MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION

MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION Strategies and Applications

Larry R. Smeltzer Donald J. Leonard Arizona State University

GIFT OF

THE ASIA FOUNDATION

NOT FOR RE-SALE

€!Ai H O C a U O C GIA HA NOI

IRUNGTAMTHCSGTiN rtiUVIEN

Irwin McGraw-Hill

Boston. Massachusetts Burr Ridge. Illinois Dubuque, Iowa Madison, Wisconsin New York, New York San Francisco, California St. Louis, Missouri

O N T E N

PARTI

THE BASIS OF MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION

1 Managerial Communication in Transition 3

A Brief Historical Overview of Managerial Communication 4 Management Communication in Ancient Times 5 The Industrial Revolution and Scientific Management 5 The Administrative Approach 7 The Human Relations Approach 9

Dale Carnegie 9 Hawthorne Studies 10

The Behavioral Approach 11 Empowerment 12 - .- ^A The Contingency Approach to Management Communication 14

Contemporary Dynamics Affecting Communication Contmgencies 14 Diversity 15

Gender Diversity 15 Cultural Diversity 16 Age and Educational Diversity 17

Competition and the Drive for Quality 18 Job Stress 19 Ethics 20

The Transition 22 Summary 23 Endnotes 24 Additional Readings 25 Discussion Questions 26 Cases 26

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2 The Managerial Communication Process 29

Levels of Managerial Communication 30 A Model for Understanding Managerial Communication 32 Elements That Make the Communication Model Work 33

Channel 33 Encoding 33 Decoding 35 Feedback 36 Noise 38

Internal Personality Factors 38 Knowledge 40 Culture 41 Status 41 Current Emotional State 42 Attitudes 42

-̂ Communication Skill 43 Metacommunication 44 Critical Errors in Communication 45

Assumption-Observation Error 46 Failure to Discriminate 47 Allness and the Process of Abstraction 49

-̂ Errors in Communication and the Managerial Process 49 Summary 50 Endnotes 51 Additional Readings 53 Discussion Questions 53 Cases 54

3 Strategies and Styles of Managerial Communication 57

A Strategic Approach 58 The First Layer 59

Communication Climate 59 Cultural Environment 60

The Second Layer 61 Sender (Encoder) 62 Receiver (Decoder) 63 Purpose of the Message 66

The Third Layer 67 Message Content 68 Channel of the Message 70 Physical Environment 71 Time 73

Contents

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Feedback and Measures of Effectiveness 73 Communication Strategies 75

The Controlling Strategy 75 The Equalitarian Strategy 77 The Structuring Strategy 77 The Dynamic Strategy 78 The Relinquishing Strategy 78 The Withdrawal Strategy 79

Communication Style 79 The Blaming or Aggressive Style 80 The Placating or Nonassertive Style 80 The Computing or Intellectual Style 81 The Distracting or Manipulative Style 81 The Leveling or Assertive Style 81

Summary 82 Endnotes 83 Additional Readings 84 Discussion Questions 85 Cases 85

PART II

STRATEGIES FOR WRITTEN MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION

4 Preparing for Written Managerial Communication 91

Writing Apprehension 92 Causes 92 Results 93 Correctives 93

Planning 94 What? 95 Why? 95 Who? 95 When? 96 Where? 97 How? 97

The Product and Process Approaches to Writing 9» Definitions 98 „ , . A ^^^U Q« Advantages and Disadvantages of the Product Approach 98 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Process Approach 99

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Contents

Collaborative Writing 99 Advantages of Collaborative Writing IQQ Disadvantages of Collaborative Writing 100 Characteristics of Effective Collaborative Writers and Groups 101 Guidelines for Effective Collaborative Writing 102 Implications for the Future 103

Managers as Writers 104 Summary 105 Endnotes 106 Additional Readings 108 Discussion Questions 109 Cases 109

5 Essentials of Written Managerial Communication 111

Selection of Words 112 Principle One: Choose Words Precisely 112 Principle Two: Use Short Rather than Long Words 114 Principle Three: Use Concrete Rather than Abstract Words 115 Principle Four: Economize on the Use of Words 116 Principle Five: Avoid Overused or Hackneyed Phrases and

Jargon 118 Principle Six: Use Positive Words that Convey Courtesy 121 Principle Seven: Use a Conversational Style 123

