agencies, arguing that many may turn out to be transient in naturebecause of the tensions between the various members. Bassett (1996) argues that manypartnerships are built on a rather fragile consensus and continue to exist by avoiding hardchoices that may prove divisive. Thus, the policies and actions of partnership organisationsmay be reduced to the level of ‘the lowest common denominator’ (Peck & Tickell, 1994,p. 261), increasing the potential of ‘overpromising and underdelivering’ (Wilkinson, 1992,p. 210).

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Marketing theory states that the market position is a function of thecombination and interaction of the various elements of the marketing mix(e.g. Jobber, 2001; Doyle, 2002), defined as, ‘the set of controllable tacticalmarketing tools that the firm blends to produce the response it wants inthe target market’ (Kotler et al., 2001, p. 97). While a number of differentconceptualisations of the constituent elements of the marketing mix have

PLACE AUDIT To ‘understand accurately what the community is like and why’ using SWOT analysis

VISION & GOALSShould consider: (1) the unique combination of attraction factors that the place should concentrate on; (2) the target markets of the urban place; (3) the long-term and short-term goals; (4) the operative prerequisites for the visionOnce vision is agreed, specific objectives must be set

STRATEGY FORMULATIONFor each potential strategy, two questions must be asked:‘What advantages do we possess that suggest we can succeed with the strategy?’‘Do we have the resources required for successful implementation of the strategy?’

ACTION PLAN To make the strategy meaningful. For each action, must consider: Who is responsible? How the action is to be implemented? How much the action will cost? The expected completion date.

IMPLEMENTATION & CONTROLSet up a ‘planning team’ to convene at regular intervals to review progress againstgoals

Source: Adapted from Kotler et al. (1993, 1999).

ANALYSIS OF MARKETSFunctions of the urban place are commodified (i.e. treated as a set of products) &positioned in relation to competitorsActual and/or potential users of the place product are segmented & targetedAccomplished through a process of auditing

FORMULATION OF GOALS & PLANNING STRATEGIES Various policy goals may exist: Conservational; Stimulational; Integrational

DETERMINATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL MARKETING MIXComprising: Promotional measures; Spatial-functional measures; Organisationalmeasures; Financial measures

ELABORATION & EVALUATION Phased implementation of geographical mix elements, incorporating both evaluationand elaboration/refinement

Source: Adapted from Ashworth & Voogd (1990a).

Figure 1. Indicative planning processes for urban place marketing

188 Gary Warnaby et al.

been proposed (Baker, 2000, provides a review), the most commonly usedis the 4Ps framework – comprising product, price, promotion and place.However, the aforementioned need for the modification of general market-ing theory to accommodate the specific characteristics of urban places isnowhere more apposite than the marketing mix. In this specific contextKotler et al. (1999, 154) identify the following ‘four aspects of placedevelopment’ – urban design, infrastructure, basic services and attractions– and also emphasise the critical importance of appropriate place image(i.e. promotion). Ashworth & Voogd (1990a, p. 31) are more explicit intheir use of the term ‘marketing mix’, proposing in this context a ‘geogra-phical marketing mix’ comprising promotional measures, spatial-functionalmeasures, organisational measures and financial measures. Doyle (1994)argues that the design of the marketing mix is central to marketingmanagement as it will determine success (or otherwise) in the chosenmarket(s). The determination of success through evaluation and control ofthe implementation process comprises the final stage of the urban placemarketing processes for both Kotler et al. (1999) and Ashworth & Voogd(1990a).The remainder of this article investigates the perceptions of marketing

and the use of marketing tools by TCM schemes in the UK, considering theextent to which the practice of marketing in this specific contextreflects urban place marketing practice. The research reported hereis part of a wider study in which various public and private sectorstakeholder types with potential responsibility for the marketing ofurban retail provision were surveyed. As such, it contributes to theexisting literature on both town centre management and retail-relatedplace marketing by providing a national perspective. Most existingstudies in this aspect of marketing are case-study based, with aninevitably narrower spatial scope. Results relating to other stakeholders,and the interaction between stakeholder types with regard to theirparticipation in retail-related urban place marketing activity are reportedby Warnaby et al. (2002, 2004).