Organization of Words for Effect 124 Principle Eight: Keep Sentences Relatively Short 124 Principle Nine: Prefer the Active to the Passive Voice 125 Principle 10: Develop Effective Paragraphs 127 Principle 11: Develop Coherence 128 Principle 12: Edit and Rewrite 129

Summary 130 Endnotes 130 Additional Readings 131 Discussion Questions 132 Exercises 132

6 Strategies for Letters and Memos 135

Audience Adaptation 137 You Attitude 137

Basis of the You Attitude 137 Anticipating Questions 137 Stressing Reader Benefits 138 Avoiding Negatives 138

Con fen fs XV

Metacommunication and the You Attitude 138 Stationery and Typing 138 Tone 139 Diction 139 Jargon 139 Active Voice 139 Expletive Construction 140

Strategies 140 Direct Strategy 140

Opening 141 Body 141 Ending 141

Indirect Strategy 141 Opening 142 Body 142 Ending 142 Handling Negatives 143

Specific Types: Direct 144 Letter of Inquiry 144

Opening 145 Body 145

Endmg 145 . . A . Favorable Responses to Inquines 146

Opening 146 Body 146 Close U7

Claim Letters 147 Opening 147 Body 148 Close 148

Positive Response to a Claim 14V Opening 149 Body 149 ^^^^^ 150 Soecific Types: Indirect li?u

^N%ative Responses to Inquiries 151

Opening 151 Body 151 C/ose 151

Refused Claim 152 Opening 153 Body 153 C/ose 153

Persuasive Messages 1̂ 4

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Opening 154 Body 154 Close 154

Memorandums 155 Format 156 Uses 156

Communicating to Groups 156 Fixing Responsibility 157 Communicating with Opponents 157 Communicating with the Inaccessible 157

Types of Memorandums 158 Notifications 158 Requests for Action 158

Form Memos 159 Political Uses in Offices 159

Copying in 159 Taking Credit 159 Cover Memos 160


7 Strategies for Management Reports 165

The Report Writing Process 166 Groundwork 166

Defining the Problem or Objective 166 Establishing Hypotheses 167 Seeking Data 167

Classification of Reports 167 Strategic Considerations 168

Format 168 Audience 168 Effort 168 Value 169 Original Assignment 169 Precedent 169

Order 169 Direct Order 169 Indirect Order 170

Organization of the Body 170 Time 170

Contents X V l l

Place 170 Quantity 170 Factors or Criteria 171

Headings 171 Principle of Division 172 Headings and Transitions 172 Content 172 First-Degree Headings 172 Second-Degree Headings 172 Third-Degree Headings 173

Paper and Typing 173 Memorandum and Letter Reports 173

Memorandum Reports 173 Introduction 174 Body 174 Ending 175

Letter Reports 175 Organization 175 Introduction 175 Body 175 Ending 176

Elements of the Formal Report 176 Prefatory Parts 176

Title Fly 176 Title Page 177 Leffer o/ Transmittal 177 Tfl!7/e o/ Contents 177 L/sfs o/ Tfl[7/es And Figures 178 Synopsis 178

The Report Proper 178 Introduction—Required Elements 179 Introduction—Optional Elements 179 Body 180 Summary, Conclusions, and/or Recommendations 181

Visual Aids 182 General Rules 182

Appropriateness 182 Reference and Placement 183 Size 183 Content 183 Conventions 183

Pie Charts 184 Bar Charts 184

Simple Bar Charts 185 Component Bar Charts 185

xviii Contents

Line Graphs 186 Tables 187

Summar)' 188 Endnotes 189 Additional Readings 190 Discussion Questions 190 Exercises 191

PART III

STRATEGIES FOR ORAL MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION

8 Strategies for Making an Oral Presentation 195

Purpose 196 Preparation 197

Length of the Presentation 197 Audience Analysis 198 The Presentation Plan 198

Persuasive Presentations 199 Persuasion Variables 200 biformational Preserttations 202 Evidence 203

The Introduction 203 Audience Participation 204 Visual Aids 205

Criteria 205 ry;7^s 206

Delivery 207 Notes 209 Nonverbal Aspects 209 Voice Quality 210 Practice 211

Questions and Ending 212 Questions 213 Closing 213

A Special Situation: Speaking before a Camera or Radio Microphone 213

Summary 215 Audience Analysis Guide Sheet 216 Endnotes 217 Additional Readings 218 Discussion Questions 219 Exercises 220

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9 Managerial Listening: The Key Skill 222

Barriers to Listening 223 General Techniques for Improved Listening Skills 226 Techniques for Active Listening 229

Identify the Main and Supporting Points 229 Outline the Message 230 Summarize the Message 230 Visualize the Message 230 Relate the Message to Personal Experiences (Personalize) 231 Take Notes 231

Interactive Listening 232 Listening to Informal Communication 234 Listening to the Total Environment 235 Demonstrating a Listening Climate 237

Micro Listening Environment 237 Macro Listening Environment 239


XIX

10 Effective Nonverbal Communication in Management 247

Importance of Nonverbal Communication 248 The Functions of Nonverbal Cues 250 Kinesics 252 Proxemics 253

Proxemic Zones 253 Differences in Zones 255 Managerial Implications of Proxemic Zones 256

Haptics 257 . Dress 258

Paralanguage 259 Women in Business and Nonverbal Signals 260

Quasi-Courtship Behavior 260 Quasi-Courtship Cues 261

Nonverbal Leakage of Deception 262 Baseline 263 Kinesics 263 Dress 264 Proxemics 264 Paralanguage 265

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PART IV

INTERPERSONAL A N D GROUP APPLICATIONS

11 Interviewing for Effective Decisions 275

When is a Conversation an Interview? 276 Barriers to Effective Interviews 277

Barrier 1: Differing Intentions 277 Barrier 2: Bias 278 Barrier 3: Confusing Facts with Inferences 279 Barrier 4: Nonverbal Communication 279 Barrier 5: Effects of First Impressions 280 Barrier 6: Organizational Status 281

Questions that Lead to Effective Interviews 281 Question 1: What Is the Interview Objective? 281 Question 2: Where Is the Best Place to Conduct the Interview? 282 Question 3: What Is the Best Way to Begin the Interview? 282 Question 4: What Is the Best Questioning Strategy? 283 Question 5: What Is the Best Sequence for the Questions? 284 Question 6: What Is Appropriate Phrasing for Questions? 284 Question 7: Should I Take Notes During the Interview? 289 Question 8: What Is the Best Way to Close the Interview? 290

The Manager as Interviewee 290 Question 1: What Is the Objective? 290 Question 2: How Should I Manage the Time and Place Chosen for

the Interview? 291 Question 3: What Is the Best Way to Begin? 291 Question 4: Which Questions Should Be Prepared Ahead of

Time? 291 Question 5: What Is the Sequence of Questions? 291 Question 6: How Should Questions Be Phrased? 292 Question 7: What About Taking Notes? 292 Question 8: What Is the Interviewee's Role in Closing the

Interview? 292 Summary 292 Endnotes 293

Contents

Additional Readings 295 Discussion Questions 295 Cases 296

12 Maximizing the Use of Special Interview Situations 298

The Employment Interview 298 Problems and Types 299 Planning 299

Characteristics of Position 299 Time 300 Applicant Preview 300

Legal Concerns of the Employment Interview 301 The Employment Interview Process 303

Know the Job Requirements 303 Keep the Goal of the Intervieiv in Mind 303 Use Appropriate Questioning Strategy 305 Open and Closed Questions 305 Mode of Prese7ttation 306 Avoid Premature Decisions 306 Let the Interviewee Do Most of the Talking 307 Keep Records of the Interview 307

Value of Training 308 Performance Review Interviews 308

Purpose 309 Types 309 Evaluation and Development 310

Planning 310 Timing 310 Environment 311 Content 312

Process 313 Supportive Environment 313

Evaluative versus Descriptive 314 Control versus Problem Orientation 314 Neutrality versus Empathy 315 Superiority versus Equality 316 Certainty versus Provisionalism 316

Providing Feedback 317 Establishing Goals 319

Constructive Discipline and Counseling Interviews 320 Constructive Discipline 320

Informal Talk 320 Oral Warning 321 Written Warning 321

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xxii Contents

Suspension 322 Discharge 322 General Communication Guidelines 322

Counseling Interview 323 Summary 323 Endnotes 324 Additional Readings 326 Discussion Questions 326 Cases 327

13 Group Dynamics and Meetings 330

The Group: Advantages and Disadvantages 331 Advantages of the Group 331 Disadvantages of the Group 332 Groupthink 333