Research Design

The first stage of this research consisted of ‘non-standardised’ semi-structured interviews with four town centre managers (see Healey &Rawlinson, 1994). The managers interviewed represented a variety ofdifferent TCM organisational structures, including private companieslimited by guarantee, public–private partnership agencies, and localauthority dominated schemes. These schemes also ranged from thosethat were well established and recognised as demonstrating good practice,to one that had only just been established at the time of the research.These exploratory interviews sought to identify (i) the extent of respon-dents’ knowledge and understanding of marketing concepts; (ii) theprocesses by which marketing/promotional activities were planned and

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implemented; and (iii) the specific activities undertaken. The interviews alltook place in respondents’ offices and were taped and transcribed. Theinterview data were analysed using the template analysis technique (seeCrabtree & Miller, 1999; King, 1998). These interviews identified variousthemes that were investigated more generally in the second stage of theresearch.The second stage comprised a postal questionnaire administered

to town centre managers in those urban shopping destinations classifiedas sub-regional and above in the Management Horizons Europe UKShopping Index (MHI) 1998–1999 (MHE, 1998) which had a TCM scheme.In total, 155 such respondents were identified. Respondent detailswere obtained from the UK Retail Directory 2002, supplemented bythe ATCM ‘Directory of Managed Towns’ (ATCM, 1999, which wassomewhat dated at the time of the research), and by personalknowledge of the locations of individual town centre managers. Of the155 possible respondents, 53 questionnaires were returned, constitutinga 34% response rate. This compares favourably with the 30% figure thatSaunders et al. (2000) consider to be a ‘reasonable’ response rate fora postal survey. The data were analysed using SPSS (Statistical Packagefor the Social Sciences) software.

Results

Understanding and Perceptions of the Marketing Concept

In the qualitative stage, most respondents freely admitted their ignoranceof many marketing concepts. As one stated:

[Most town centre managers] are not actually from a marketing background,or if they are, they don’t do just marketing. . . So somewhere along the line, aswell as being an environmental and a regeneration expert, and a fundingexpert, and a partnership management expert and all the rest of it, you arealso a marketeer. . . So we often find ourselves in a situation where we havethis responsibility, without actually any professional kind of background at all.(TCM no. 1)

Indeed, some of the town centre managers interviewed emphasised thatmarketing skills and knowledge were not a part of their initial remit, buthave grown in importance as a more ‘strategic’ dimension to their schemehas developed. The development of marketing in many established towncentre management schemes has been gradual and, as a result, theirmarketing remit had often developed in a haphazard way. Notwithstandingthis, town centre managers interviewed appeared to be effective marketersfor their particular schemes and towns. A recurring theme in the interviewswas that fact that lack of specific marketing knowledge could be overcomeby the fact that sophisticated marketing activities were not necessarilyappropriate or desirable. Indeed, the personal qualities of the individualwere often regarded as more important than formal qualifications inmarketing or related areas.

190 Gary Warnaby et al.

Respondents often regarded themselves as facilitators of marketingactivities: ‘I would be the one who starts off the idea and hopefully otherpeople will carry it through’ (TCM no. 3). Actual implementation may occurthrough the efforts of other town centre stakeholders, especially thoseresponsible for the management of individual urban goods and services,such as retailers and shopping centre managers, who comprise the firstlevel of urban place marketing (van den Berg & Braun, 1999). However,the town centre manager may retain a coordinating (although not anexecutive) role. Thus, there is some evidence of a holistic perspectiveoccurring not only at the third level of place marketing (i.e. urban placeimage strategies etc), but also in relation to the coordination of activitiesrelating to the ‘cluster of related services’ that constitutes the overall retailprovision within a town centre. Here, it is likely that this will fall within theremit of town centre managers (Warnaby et al., 2002), who often definedthis remit in terms of its complementarity to the work of other localagencies:

So, I think what city centre management tends to get left with are the bits thatnobody else does. What we do, is, either identify that there’s a requirement orfill a gap. You know, we wouldn’t do it if it wasn’t necessary, if it didn’t provideany long-term benefit. (TCM no. 1)

Thus, a town centre manager may interact with representatives from anumber of other urban marketing stakeholders (such as tourism promotionorganisations, local authority economic development departments andurban regeneration agencies) in order to market the town or city (Warnabyet al., 2002). This interaction and cooperation was both formal (throughtown centre steering groups etc) and, equally importantly, informal. Onetown centre manager (TCM no. 2) articulated that there were ‘unwrittenrules’ governing ‘how far one does and doesn’t go’ in terms of encroachingon others’ remits. However, all respondents in the research emphasisedthe importance and effectiveness of these links. This has resonance withone of the key themes in the wider city marketing literature – namelythe variety of stakeholders with potential marketing responsibility (e.g.Wilkinson, 1992; Bassett, 1996; Paddison, 1997; van den Berg & Braun,1999), and the need for their coordination through an effective urbanadministration and/or strategic network in order to develop organisingcapacity (van den Berg & Braun, 1999).5 This variety of stakeholders

5The importance of an effective local public administration identified by van den Berg &Braun (1999) was borne out in this specific context. Despite the differing organisationalstructures of the four urban places in the qualitative stage of the research, in all places thelocal authority wielded considerable influence. In two of the partnerships the town centremanager was formally employed by the local authority, and in the company limited byguarantee the town centre manager was initially employed by the local authority. In theschemes constituted as partnerships the local authority had significant representation onsteering groups, and in the TCM scheme constituted as a limited company the localauthority provided ‘heavy support’ in financial terms.

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stresses the importance of a consensual approach to planning andimplementing place marketing activity (e.g. Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a;Fretter, 1993; Kotler et al., 1993, 1999; Schmidt, 1993).

The Marketing Planning Process

The importance of interaction between urban stakeholders was high-lighted in the quantitative research – 98% of respondents stated thatthey worked with other town centre organisations and agencies todevelop marketing activities. Such collaboration is mirrored within TCMschemes themselves. Town centre managers interviewed generallyreport to a steering group comprised of town centre stakeholdersfrom both private and public sectors (see ATCM, 1997a). The expect-ations of senior managers and/or the TCM partnership steeringgroup defined the nature of TCM’s role in marketing the town or city,with many town centre managers charged with the delivery of specificactivities:

I am more of a co-ordinator. My background is inward investment and dealingwith businesses, so they see me more as establishing strategies, going outand getting sponsorships, you know, working with businesses on a day-to-day sort of level. (TCM no. 3)

The quantitative research indicated that TCM scheme steering groupswere intimately involved in planning marketing activities in 46% ofrespondent schemes. Even more important were specific marketingsubgroups, usually of 3–6 people charged with the planning of specificactivities such as seasonal promotional campaigns. Fifty four percent ofrespondents indicated the involvement of such groups in the marketingplanning and implementation process.The existing TCM literature stresses the importance of business

planning (ATCM, n/d b, 1996, 1997a, 1997b; Page & Hardyman, 1996;Whyatt, 2004). This was borne out by respondents in the qualitativestage, who indicated that the planning of marketing activities wasdone on an annual cycle within the context of the wider business planningprocess. TCM business plans typically relate to activities such asinfrastructure and streetscape improvements (identified by Paddison,2003, as an important element of TCM activities), as well as marketingand promotion.This formalised approach was substantiated in the quantitative stage,

with 91% of respondents stating that they had a business plan, and all ofthese respondents indicated that marketing activities were implementedas part of the business plan. Moreover, 49% of respondents indicated thatthey implemented marketing activities in addition to those included in theirbusiness plan. This is perhaps a reflection of a state of affairs whereefforts at securing funding may be dedicated to specific initiatives(see Medway et al., 1999), and which may be quite opportunisticand speculative, as is often the case in urban place marketing more

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generally (Harvey, 1987, 1989; Peck & Tickell, 1994; Griffiths, 1998).Despite this, most respondents in the quantitative research felt that theirplanning processes were robust – 68% ‘disagreed’ or ‘strongly disagreed’with the statement: In my organisation the planning process is ad hoc andnot very systematic.Funding (or lack thereof) is a perennial problem to town centre

managers. In the quantitative research, 92% of respondents ‘agreed’ or‘strongly agreed’ with the statement: Financial/budgetary constraints affectmy organisation’s marketing activities. As one respondent stated:

I don’t think anything is actually built into the costs with town centremanagement, because its up to you to go out and find the money for it[TCM activities]. (TCM no. 1).

Indeed, problems of gaining support and funding for marketing activitieshave implications for what can and cannot be done. This is a consequenceof the existing voluntary funding mechanisms for TCM. An issue influencingthe effectiveness of marketing activities developed through voluntarycollaboration – which was articulated by most respondents in the qualitativeresearch – is the problem of ‘free riding’. Organisations who ‘free-ride’ donot contribute to collective activities, but take the benefits from them (for awider discussion of free-riders in TCM schemes see Forsberg et al., 1999).This was regarded as ‘inevitable’ (TCM no. 2).Thus, the funding imperative impacts significantly on the process of

planning marketing activities in this specific context, as in urban placemarketing more generally. Ashworth & Voogd (1990a, p. 31) state that‘financial measures’ are of ‘considerable importance’, thereby warrantingtheir inclusion as an element of the geographical marketing mix,and indeed, much of the time of town centre managers is devoted toincreasing funding contributions, particularly from private sector urbanstakeholders (Paddison, 2003). The implications for the actual activitiesundertaken (and the methods by which these activities are evaluated) arediscussed below.

Marketing Activities

For all respondents in the qualitative research, there was evidence ofattempts to influence areas of the marketing mix, such as the ‘product’ (interms of, for example, developing the retailer mix and other urban servicesand amenities) and ‘place’ (in terms, for example, of measures to improveaccessibility to and around the town centre). Paddison (2003) highlights therole of the town centre manager in lobbying for capital improvements in thetown centre (in the form of infrastructural enhancements) and attractinginward investment. Such activities are inevitably more strategic in theirorientation (Building Design Partnership, 2002; Henley Centre/BCSC,2002; Paddison, 2003), as the process of change may be long and drawn-out (Paddison, 1993), possibly involving, for example, land use planning

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processes (see Ashworth & Voogd, 1988). Furthermore van den Berg et al.(1990) contend that any resulting implications of change for the totalityof the place must be considered. These activities broadly equate toAshworth & Voogd’s (1990a) ‘spatial/functional measures’ of the geogra-phical marketing mix, and all of Kotler et al.’s (1999) ‘four aspects of placedevelopment’ to some extent. However, the focus of much ‘marketing’activity was on the ‘promotion’ element of the marketing mix (using the 4Pscategorisation).Fill (2002, p. 11) defines promotion as ‘being responsible for the

communication of the marketing offer to the target market’. This can beaccomplished by a range of techniques, the most important of whichare advertising, sales promotion, public relations, sales force and directmarketing – referred to collectively as the ‘marketing communicationsmix’ (Kotler, 2003). The use of marketing communications by town centremanagers was investigated more generally in the quantitative stage.Table 1 indicates the most commonly used marketing communicationsactivities.The most commonly used marketing communications activities

were leaflets and other promotional literature (a form of direct marketing),events and festivals and local/regional press advertising. Local/regionalradio advertising, the internet and public relations were also commonlyused. All these activities can be, to a greater or lesser extent, specificallytargeted towards consumers at the local and regional level who arethe potential shoppers in the town centre. There was evidence ofthe integration of activities. For example, events and festivals would beadvertised in local media and, moreover, this advertising may beused to lever editorial coverage in local media vehicles. Indeed, the

Table 1. Use of marketing communications activities by TCM schemes

Marketing communications activityNumber of respondents using

(n¼ 53)

Leaflets & other promotional literature 51Events & festivals 51Local/regional press advertising 50Local/regional radio advertising 44Internet 42Public relations 39Local/regional outdoor advertising 28Direct marketing 22Trade shows & exhibitions 18National/international press advertising 14Local/regional TV advertising 13National/international outdoor advertising 9National/international TV advertising 6

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importance of the general public (at local/regional spatial scales) isemphasised when respondents were asked about who they perceived asthe target audiences for their marketing communications activities (seeTable 2).Table 2 indicates the importance of local/regional audiences generally,

and the most commonly used communications activities are tailoredtowards these audiences (particularly the local/regional general publicand media). Communications activities aimed at national/internationalaudiences are very much of secondary use. The use of direct marketingand attendance at trade shows and exhibitions is perhaps indicative ofthe involvement of town centre managers in the attraction of (particularlyretail) inward investment in conjunction with other urban stakeholders(for a specific example of this see Warnaby, 2000).Town centre managers’ perceived importance of these various

marketing communications activities reflects their actual usage and isshown in Table 3 – here, local/regional press advertising, leaflets &other promotional literature and events & festivals. Of more secondaryimportance were public relations and local/regional radio advertising.This focus on promotion could be regarded as something of a paradox.

For TCM schemes, the development of ‘marketing’ activities is regarded asa manifestation of a more strategic orientation (Page & Hardyman, 1996;Henley Centre/BCSC, 2002; Warnaby et al., 2002), yet the actual activitiesundertaken are often overtly promotional, which is regarded as moretactical in its orientation (Biggadike, 1981). Notwithstanding this, promo-tional activities can be planned strategically (Betts et al., 1995; Pickton &Broderick, 2001; Fill, 2002) utilising the concept of integrated marketing

Table 2. Town centre managers’ perceived importance of target audiences

Target audienceVery

important ImportantFairly

importantNot

important

Local/regional general public (n¼ 51) 45 4 2 –Local/regional media (n¼ 48) 38 7 2 1Local/regional large businesses (n¼ 49) 30 14 4 1Local/regional SMEs (n¼ 48) 28 13 6 1Local/regional landlords/property owners(n¼ 49)

26 17 4 2

National/international large businesses(n¼ 35)

16 8 4 7

National/international landlords/ propertyowners (n¼ 33)

13 8 6 6

National/international media (n¼ 30) 9 8 8 5National/international SMEs (n¼ 29) 8 6 8 7National/international general public(n¼ 31)

5 11 13 2

Marketing Town Centres 195

communications6 (IMC), and as a consequence can contribute to TCMmarketing objectives, as identified by Stubbs et al. (2002). The setting ofobjectives is a fundamental element in the urban place marketing planningprocesses (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a; Kotler et al., 1999), outlined inFigure 1.Figure 2 highlights how the most commonly used promotional activities

identified in this research can contribute to objectives aimed at what Stubbset al. (2002) termed ‘external’ target audiences. External TCM objectivescan be defensively oriented (i.e. retaining existing retail spend) or moredevelopmental (i.e. attracting new customers to the town centre), andmany of the promotional methods mentioned above can achieve both.Figure 3 highlights how the most commonly used promotional activitiesidentified in this research can contribute to marketing to ‘internal’ TCMtarget audiences (Stubbs et al., 2002), namely, those stakeholders andgroups within the town who may support the TCM scheme (in order tominimise the problem of free-riding). Indeed, the fact that a number ofdifferent communications activities can contribute to the same objective

6While integrated marketing communications has been variously defined (e.g. Betts et al.,1995; Kotler et al., 2002), Pickton & Broderick (2001, p. 66) simplify the concept by definingit as ‘the process of integrating all the elements of the promotional mix’. They go on toidentify various characteristics of IMC. These include: (i) clearly identified communicationsobjectives (which are consistent with other organisational objectives); (ii) a plannedapproach which covers the full extent of marketing communications activities in a coherentand synergistic way; (iii) a focus on a range of target audiences; (iv) the management of allforms of contact between the organisation and its audiences; and (v) the effectivemanagement and integration of all promotional activities and people involved.

Table 3. Perceived importance of marketing communications activities by TCM schemes(number of respondents indicating an activity as ‘Very important’)

Marketing communications activity Number of respondents (n¼ 53)

Local/regional press advertising 33Leaflets & other promotional literature 31Events & festivals 30Public relations 23Local/regional radio advertising 22Internet 12Local/regional outdoor advertising 12Direct marketing 12Local/regional TV advertising 6Trade shows & exhibitions 5National/international press advertising 2National/international outdoor advertising 2National/international TV advertising 1

196 Gary Warnaby et al.

suggests the potential for a more integrated approach to the planningof marketing communications activities in order to optimise their utility(and minimise duplication). There are, inevitably, specific contextual issuesthat exacerbate some of the inherent difficulties in implementing an IMCapproach (which are discussed more generally by Fill, 2002), which includethe coordination of a wide range of urban stakeholders and possiblefunding discontinuity, as mentioned above.

Evaluation

The importance of evaluating marketing (and indeed, all TCM activities)against the objectives and goals set for them was recognised byrespondents. Indeed, the use of key performance indicators (KPIs) byTCM schemes is widespread (Hogg & Medway, 2000), as an attempt toindicate their value to urban stakeholders. Eighty-one percent ofrespondents regarded the evaluation of marketing activities as an essential

PUBLIC RELATIONS

NATIONAL/ INTERNATIONAL

ADVERTISING

TRADE SHOWS &EXHIBITIONS

LOCAL/REGIONALADVERTISING

DIRECT MARKETING

EVENTS & FESTIVALS

INTERNET

LEAFLETS & OTHERPROMOTIONAL

LITERATURE

RETAINING EXISTINGRETAIL SPEND

ATTRACTING NEWCUSTOMERS

Figure 2. Contribution of main marketing communications activities to ‘external’

TCM objectives

Marketing Town Centres 197

part of the planning process.7 Seventy-five percent of respondents claimedregularly to monitor key performance indicators.8 However, 80% ofrespondents felt that evaluative measures could be more rigorouslyapplied.9

The financial imperative does affect marketing evaluation and, as aconsequence, much of the assessment of the effectiveness of marketingactivities is ad hoc and anecdotal. Lack of resource for evaluation was anissue for all respondents in the qualitative stage of the research. Of course,the difficulties of isolating the impact and effectiveness of marketing (andespecially promotional) activity in general is well recognised (e.g. Pickton &

7That is, ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ with the statement: Evaluating marketing activities isan essential part of the planning process.8That is, ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ with the statement: We regularly monitor and evaluatecertain key performance indicators.9That is, ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ with the statement: We need to be more rigorous inevaluating marketing activities.

PUBLIC RELATIONS

NATIONAL/INTERNATIONAL

ADVERTISING

TRADE SHOWS &EXHIBITIONS

LOCAL/REGIONALADVERTISING

DIRECT MARKETING

EVENTS &FESTIVALS

INTERNET

LEAFLETS & OTHERPROMOTIONAL

LITERATURE

RAISING AWARENESS

RAISINGPARTICIPATION &

FUNDING

Figure 3. Contribution of main marketing communications activities to ‘internal’

TCM objectives

198 Gary Warnaby et al.

Broderick, 2001; Fill, 2002). These difficulties were fully appreciated byrespondents interviewed:

How do you actually, physically measure it? If I were to say, ‘We spent £4000on that, what did we get back?’ Because this is one of the arguments thatpeople put up, and they say, ‘Well, we put the festival on, how much morebusiness did it actually bring in?’ I can’t measure that. (TCM no. 3)

Discussion

The activity scope of TCM schemes is generally conceptualised ascomprising both short-term, janitorially-oriented activities (relating to theday-to-day management of the town centre), and long-term, morestrategically oriented activities relating to future development (Wells,1991; Page & Hardyman, 1996; Warnaby et al., 1998; Henley Centre/BCSC, 2002). Marketing and promotion is regarded as an element of thesemore strategic activities. However, this arguably simplifies a more complexreality.Taking elements of the marketing mix as identified in the context of urban

places (e.g. Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a; Kotler et al., 1999), and comparingwith the more traditional marketing context – the 4Ps of product, price,promotion and place – then the issue of the need for modification oftraditional marketing theory (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a; Ashworth, 1993;Corsico, 1993; van den Berg & Braun, 1999) becomes very clear.‘Promotion’ is arguably relatively straightforward, equating to ‘promotionalmeasures’ (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990a) and developing an appropriateplace image (Kotler et al., 1999). Beyond this however, the picture is morecomplicated.‘Product’ in this context can refer to Ashworth & Voogd’s (1990a) ‘spatial-

functional’ measures and, to a greater or lesser extent, all of Kotler et al.’s(1999) ‘four aspects of place development’ – urban design, infrastructure,basic services and attractions. Indeed, it could be argued that in thiscontext the traditional ‘product’ and ‘place’ elements of the marketing mixare conflated as some aspects normally associated with ‘place’, such asaccessibility and availability (Jobber, 2001), become ‘product’ issues (e.g.urban design, infrastructure) when the product is itself a place. As a resultof the attenuated process of product development in this context(Paddison, 1993), possibly involving the land-use planning system(Ashworth & Voogd, 1988), and having to take into account the impact ofdevelopment on the urban place as a whole (van den Berg & Braun, 1999)because of its inherent holism (Ashworth & Voogd, 1990b), then theinfluence of the town centre manager is constrained. Paddison (2003)recognises this in emphasising the town centre manager’s role in lobbyingfor infrastructural enhancements and inward investment. The town centremanager’s role is most likely not an executive one, but much more afacilitating and coordinating one – as was emphasised by respondents inthis research.

Marketing Town Centres 199

Indeed, the extent and perceived importance of the interaction betweentown centre managers and other urban marketing stakeholders to plan andimplement marketing activities emphasises the importance of Ashworth &Voogd’s (1990a) ‘organisational measures’ in the marketing mix. Thisresearch highlights the nature of this interaction, which can be at an inter-agency level (i.e. between the TCM scheme and other urban marketingorganisations) and at an intra-agency level (i.e. where an individual towncentre manager has to work with the TCM scheme steering group, whichmost likely is the body that formally sanctions his or her activities, and alsowith smaller marketing working parties responsible for the planning ofspecific activities). These issues are discussed in more detail by Warnabyet al. (2002).The traditional marketing mix element of ‘price’ is, arguably, not relevant

in this context – a TCM scheme has no influence over the price of goodsfrom/admission to individual urban goods and services (comprising vanden Berg & Braun’s, 1999, first level of urban place marketing). However,this research has indicated that ‘financial measures’ (Ashworth & Voogd,1990a) are of critical importance in determining what can and cannot beachieved.Referring to the temporal dimension of TCM activities, all these aspects

can be regarded as having short term (tactical) and long term (morestrategic) dimensions. ‘Promotion’ can relate to both specific initiatives (asnoted above), as well as to longer term campaigns focusing more overtlyon image building and developing the market position of the town centre asa whole. ‘Product’ developments relating to infrastructure development etccan be very long term and strategic in their orientation, affecting thefundamental nature of the town centre. However, day-to-day ‘product’dimensions, such as maintenance of basic services and attractions (Kotleret al., 1999) still need to be implemented, and these janitorial tasks areimportant ongoing aspects of TCM activity. Ashworth & Voogd’s‘organisational measures’ can refer to both day-to-day working relation-ships (i.e. intra agency dynamics) as well as relationships betweendifferent urban agencies and organisations relating to the longer termstrategic development of the town centre (i.e. more likely to encompassinter agency dynamics). ‘Financial measures’ can relate to both long andshort term issues. Funding from TCM schemes can be divided into twokinds (Medway et al., 1999a) – ‘freestanding’ (i.e. relating to the provisionof core funding, often used to pay salaries and ongoing costs of the TCMscheme), and ‘ring-fenced’ (i.e. provided for the duration of specificinitiatives only). The search for both types of funding is a significantelement of a town centre manager’s job (Paddison, 2003), and as thisresearch shows, one which impacts directly on the nature of the marketingactivities undertaken.However, the recent introduction of legislation to permit Business

Improvement Districts (BIDs) in the UK, could possibly alleviate some ofthe problems relating to elements of the marketing mix in this context. ABID allows for the creation of a town centre company that can levy an

200 Gary Warnaby et al.

additional tax on businesses within a specific urban boundary in order thatservices in that area can be improved in a sustainable manner, 10 and theATCM is currently piloting BIDs in 22 locations in the UK (Johnson & Reilly,2004). Many TCM schemes in the UK are actively considering theformation of BIDs in their location (Hollins, 2004), and the scope of BIDs forformalising organisational and funding mechanisms for individual TCMschemes will, arguably have significant implications for the range of theiractivities, including marketing. The potential for TCM schemes to movefrom a facilitation/coordination role to more of an executive function withinan urban place has the potential to impact on the scope and effectivenessof their marketing and promotional activity. As such, it provides a veryfruitful area for further, ongoing research.

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