A Series of Strategic Considerations 334 Strategic Consideration 1: Should We Meet? 335 Strategic Consideration 2: Premeeting Arrangements 335

Whom to Include 335 Determine What Materials to Prepare and Circulate in Advance 336 Physical Facilities 339 Seating Arrangements 339

Strategic Consideration 3: Select an Appropriate Leadership Style 341

Strategic Consideration 4: Select a Meeting Format 342 Traditional Problem-Solving Scheme 342 Postproblem and Consensus 343 Brainstorming 343 Nominal Group Technique 344 Delphi Technique 344

Strategic Consideration 5: Prepare for Possible Disruptions 345 Strategic Consideration 6: Follow through with Follow-up 348


14 Strategies in Conflict Management 357

The Relationship of Communication to Conflict 358 A Note on Constructive Conflict 361 A Process Model of Conflict 362

Latent Conflicts 362 Functional Interdependence 363

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AllcKation Interdependence 363 Perceived Conflict 364 Felt Conflict 365 Manifest Conflict 366

Strategies in Conflict Resolution 366 Avoidance 366 Smoothing 368 Forcing 368 Compromise 369

A Review of These Methods: Win-Lose and Lose-Lose 370 Maximization: The Win-Win Strategy 370 Description of the Win-Win Strategy 370

Beliefs Necessary to Implement the Win-Win Approach 371 Belief 1: Cooperation is Better than Competition 371 Belief 2: Parties Can Be Trusted 372 Belief 3: Status Differences Should Be Minimized 373 Belief 4: Mutually Acceptable Solutio7ts Can Be Found 373

Implementing the Win-Win Strategy 374 Conflict and Management Success 376 Summary 376 Endnotes 377 Additional Readings 378 Discussion Questions 379 Cases 379

15 Managerial Negotiation 382

A Strategic Model for Negotiations 383 Culture 384 Personal Negotiation Style 385 Purpose 386 Defining the Maximum Supportable and Least Acceptable

Outcomes 386 Finding the Least Acceptable and Maximum Supportable

Outcomes 388 The Adversary's Style 390

The Fast-Flashy Style 391 Dictators 391 Parents 392

Time 394 The Environment 395 The Message 398

Opening Messages 398 Concessions 399 Questions 399

Communication Media 404

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Strategic Approaches 406 Surprise 406 Bluff 406 Diversion 406 Stacking 407 Fait Accompli 407 Take It or Leave It 407 Screen 408 Emotion 408


PART V

MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION IN RAPIDLY CHANGING ENVIRONMENTS

16 Technologically Mediated Communication 417

A Framework for Using Technologically Mediated Communication 419

Bandwidth 419 Perceived Personal Closeness 421 Feedback 422 A Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 424

Matching Technology and the Message 425 Message Sensitivity 425 Message Negativity 426 Message Complexity 427

Audio-graphic Teleconferences 428 Computer Conferencing 428 Complex Data and Graphics 429

Message Persuasiveness 429 Persuaded By the One You Like 430 Persuaded By the One You Believe 430 Technological Mediated Persuasive Presentations 431

A Look to the Future 432 Decision Making 432 Job and Organizational Design 434 Collaborative Writing 435 Group Decision Support Systems—GDSS 436

Contents XXV

The Management Challenge 436 Summary 439 Endnotes 439 Additional Readings 441 Discussion Questions 441 Cases 442

17 Strategies for Success in Intercultural Communication 444

What is Culture? 446 Intercultural Myths 447 Some of the Ways in Which We Differ 448 Should You Learn the Language? 450 Nonverbal Sensitivity 452

Greetings 452 Dress 453 Space, Touch, and Posture 453 Gestures 454 Time 455 Food 455 Gifts 456 Sexism 456

What Is a Good Intercultural Communicator? 457 Career Concerns 458 What Now? 459 Summary 461 Endnotes 462 Additional Readings 463 Discussion Questions 463 Cases 465

Appendix 1 The Legal Dimension of Managerial Communication 467 Defamation 467 Privacy 469 Agency 470 Harassment 471 Fraud 473 Copyright 473 Solutions 474

A Question of Clarity 474 When Saying No 475 Computers and Privacy 476

Endnotes 476

XX vi Contents

Appendix 2 Sample Report and Case Analysis 478 Sample Report Assignment 478

Memo 479 Memorandum 482 Pepsi Report 483

Index 495

Documents

MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION