959

••••

THIS ISSUE

:GENERAL

o fuel consumption:nestlc'adia

o from the•••' platinll hPhosphate batW..

• ResJ . industr. •• SCI.

453-498o\:.-l8A,No.10,Pp.

I

IENCESCICAL SC:ilIOLO

o f mammalianon 0:.nones on the

o " of catfishawmn..

o in Mycobacteriumdies 0 Aldolaseeulosls -

ity

: - resistance ofxano rats

SICAL SCIENCESHHY

ts and'>l Ie momen0(. tion times of

• 'l.'i3 0 Ie ketones1) simp

o ethyl vinyl etherI nesls of d ethanol

t lene anID ace y 0 0 nd super-osphenc aa:m . ressllres• I,sphenc p

o trithiocarbonate',;,sslum bstitllte for

t as a SU.JI'1~en I hide in

~rollen su PIOtative analysisf:to anic qua I

o ation of. the separies onfrom coal

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The SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT Co. Ltd.ALLAHABAD, BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, MADRAS, NEW DELHI

l.S.I.R.- OCTOBER 1959

This document should be returned [0:

LOANS DEPARTMENT,NATIONAL LENDING LIBRARY FORSCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,

BOSTON SPA,YORKSHIRE.

nOl later than the last date shown below. using the labelprovided

Req. No. Return Date Req. No. Return Date

Journal ofScientific & Industrial Research

Vol. 18A, No. 10, OCTOBER 1959

EDITORIAL BOARD

Prof. M. S. THACKER, Director-General,Scientific & Industrial Research (ex officioChairman), New Delhi

Dr D. S. KOTHARI, Scientific Adviser tothe Minister of Defence, New Delhi

Dr K. S. KRISHNAN, Director, NationalPhysical Laboratory, New Delhi

R. PALIT, Indian Association for the

- .'lltion of Science, Jadavpur, Calcutta

Rev. Fr H. SANTAPAU, St Xavier'sCollege. Bombay

.•. VENKATARAMAN, Director,

1.. " Chemical Laboratory, Poona

:lAINI PRASHAD, 10 DobhalwalaI.· ",d, ' 'ebra Dun

Dr l-. K. GHOSH, Director, AtomicMinerals Division, Department of AtomicEnerg: '<ew Delhi

CONTENTS

Current Topics

SOVIET MOON ROCKET

DOMESTIC FUEL

TELEVISION SERVICE

Food Technology for Asia & the Far East: F.A.O. Regional

SeminarV. Subrahmanyan & M. Srinivasan

Domestic Fuel Consumption In India

Jai Kishen

An Examination ofAxiomatizatlon & Informat'ion Theory

Application In NeurophysiologyG. Werner

Chemical Composition of Tobacco Leaves & Its Influenceon the Grade Obtained on Flue-curing ...

A. S. Sastry & P. Sitapathi

Lead Plating from the Pyrophosphate Bath ...(Miss) Vasanta Sree

Reviews

Notes & News

Progress Reports

453453454

455

458

467

472

478

484

491

497.

Shri .3. N. SASTRI, Chief Editor & exofficio Secretary

KRISHNAMURTHI, Editor

Supplement

Abstracts of Research Papers

For Contents of Sections B & C, see page A4For Index to Advertisers, see page A23

... 47-64

@ .l.9t THE COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC & INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH, NEW DELHI

The JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH is issued monthly.

The Council of Scientific 0- Industrial Research assumes no responsibility for the statements and.opinions advanced by contributors.

The Editorial Board in its work of examining papers received for publication is assisted, in an honorarycapacity, by a large number of distinguished scientists working in various parts of India.

Communications regarding contributions for publication in the JOURNAL, books for review, subscriptionsand advertisements should be addressed to the EDITOR, JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH,

OLD MILL ROAD, NEW DELHI 1.

Annual Subscription: Rs 20 (Inland), £ 2 or S6,00 (forell1n). Sinele Copy: Rs 2 (Inland), 4 sh. or S0.60 (forell1n)

CONTENTS

SECTION B

Dipole Moments & Relaxation Times of Some Simple Ketones 399Arvind Vyas & H. N. Srivastava

Effect of Viscosity In the Determination of Surface Tension by the Drop-welllht Method 402P. Rajagopala Rao & ;..;. Subramanian

Synthesis of Ethyl Vinyl Ether from Acetylene & Ethanol at Atmospheric & Super-atmosphericPressures 405

S. N. Sen & S. K. Bhattacharyya

Chemistry of the Thlazoles - Synthesis of 2-Amlno-5-alkylthlazoles 411K. D. Kullwrni & 11'1. V. Shirsat

Anthoxanthlns: Part IX - Syntheses of the Fourth Racemate of a Flavan-3.4-dlol & isomericCatechlns 413

M. D. Kashikar & A. I:l. Kulkarni

Anthoxanthlns: Part X - Stereospecific Synthesis & Stereochemistry of Substituted Flavans 418M. D. Kashikar & ,\. B. Kulkarni

Chemical Investillations on Daemla extensa R.Br. 422S. Rakhit, M. M. Dhar. Nitya ."nand & ~'I. L. Dhar

Chemical Examination of Fruits of Sclndapsus officinal/s Schott: Part I - Isolation & ChemicalExamination of the Constituents 427

D. S. Bhakuni & J. D. Tewari

Potassium Trlthlocarbonate Reallent as a Substitute for Hydrollen Sulphide in Inorllanlc.Qualitative Analysis 430

K. ;..;. Johri

Studies on the Separation of Boron from Coker. A. Khan & Debabrata Sen

434

Letters to the Editor

ON THE FORMATION & CONSTITUTION OF OXALATO-"OLYBDATE COMPLEX 437U. V. Seshayya, G. S. Ran & S. N. Banerji

HEXACHLOROBENlENE FROM CARBON TETRACHLORIDE... 438Satish Chaudra Srivastava

ISOLATlO" OF ERUCIC & PETROSELINIC ACIDS BY UREA FRACTIO"ATION PROCEDURE 4391. S. Shenolikar & 111. R. Subbaram

A SIMPLE METHOD FOR THE DIRECT ESTIMATION OF SULPHITES IN DILUTE SOLUTIO'" 441Rundan Lal & Rosban Lal Kaushik

DETECTION OF Low Co"CENT RATIONS OF ETHANE & PROPANE IN NATURAL GAS STRL"1S 442H. S. Rao. G. S. ~lurthy & A. Lahiri

CHEMICAL INTERRELATIONSHIP OF PERUVOSIDE & RUVOSIDE 443S. Rangaswami & E. Venkata Ran

IDENTITY OF THALICTRINE 444K. W. Gopinath, T. R. Govindachari, S. Rajappa & C. V. Ramadas

CHEMICAL EXAMI"ATION OF THE SEED OF Oldenlandia bif/ora LINN. 445D. S. Bhakuni

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE SEED OF Phyllanthus madcraspatensis LINN.D. S. Bhakuni

SYNTHESIS OF SUBSTITUTED PHENANTHROLINESR. L. Shivalkar & S. V. Suuthaukar

SECTION C

446

447

Action of Mammalian Hormones on the Spawnln~ of Catfish 185L. S. Ramaswami & A. n. Lakshman

Studies in Mycobacterium tuberculosis - Aldolase Activity 191K. L. Arora. (Late) T. N. Srikantan & C. R. Krishua ~Iurti

Studies on the Action of Makaradhwaja: Part IV - Effect. on the Catalase Activit.y of Rat. LiverHomo~enat.e 195

K. R. K. Ran & S. C. ,\garwala

Alloxan Resist.ance of Albino RatsS. K. Mukherjee & U. ~. De

198

Trypsin Inhibitor from Green Gram (Phaseolus aureus R.)

Letters t.o the Editor

P. :M. Honavar & Kamala Sohonic202

CHEMICAL CHARACTERS OF JUTE FIBRE AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF PLANT GROWTHH. Chatterjee

DISTRIBUTION OF THE DEGREE OF POLYMERIZATION OF FIBRE CELLULOSE ALONG THE STE:\I OF ] UTE

PLANTH. Chatterjee & A. K. 1Ilazumdar

206

207

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Curren t

SOVIET MOON ROCKET

THE LANDING ON THE MOON OF THE SECOND RUSSIAN

space rocket, Lunik II, is an achievement of historicalsignificance and marks the beginning of a new epochin man's attempt to conquer space. Lunik II reachedthe moon at 2 hr 32 min. 24 sec. 1ST on 14 Septemberafter a flight of about 34 hr. It was launched bymeans of a multi-stage rocket, the last stage of whichwas a guided rocket weighing 1511 kg. (without fuel).It carried a hermetically sealed spherical containerwith scientific and radio-engineering equipmentweighing 390·2 kg. The last stage rocket attaineda speed of about 11·2 km. (7 miles)/sec. and reacheda trajectory of flight towards the moon approximatingthe calculated orbit. At the moment of impact, therocket was travelling at 3·3 km. (2,05 miles)/sec.relative to the moon at an angle of 60° to the moon'ssurface.

The precision achieved both in the matter of timeand position of landing in the face of a multitude ofunknown factors and the large magnitudes of distanceand speeds involved, has been truly amazing. Aftertravelling a distance of 233,600 miles, the rocket hitthe moon 2 min. 36 sec. ahead of the scheduled timeand almost at the exact place where it was intendedto land (in the area of the mare tranquillitatis, mareserenitalis and mare vapor1l11l, about 497 miles fromthe centre of the visible surface of the moon). Carewas taken to sterilize the rocket before launching andafter landing in order to prevent possible contamina­tion of the moon's atmosphere with microbes or fast­growing forms of plant life from the earth.

The equipment carried by the rocket included,besides three radio transmitters, instruments for pro­viding data on the earth's magnetic field, radiationzones round the earth, composition of interplanetarygas, intensity of cosmic radiation, micro-meteors,etc. Preliminary analysis of the collected data hasrevealed that the moon has no magnetic field. In­formation has been obtained on the currents causedby particles of ionized gas caught by traps in therocket's container; the force of currents differed alongthe rocket's route, a marked increase having been

Topics

observed at a distance of about 10,000 km. from themoon. This is explained either on the basis of theexistence of a layer of ionized gases around the moonor an area of greater concentration of corpuscles.

Another major step towards the conquest of spacewas the launching of an automatic interplanetaryspace station on 4 October. The 278·5 kg. station,mounted on the last stage of a cosmic rocket weighing1553 kg. (without fuel), disengaged itself from therocket after going into orbit. Two radio transmit­ters on the station use radar batteries operating onfrequencies of 39·986 and 183·6 Mc/s. They transmitat definite intervals, for periods of 2 to 4 hr, scientificinformation and the results of the measurements ofthe parameters of the movement of the station. Theoperation of the equipment in the station is con­trolled from a co-ordination and computing centre inU.S.S.R. This space station will permit the studyof the 40 per cent of the territory of the moon whichhas never before been seen by man, and supply newinformation on outer space.

DOMESTIC FUEL

THE AGGREGATE FUEL CONSUMPTION FOR HEATING

and cooking purposes in Indian households amountsto the colossal figure of 83 million tons of wood equi­valent. Indeed the domestic sector is a major con­sumer of energy accounting for nearly 40 per cent ofthe total energy consumption. While this is a featureof the pattern of energy consumption in all under­developed countries, a matter for serious concern inIndia relates to the sources from which the domesticsector draws its energy requirements. Reliable dataon the types and quantities of fuels used in variousparts of the country are not available. An attempthas been recently made to collect information fromvarious sources and estimate the consumption bothfor rural and urban areas. The results of the survey,published in this issue, show that wood, charcoal,and agricultural wastes and cattle dung account for97 per cent of the total fuel consumed and that cattledung forms roughly half of it: The large-scale ex­ploitation of fuel wood for burning, as such or after

453

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

conversion to charcoal, and of cattle dung, which hasbeen going on for centuries, has had serious reper­cussions on soil conservation and soil fertility.

The energy demands of the domestic sector havebeen continuously increasing consequent on thegrowth of population and the need for arresting thewasteful burning of wood and cattle dung for fuelpurposes by making available alternate fuels ateconomic prices has gained in urgency. The use offirewood and cattle dung as fuel is wasteful and only5 per cent of the heat released by burning them isactually utilized. Firewood is becoming scarce insome parts of Rajasthan and in the plains of UttarPradesh, North Bihar, Madras and Andhra, and ina few states, e.g. Kerala, Orissa and Assam, theclimatic conditions during a large part of the year areunfavourable for the sun-drying of cattle dung cakes.

Researches at the Regional Research Laboratory,Hyderabad, and the Central Fuel Research Institute,]ealgora, have established the commercial feasibilityof producing smokeless fuel from coals at economicprices. Domestic coke is being produced at Hydera­bad in a 25 tons/day pilot plant and it has found readyconsumer acceptance. The plant in operation at]ealgora yields domestic coke from all types of coal,coking and non-coking. These are important deve­lopments. If commercial production of soft cokeand smokeless fuel is established and sustained effortsare made to popularize their use, the consumptionof firewood and cattle dung can be greatly reduced.It is gratifying to learn that serious consideration isbeing given to the production of domestic coke in thecountry in the Third Five-Year Plan.

TELEVISION SERVICE

THE INAUGURATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL TELE­

vision (TV) service of the All India Radio at NewDelhi on 15 September 1959 "marks a significant

454

step in the progress of broadcasting and tele­communication in India ". The TV station, whichis equipped with a 500 W. transmitter, four camerasand ancillary equipment, is housed on the fifth floorof the broadcasting house in New Delhi, and hasbeen set up with the assistance of the Unesco andthe Government of U.S.A.

Much planning and experimentation had to be donebefore inaugurating the service to attain suitableconditions for transmission. Problems on lightingsystems and lighting arrangements had to be goneinto and illumination of studio settings had to bechecked; illumination level on an average subject,strength of the light source, nature and colour of thereflecting surface, heat dissipation and air-condition­ing, etc., which enable the camera to produce anacceptable picture, had to be determined. Many ofthese intricate problems were tackled by the technicalstaff of the All India Radio in collaboration withthe research personnel of the Optics Division of theNational Physical Laboratory.

Because of its audiovisual appeal, TV has greatpotentialities as a tool of education and mass com­munication. Its effectiveness for classroom teachinghas been recognized in U.K.; it has been employedas a demonstration aid in medical education in U.S.A.The electronic applications of the television principlein defence installations and in industrial managementare well known. As President Dr Rajendra Prasadput it, television will go a long way in broadening thepopular outlook and bringing people into line withscientific thinking. There is no doubt that the tele­vision service should be extended to other parts ofthe country, and this implies the training of personnel.Provision has to be made in universities and technicalinstitutions to teach the principles of television anda centre should be set up in the All India Radio toimpart necessary training on the practical aspects oftelevision.

Food Technology for Asia. & the Far East:F.A.O. Regional Seminar

V. SUBRAHMANYAN & M. SRINIVASAN

Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore

THIS seminar, first to be organized in thisregion, was held at the Central Food Techno­logical Research Institute, Mysore, from 1 to 8

August 1959, at the invitation of the Government ofIndia. Dr A. G. van Veen of the F.A.O. acted as theDirector of the seminar and Dr V. Subrahmanyan,Director, Central Food Technological Research Insti­tute, as the co-Director. Delegates representing thefollowing twelve countries of the region attended theseminar: Burma, Ceylon, China (Taiwan), Hong Kong,India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Pakistan, Philippines,Thailand and Vietnam. The seminar afforded anopportunity and a forum for perscms in the disciplineof food technology in the region to exchange viewsand establishing contacts so helpful for progress andmutual benefit.

Country statements presented by the head of eachdelegation and lectures and discussions that followedfocussed atten tion on the place of foods processed bytraditional or modern methods in national diets,present status of food industries in the region, avail­ability of raw materials for processing, effects of pro­cessing on nutritive value, packaging and transport,storage, hygiene and sanitation, food legislation andadditives, importance of protein-rich foods, technicalresources that exist within the region for the study ofassociated problems and machinery for disseminationof knowledge.

Traditional methods

A feature common to most countries in the regionis the overall importance of traditional methods offood processing, the great variety of some productsmade by these processes and the important placethey have in the diet of the people. Thus, in Korea,there are nearly 40 different kinds of Mmchies, apickled product consisting mainly of vegetables,spices and some cereal products. In Japan, twofermented products, miso and shoyu alone, togetherwith soya, contribute about 6 g. of protein daily to thediet of the people. Parboiling of rice is mainlypractised in India, Burma and Pakistan and byother people of Indian origin in the region. Indiahas further improved upon the method which aimsat reducing the processing time considerably with a

corresponding reduction in the cost of production andimprovement in quality. Fermentation processes forpulses and fish with or without addition of cereals arelargely used in all countries in the region. In India,fermented milks and fermented mixtures of rice and apulsl' are important, like the notable example ofiddl-i, a fermented and steamed pudding made of riceand black gram. Smoking of fish is not widely prac­

.tised in the region. Though foods processed by thesetraditional methods do not appear to contributesignificantly to the food supplies in these areas, someof them are of nutritional importance and are suitablefor being utilized on a much larger scale. However,there is need for knowledge of the basic scientificprinciples involved.

Protein-rich foods

In large areas of the region, different grades ofprotein malnutrition are observed. Some of thecountries of the region reported an increase in theproducts of milk. Good use has been made of sup­plies of surplus dried skimmed milk from NorthAmerica. But yery often milk and milk productsare not available at reasonable prices or are 'notavailable at all. For this reason, the seminarstressed the need for developing other protein-richfoods of animal or vegetable origin of high biologicalvalue and particularly those which are assimilableby infants and children.

Fish fiour of an acceptable! quality is producedand is in use in Thailand and Burma, to some extentin Philippines, and is in the experimental stage inPakistan and Indonesia.

Soyabean preparations have long been used in the,national diets of Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Indonesiaand Hong Kong. In Indonesia, a new productcalled 'Saridele', which is a spray-dried vegetablemilk produced from soyabean and sesame, fortifiedwith calcium, vitamin Bli and vitamin A-palmitate,is in production and use for feedmg school children.Soyabean milk is being produced in Philippines andHong Kong and to a smaller extent in Thailand. InIndia, vegetable milk, prepared from peanuts, suitablyfortified with calcium and vitamins, has been pro­duced on a pilot plant sc~e for use, after fermentation,

455

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

mainly as vegetable curds. Japan is carrying onresearch on the preparation of a fermented soya­bean product for infant feeding.

Groundnut flour of edible quality for use in low­cost protein foods, enriched flours and compositegrains is being produced in India on a pilot plantscale. Other reports related to experimental pro­duction of defatted peanut flour in Indonesia, Viet­nam and Taiwan, defatted soyabean flour in Korea,and defatted coconut flour in the Philippines andCeylon.

The seminar considered that: (1) the blending ofprotein-rich materials from different sources toproduce the optimum combination of essential aminoacids was desirable; and (2) the protein-rich foodscould be suitably enriched with calcium and vitamins,to make up for these deficiencies prevalent in someof the countries of the region.

Food processin~

Food processing was discussed under the followingtitles: Raw materials, Canning and bottling, Dehydra­tion, Refrigeration, Food irradiation and Influence ofstorage and processing on nutritive value. The mainemphasis was on the methods of processing ratherthan on the processed foods themselves. Economicfactors were considered in so far as they had a directbearing on the technical discussions.

In all countries in the region, the processed foodsare largely cereals, legumes, fruits, vegetables andfish and generally there is little processing of otheranimal products. An outstanding feature of foodprocessing in the various countries in the region is thegreat importance of small factories. For example,in Japan there are nearly 30,000 food processingplants that employ less than 20 people each. Thisrepresents over 80 per cent of the food processingplants in the country. Nevertheless, in the samecountry, the major part of some important processedproducts (e.g. soya sauce) is manufactured in large·factories. In some countries there is a considerabledemand for imported processed products which can­not be produced locally because of the lack of rawmaterials. An example is that of Indonesia whichimports each year some 20 million kg. of processedmilk. India imports even greater quantities.

In cases where a food processing industry is linkedwith a considerable export trade, a high level oftechnical development is found. Particular examplesof this are the frozen fish industry of Japan and thepineapple canning industry in Taiwan.

Canning and bottling - In Taiwan, the canning in­dustry has expanded to reach in 1958 a total produc­tion of 2,000,000 standard cases, mainly pineapple,and in Japan, the yearly production was 26,000,000

456

standard cases as against 9,400,000 in pre-war years,mainly fish and shell fish. In general, the canningindustry in other countries of the region has remainedat a low level or has shown only a slight progress, inspite of there being excellent resources for the produc­tion of raw materials needed for the purpose. Amongthe factors responsible for this situation are the lowpurchasing power of the people, prejudice againstprocessed foods and sometimes the poor quality ofmost of the raw materials, the deterioration caused bydefective packaging and transport, the poor qualityof auxiliary materials such as sugar and salt andinadequate control during the canning process itself,besides sub-standard containers and the cost factor(since pectin and chemicals like citric and tartaricacids and specialized equipment for processing haveto be imported). Lack of adequate cold storagefacilities lead to serious losses in perishables used asraw materials for processing.

Dehydration of foods - Dehydration by modernmethods is little developed in the region. Sun­drying is practised to varying extents. Sun-dryingof fish in Japan amounts to 300,000 tons annually,in Korea 10,000 tons and in Taiwan about 12,000 tons.In Thailand, about 7000 tons of tamarind (for export)and 8000 tons of fish are sun-dried. In Ceylon, about20,000 tons of sun-dried fish are utilized and smallquantities of jackfruit and breadfruit are sun-dried.Commercial dehydration is confined to industrialcrops like tea in India, and tea and coconut in Cey­lon. Recently, Taiwan has installed two moderndehydration plants for sweet potatoes with a dailycapacity of 50 tons.

Refrigeration - Except where it is associated withan export industry, refrigeration is not adoptedin many countries of the region. Nevertheless, itcan play an important role in developing food indus­tries of a country and India may be quoted as anexample of this, where there are at present 182 coldstorages with a total capacity of about 130,000 tons.Another 240 cold storages are planned for fruitsand vegetables and an equal number for fish. Tominimize losses, the cold storages for fruits and vege­tables will be located near the main marketing centres.

In the export trade of some countries, for example,refrigerated foods passing through Hong Kong andfrozen fish from Japan and in the storage of import­ed foods before distribution as with temperate fruitsand dairy produce in Ceylon, ;efrigeration plays animportant part in the region.

Food irradiation - Little work has been done onthis aspect in the countries of this region. Recently,the Atomic Energy Department of the Governmentof India has started a centre for research on foodirradiation. Discussions at the seminar showed an

SUBRAHMANYAN & SRINIVASAN: F.A.O. REGIONAL SEMINAR

awareness to the limitations of radiation treatmentof foods, as was brought out fully at an F.A.O. meet­ing on the use of Ionizing Radiations for Food Pre­servation held at Harwell, England, in November1958, and the need for further research to be done inthe region. At present, it seems that sub-sterilizingdoses rather than sterilizing doses might lead to prac­tical applications in a reasonably near future and thatsuch processes may have to be combined with othermethods of processing.

The handling, packaging and transport of perish­able foods present a serious problem throughout theregion. There is an urgent need to improve con­tainers, especially those made from indigenousmaterials. In most countries, cans have to be im­ported and the costs are high. Some countries haveto import both cans and glass containers, but moreusually glass containers are made locally. However,it is often the case that these glass containers aredifficult to seal in automatic or semi-automatic ma­chines and are liable to break during heat processingof the foods.

A considerable proportion of food produced is lostduring processing, storage and transport and there isoften a loss in nutritive value. Improved methodsof handling, packaging, storage, transport and pro­cessing, with which the science of food technology isconcerned, would do much to reduce these losses.There is a need to provide facilities for more rapid

• transport of perishable foods.Influence of storage and processing on nutritive

value - Since relatively little is known about theeffects of processing and storage on the nutritivevalue of the foods commonly used in the region, andfor the improvement of the processes, both tradi­tional and modern, the seminar considered that:(i) data should be collected from different countriesin the region on the effects of canning, dehydrationand refrigeration on the nutritive values of locallyavailable foods. The data should refer to the foodsas freshly produced and after specified periods ofstorage under typical local conditions; and (ii) datashould also be collected on the effects on nutritive

value and the traditional methods of food process­ing, especially as operated on a small scale. Theseprocesses include sun-drying, salting and brining,pickling, smoking, starching, deep fat frying andhome baking.

Food le~islation

After hearing the views expressed on food legis­lation, food additives, hygiene and sanitation, theseminar came to the conclusion that a proper con­sideration could be given to these subjects only in aseminar exclusively devoted for the purpose andaccordingly made a recommendation to the F.A.O.to hold a seminar in the region. in the near future.

Personnel and trainin~ facilities

Research in food technology and training of per­sonnel are receiving attention in all countries in theregion which includes training abroad under fellow­ships granted by the United Nations organizationsand under bilateral aid agreements. With theexception of Japan and India, the facilities for spe­cialized courses in food technology are rather limitedin the area. The necessity is, therefore, urgentlyfelt for the establishment of national training centres.The seminar was also of the opinion that it would beextremely useful if a regional training centre couldbe set up where students from the different countriescould be trained in food technology at differentlevels and where researches pertaining to the prob­lems of the region could also be undertaken.Accordingly, it was recommended that the F.A.O.should explore the possibilities for setting up such acentre, keeping in view a programme for exchange oftechnical and research personnel between the differentcountries of the region, in developing this centre.

Among the various recommendations made togovernments based on discussions at the seminarwas the need for starting extension services to pro­mote food processing industry and to impart instruc­tion to people with regard to simple methods of foodprocessing and food preservation and conservation,and prevention of wastage.

457

Domestic Fuel Consumption in India

]AI KISHEN*

Manuscript received 26 February 1959 .

In this paper an attempt has been made to estimate the domestic fuel con­sumption in rural and urban areas in India. The estimates given are based onthe population figures for the year 1954-55 and have been derived from ananalysis of the available and recorded data.

The total domestic consumption of fuels in India is estimated at 82·24million tons in air-dry firewood equivalent, about 78 per cent of which is con­sumed in the rural areas and 22 per cent in the urban areas. Of the total

. quantity of fuel consumed, cattle dung contributes 49·6 per cent, firewood andcharcoal 38·7 per cent, plant waste 8·5 per cent, soft coke 2·7 per cent, kerosene0·4 per cent and electricity 0·1 per cent. According to the derived estimatesthe total quantity of firewood consumed is about five times the recorded pro­duction. The total quantity of cattle dung (green) produced in the country is1036 million tons and the quantity available for use is 696 million tons of which300 million tons are dried and burnt as fuel.

FOR the implementation of any scheme ofindustrialization, adequate supply of energyis as important a problem as the supply of

raw materials or technical manpower.' In the ThirdFive-Year Plan, the Government of India is layingspecial emphasis on the development of energyresources. In this context, it is, therefore, neces­sary to have as precise an estimate as possible ofenergy consumed by industrial, domestic and othersectors.

In India, as in other industrially under-developedcountries, the domestic sector is by far the biggestenergy consumer and any survey regarding the supplyand consumption of energy has to begin with thedomestic sector, because its requirements have to bemet first.

The survey regarding domestic consumption of .energy in India is beset with a serious difficulty.More than four-fifths of the population is rural andthe people li', .••g in the villages depend upon fire­wood, cattle dung and agricultural and other plantwastes for fuel. These materials are generallyobtained free of cost from all possible local sourcesaccording to the needs of the user. Under theseconditions it is well nigh impossible to arrive at preciseestimates of the consumption of different types offuels without the aid of a properly planned andcomprehensive survey. No such overall survey, forall types of fuels, for the whole country has so

·Formerly Technical Officer (Forestry), Ministry of Food& Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi. Presentaddress: ]B/S Rajouri Gardens, New Delhi.

458

far been undertaken in the country and no directrecorded data are available for certain types offuels.

For the purpose of the present survey, scatteredinformation dealing with domestic fuels has beencollected from various sources, and aliter examiningit in the light of the local conditions, estimates ofconsumption have been formed for the whole country,separately for the rural and urban areas. The esti­mates are derived values and are based on the popu­lation figures for the 1954-55; the energy consumptionfor illumination purposes has not been taken intoconsideration and the domestic heating and cookingrequirements' are the main areas covered.

Types of fuels

With the exception of hydro-electricity, utilizableenergy is mostly obtained by burning certain organicmaterials, generally designated as fuels, which, forconvenience, have been classified into the followingthree categories:

(a) Primary fuels - This class includes mineral oil,coal, lignite, etc. To these may be added hydro­electricity. They provide the bulk of the energy usedin the industrially advanced countries.

(b) Secondary fuels - To this class belong firewood,charcoal, vegetable oils and animal fats, cattle dung,agricultural and other plant wastes, etc. Thesematerials form the major part of the fuel consumedin industrially under-developed countries.

(c) Atomic fuels - At present the use of these fuelsis not widespread.

•A survey was conducted by the author in September 1958.tA survey was conducted by the author in October 1958.

TABLE I-CALORIFIC VALUE AND MOISTUREAND ASH CONTENTS OF FUELS

FUEL MOISTURE ASH CALORIFIC CONVER-% % VAL. SION

B.t.u.jlb. FACTORFOR WOOD

EQUI-VALENT

Wood (air-dry) 9·8 1'5 8000 1·00Charcoal 2·0 3·0 13900 2'00Mango leaves 9·8 18·0 6100 0·50Casuarina leaves 8·4 1·3 8000 0'60Palmyra leaves 9'4 5·3 7600 0'60Date palm leaves 10·5 I 4-4 7300 0'60Paddy husk 11'6 19·5 6200 0'50Coconut shell 9·3 0·2 7700 0·75Dung (sun-dry) 9·0 18·0 5000 0·63Coal 10700 1·60Soft coke 5·0 25·0 10200 1·60Kerosene 19800 3·00

having a colder climate consume more fuel. Simi­larly the requirement of fuel by wheat eaters is morethan that required by rice eaters. After making dueallowance for these variations, it should be possible toestimate the total quantity of fuel burnt in ruralhouseholds in each state.

Rural Punjab is economically somewhat better offthan its counterpart in other states. Its climate iscold in winter and the inhabitants are principallywheat eaters. The domestic fuel consumption inthis state should, therefore, be among the highest inIndia. In the rural areas of Amritsar district themonthly intake of fuel per household is about 4maunds* (c. 328 lb.). By weight, 80 per cent ofthis is constituted of sun-dry cattle dung, 15 per centair-dry firewood and 5 per cent agricultural and otherplant wastes. In terms of air-dry wood equivalent itcomes to about 540 lb. per head per year. This maybe taken as a reasonable average for the whole state.In arriving at this figure the average household hasbeen taken to consist of five persons8 and the conver­sion factor of plant waste to firewood equivalent as 0·5.

In rural areas of Uttar Pradesh the domestic fuelconsumption is slightly less than that in the Punjaband is about 500 lb. per head per yeart.

Orissa State is among the poorest in India and thedomestic fuel consumption per head per year infirewood equivalent is 420 lb. in this state (personalcommunication from the Forest Utilization Officer,Government of Orissa).

In Madras and Kerala, the density of rural popu­lation is high and the fuel supplies limited. In thesestates fuel consumption may be taken as 400 lb. offirewood equivalent per head per annum.

The estimated fuel consumption in the rural house­holds for each state in India is given in Table 2.

JAI KISHEN: DOMESTIC FUEL CONSUMPTION IN INDIA

Quality of domestic fuels

The quality of a domestic fuel is determined byits calorific value and its moisture and ash contents.Fuels which bum away rapidly require constantfeeding and heat wastage is high. Leaves, brushwood and most of the agricultural and other wastessuffer from this drawback. Woods which bum uni­formly and are converted into charcoal before turningto ash are good fuels. Smokelessness and abilityto ignite readily are also desirable qualities.

In Table I are listed the fuels commonly used inthe"Indian households, along with their calorific valuesand ash and moisture contentsl ,2. The approximateconversion factors for deducing air-dry wood equivalentare also given which have been fixed, taking intoconsideration the calorific values and heat losses inuse. Firewood has been made the basis because,for a long time to come, it will perhaps continue tobe the most important' domestic fuel in India.

Pattern of domestic fuel consumption Inrural and urban areas

Domestic fuel consumption in the rural and theurban areas in India is different both in quantity andkind, and the quantity of fuel used in a rural house­hold is less than that in an urban household. Thechoice of the domestic fuels in the villages is governedmainly by two considerations. The first is the tra­ditional disinclination of a villager to buy fuel. Se­condly, the transport of fuels in rural areas is difficultdue to poorly developed roads and other transportfacilities and the little demand at anyone place.Not only the supply of primary fuels to the ruralareas is ruled out but also that of firewood if it hasto be brought from some distance. Thus the fuelsupplies in the rural areas are highly localized andwhere firewood resources are meagre, they consistmostly of agricultural and other plant wastes.

In urban areas every item of domestic fuel is acommercial commodity, and firewood is still the mainfuel. In most of the towns in the eastern parts ofIndia and parts of North India, the quantity of softcoke consumed is more than that of firewood, becausethe former is relatively cheap. The proportion ofcattle dung used is small and that of plant wasteinsignificant. In cities electricity and kerosene arebeing increasingly employed.

Domestic fuel consumption in rural areas

Due to scarcity of firewood, especially in thedensely populated parts of the country, the con­sumption of fuel in the majority of the rural house­holds is reduced to the barest minimum. This canbe assumed to be the case for all the states but forthe differences in climate and eating habits. States

TABLE 2-ANNUAL DOMESTIC FUELCONSUMPTION IN RURAL AREAS

(Fuel consumption given in terms of wood equivalent)

STATE CONSUMPTION RURAL TOTALPER HEAD POPULATION CONSUMPTION

lb. millions million tons

Andhra 420 26·70 5·01Assam 550 8·93 2·19Bihar 480 37-42 8·02Bombay 450 35·82 7·20Kerala 400 12-18 2·18Madhya Pradesh 480 2J-74 5·09Madras 400 23045 4-19Mysore 420 I 15-47 2·89Orissa 420 14'54 2-73Punjab 540 13·52 3-26Rajasthan 500 13047 3·07Uttar Pradesh 500 56·50 12-61West Bengal 420 20·72 3-89Delhi 520 0·30 0·07Himachal Pradesh 600 HO 0·30Manipur 500 0·59 0·13Tripura 480 0·63 0·14Jammu-Kashmir 700 3-62 H3

All India 465 308·70 64·10

The population figures given are for 1954-55 pro­jected from the census held in 1951, assuming ayearly increase of 1 per cent.

Firewood supplies in rural areas - In rural areasfirewood is obtained from nearby fuel-wood planta­tions, if any, from trees growing on private lands,village commons, wastelands, boundaries of the fields,fruit gardens, etc. Villages situated near the forestsdraw their requirement of firewood from them.

During the past 50 years the supply of firewood hasconsiderably deteriorated in the rural areas. Beforethe First World War, firewood formed a large part ofthe domestic fuels and good quality species wereavailable in plenty. At present they have almostdisappeared and others are also getting scarce. Thescarcity of firewood in the rural areas has also beenaggravated by the high cost of its transport. Theresult is that the areas which are densely populatedor are away from the forests generally suffer fromacute shortage of firewood. Whatever quantity isavailable, comes mainly from the local industrialspecies which are felled to meet some immediatedemand and the felling waste is used as fuel. Fruittrees that are no longer productive and trees ofstunted growth are also cut down, irrespective oftheir worth as fuel. Wood from palms is also burntas fuel in South India.

States which are surplus in firewood also havepockets suffering from its shortage because thedistribution of the resources is uneven and transportfacilities are inadequate. For example, there isacute shortage of wood fuel in the rural areas of thecoastal plains of Orissa, a state in which the pro­duction of firewood is more than the demand. Even

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

in the plains of Assam, the most forested state inIndia, firewood supplies are inadequate.

In 1954, the National Sample Survey of India,New Delhi, estimated the firewood and charcoal con­sumption in the country both for the rural and urbanhouseholds. Their estimate' of 93 million tons ofannual firewood consumption in the rural areas isvery high and is far beyond the productive capacityof the country. Very probably the estimates also in­clude dung in addition to agricultural and other plantwastes, since in the rural areas all these are usedtogether. The data are, therefore, not of much helpin determining the consumption of firewood alone.

In the absence of any other data, one has to makethe best of the piecemeal information which can beobtained from various sources. It has been statedthat the supply of firewood in the rural areas isinversely related to the density of population anddirectly to the extent of forests or firewood planta­tions. The means of transport to some extent andthe unequal distribution of firewood resources are alsofactors which affect the supply of firewood. Conse­quently, domestic consumption of firewood in theseareas varies considerably with each state.

In the Punjab, the forests occupy only 12 per centof the total land area, and a part of it is unreserved.There is little forest in the plains where the demandfor firewood is the highest. Species like jand (Pro­sopsis spicigera Linn.), kikar (Acacia arabica Willd.)and shisham (Dalbergia sisso Roxb.) are getting scarceand whatever is available is now burnt. On accountof pressure of agriculture on land, the progress ofafforestation is extremely slow. The supply offirewood in the state has been low for a long timebut after the partition of India in 1947 it has becomeworse. About 15 per cent by weight of fuel consump­tion in the rural households in Amritsar is met byfirewood, which comes to about 120 lb. per head peryear. This figure may be accepted for the whole state.

The supply of firewood in Uttar Pradesh is nobetter. In the vast Gangetic plains of the state thereare hardly any forests and the density of rural popula­tion is high. Non-forest species like mango (Mangi­fera indica Linn.), jaman (Syzygium cumini Linn.).ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Linn.), nim (Azadirachtaindica A. Juss) and mohua (Madhuca indica J. F.Gmel) supply firewood. In western Uttar Pradeshnearly the whole of the cattle dung produced in the dryeight months of the year is burnt. In eastern UttarPradesh, there is serious shortage of firewood but inthe Himalayan and Terai regions the supplies arefair. About 100 lb. of firewood per head may betaken as the estimate for the rural areas in the state.

Bihar has three serious handicaps which haveadversely affected the availability of firewood in the

460

JAI KISHEN: DOMESTIC FUEL CONSUMPTION IN INDIA

rural areas. Firstly, Bihar is one of the mostdensely populated states in India. Secondly, com­munication and transport facilities are not welldeveloped, and lastly, the frequent occurrence ofdevastating floods. North Bihar, where the populationis the densest, experiences chronic firewood shortageand supplies from other parts of the state are negli­gible because of the absence of transport facilities. Asa consequence about 75 per cent of the fuel consumedin rural houses is constituted of cattle dung. SouthBihar has more forest area but it is not served ade­quately by railways. The domestic firewood con­sumption in the rural sector of Bihar may be nearly thesame as in Uttar Pradesh, i.e. 110 lb. per head per year.

West Bengal's position is peculiar. The state isfairly urbanized and industrialized but the densityof rural population is very high (about one personper acre). It is apparent that a part of the ruralpopulation is depending upon urban areas for thesupply of domestic fuels. The rural resources at aliberal estimate may be providing about 1 cu. ft offirewood per head of rural population. This is sup­plemented by another cu. ft per head from the urbanareas and firewood depots amounting to 15 millioncu. ft in all. This quantity is what is left over afterdeducting the quantity consumed by urban popula­tion from a total recorded availability of firewood of25 million cu. it in the state which is made up of 15million cu. ft of forest fellings, 8 million cu. ft ofsawmill and wood-working waste and about 2 millionCll. ft obtained from other states5. Thus in the ruralareas domestic consumption may be about 2 cu. ft or90 lb. of firewood per head per annum.

The firewood resources of Orissa are ample but areunevenly distributed and means of communicationand transport are inadequate. In the coastal dis­tricts of Puri, Cuttack and Balasore, where thepopulation is the densest, firewood forms only 20 percent of the domestic fuel consumption. For the ruralareas of the whole state it may be estimated at about50 per cent of the total firewood supply or about200 lb. per head per year.

Madhya Pradesh has a large area under forest,but not uniformly distributed. About half of thefirewood produced in the state is consumed in theurban areas and a part is exported. What is leftfor the rural sector is small (about 60 lb. per headper year) and its distribution is uneven. Conse­quently, the rural population depends mainly uponlocal resources for firewood which may be aboutdouble of the above quantity. The total firewoodconsumption of the rural areas in the state may beabout 160 lb. per head per annum.

In Rajasthan, because of its large area, most ofwhich is in the arid zone, and poor means of com-

munication, firewood consumption in the rural areasis the lowest in India and may be put at 60 lb. perhead per annum.

In Mysore State 18 per cent of the total area isunder forests and the density of rural population isnot high. The state being away from the coal­producing centres, the urban areas use mostly fire­wood and charcoal with some quantities of cattledung. About one-third of the firewood felled in theforests is used in the rural areas which amounts toabout 70 lb. per head per annum. Some quantitiesof firewood are also obtained locally from unrecordedsources which may be on an average 1·5 cu. ft perhead per year. The total annual firewood consump­tion in the rural households in Mysore State may betaken as 130 lb. per head per year.

In Bombay State, the western parts are urbanized. like West Bengal, but this does not materially affectthe overall position of the rural areas in respectof firewood supplies. The domestic consumptionof firewood may be put at 120 lb. per head peryear.

The density of rural population in Madras is highlike Uttar Pradesh. The forests of the state havesuffered a great deal from denudation but there arecasuarina plantations all along the west coast. Fire­wood supplies in the rural areas are meagre and maybe the same as in Uttar Pradesh amounting to about90 lb. per head per year.

Firewood consumption in the rural areas of Andhra,though higher than that in Madras, may be of thesame order as of Bombay or Mysore, i.e. about 120 lb.per head per year.

Assam is the most forested state in India. Out ofabout 80,000 sq. miles of its forests, a little less thanhalf is in the NEFA area and about 20,000 sq. milesare in the areas which are difficult to develop. Therest, about 25,000 sq. miles, is in the plains districts.The urban population being small, its demand forfirewood is not heavy, but the tea gardens needconsiderable quantities of firewood. On account ofthe unequal distribution of forests there is someshortage of firewood in the rural areas and itssupply may be of the order of 300 lb. per head peryear.

Kerala has sufficient area under forest but it is<,

unevenly distributed. The demand for firewood byindustry is heavy. The density of population in thisstate is the highest in India and both rural and urbanareas suffer from firewood shortage. Palms, palmleaves and other plant wastes are burnt in very largequantities, palms alone accounting for more than500,000 tons. Wood and palms combined mayroughly contribute 180 lb. per head per year as fuelin the rural areas.

461

TABLE 3-ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OFFIREWOOD IN RURAL HOUSEHOLDS

The firewood resources in the rest of the states arefair considering their population. Delhi is. however,an exception.

In the light of the above considerations the con­sumption of firewood for the different states has beencalculated and given in Table 3. From Table 3 itcan be seen that the total annual firewood consump­tion in the rural households in India is 17·72 milliontons and the average per head is about 129 lb. Thetotal annual recorded production of firewood in thecountry during 1952-55 was 6·37 million tonss. Therural consumption of firewood alone is thus a littleless than three times its recorded production in thewhole country.

Domestic consumption of charcoal - The use ofcharcoal in rural households is small and it is mostlyused up near the centres of production where it isavailable cheaply. According to the National Sample·Survey4 about 234.000 tons of charcoal were con­sumed in the rural areas in India in 1954 (figures forJammu-Kashmir are not included). The averageconsumption of charcoal per head of rural populationcan, therefore. be put at 1·7 lb. or 3·4 lb. of woodequivalent.

Consumption of agricultural and other plantwastes - Rice husk. stalks of cereals, bagasse, stemsand roots of agricultural crops. coconut shells, shrubs,brush wood. leaves and grasses. etc., are extensivelyused as domestic fuels in the villages. Principallythese waste materials are burnt in the households torelieve shortage of firewood and cattle dung.

The consumption of agricultural and other plantwastes as fuel depends upon various considerations.

Cattle dun~ as domestic fuel in rural areas

Enormous quantities of ca,ttle dung are used inrural households for domestic heating and cookingpurposes. As dung is meant to be used primarilyas a soil fertilizer. it may be worthwhile ascertainingits total production in the country and how much ofit is used as fuel.

Annual production of cattle dung in rural areas­The production of cattle dung in the country hasbeen variously estimated by different authorities2,7,8.

The Compost Development Officer, Government ofIndia. estimates the production of green dung in thecountry at 1200 million tons annually. The differentstates are divided into two groups with respect toproduction of dung per animal per day. The firstgroup includes Assam. Kerala. Orissa, West Bengal.Jammu-Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh. Tripura andManipur, where the size of the cattle is small. In thesecond group are included the rest of the states inwhich the cattle are of larger size. The estimatesfor the two groups are as follows:

GROUP I GROUP II

Adult buffalo 25 lb. 80 lb.Adult cattle 20 " 40 "Young stock 10 " 20 "

The estimates in the second group require somemodification. The average yield of 80 lb. of dungper adult buffalo is rather high. The average shouldbe about 55 lb. Similarly. for the cattle it should be

1-431·201·841·920·981·700·940·901·300'720·362·520'83

Small0·010·220·180·100·65

17·72

TOTALCONSUMPTIONOF FIREWOODmillion tons

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES.• VOL. 18A. OCTOBER 1959

In the Punjab. agricultural waste is utilized as cattlefodder. A part is also used for making articles ofutility. Consequently little is left for use as domesticfuel and what is available is approximately one-third.by weight of the firewood consumed. In Rajasthanthe quantity thus used may be the same and in UttarPradesh and North Bihar slightly more.

In Assam, Orissa and Kerala. the use of plantwaste is high because larger quantities are availableand the production of cattle dung is not only smallbut the climate for the major part of the year is toowet for its drying. In the coastal plains of Orissa.the use of plant waste as fuel is two and a half timesthat of firewood. In these states. on the average. theconsumption of plant waste should be well over thatof firewood. For the whole country. the consump­tion of plant waste in the rural areas is about three­fourths by weight of firewood consumed and itsfirewood equivalent may roughly be put at 7 milliontons or about 51 lb. per head per year.

It may be mentioned here that agricultural andother plant wastes are highly heterogeneous andaccurate estimate of their consumption is verydifficult.

80450380350400

129

12030011012018016090

13020012060

10090

Per capitaCONSUMPTIONOF FIREWOOD

lb.

STATE

AndhraAssamBiharBombayKeralaMadhya PradeshMadrasMysoreOrissaPunjabRajasthanUttar PradeshWest BengalAndamansDelhiHimachal PradeshManipurTripuraJammu-Kashmir

All India

462

JAl KlSHEN: DOMESTIC FUEL CONSUMPTION IN INDIA

about 35 lb. After making allowances for these, thestatewise production and consumption of green dunghas been calculated for rural areas and is given inTable 4. The buffalo and cattle population for thesecalculations has been obtained from the All IndiaLivestock Census, 1956.

The total production of green dung in the ruralareas in India is estimated at 995·14 million tons­100·53 million tons in Group I states and 894·61million tons in Group II states.

Annual consumption 01 dung lor domestic use asfuel in rural areas - Surveys on the production andutilization of dung have been undertaken in someparts of the country. Recently, one such surveywas carried out in Chingleput district, Madras9• Butno survey has been undertaken for the whole country.A number of estimates have been put forward whichshow wide differences. According to Burns8 about115 million tons of dry dung are burnt in India asdomestic fuel annually. Putnam10 estimates thatout of 10·62 million B.t.u. of. energy consumed perhead in the country, about 73 per cent comes fromdung which amounts to 250 million tons of dry dung.According to Bhabha, the quantity of dung used is224 million tons. In arriving at this estimate,Bhabhall has assumed that firewood used in thecountry is only 33 per cent more than its recordedproduction while actually it is considerably more.This assumption accounts for the high estimate.Acharya7 reports that two-thirds (c. 600 milliontons) of the green dung produced in the country isused as fuel. According to the Indian Council ofAgricultural Research Memorandum on the Develop­ment 01 Agriculture and A nimal Husbandry in I ndia12,

about 40 per cent of the available dung is consumedfor domestic purposes while according to the Report01 the Experts Committee on Manures and Fertilizers13

it is 50 per cent. Saha, accepting the first estimate,concluded that 256 million tons of green dung (71million tons dry) are consumed as fuel.

The above ~stimates are for both the rural and theurban sectors; separate data for the former are notavailable. However, with data already availablefor firewood, charcoal and plant waste under totaldomestic fuel consumption in the rural areas, theamount of dung consumed can be calculated. Thetotal amount of energy, in terms of air-dry woodequivalent, is 64·10 million tons and to it firewood,charcoal and plant waste contribute 17,72, 0·47 and7 million tons respectively. The remaining 38·91million tons of wood equivalent come from 62·26million tons of sun-dry, or 286 million tons of greendung which is 43 per cent of the 663 million tons ofavailable green dung, assuming that one-third is lostduring grazing, etc. Thus, the per capita consump-

TABLE 4 - ANNUAL PRODUCTIOJ:I/ AND CON-SUMPTION OF DUNG AS FUEL IN RURAL AREAS

STATE TOTAL AVAIL- QUANTITY CON-GREEN ABLE USED AS SUMP-

DUNG GREEX FUEL TIONPRODUC- DUNG million 0'

/0TION million tons

million tonstons

Group IAssam 16·12 10·7 1-83 17Kerala 7·76 5·2 0·93 18Orissa 25·20 17·0 4-11 24West Bengal 33·17 22·0 9·98 45Jammu-Kashmir 5·76 3-8}Himachal Pradesh 9·26 6·0 3-75 30Manipur 2·30 1·5Tripura 0·96 0·6

Group IIAndhra 94·44 63·0 24-64 39Bihar 95·86 64·0 37-60 59Bombay 128·68 86·0 37·02 43Madhya Pradesh 142·74 95·0 23·73 25Madras 58·09 39·0 20·67 53Mysore 59·78 40·0 13·00 32Punjab 51·96 35·0 17-76 51Rajasthan 78·09 52·0 18·81 36Uttar Pradesh 181-45 120·0 71-30 59Delhi 3-45 2·3 0·37 16Andamans

Total 995:14 663·1 285'00 43

tion of dung as fuel can be assumed to be 452 lb.(sun-dry) or 282 lb. of wood equivalent.

It may be of interest to know the factors whichpromote the use of dung as domestic fuel and howits use varies in different states.

The first of these factors is the scarcity of firewoodwhich may be due to lack of firewood resources as inRajasthan and the plains of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,North Bihar, Madras, Andhra, etc. In areas whichsuffer from paucity of firewood resources and wherethe density of population is high, the demand ondung as domestic fuel is very heavy, as in UttarPradesh, Bihar, Madras and Punjab. Secondly, thequantity of dung produced should be large and theclimatic conditions should facilitate its sun-drying.For this reason the consumption of dung in RajasthanMadhya Pradesh and parts of Punjab, Mysore,Bombay and Andhra is high. In Kerala, Orissa andAssam, the production of dung, is low and also itsuse as fuel is scant.

Based on these considerations and taking intoconsideration the total domestic fuel requirementand the production of firewood, charcoal and agri­cultural waste, the consumption of dung as fuel foreach state has been worked out and is given in Table 4.

The total domestic consumption 01 various fuels inrural areas is summed up in Table 5. Dung forms 60·7per cent and firewood 27·7 per cent of the total con­sumption of 64·10 million tons of firewood equivalent.

463

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

TABLE 5-DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION OFFUELS IN RURAL AREAS

FUEL TOTAL CONSUMPTION PERCENT-CONSUMPTION PER HEAD AGE OF

~----. r-~ TOTALAs fuel Wood As fuel As woodmillion equi- lb. equi-

Ions valent valentmillion lb.

Ions

Firewood 17·720 17·72 1·29 129·0 • 27-7Charcoal 0'234 0·47 1·70 H 0·7Agricultural 7·000 7·00 50'60 50'6 10·9

and plantwastes (inwood equi-valent)

Dung (sun- 62-260 38·91 452·00 282·0 60·7dry)

Total 64·10 465·0 100·0

Domestic consumption of fuel in urban areasDuring the past fifty years the pattern of fuel

consumption in th'e urban households ha~ undergonesome change. To begin with, firewood was the onlydomestic fuel employed; small amounts of dungwere also used. The supplies of firewood wereobtained from the rural areas and forest plantationsnear the urban centres. During the First WorldWar, the forest plantations suffered heavily and afterthe war, although firewood was still the main domesticfuel in the towns, its supplies were no more local.During the Second World War, firewood suppliesdecreased further and the rural areas were almostexhausted of firewood species. Since then the urbanpopulation has started using soft coke and electricityand kerosene oil to some extent. Sawdust and wood­working waste are also now employed in urbanhouseholds.

The consumption of different fuels for domesticpurposes in urban areas is discussed below. Sinceplant wastes are consumed in negligible amounts,firewood, charcoal, dung and other primary fuelssuch as coke and kerosene are discussed.

Firewood - The National Sample Survey of Indiahas collected information on the domestic consump­tion of firewood and charcoal for the urban areas.Recently, the National Council of Applied EconomicResearch, New Delhi, also undertook an investigationon similar lines. According to the National SampleSurvey4 the consumption of firewood is the lowest ineast India amounting to 198 lb. per head per year.It is because urban areas in this zone lie mostly inWest Bengal where, on account of the proximity tothe coalfields, soft coke is available in plenty andcheap, and is consequently the main domestic fuel.Firewood, on the other hand, is in short supply andcostly. Calcutta, which is by far the biggest single

464

urban unit in this area, uses firewood only as a subsi­diary fuel.

In the central zone, firewood consumption is thehighest, i.e. 618 lb. per head per year, and but for theregion constituted by the former Hyderabad State,the central zone has ample firewood resources. TheMadhya Pradesh Government is paying specialattention to the proper distribution of firewood overthe whole state. Lastly, this zone is not sufficientlyurbanized and hence the use of soft coke and otherprimary fuels is yet to be established.

For the country as a whole the annual domesticconsumption of firewood is 372 lb. per head of urbanpopulation. The total firewood, consumption is11·45 million tons which is a little less than twice itsrecorded production. This is understandable becausepractically the whole of the recorded production offirewood is directed towards meeting the needs ofthe towns with additional supplies coming from un­recorded sources like the surrounding rural areas,private lands, gardens, etc., and from the sawmillsand wood-working industries.

Charcoal- Only south and south-west India areconsuming significant quantities of charcoal and theconsumption is estimated at 27 lb. per head per year.Since these zones are far away from coal productioncentres, soft coke is not used to any great extent.

The total amount of charcoal used in urban house­holds in India is 435,000 tons or 14·7 lb. per headwhich is nine times the amount employed in ruralareas.

Dung - Dung is used in relatively small amountsas compared to rural areas and the dried dung cakesare produced locally. As a rough estimate about 40per cent (33 million tons) of the available dung isburnt as domestic fuel in the urban sector which­works out to 3 million tons (sun-dry) or 97 lb. ofdry dung per head per annum. The correspondingfigure as air-dry wood equivalent is 1·89 million tonsor 61 lb. per head. Thus the use of dung in theurban households is about one-fifth of that in therural households.

Soft coke - Soft coke is being increasingly used asdomestic fuel in the urban areas. In the easternparts of the country its use is the greatest. In Delhiit forms about 50 per cent of the total domestic fuelconsumption. In Calcutta the percentage is higher.In 1954, the amount of soft coke used for domesticuse was 1·4 million tons or 1·75 million tonsl4 of coalequivalent. The wood equivalent of it is 2·24million tons. Assuming that the whole of it wasconsumed in urban areas, the per capita consumptionof coal is 45·4 lb. or as wood equivalent to 73 lb.

Electricity-In 1954, electrical energy used for heat­ing and other purposes in the domestic sector in India

JAI KISHEN: DOMESTIC FUEL CONSUMPTION IN INDIA

"Electrical energy consumed expressed in million kWh.

TABLE 6 - ANNUAL DOMESTIC FUEL ANDPOWER CONSUMPTION IN URBAN AREAS

TABLE 7-TOTAL ANNUAL DOMESTIC FUELCONSUMPTION IN INDIA

"Total electrical energy consumed expressed in millionkWh. and per capita consumption in kWh.

CONSUMP­TION

%

QUANTITY QUANTITYCONSUMED IN WOOD

miNion tons EQUIVALENTmillion tons

FUEL

FUEL FUEL IN WOOD EQUIVALE:-ITCONSUMPTION , I

~ Total Per Percent-Total Per milliou capita age of

",illioll capita tons lb. totaltons lb.

Firewood (air- 12-60 409·00 12-60 409·0 69·5dry)

Charcoal 0·50 16'00 1·00 32·0 5-4Dung (sun-dry) 3·00 97·00 1·89 61·0 10·4Soft coke 1·40 45-40 2·24 73-0 1204Electricity" 48·94 2·16 0·11 3·6 0'6l(erosene 0·10 3'20 0'30 9·7 1·7

All fuels 18·14 588·3 100·0

Firewood (air-dry) 30·320 30·32 36·9Charcoal 0'734 1-47 1·8Agricultural and plant 7·000 7·00 8·4

wastes (in.wood equi-valent)

Dung (sun-dry) 65·260 40·80 49-6Soft coke 1·400 2-24 .2-7Kerosene 0·100 0'30 0·4Electricity" 148·940 0'11 0·1

industrial wood. In most countries of south-eastAsia this ratio varies from 8 to 10. Per capita annualconsumption of firewood in India works out to 180 lb.or 4·4 cu. ft. If wood for making charcQal is included,it works out to 4·9' cu. ft.

In addition to 734,000 tons of charcoal consumedin the domestic sector, another 150,000 tons areutilized in industry, bringing the total to about884,000 tons. Out of this, 335,000 tons are therecorded production, the rest coming from unrecordedsources.

The total green dung produced in the country is1036 million tons and the quantity available for use is696 million tons. The dung consumed as fuel isabout 300 million tons (green) or 65·26 million tons(sun-dry), which forms 43 per cent of the availableamount.

For the whole country the quantity of fuel usedfor domestic purposes is 82·24 million tons in woodequivalent. Wood, charcoal, agricultural and plantwastes and dung constitute 97 per cent of the totaland the primary fuels constitute only 3 per cent.Dung alone accounts for 50 per cent of the totalamount of fuel consumed.

was estimated at 135·4 million kWh.I.. Since prac­tically the whole of it was confined to the urban areas,the consumption per head works out to 1'96 kWh.Assuming that the efficiency of electric heating isabout four times that of the burning of firewood, thisworks out to, in terms of wood equivalent, 0·1 milliontons or 3·3 lb. per head of urban population.

Kerosene oil- Although mainly used for illumina­tion purposes, kerosene oil is also used for domesticheating and the quantity used may be about 0·1million tons or 0·3 million tons in wood equivalent or9·7 lb. per head per year. Its consumption is, how­ever, increasing rapidly.

The consumption of fuel in hostels, boardinghouses, messes, hotels, restaurants, etc., should beconsidered as part of the fuel used for domesticpurposes. For want of a better estimate, the con­sumption by these establishments has been fixed at 10per: cent of that in the urban households. Modify­ing the estimates for firewood, charcoal and electri­city accordingly, the domestic power and fuel con­sumption in the urban areas is summarized in Table 6.

In terms of wood equivalent, the total domesticfuel consumption is 18·14 million tons and per capitaconsumption is 588·.3 lb. This does not include theenergy used for illumination. Assuming the averagestrength of a household as 5·3 persons, the consump­tion per household is 3118 lb. of firewood equivalentor 25 X 106 B.t.u. The estimate according to theCentral Fuel Research Institutel is 30 X 106 B.t.u.

Table 6 shows that firewood is still the principaldomestic fuel in the urban areas, forming over 69 percent of the total consumption. The consumption ofdung and soft coke is nearly the same, each beingabout 10 and 12 per cent respectively of the totalfuel consumed. Charcoal, which comes next, is 5per cent. Thus in the urban sector the averageamount of domestic fuels utilized per head is about27 per cent more than that in the rural areas.

Total domestic fuel consumption in India - InTable 7 is recorded the total domestic fuel con­sumption for both rural and the urban areas.

The quantity of firewood consumed per annum inthe domestic sector is 30·32 million tons which,together with 1·2 million tons consumed in otherways, makes a total of 31·52 million tons. Of thisquantity about 0·7 million tons is wood-waste ob­tained from the various wood-based industries. Therest of 30·82 million tons are made up of firewood.Thus the total quantity of firewood consumed in thecountry is about five times its recorded production.

The average annual production of industrial woodin the country for 1953-55 has been estimated at225 million cu. ft or 4·5 million tons16• The quantityof firewood produced in India is seven times that of

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J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES,. VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

Acknowledgement

The author wishes to express his gratitude toShri N. P. Mohan of ECAFE and Shri C. A. R.Bhadran, Chief Conservator of Forests, Madras, forthe valuable discussions he had with them and fortheir help in crystallizing the subject matter. Theauthor also expresses his thanks to the CompostDevelopment Officer, Government of India, and theForest Utilization Officer, Orissa, for the informationreceived from them, and the Union Ministry of Foodand Agriculture for giving him an opportunity tobe associated with the Timber Trend Study whichprovided the incentive for making this survey.

References

1. Domestic Fuel, FRI News, 3 (1953), 1-6.2. SAHA, M. N., Nature, Lond., 177 (1956), 923-4.3. Census of India 1951 (Manager of Publications, Govern­

ment of India, New Delhi), 1957.4. FAOjECAFE Timber Trend Study for the Far East:

Country Report for India (Ministry of Food & Agriculture,Government of India, New Delhi), 1958, Statement No.16 and Table 11.

5, Indian Forest Statistics, 1954-55, Vol. I (SummaryTables) (Manager of Publications, Government of India,New Delhi), 1957, 12.

6. Indian Forest Statistics, 1954-55, Vol. I (SlImmary ofTables) (Manager of Publications, Government of India,New Delhi), 1957,2-6.

7. ACHARYA, C. N., Indian Fmg, 5 (1944), 470.8. BURNS, W., Technical Possibilities of Agricultllral Devel­

opment in India (Superintendent, Lahure Printing Press,Punjab), 1944, 116.

9. N'ATARAJAN, H" Report OH Pilot SUYlJry in J\!/anure Pro­duction in Chinglepllt Districl, Madras (GovernmentPrinting Press, Madras), 1954.

10. PUTNAM, P. C., l,;nergy in Ihe Future (Van Nostrand &Co., New York), 1953, 347-55.

11. BHABHA, H. ]., Pror.eedin/:s of Ihe J.l1lemalional Conferenceon the Peaceful Uses of Alomic Energy, Vol. I (UnitedNations, New York), 1956.

12. Advisory Board of the Imperial Council of AgriculturalResea.rch, New Delki: IHemorandHm on the Del·etopmentof Agricultllre and Animal I-llIsbandry in Illdia, A'o. 27,1944.

13. Rrport of tlte Experts Committee on Manllres and Fertilis"s.No. 34 (Ministry of Food & ,\griclliture, Government ofIndia, New Delhi), 1953.

14. Utilization of Primary Energy in huha (Xational Councilof Applied Economic Research, New Delhi), 1958.

15. Public Electricity SlIpply-AIt India. Slatislics, 1954(Central Water & Power Commission, New Delhi), 1955.

16. FAOjECAFE Timber Trend Study for tlte Far East:Country IIeport for India (Ministry of Food & Agricul­ture, Government of India, Xew Delhi), 1958, Table 2.

Sir Alfred Egerton, F.R.S.: I886-I959-0bituary

THE NEWS OF THE DEATH OF SIR ALFRED EGERTON,

F.R.S., Professor of Chemical Technology, ImperialCollege, London, on 7 September 1959 will be receivedwith regret by many Indian students who have hadtheir research training under him. Sir Alfred will,however, be remembered in India for his work asthe Chairman of two scientific reviewing commit­tees - the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, in1948 and the Council of Scientific & IndustrialResearch in 1954 - and for his contributions tothe development of scientific research in India.

Born on 11 October 1886, Sir Alfred was educatedat Eton and the University College, London. Hewas one of the last group of research students of SirWilliam Ramsay. He subsequently studied in Ber­lin under Prof. Nernst, a Nobel Laureate. In 1923, hewas appointed Reader in Thermodynamics at OxfordUniversity. From 1936 to 1952, he was Professor ofChemical Technology, Imperial College, London. Hewas elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1926and served as its Secretary from 1938 to 1948. Hewas knighted in 1943. He filled many importantpositions in public life. He was a member of theWar Cabinet Scientific Advisory Committee, Fuelsand Propulsion Committee (Admiralty), ScientificAdvisory Council (Ministry of Fuel) and Director,Salters' Industrial Research Institute. He first

466

visited India in 1948 as the Chairman of the Re­viewing Committee for the Indian Institute of Science,Bangalore. Later, in 1954, he was invited to acceptthe Chairmanship of the Reviewing Committee setup by the Council of Scientific & Industrial Researchto appraise the researches, both pure and applied,conducted at the national laboratories, and spon­sored research at universities and other researchinstitutions, and suggest future lines of development.

Sir Alfred Egerton was an authority on Combustion,particularly on problems bearing on 'knock', aphenomenon which occurs in internal combustionengines. As a result of brilliant research he showedthat the' knock' was brought about by the localenhancement of the rate of reaction owing to chainreactions produced and sustained by highly energizedintermediate products identified as peroxides. Hisapproach was mainly fundamental, resulting instudies bearing on a better understanding of thephenomenon of combustion. The results of theseresearches are found in the Proceedings of the RoyalSociety, covering varied topics in combustion such as(1) limits of inflammability, (2) flames under lowpressure, (3) flat flames, (4) combustion in engines,(5) exhaust flames from jet engines, etc. In theseprojects many Indian students made valuable con­tributions under his guidance.

An Examination ofAxiomatization & Information TheoryApplication in Neurophysiology*

G. WERNERt

Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Ribeirao Preto, Brazil

Manuscript received 4 February 1959

The axiomatization tendency and the information network theory applicationin neurophysiology have been critically examined, and the experiments andlinguistic habits the various theories involve have been briefly discussed. Fromthis analysis, it is concluded that biological material can be handled only in aframework of empirically workable concepts.

I T is in the nature of scientific enquiry thatevery potential subject of scientific thoughtreaches sooner or later a stage in which it is

treated axiomatically and thereby enters the domainof mathematics: " Science concedes to idealism thatits objective reality is not given but to be construc­ted", was the way in which Weyll characterized thisstate of affairs. In biology, however, a large part ofstatements about the subject matter is of purelydescriptive nature or of a type which Mainx2 named. Pauschalaussagen' (blanket statements); these arestatements referring to highly complex occurrenceswhich can be analysed into a series of lower order,testable statements. "The respiratory quotient ofHerbivorous is one ", exemplifies a blanket statementwhich in the course of further analysis can be brokendown into observational records of lower generalityand finally into . protocol sentences' of the typeidealized by the Vienna circle. Even in very elemen­tary descriptive statements, .however, there existsalready the beginning of hypothesis constructionand, in fact, the structure of the language used to for­mulate a statement, in itself, determines to some ex;­tent, the nature of the hypothesis. It must not beoverlooked that the subject-predicate constructionof human languages represents in itself a hypothesisabout the nature of the Universe as pointed out byWhorf3. But statements about observations are notonly determined by the syntax of the language in

'The present paper is meant as a personal tribute to Prof.C. R. Sankaran, Phonetics Laboratory, Deccan College Re­search Institute, Poona, through whom I have learnt somuch about the subject. I am also indebted to Prof. San­karan for the final form in which the paper is presentedhere.

tPresent address: Department of Pharmacology, CornellUniversity Medical College, New York.

which they are formulated but also by the meaningof the constituent words which, at some earlystage of the development of a field of scientificenquiry, may be identical with their intuitive meaningin everyday linguistic use. More frequently, how­ever, specific semantic rules are developed to definethe way in which certain words may be connected tomeaningful sentences and such semantic rules implyin most cases a very specific hypothesis as to thenature of the event which is to be represented by theparticular statement about it: " the drug A producesbehavioural arousal by desynchronizing the electro­encephalogram" is a typical statement which may befound in the note-book of an experimenter in neuro­pharmacology and it has, structurally, the appearanceof an observational record. However, the terms. arousal' and . desynchronization' are connectibleto a meaningful sentence only if we take a specifichypothesis for granted, namely that statisticallyirregular activity of nerve cells of the central nervoussystem is in some way linked with the organism'sability to perceive, and react upon, the environment.The credit for pointing out the' principle of connecti­vity' in scientific discourse goes to Mises4•

Goody5 has recently given a typical example forthe kind of fallacy that may arise from improperlinguistic habits in neurology, which dates back tothe days of Jackson: "the activity X is localized inregion Z of the central nervous system". A state­ment of this type is legitimate only on the basis ofa specific hypothesis, namely that there exists a speci­fic and invariable correspondence between certainfunctions of and certain regions in the central ner­yous system. Such a hypothesis, in its generality,is no longer tenable on experimental grounds, and

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J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

statements of this type are, therefore, not permis­sible, although they occur frequently in neurologicallanguage.

In more recent years, it has become customary touse in neurology, as in linguistics', certain terms andphrases which originally were formulated, and whosesemantics was defined, in information theory or inalgebraic theory of electrical networks7• Their useis now common 'in neurophysiology and it seemsnecessary to examine whether their semantic rulesare such as to justify their use in the subject matterof neurology, for which they were not specificallydefined. Such an examination is all the more neces­sary as the previously indicated examples show towhat extent linguistic habits determine the structureof statements and involve assumptions about thenature of facts; they thereby may, as in fact thelinguistic habit of ' cerebral localization' did, inter­fere with progress in a certain field of enquiry. Infor­mation and network theories were from the verybeginning particularly attractive to neurologists,because they permitted to some extent an axiomaticapproach in neurology, as will be shown subsequently.

Axiomatic systems in general must fulfil certainconditions in order to be considered valid4 : (1) theremust be consistency within the system, i.e. state­ments of the type (a. ....., a) 'ire prohibited; (2) inde­pendent interchangeability of the axioms must begranted; and (3) correspondence to observables,obtained by co-ordinating the arbitrary symbols ofthe axiomatic system with ~ertain protocol sentencesabout observables, must be demonstrable.

Although axiomatic systems consist only of tauto­logies, as repeatedly pointed out by the logical posi­tivists, their importance consists in the fact that,provided certain formulae of the system are made tocorrespond to observables, any derived formula willalso correspond to observables.

For the axiomatic system~ under consideration,conditions (1) and (2) will be considered as valid andno further discussion appears necessary in view of theexisting liter~ture8,9; only the correspondence prin­ciple will be discussed here for the subject matter ofneurology and an attempt will also be made to analyseexplicitly whether, and to what extent, semanticalrules and basic assumptions of information and formalnetwork theories may be applied to represent obser­vations about the way in which the central nervoussystem functions. More specifically, an attempt willbe made to show whether communication and elec­trical network theory can be considered as a poten­tially useful theory in neurology whose linguisticapparatus may legitimately be used to map eventsoccurring in the central nervous system. It will beuseful to divide the enquiry into two parts, and

468

consider network and information theories separately.Both represent higher level hypothesis in the sensedefined by WoodgerLO,ll, characterizing the introduc­tion of words and subject-matter signs different fromthe lower level hypothesis (i.e. generalized observa­tional .records).

Formal neural network theory

When Turing12 in 1936 offered the complete prooffor the now famous theorem according to which it isalways possible to design a machine that, given anyaxiomatic system, can state and prove all theoremspossible within that system, up to the limitationdrawn by Giidel's theorem, he set the stage for thedevelopment of theoretical neurophysiology. Makinga series of plausible assumptions, such as: (1) theactivity of the neuron is an ' all-or-none' process;(2) a certain fixed number of synapses must be excitedwithin the period of latent addition in order to excitea neuron at any time, and this number is independentof previous activity and position of the neuron; (3) theonly significant delay within the nervous system issynaptic delay, which is measured in quantized units;(4) the activity of any inhibitory synapse absolutelyprevents excitation of the neuron at that time;and (5) the structure of the net does not change withtime.

McCulloch and Pitts13,U outlined in 1943 a pro­positional calculus of neuron networks which per­mitted to represent, by a formal network, any eventdescribable in a finite number of words. Their workallowed to draw some very interesting epistemicconclusions: specification of the state of a given netat anyone time t is sufficient to determine fully itsstate at the time t +1; however, knowing the state ofthe net at time t never permits complete determinationof the state at t-I. The existence of regenerativeactivity of constituent circles and the inclusion of thedisjunctive relation makes statements about timepast indefinite. It is, therefore, obvious that anyevent can be mapped on activity within a neuron net,but by no such activity are the actual afferentsunambiguously determined: "The thing in itselfceases to be knowable".

For several reasons, it soon became necessary torevise the nerve-net theory of McCulloch and Pitts,for the purpose of satisfying the correspondencerequirement of axiomatic systems for the subjectof neurophysiology. The universal elements of theMcCulloch-Pitts networks are postulated to functionerrorlessly and it is obvious that one single failure of aneuron in a highly specific net renders the whole netuseless. It also became apparent that some morecomplicated representations would need more neuronsthan there are nerve cells in the central nervous

WERNER: AXIOMATIZATION & INFORMATION THEORY APPLICATION IN NEUROPHYSIOLOGY

system. Finally, there will always be an infinity ofnetworks whose firing pattern will be isomorphic to agiven event and this fact diminishes the predictiveand representative value of the theory.

Shimbel and Rapoportl5 examined a probabilisticapproach by assuming the existence of a probabilitydistribution of different kinds of synaptic connectionsin the net. Considerations of faulty functions of thebasic elements of a net are, in such instances, ofparticular interest in which the 'logical depth' ofthe represented event (i.e. the number of sequentialoperations in time) is large. Neumann16 proposed assolution the existence, and essential properties, of• neuron pools', for restoring the excitation levelof multiple transmission lines to either of the twovalues of the digital system, i.e. 0 or 1, in accordancewith the actual excitation level in the line. Assump­tions of this kind seem sufficiently realistic sinceit is well established that the analogue principle isextensively represented in th~ functioning of nervousstructures.

A set of basic assumptions, different from the sys­tems mentioned so far, was made as the starting pointof a much promising theory by Cragg and Temperley17)

the functional structures of the cerebral cortex isconsidered in terms of • co-operative phenomena'which represent the subject of statistical mechanics.Apart from digital interaction between neuronsthrough synapses, analogue processes in the form ofextracellular current flow are discussed. Therewould be a differentiation of the whole system indomains defined by equal values of membrane poten­tial, and energetic considerations always favour in sucha system the assumption of a domain pattern with aminimum of free energy. Levels of excitation areconsequently not only dependent on the pattern ofafferences, but also on the distribution of domainsover the whole system and impulses impingillg uponthe system alter, in turn, the domain pattern of thewhole system. Observations of Lilly18 on travellingwaves in the central nervous system are compatiblewith this model and his observations cannot beexplained on the basis of ordinary digital automatatheories. It, therefore, appears that the linguisticand the formal apparatus of the thermodynamics ofco-operative phenomena is more adequate for therepresentation of events in the central nervous systemthan any other existing form of theoretical neuro­physiology. However, this approach is still in thevery early stages of development.

Obviously, anyone of the hypotheses discussedsuggests certain types of experiments and certainlinguistic habits which one should be aware ofwhenever statements are translated from one con­ceptual framework to another. To give an example:

• impulse', in the McCulloch-Pitts hypothesis, is alocalized event occurring in one faultlessly workinguniversal organ whose interaction with its neighboursis described by the rules of Boolean algebra, extendedin quantized time. In a co-operative phenomenatheory, an impinging impulse alters the energy dis­tribution of a set of domains and the semantic rulesfor the use of the word • impulse' are consequentlydifferent. .

Communication theory

The subject of communication theory is theamount oLinformation and the quantitative relationsdescribing its transmission. Assuming a finite num­ber of events whose a priori probabilities of occur­rence (Pi) are known, the amount of informationobtained can be defined by, knowing which of these

"events actually occurred, as H= - 'f, Pi log2 Pi (ini=l

bits). This definition bears close formal resemblanceto the statistical definition of the entropy of a closedsystem, and in fact, the definition is fOrinally identical,considering that the • configuration number' is thenumber of a prior·i equally probable states that arecompatible with the macroscopic description of thestate. In other words, the entropy of the sytemcorresponds to the amount of (micro-state) informa­tion that is missing in the macroscopic description.The theory was developed in this form by Szilard19*and Shannon2o and is of great value in all caseswhich information is processed, as for instance intransmission lines and computers; computers, inthis sense, are looked upon as circuit elementswith characteristic transfer functions for informa­tion.

Taking into account the apparent similarity betweenimpulses conducted in peripheral nerves and signalstransmitted in electronic network, it is tempting to re­present events occurring in the central nervous systemin terms of concepts of information theory. Thishas, in fact, been extensively done in recent years,and as a result, corresponding hypotheses on centralnervous system functioning have been proposed.The notion of feedback (i.e. transfer of a fraction ofthe output signal to the input terminals in suitablephase relation) proved particularly useful for design­ing models with goal seeking behaviour21. In allthese cases the central nervous system was con­sidered to be a • black box' and only input-outputrelations were discussed.

"For a satisfactory phenomenological formulation of theentropy law see Popper, K. R., Brit.]. Phil. Soc., 8 (30) (1957),153-5, in which he has demonstrated the unsatisfactorynature of Szilard's discussion on Maxwell's Demon. Popper'sconcluding comments are illuminating.

469

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

Certain basic considerations about the applicabi­lity. of information theory to neurophysiology are,however, essential before any such theory may beconsidered as legitimate in its extension to the centralnervous system. Assuming, for the moment, thatsense data in the form of measurable quantities inspace and time were transformed in the centralnervous system as sensations (i.e. qualities, notmeasurable in space and time), an attitude of neuro­logical idealism would be adopted, with which theapplication of information theory to neurologicaldata are no longer compatible. In this case, we wouldhave to say that the central nervous system gene­rates topological invariants out of metrical invariants.Some support for this idea can be obtained from thework of Piaget who showed that in the course ofdevelopment of the child's concept of the Universe,topological aspects controlling behaviour arise longbefore the notion of metrics. In order to apply in­formation theory to neurology, we must adopt a, neurological realism' of the kind that any sensationexists in the central nervous system as patterns ofneuronal activity in space and time. The applicationof information theory to neurology, therefore, alreadyimplies in itself a basic decision about a high levelhypothesis according to which we assume the centralnervous system to work.

Having made the d~ision that the informationtheory may be applied to neurological data, the fol­lowing problem arises: a 'black box' consideredas an organ in which information transfer takesplace, can at best transmit an amount of informa­tion equal to the one received at the input termi­nals; as a rule there will be degradation and wasteof information taking place. The central nervoussystem on the other hand is undoubtedly able toperform activity (i,e. produce output) in the absenceof an input signal and it resembles, therefore, in somefunctions at least, more an information generatorthan an information machine (i.e. a computer). Anexample for activity independent of input to thecentral nervous system was first discovered byAdrian22 when he demonstrated electric activity inthe completely isolated olfactory bulb of fishes, the, emission of behaviour' as used for operant condi­tioning23 and numerous instances of innate behaviourpatterns activated by releasers24 are also not com­patible with the' black box' notion of the centralnervous system.

In some respects, it will undoubtedly be permissibleto apply formal apparatus and semantic rules ofinformation theory to certain functions of the nervoussystem, e.g. in the description of simple input-outputrelation across synapses of any kind, as long as theycan be looked upon as ' black boxes'. Reichenbachzs

+70

even came to the conclusion that the notion ofdirection of time was based on memory function,acting like a registering instrument that storesinformation; time's arrow points in the direction ofincrease of information content. It is evident that,within certain domains of events, information theoryprovides useful linguistic rules and concepts; how­ever, for the fundamental reason that the centralnervous system, in its entirety, cannot be considereda •black box', information theory cannot be appliedto phenomena of more complex occurrences in thecentral nervous system.

Dealing exclusively with quantities of information,definable as a logarithmic measure of the statisticalunexpectedness of a message, Shannon's theory leavescompletely open the question involved in the quali­tative characterization of messages, i.e. their meaningto the recipient. A profoundly' biological' approachto this problem was suggested by Mackay26; meaningin his concept is closely tied up with the behaviouralconsequences a message pro.duces in the recipient.The meaning of a message depends, therefore, alsoon the recipient's past knowledge. Measurementof meaning may conveniently be based on the selec­tive function of a message on the ensemble of possible• conditional probability matrices' which describethe set of behaviour patterns of an organism. Wemay thereby extend the • classical' informationtheory of Shannon to the domain of meaning, byshowing that' meaning' can be given a quantitativeplace within an enlarged framework of informationtheory: •meaning' can be quantitatively defined andexperimentally determined as logarithmic measureof the size of change caused by the selective opera­tion of a message on the ensemble of possible outcomes(in biological terms; conditional probability matrixof organismic behaviour). In geometrical inter­pretation, the meaning of a message can be picturedas a vector in the • information space' where eachpoint stands for a particular state of the representedorganism26. The similarity of Mackay's basic ideato the concept of the • semantic reaction' of Kor­zybski is apparent: information, looked upon fromthe point of view of the recipient's past knowledge,turns into semantics.

The utility of this concept may be illustrated bya set of recently communicated observations. Inaccordance with its general definition, we may takethe electrical response of various areas in the centralnervous system as one of the measurable indices of'meaning' of a real-life stimulus situation; suchrecords were taken by Hernandez-Peon27 and Hernan­dez-Peon et al. 28 in animals with permanently im­planted electrodes and it became obvious from thiswork, to what extent temporal succession of identical

WERNER: AXIOMATIZATION & INFORMATION THEORY APPLICATION IN NEUROPHYSIOLOGY

and simultaneously competing stimulus patternsalter the electrical response, i.e. direction and abso­lute size of the vector representing the 'meaning'of physical stimulus patterns in the 'informationspace' of the observed organism.

Taking together the evidence presented with res­pect to the legitimacy of theoretical neurophysi~logyand information theory in neurology, it becomesevident that both approaches can at best be lookedupon as models, suggesting certain linguistic andsemantic rules of a specific vocabulary, to be used,however, only with great caution. In the classicaland original form, their axiomatic structures do notcorrespond to the neurological reality·. This stateof affairs is remedied to some extent in the modi­fications and extensions as given in the Cragg­Temperley hypothesis or in Mackay's concept ofmeaning. In these modified forms, the theories are,however, not yet sufficiently formalized as to providea generalized abstract representation of neurologicalevents.

Once more, the view of Burnett is confirmed, viz... The handling of biological material will always bethe business of sciences using their own workingconcepts "28.

References1. WEYL, H., Philosophy of Math.matics and Natural Sciences

(Princeton University Press, Princeton), 1949, 116.

"For a similar limitation to axiomatic treatment withrespect to linguistic structures, reference may be made tothe work of Meyer-Eppler'. For, in the history of languagesthere is a good deal of mixing and blending. Languagephenomena do not work on schematic lines, as we see that.. the great linguistic stocks of the world must have evolvedby a process of constant mixing, blending and splitting"(UhlenbecklO). In other words, both the fields of neurologyand linguistics cannot be .. exhibited as a set of logical de­ductions from postulates of impotence, as has already hap­pened to thermodynamics ". In order that our meaningmay be made clear. here we refer to the following wordsof Whittaker": .. We may therefore conjecturally look for­ward to a time in the future when a treatise in any branchof physics could, if so desired, be written in the same style, asEuclid's Elements of Geometry, beginning with some a prioriprinciples, namely postulates of impotence. and then derivingeverything else from them by syllogistic reasoning".

2. MAINX, F., quoted in International Encyclopedia of UnifiedScience, translated by J. H. Woodger, Vol. 1. Part 2(Chicago University Press, Chicago), 1955.

3. WHaRF, B. L., Int. ]. Amer. Linguis., 16 (1950). 67.4. MISES, R. V., Positivism, a Study in Human Understanding

(Harvard University Press, Cambridge. Massachusetts),1951. .

5. GOODY, W., Brain, 79 (1956), 167.6. MEYER-EpPLER, W., Indian Linguistics, 17 (1955-56),

59-69.7. WIENER, N., Cybernetics (John Wiley & Sons. New York),

1948, 137-55.8. BRILLOUIN, L., Science and Inf01'mation The01'Y (Academic

PrfSS Inc., New York), 1956.9. BELL, D. A., Inf01'mation The01'Y and Its Engineering

Application (Pitman & Sons. London), 1956.10. WOODGER, J. H., Physics, Psychology and Medicine

(Cambridge University Press, London), 1956.11. WOODGER. J. H., Biology and Language. Turner Lecture,

1949-50 (Cambridge University Press, London). 1952,32,317.

12. TURING. A. M., Proc. Lond. math. Soc., 42 (1936), 230.13. MCCULLOCH, W. S. & PITTS, W., Bull. Math. Biophys••

5 (1943), 115.14. RASHEYSKY, N., Mathematical Biophysics (Chicago Uni­

versity Press,' Chicago), 1948, 356, 366, 539-60.15. SHIMBEL, A. & RAPOPORT, A., Bull. Math. Biophys., 10

(1948),41.16. NEUMANN, J. V., cited in Automata Studies edited by

G. N. Shannon & J. McCarthy (Princeton UniversityPress, Princeton), 1956.

17. CRAGG, B. G. & TEMPERLEY, H. N. V., Electroenceph. clin.Neurophysiol.• 6 (1956), 85.

18. LILLY, J. C., Amer. ]. Physiol., 176 (1954), 493.19. SZILARD. L., Z. Phys., 53 (1929), 840.20. SHANNON, C. E., Bell Sv,t. tech. ]., 27 (1948). 379.21. ASHBY, W. Ross, Design for a Brain (Chapman & Hall

Ltd, London), 1952, 53.22. ADRIAN, W. D.• Proceedings of the Symposium of the

Cambridge Physiological Society f01' Experimental Biology,No. IV (Cambridge University Press, London), 1950.85.

23. SKINNER, B. F., Amer. Psychologist, 8 (1953), 69.24. LORENZ, K., Proceedings of the Symposium of the Cam­

bridge Physiological Society for Experimental Biology,No. IV (Cambridge University Press, London). 1950.221.

25. REICHENBACH, H., Direction of Time (Princeton Uni­versity Press, Princeton), 1956, 186.

26. MACKAY, D. M., Third Symposium on Inf01'mation Theoryedited by Colin Cherry (Butterworths Scientific Publi­cations, London), 1956, 215-25.

27. HERNANDEZ-PEON, R., Communication (Association LatinAmericana de Ciencias Fisiologicas, Montevideo),1957.

28. HERNANDEZ-PEON, R., SCHERRER, H. & JOUVET. M.•Science, 123 (1956), 331.

29. BURNETT, M., Enzyme, Antigen and Virus (CambridgeUniversity Press, London), 1956.

30. UHLENBECK, C. C., A mer. Anthrop., 39 (1937). 385-93.31. WHITTAKER, E., From E1lclid. to Eddington (Cambridge

University Press, London), 1949, 60.

Chemical Composition of Tobacco Leaves & Its Influenceon the Grade Obtained on Flue-curing

A. S. SASTRY & P. SITAPATHI*

Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry

Manuscript received 13 March 1959

The influence of the various chemical constituents in green tobacco leaveson the grade of tobacco obtained on flue-curing has been investigated. Byassigning marks to the various grades of cured tobacco on the basis of colourand extent of blemish, a multiple regression equation connecting the variouschemical constituents with the quality of cured tobacco has been workedout. It has been found that on the basis of the chemical composition of greenleaves, the favourable influence of moisture and starch on the quality ofcured tobacco is respectively 3 and It times the unfavourable influence ofnitrogen. Leaves with a fairly good amount of moisture (80-85 per cent) andstarch (t. 13 per cent) tend to produce good grades of tobacco on curing. Inthe cured leaves sugars are positively correlated with good grades of tobaccowhile nitrogen is negatively correlated.

I T is common experience that tobacco leavesgrown under similar conditions and harvestedat the same time and apparently at the same

stage of maturity, and cured on the same stick, fallinto different grades. Minute differences in tempera­ture and humidity conditions to which the leaves aresubjected during curing may be one of the factorsresponsible for this. The differences in the chemicalcomposition of the leaves may be another factor.

The positive influence of carbohydrates and thenegative influence of nitrogenous constituents on thequality of flue-cured tobacco have been recognized byseveral workers. Schmuckl showed that quality inRussian cigarette tobacco varied directly with thepercentage of sugars and inversely with the proteins,and the ratio of these two constituents is known as'Schmuck number '. Kovalenk02 substituted theproteins in this ratio by the percentage of totalnitrogen excluding nicotine nitrogen. Accordingto Ward3 and Darkis et al.4 , quality in flue-curedtobacco is directly related to percentage content ofsugars in the cured leaf. Blick5 found a fairly goodagreement between quality and the ratio of totalsugars to total nitrogen in New Zealand leaves.Phillips et al.S showed that grades of flue-cured .tobacco which differ in physical properties also differdecidedly in chemical composition. Elliot et aUworked out statistical correlations between the

'Present address: Assistant Collector, Nellore.

472

chemical composition and .arbitrarily assigned pricesof grades of flue-cured tobacco and found that theratio of total sugars to total nitrogen gave the bestcorrelation with quality.

The influence of the chemical composition of greenleaves on the quality of cured leaf, as determined bygrades of tobacco obtained on curing, has been ex­tensively investigated by Sastrys-n and it has beenshown that the initial carbohydrate content of thegreen leaf - which was mostly starch .-largelyaccounted for the production of better grades8•9,1l.

It has also been observed that leaves cultured onwater for different periods produced better grades than'those allowed to wilt for the same periodslo or curedimmediately after harvesP2. These studies havegiven an indication that starch and moisture in thegreen leaf are in some way connected with the gradeof tobacco obtained on curing the leaf. The influenceof nitrogen in the green leaf, however. has not beenbrought to light in the above studies. Macdowelll3,

however, has stated that high protein content in thegreen leaves was detrimental to quality.

The above investigations, however, were carriedout with groups of leaves and variations in theindividual leaves would have been masked by suchstudies.

The present investigations have. therefore, beenconducted with the object of obtaining more preciseinformation on the magnitude of importance of the

SASTRY It SITAPATHI: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF TOBACcd LEAVES

various chemical constituents, viz. moisture, starch,and nitrogen in the green leaf and sugars and nitrogenin the cured leaf, on the grades obtained on curing.This information was sought to be obtained by work­ing out statistical correlations bet~een the chemicalconstituents in each individual leaf and the gradeobtained on curing the same.

Materials and methods

For the purpose of this study leaves of five plantsof the variety Chatham (N. tabacum L.) were used.They were harvested in 8 successive primings whenthey were at the right stage of maturity. Each ofthese leaves was quickly divided into two halves bycutting it along the centre of its midrib and the greenweights of these two halves were determined. Oneof the half-leaves was preserved in the green stageby steaming and quickly drying in a current of airat 60°C., while the other was cured under controlledconditions in the laboratory. For curing the follow­ing procedure was adopted. The half-leaves wereallowed to yellow at 90°F. and 88-90 per centrelative humidity. When most of the half-leavesbecame completely yellow-in most of the curings thistook c. 30 hr - they were transferred to a speciallydesigned chamber for the' fixing' and 'drying' ope­rations. This chamber was equipped with electricheaters and water sprays and by adjusting and draw­ing air over them, air of any required temperatureand humidity could be drawn through the chamber,thereby avoiding any sponging or scalding during fix­ing. The dry and wet bulb temperatures during theseoperations in a typical curing are given in Table 1.

The' fil'ing' was completed in c. 8 hr and the entirecuring took 20-22 hr. After the curing was overthe leaves were brought to condition by opening thedoors of the chamber and exposing them to thehumid atmospheric air. They were then bulkedfor 10 days and their grad~ noted. For determiningthe grades the specifications given in the Agmarkgrading and marking ruleslC were followed, except

TABLE 1 - CURING CONDITIONS

CURING DRY BULB WET BULBSCHEDULE TEMP. TEMP.

h, OF. OF.

0-1 93 851-2 100 902-3 105 933-4 108 954-5 110 955-6 118 966-7 120 967-8 125 1008-9 130 100

9-10 147 9710-22 150 97

that mixture of grades 1 and 2 of Agmark wasdesignated as YI and mixture of grades 3 and ~ ofAgmark was designated as YI'

Leaves of plant No.1 were destroyed by weevilsand could not be analysed. The green halves wereindividually analysed for moisture, starch and totalnitrogen and the cured halves for total sugars andtotal nitrogen. The methods of analysis employedwere the same as those described in a previous paperS.

Results and discussion

By curing c. 15 half-leaves at a time, and fixing anddrying them in conditioned air, the curing conditionswere kept as near ideal as possible. However, thegrade of tobacco obtained by a particular leaf is theresult of not only its inherent physical and chemicalmake-up but also the deviations from the idealcuring conditions. The fit between the chemicalcomposition and grade obtained is not always exact.The only way to assess the influence of chemicalcomposition on the quality of cured leaf is by work­ing out statistical correlations between the variouschemical constituents in the leaves and the gradesof tobacco. For this purpose the grades of tobaccoobtained have to be equated with marks assignedto them on a rational basis. The basis used in thisstudy is the specifications given in the grading andmarking rulesu . According to these rules, grades 1and 2 - mixture of which is the same as Y1 in thisstudy - possess bright lemon yellow or orangeappearance with sponginess, scalding or blemishextending from 0 to 5 per cent of the leaf area.Hence this grade can carry a maximum of 100 marksand a minimum of 95 marks and is given 97·50 marks,the average of the two figures.

Grades 3 and ~ - mixture of which is the sameas Ys used in this study - possess yellow to orangecolour (a little less bright than grades 1 and 2) withblemish extending to 25 per cent of the leaf area.Therefore, the maximum marks these leaves cancarry are 95 and the minimum 75 per cent of 95 or71·20. This grade is, therefore, given 8HO marks,the average of 95 and 71·20.

Grade L.G. is of a lower colour category than YI

and consists of light green coloured leaf with blemishnot exceeding 10 per cent of the leaf area. This can,therefore, carry a maximum of 71·20 marks, which isthe minimum of Ys, and a minimum of 90 per centof 71·20 or 64'10, and is given an average mark of67·65.

Grade L.M.G. is of a still lower colour categoryand consists of leaves of light medium green colourwith blemish not exceeding 25 per cent of the leafarea. This can carry a maximum of 64·10 marks­the minimum of L.G. grade - and a minimum of

473

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

TABLE 2-CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GREEN AND CURED HALF-LEAVES

GRADE MARKS PLANT MOISTURE STARCH TOTAL TOTAL TOTALDESIGNATION ASSIGNED AND (ON FRESH % N SUGARS N

LEAF No. BASIS) , % % %%

D.G. 24·05 2-21 77-56 16·90 1·38 6·61 1·662-23 75·91 10'33 H5 7-77 1·78

Av. 76·74 13-62 1'42 7·19 1'72

L.M.G. 56'10 2-8 87·58 H2 1-07 5·39 1·932-10 85'78 1·34 1·28 6·57 2·162-11 85'58 3·77 1043 7-70 1·992-12 85-48 7-76 1'53 7·09 1-652-14 84-65 7·34 1·79 7·34 1-822-20 75·96 19'88 H3 13-99 1-663-9 86·26 4'23 1·53 6·16 1·303-28 76·81 17·73 1·29 9·93 1-684-8 86·19 4-15 1·51 5·09 HO4-28 77046 18-46 1·024-29 77-24 12·24 1·38 11-00 1'595-27 77-26 10'47 1'21 11·36 H3

Av. 82·19 9·07 1·37 8·33 1·69

L.B.Y.l 62'30 2-19 79·19 12'54 1·29 8·17 2-112-26 74'79 12·72 1·22 13·13 1·722-25 73·75 16'88 1·35 12-66 2·063-32 78·22 5'38 1·34 7046 2·013-30 78'20 12-25 1·37 7·54 1-823-31 75-81 12-45 1·17 13·18 2·013-29 75'20 9'37 1-19 12-64 1-605-21 79'75 21·81 1·00 8·33 0·915-23 76'51 22'93 1·35 13-05 1·275-29 76·48 17'52 1·27 7049 1·465-28 76·00 10·89 1·21 7-90 1-165-30 75'28 12·31 1-49 8·69 H7

Av. 76'60 13-92 1·27 10·02 1-63

L,G. 67-65 2-9 87·00 0·98 '1·26 6·62 1·802-16 84'53 5-45 1·64 10·67 1-832-15 82-64 7-18 1-68 9'87 1·952-18 79·50 15·54 1·70 HI 1·963-8 85·76 3·12 HI 4·59 1·304-9 86'47 5·81 1'594-23 78'47 27-86 1-13 8'50 1·374-26 77'16 12-46 1-13 9·55 H64-27 76'59 21·93 1-19 15·36 1'254-24 76'43 20·65 1·27 14·32 1·335-8 89'12 7'31 1·38 4·30 1·615-12 84·30 17'74 1'55 9'80 HI5-24 77·99 17-79 1·26 13·03 1·315-26 77-24 8·90 1'34 13-23 1·265-25 77-17 17·66 1·23 9·60 1·33

Av. 81'36 12-69 .1'39 9·78 HI

Y. 83'10 2-13 85'72 5·72 H3 6·31 2-172-22 76'26 14040 HI 14046 HO3-14 87·58 5-49 1'29 11·10 1'313-12 85-17 7-56 1·39 8·17 1·213-10 84-97 8-40 1'30 8·75 1·063-19 84·01 13'50 1-19 12·05 1·233-16 83-55 13-68 1·32 10-75 HO3-13 82·93 15·37 1·33 13·56 1·383-20 82-62 5-46 1'27 10·82 1·543-18 81'67 12-43 1·27 11·38 1-183-22 80·68 9·09 1-19 13-14 1-173-26 72·52 18'75 1-184-12 86·92 11'33 HO 19·33 1·284-15 85-62 21·91 1'25 10·16 HI4-19 82-98 20·04 1·30 12-52 1·384-18 82'55 22·02 1·334-22 80'89 16·76 1-10 13-57 1·254-21 80'10 20·02 1'22 5·74 1·574-25 76·54 25-14 1·30 5·80 H2

474

SASTRY & SITAPATHI: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF TOBACCO LEAVES

TABLE :l-CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GREEN AND CURED HALF-LEAVES-contd

GRADE MARKS PLANT MOISTURE STARCH TOTAL . TOTAL TOTALDESIGNATION ASSIGNED AND (ON FRESH % N SUGARS N

LEAF No. BASIS) % % %%

Y. 83'10 5-11 87·33 11·02 1·55 8·79 2·065-9 87·04 7·16 1043 5·75 1'525-10 86·99 7·39 1047 7·16 2·045-14 84·33 19·60 1·35 13-58 10495-16 83-91 12-62 1042 13-62 1·345-15 82·02 17·15 1'33 12-15 1·295-18 80·18 18·39 1'26 17·34 1·375-20 79'55 10·81 1-19 8·89 1-115-22 77-94 16·08 1-17 11·51 1·25

Av. 82-59 13083 1'31 11·02 1042

Y, 97'50 2-17 83-15 4060 1047 6-45 1·793-11 87·17 4-84 1042 8·58 1·283-17 84064 9-44 1·32 8·36 10463-25 81·30 %5 1-18 16·25 1·293-21 81-17 12·03 1-18 10·39 1·293-27 79·25 9·86 1'23 10·94 1-563-24 78·14 16·71 1-16 8·53 1'254-10 88·30 5'53 1048 8·05 HI4-14 87·59 6·71 1·34 12·91 10464-17 85042 14062 1·37 7·09 10434-13 84·78 15·24 1·50 9·35 1·394-11 84·72 16·14 1048 10·03 1'294-16 83-96 18·89 1·26 14·72 1·304-20 80·16 18·65 1·17 7·31 1·335,13 86·61 12'43 1040 12-81 1·315-17 82·55 20·87 1-51 14012 1·535-19 82·02 18·03 1·20 13072 1'34

Av. 83-58 12-60 1·33 10'56 1·39

75 per cent of 64·10 or 48·10 and is given an averagemark of 56·10.

Grade D.G. consists of dark green coloured leavesnot falling into the above two categories. Thisgrade carries a maximum of 48·10 and a minimumof 0·0 marks and is given an average of 24·05 marks.

Grade L.B.Y.1 is again of lower basic colour thanYs and consists of leaves of light brown'ish yellowcolour with blemish not exceeding 25 per cent of theleaf area. This grade carries a maximum of 71·20marks (the minimum of Ys) and a minimum of 75per cent of 71·20 or 53·40 and is assigned an averageof 62·30 marks.

Grade L.B.Y.2 is of the same colour category asL.B.Y.1 but with blemish not exceeding 50 per centof the leaf area. This can carry a maximum of53·40 - which is the minimum of L.B.Y.1 - anda minimum of 50 per cent of 71·20 which is theminimum of Ys grade leaves or 35·60 and is givenan average of 44·50 marks. .

Grade B consists of brown coloured leaf and is ofa lower category, than L.B.Y.2 with blemish notexceeding 40 per cent of the leaf area. This can,therefore, carry a maximum mark of 35·60 and aminimum of 40 per cent of 35·60 or 21,40, and isgiven an average of 28·50 marks.

The chemical composition of green halves, curedhalves, grades obtained on curing and the marksassigned to each grade on the above basis arepresented in Table 2.

The present investigations have been designed toget precise correlations between the chemical com­position of green leaves and the grade obtained oncuring them. To achieve this, half-leaves have beencured. It is possible that the results obtained withhalf-leaves may not be completely applicable towhole leaves. However, the studies of Askewu , whofound that removal of midribs did not interferewith respiration leading to carbon dioxide evolution,protein hydrolysis and production of sugars, makeit probable that these findings hold good even fornormal curings using whole leaves.

It was of interest to find out how the variouschemical constituents are distributed in the leavesyielding the same grade. This was obtained byworking out the internal correlations between thechemical constituents in the leaves falling into thesame grade. The data are presented in Table 3.

There is always a negative correlation betweenmoisture and starch in all the green leaves except inthe case of those falling into L.B.Y.1 grade. As thegrade improves, the negative correlation decreases.

475

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

TABLE 3 - CORRELATIONS BETWEEN CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF LEAVES OF DIFFERENT GRADES

GRADEDESIGNATION

L.M.G.L.B.Y.IL.G.Y.Y,All grades

MARKSASSIGNED

56'1062·3067-6583-1097'50

SIMPLE CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN, . •Moisture and Moisture and Starch and Sugars and

starch in the nitrogen nitrogen nitrogengreen leaf in the in the in the

green leaf green leaf cured leaf

-0·9169· +0'3148 -0,2060 -0,1668+0·0850 -0'2872 -0'2263 +0'1768-0'7396· +0·4973 t -0'4703 -0'3684-0·5131· +0'5697· -0,3308 -0·3911t-0'3697 +0·6741· -0'1652 -0'3182-0·5170· +0·4022· -0'3358· -0'3121

·Significant at I % level.tSignificant at 5% level.

In the case of moisture and nitrogen there is posi­tive correlation which increases as the grade of thecured leaves improves. Again the leaves underL.B.Y.1 are an exception. The trends in the cor­relations between starch and nitrogen in the greenleaf and sugars and nitrogen in the cured leaf arenot definite.

The'reason for the exceptional behaviour of leavesin L.B.Y.1 grade is not clear. It is interesting tonote that the green leaves giving' this grade arestrikingly low in moisture and high in starch. Alsoout of the 12 leaves which fall into this category, 9belong to the topmost portion of the plant. Theseresults show that green leaves with a f~ir amount ofmoisture (80-85 per cent) and starch (c. 13 per cent)and a balanced composition yield good grade curedleaves.

In order to get a measure of the importance of thevarious chemical constituents on the quality of theleaves, multiple regression analysis of the variousconstituents in the green leaf on the quality of thecured leaf (as judged by the marks) has been workedout and the following equation was obtained.

Y =97-20+2·36x1+0·96xa-24·20x3

where Y = the quality on the basis of marks; XI =moisture; xa= starch and x3 = total nitrogen percent in the green leaf. The multiple regression co­efficient was 0·52 and was highly significant. Thisshows that variations in these constituents account­ed for the grades obtained in 52 per cent of theleaves.

Statistical correlation!> between the chemical con­stituents in the green leaf and the quality of the curedleaf were worked out. The data presented in Table 4show that all the partial regression coefficients aresignificant. The influence of moisture and starchin the green leaf on the quality of cured leaf ispositive while that of nitrogen in the green leaf isnegative.

476

In order to take into account the range and meanpercentage of the constituents they are expressed interms of their standard deviations and the standardcoefficients are obtained (last column, Table 4). Onthe basis of the standard coefficients it is obviousthat the positive influence of moisture and starch areapproximately 3 and Ii times the negative influenceof nitrogen.

When the multiple regression equation between thegrades and chemieal constituents in the cured leaf isworked out, the following equation is obtained:

Y =92·02+0·88xl -17·23xa

where Y = quality on the basis of marks; Xl = totalsugars and x. = total nitrogen per cent.

The multiple regression coefficient is 0·30 and ishighly significant.

Statistical correlations between the chemical con­stituents in the cured leaves and the grades are shownin Table 5. The partial regression coefficient due tosugars is not significant while that due to nitrogen ishighly significant. While sugars are positively cor­related with grades, the correlation of nitrogen withgrades is negative. These trends confirm the trendsshown by starch and nitrogen in the green leaves.

On the basis of the standard coefficients the nega­tive influence of nitrogen on quality appears to bemore than the positive influence of sugars. This isjust the reverse of what has been found on the basisof the composition of the green halves where thepositive influence of starch is more than the negativeinfluence of nitrogen. This is due to the poor cor­relation between starch in the green half and sugarsin the cured half. The correlation coefficient betweenthese two constituents is only 0·387 as compared to0·815 obtained in another studylS using Harrison'sspecial leaves. Examination of the data in Table 3shows that in a number of cases the sugars obtainedin the cured half are not accounted for by the hydro­lysis of starch in the green half. Probably other

SASTRY &: SITAPATHI: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF TOBACCO LEAVES

TABLE 4 - CORRELATIONS BETWEEN CHEMICALCONSTITUENTS IN GREEN LEAF AND

GRADE OF CURED LEAF

CONST!- COEFFICIENT MULTIPLE REGRESSION·TUENT OF SIMPLE \

CORRELATION Partial S.E. Standardregression coefficientcoefficient

Moisture +0·3383t +2-3554t 0·437 +0·6169Starch +0·1191 +0·9564t 0'295 +0·3615Total N -0,1013 -24-1048t 11·002 -0,2281

·Coefficient of multiple correlation 0·5243.tSignificant at 1% level.tSignificant at 5% level.

TABLE 5 - CORRELATIONS BETWEEN CHEMICALCONSTITUENTS AND GRADE OF CURED LEAF

CONSTI- COEFFICIENT MULTIPLE REGRESSION·TUENT OF SIMPLE -...,

CORRELATION Partial S.E. Standardregression coefficientcoefficient

Total sugars +0·2660t +0·8808 0'5579 , 0·1721Total N -0·3S48t -17-2347t 6'2400 -0,3011

·Coefficient of multiple correlation 0·3007.tSignificant at 5% level.*Significant at I % level.

polysaccharides like dextrins and glucosides contri­bute to the production of sugars in this variety.

These results corroborate the previous findings o~

SastryB-I2 and bring out the fact that starch andmoisture in the green leaf are favourable for the pro­duction of better quality of cured leaf. Moi~ture

appears to be nearly twice as important as starch inregard to the quality of cured leaf produced. Therole of carbohydrates and P1oisture, in bringing aboutbetter yellowing of the leaf and f~r obtaining abetter quality cured leaf, has been discussed in detailin a previous studyll, qn the basis of which the follow­ing hypothesis h~s been formulated to explain the vari­ous observed facts. Chlorophyll is held by chemicalforces on proteinaceous matter, degradation of pro­teins being accompanied by an equivalent destructionof chlorophyll. This unmasks the yellow colour ofthe leaf which is due to carotenoids and f1avones.According to modem views, concomitant synthesisand breakdown of nitrogen compounds is a charac­teristic of all life processes. According to Sastryll,this appears to be a characteristic of the yellowingprocess of the leaves also, and the disappearance ofproteins and chlorophyll observed in the leaves isonly due to the difference in the. rates of proteolysisand resynthesis. The role of carbohydrates appearsto be in facilitating the reactions of resynthesis ofproteins from their breakdown products, thus causinga more uniform degradation of proteins and chloro-

phyll in all the cells of the leaf (because of theirmobile character) and hence more uniform yellowing.The tole of moisture appears to be in contributingto the mobility of the carbohydrates.

These studies have brought out the unfavourableinfluence of nitrogenous constituents in the green leafon the grades of leaf obtained on curing. Theirexact role is not clear at present. However, on thebasis of the above hypothesis, it may be postulatedthat their role lies in hastening the reactions ofproteolysis in some celIs of the leaf (where theymay be more concentrated), thus causing unevenyellowing of the leaves.

The significance of. these studies lies in theirpractical application. On the basis of these results,it can be stated that preserving moisture in the greenleaf after harvest is of paramount importance. Thiscan be achieved by covering the leaves with wetgunnies and protecting them against the sun. Ina recent study Sastry and Bhat12 have shown that thequality of the top leaves could be improved byculturing them in water before curing.

As the leaf matures the starch content attains amaximum and then decreases during senescence.This is accompanied by depletion of nitrogenousconstituents also. The diurnal variations in carbo­hydrates also C<j.n be taken advantage of. It is thuspossible to harvest the leaves when they containthe optimum concentrations of these constituentsand thus improve the quality of the cured leaf.

The negative influence of nitrogen on the qualityof cured leaf suggests that flue-cured tobacco shouldbe grown with as little nitrogen as possible. How­ever, nitrogen fertilization cannot be reduced beyonda certain limit as this element is' essential for thegrowth of the plant.

Acknowledgement

The authors are thankful to Shri M. V. Pavate,Statistician, Central Tobacco Research Institute,Rajahmundry, for his valuable help in the statisticalanalysis of the data. Their thanks are also due toShri A. V. Reddy, India Fruits Ltd, Kadiam, for lend­ing their specially designed curing chamber and toDr B. S. Kadam, formerly Director, Tobacco ResearchInstitute, for his keen interest and encouragementin this investigation.

References1. SCHMUCK, A., St. Inst. Tob. Invest. Bull., Krasnoda,

(U.S.S.R.), 24 (1924).2. KOVALENKO, E. I., St. Inst. Tob. Makh. Ind. Bull., K,as­

nodar (U.S.S.R.), 125 (1935), 147.3. WARD, G. M., Ganad. Dep. Agric. Tech. Bull., 37 (1942),

41.4. DARKIS, F. R., DIXON, L. F., WOLF, F. A. & GROSS, P. M.,

Industr. Engng Ghem., 28 (1936), 1214.5. BLICK, R. T. ]., N.Z. ]. Sci. Tech., 25B (1943), 53.

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]. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

6. PHILLIPS, M. & BACOT, A. M., ]. Ass: off. agric. Chem.,36 (1953), 504.

7. ELLIOT, ]. M. & BIRCH, E. C., Canad. ]. PI. Sci., 38(1958), 73. .

8. SASTRY, A. S., Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 38B (1953), 125.9. SASTRY, A. S., Indian Tob., 1 (1951), 249.

10. SASTRY, A. S., Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 44B (1956), 148.

11. SASTRY, A. S., Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 44B (1956), 162.12. SASTRY, A. S. & BHAT, N. R., Sci. &0 Cult., 24 (1958), 233.13. MACDOWELL, M., Rev. into Tab., 268 (1955), 117.14. Marketing Series No. 70 (Manager of Publications, Delhi),

1937, 18.15. ASKEW, H. 0., N.Z. ]. Sci. Tech., 38A (1957), 715.16. SASTRY, A. S. & KADAM, B. S., Indian]. Agron., in press.

Lead Plating from the Pyrophosphate Bath

(Miss) VASANTA SREE

Department of Inorganic & Physical Chemistry,Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Manuscript received 27 February 1959

The pyrophosphate bath has been studied in detail for the piating of lead.The optimum conditions for working the potassium salt bath are: compositionof electroiyte (g./litre): lead nitrate, 33'2 i total pyrophosphate, 78'0 i and glue,1'0; pH, 8'9; bath temperature, 60°C. ; and limiting c.d" 3.5 amp./sq. dm. ; agita­tion of the electrolyte facilitates plating. The deposits are finer grained thanthose from acid baths. The throwing powers of the plating solution, measuredwith a modified Haring-Blum cell, are 60~88 per cent as per Field formula fromthe weights of deposits and 6-20 per cent using the Gardam equation involvingcathode potentials and resistivity.

LEAD is commonly electrodeposited from acidbaths such as fluoborate, sulphamate andfluosilicate baths. There is no reference in the

literature to the use of the complex pyrophosphatebath for the electroplating of this metal. Thepreliminary work carried out on this subject hasalready been briefly reported from this laboratoryl,2.

This pa.per reports the results of experiments onthe determination of optimum conditions for theplating of lead from the pyrophosphate bath.

Experimental procedure

The plating bath was prepared by the addition ofalkali pyrophosphate to lead nitrate; the solubilityof the dry precipitate of lead pyrophosphate in alkalipyrophosphate was low. The pyrophosphate contentof the solutions' was always in excess of that requiredfor complex formation. Physico-chemical'measure­ments have shown3 that the molar ratio of pyrophos­phate to lead in the complex is I as well as 2, themetal ion concentration and the instability constant

478

being of the order of 10-11 g. ion/litre and 10-11 respec­tively for the latter ratio.

It was considered necessary to raise the pH of theplating solutions containing sodium pyrophosphateto 10·8 (from 9·8) in order to prevent the tendencyof the solution to precipitate on keeping. Withthe potassium salt bath, however, no difficulty wasexperienced at pH 8·9. In both cases the molarratio of pyrophosphate to lead in the solution waskept at 4·5 or 5·0; otherwise there was turbidityon electrolysis.

Fresh solutions (200 mI.) were taken for each ex­periment. The anode was a hollow cylinder (l in.thickness, if in. height and 71 in. circumference) ofchemically pure lead. A cylindrical platinum hollowcathode (1} in. length, i in. diam.) was placed insidethe anode and rotated. The interelectrode distancewas 0·5 in. and the cathode area was· 2·25 sq. in.The anode area was four times that of the cathode,thereby reducing the anode current density andfacilitating anode corrosion. Plating time for an

VASANTA SREE: LEAD PLATING FROM THE PYROPHOSPHATE BATH

Pb CONC.,mole

pH(B)8.5 9.5 10.8

(\I. 5E"--ciE 4tJ

'".0.u 3~ZE~ 2-J 0 0.05 0.1

FIG. 2 - EFFECT OF LEAD CONCENTRATION AND pH ON LIMIT­ING CURRENT DENSITY [(A) Ratio of pyro~hosphate to metal,4'5 (or 5); temp., 60'C.; (B) Ph, O'lM; ratio of pyrophosphate

to metal, 4'5; temp., 60'C.]

Results

Electrodeposition was carried out under the fol­lowing conditions: lead concentration, 0,01, 0,025,0·05,0·075,0'1 and 0·125M (K salt); ratio of pyro­phosphate (PZ07) to metal, 4, 4·5 and 5; pH, 8·8(8,9 K salt), 9·8 and 10·8; and temperature, 40°,45°, 50°, 60°, 70° and 80°C. The results are presentedin Figs. 1-9 and Tables 1-3. Electrode efficiencieshave not been included as the values are very closeto 100 per cent under all conditions. All the resultshave not been covered to avoid overlapping andthe data recorded are for good quality deposits only;The decomposition potential for the plating solutionwas 2·4 V. and the bath voltage 0,1-1·0 V.

Specific resistivity - Increase in metal content,ratio of pyrophosphate to metal or bath temperaturelowered the specific resistivity of the plating solutions;pH had little effect. The resistivity of the platingsolutions with potassium salt was much less thanthat with sodium salt (Fig. 1 and Table 3).

Limiting current density - The limiting currentdensity (cathode and anode) was increased by anincrease in the lead content or the pH of the solution(Fig. 2), and to a small extent by an increase in theratio (not shown). At pH 9·8 it decreased when thetemperature was raised above 60°C., by stoppingagitation, and by most of the addition agents. At

and 15 rna. were employed. Hardness measurementswere made on the surface of the deposit with Leitz1151 Durimet Midget hardness tester.

Pb CONC.,m ol~

80

, 0TEMP.,C.(C)

604030 r-------r----~

('I).

Eu~

EJ:. 180

~..I-;;i= BI/) ,6 ~ XI/) C~wa:n: 0 0·05 0.1(/)

experiment was 10-45 min. Still, plating was notsatisfactory. The experimental details concerningthe cleaning of electrodes, plating equipment, currentefficiencies, temperature, agitation, pH, resistivityandelectrode potentials were the same as described ear­lier4. The pH was adjusted by the addition of hydro­chloric acid and sodium or potassium hydroxide.Plating conditions were carefully controlled to obtainelectrode potential values (hydrogen scale) accurateto ±0·005 V.

The throwing power of the plating solution wasmeasured under optimum conditions with a modifica­tion of the Haring-Blum throwing power box5• Theobject was to obtain a relative idea of the throwingpower of different plating solutions. A cylindricalglass cell, 15 cm. long and 4·5 cm. diam., was used,with two copper cathodes and a perforated lead anodein between. The distance between the cathodes was12 cm. The cathodes were weighed before and afterelectrolysis, and cathode potentials and resistivityof the solution determined. The throwing powerwas calculated from the Field formulae and also fromthe equation of Gardam7• There was no variationof the cathode efficiency with current density.

Photomicrographs of a thick coating (0,001 in.) ofthe surface of lead deposit were taken with a Leitzprojection microscope. X-ray powder pattern of thedeposit was obtained from Siemens, Baujahr 1950model X-ray unit with 57·3 mm. diam. camera.Iron Ko:-radiations with manganese filter at 35 kV.

FIG. 1 - EFFECT OF LEAD CONCENTRATION, RATIO ANDTEMPERATURE ON SPECIFIC RESISTIVITY [(A) Ratio of pyro­phosphate to metal, 4'5; temp., 60'C.; Na salt; (B) ratio ofpyrophosphate to metal, 5·0; temp., 60'C.; Na salt; (C) Ph.

O'lM; ratro of pyrophosphate t,o metal, 4'5; K salt]

479

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A. OCTOBER 1959

887

THROW­ING

POWER%

0·33160·36760'3049

3-4192·9800·723

10·318·112·37

-0.55 -0.65 -0.75CATHODE POTENTIAL, V.

SP. RESIS- SLOPE OF THROW-TIVITY CATHODE ING

(p) POTENTIAL- NUM-ohm/em.a C.D. LINE BER

(b) (N,=b/p)

O~'-:~....I-.._"---"""""_..!---J

-0·45

4.2

3.5(\I.

E 2.8."-&i AE 2.10...ci 1.4u

3·5(\I.

E 2·8."-IiE 2.10...ci 1.4u

4·2

o '-G~:""-..L-.....J._...J...._"--J

-0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1.0CATHODE POTENTIAL, v.

0.7

TABLE 1-THROWING POWER (GARDAM) OFDIFFERENT BATHS

FIG. 3 - EFFECT OF LEAD CONCENTRATION AND GLUE ONCATHODE POTENTIAL [Na salt; temp.• 60'C.; ratio of pyro­phosphate to metal. 4'5; (Al Pb.0·025M; (B) Pb. 0·05M;(C) Pb. 0·075M; (D) Pb. O'IM; (E) Pb. O·IM+glue. 2 g.f1itre]

FIG. 4 - EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON CATHODE POTENTIAL[Pb. O·IM; ratio of pyrophosphate to metal, 4'5; (A) K salt;temp.• 45'C.; (B) K salt; temp.• 60'C.; (C) K salt; temp.•

80'C.; (D) Na salt; PH. 10'8; temp.• 60'C.]

BATH

PyrophosphateFluoborateSulphamate

pH 10·8 or with the potassium salt bath, increase intemperature had no effect on the limiting currentdensity. It was possible to work the bath up to acathode current density of 4·2 amp./sq. dm. and

'anode current density one-fourth the value. Therewas some sludge formation at the anode after electro­lysis, but this did not affect the efficiency.

Potentials - The cathode potential decreased withincrease in lead tontent of the solution or tempera­ture, and decrease in the ratio of pyrophosphate tometal. Variation in pH had little effect, and some ofthe addition agents like glue, gelatin and ~-naphthol

increased the potential (0·1-0·2 V.). The values wereincreased by the substitution of potassium salt for thesodium salt. The potential changes were, however,not very marked. There was no change in the formof the potential curve when the limiting currentdensity was reached (Figs. 3 and 4).

The effect of the variables on anode potential wasnot consistent. and the changes in potential valueswere very small. When the limiting current densityfor the anode was reached. the potential suddenlyjumped to more positive values (broken portion ofcurve) and the anode efficiency decreased. Finallythe potential approached oxygen evolution valuesand there was total passivity (Figs. 5 and 6).

Corrosion of lead anode was favoured by an increasein lead content, ratio of pyrophosphate to metal, pHof the solution and temperature (40-60°c.), and useof the potassium salt. Above 60°C.. the anodebecame passive at very lo\v current densities whenthe pH was 9·8. Glue was the only addition agentwhich was beneficial in this respect.

Throwing power - In Tables 1 and 2 are given theresults on throwing power measurements for thepyrophosphate, fiuoborate8 and sulphamate8 bathsunder optimum conditions. The throwing power ofthe pyrophosphate bath decreased with increase inthe current density or decrease in the linear ratio.The reciprocal of the slope of the plot of the metal'ratio against linear ratio (termed throwing index9)

gives a direct measure of the throwing power. Fig. 8gives this plot for the three baths. and the indexvalues are given in Table 2.

Control and maintmance of bath - The bath wasquite stable under the conditions of operation. In atypical case with a solution containing O·lM lead anda pyrophosphate to metal ratio of 4·5, the cathodeand anode efficiencies were 98 and 99 per cent res­pectively. The changes before and after electrolysisfor 1 hr at 2·8 amp./sq. dm. and 60°C. were: lead, 20·3.21·0; total pyrophosphate (P207)' 78,0, 76·6 g./litre;pH. 9·80. 9'75; sp. resistivity, 11-11, 10·06 ohm/cm.s.

A freshly prepared solution could be used for severalruns with consistent and satisfactory results. Ageing

480

VASANTA SREE: LEAD PLATING FROM THE PYROPHOSPHATE BATH

0.245 ~

Iol

~

~CII

0.1~5 g...10.

,...---------.,0.210

0.45 ~"""--:-,.L.4---'-2"".I.,.......L...-4J..2-J0.145

C. O•• omp./dm~

FIG. 7 - CATHODE POTENTIAL-LOG CURRENT DENSITY LINES[(A) P)'Tophosphate; Na salt; (B) sulphamate; (C) fiuoborate.

Experimental conditions as described in Table 3]

CII· 0.8E"0

"';i 0.6

~~0·4

ciU 0.2

1.o,-------------

-~"'.S~.L.._...0..c.4:;;.....!-_-0.J.'-3-......--0....2--' +1.2

"NODE POTENTI"l J V.

FIG. 5 - EFFECT OF LEAD CONCENTRATION AND RATIO ONANODE POTENTIAL [Temp.• 60·C.; (A) Pb, 0'05M; ratio ofp)'Tophosphate to metal. 4·5; (B) Pb, 0'075M; ratio of P)'To­phosphate to metal, 4'5; (C) Pb, O'IM; ratio of pyrophosphateto metal, 4'5; (D) Pb, O·IM; ratio of pyrophosphate to metal,

4; (E) Pb, 0·1 M; ratio of pyrophosphate to ,metal, 5]

FIG. 8 - THROWING INDEX [L and M values at 2·8 amp./sq•dm. are from Table 2. (A) P)'Tophosphate; Na salt; (B) sul­

phamate; (C) fiuoborate]

1· 2

(II.

E"0

"";ioeEo

ci

°0.4

o '-...u.-'-.e::::;;;....L_...L...--II.-..~

-0·5 -0·4 -0·3 -0.2 +1.2"NODE POTENTIAL, V.

FIG. 6 - EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND pH ON ANODEPOTEI>TIAL [pb, O'IM; ratio of pyrophosphate to metal, 4'5;(A) Na salt; pH 8·8; temp., 60·C.; (B) Na salt; pH, 9·8;temp., 60·C.; (C) Na salt; pH 10·8; temp., 60·C.; (D) Na salt;

. pH, 9·8; temp., 70·C.; (E) K salt; pH, 8·9; temp., 60·C.]

o~ 6a::...J

~

~ 2

2 6 10

LINEAR RATIO

14

TABLE 1-THROWING POWER (FIELD) OFDIFFERENT BATHS

(Distance of the nearer Cathode from the anode in thethrowing power cell is 2 em.')

BATH C.D. LINEAR METAL THROW-amp./ RATIO RATIO ING

sq. dm. (L) (M) POWER%

r 5 3·15 3011-4 5 4010 13P)'Tophos- 2-8 5 4·08 13phate 4·2 5 3-76 18

J2·8 11 6·57 46l2-8 3 2-87 3

r 5 4·74

j}1-4 5 4·70

Fluoborate 2·8 5 4-674·2 5 HI2-8 11 9·21 102·8 3 2'53 13r 5 5·20 -'l}1-4 5 4·50

Sulphamate 2·8 5 4-764·2 5 4·562-8 11 9·14 10

L2-8 3 2·19 19

THROW­ING

INDEX

1·2

of the electrolyte up to six months had no effect onthe performance of the bath.

Nature of deposit - The bath gave adherent, lightto dark grey deposits of lead on platinum (steel orcopper) cathodes over a wide range of plating con­ditions. The following addition agents were tried:resorcinol, ammonium citrate, ~-naphthol, gelatin,glycerol, rochelle salt and glue. Only glue made thedeposits finer grained, and others were not beneficial.Photomicrographs of lead deposited froni. the pyro­phosphate and acid baths under optimum conditionsare shown in Fig. 9. The effect of glue can be seenfrom Fig. 9 (A and B). Fig. 9 (B, C and D) showsthat the deposits from pyrophosphate bath are finergrained than those from the acid baths. X-raystudies showed that the deposit has a f.c.c. structurewith a = 4·959 A.

Testing of deposits - Satisfactory coatings of anydesired thickness from 0·0005 in. and above could be

481

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

TABLE 3-COMPARISON OF PYROPHOSPHATE AND ACID BATHS

PARTICULARS PYROPHOSPHATE FLUOBORATE SULPHAMATE-.

Sodium salt Potassium salt

rru~"3302 Lead nitrate 3302 Lead carbonate 150 Lead carbonate to give

Lead 20·3 Lead 20·3 Lead 120 80 g./Iitre of lead

Composition, g./Iitre Total P,O, 78 Total P,O, 78 Hydrofluoric acid 240 Sulphamic acid to giveGlue 1 Boric acid 106 apH of 1·7

Glue 0·2

pH 10·8 8·9 1·2 1·7Temp.,oC. 60 60 29 25Sp. resistivity, ohm/em.' 10·31 5·55 8·11 2·37Bath voltage. V. 0,1-1,7 0'2-1'7 0,1-0,8 0,1-1,3Agitation, ft/min. 200 200 nil nilCathode c.d. (max.), 4·2 3·5 4·0 5-6

amp./sq. dm.Anode c.d. (max.), 1·1 0·9 >1·0 >104

amp./ sq. dm.Cathode efficiency, % 95-100 95-100 100 100Anode efficiency, % 95-100 95-100 100 100Cathode polarization, V., 0,08-0,21 0,10-0,21 0,04-0,15 0·02-0·05

0·35+2 amp./sq. dm.Throwing power, %,

Field, 2·8 amp./sq. dm. 13 74 4 3Gardam 8 6 8 7

Hardness (Vickers) 15 16 12 10

obtained. Bending and breaking tests indicatedgood adherence of the electroplate., The depositswere free from pores as shown by the ferroxyl test(on steel).

Comparison between pyrophosphate and acid baths ­In Table 3 are given the plating characteristics, underoptimum conditions, for pyrophosphate, fluoborateand sulphamate baths for lead plating. The datarecorded for the last two baths have been obtainedexperimentally for typical compositions8•

The pyrophosphate bath is comparable to the acidbaths in most respects. The advantages of thepyrophosphate bath over the others are: low leadcontent, greater throwing power and ability to givedeposits free from treeing without the use of additionagents.

Discussion

The results of this study show that the pyrophos­phate bath is satisfactory for the plating of lead.In previous work on alkaline baths based onplumbite1()'12, a high lead content was used and thelimiting cathode current density, which ranged from1,5, to 3·0 amp./sq. dm., was not very high. All ofthem employed addition agents. The pyrophosphatebath developed is simpler in composition and can beworked up to 4·2 amp./sq. dm. even at 400e. Theuse of the potassium salt has decided advantagesover that of the sodium salt.

Addition agents are mainly used in acid leadplating baths in order to suppress treeing and obtainfiner grained deposits. They are not brighteners,

482

since there is little necessity for bright lead plating.The addition agents mentioned earlier are all bene­ficial in acid lead plating baths, but in the pyrophos­phate bath only glue effected some improvement, andprevented film formation and yellow colouration onthe anode. Most of them decreased the limitingcurrent density considerably.

The cathode polarization was high, ranging from0·1 to 0·5 V., and of the same order as that forthe deposition of other metals from this bath13. Itwas greater than that in acid baths. The relation­ship between cathode potential and current densitywas linear under optimum conditions for the pyro­phosphate (sodium salt), fluoborate and sulphamatebaths (Fig 7), whereas the linear relationship wasbetween cathode potential and log current densityfor the potassium salt bath (not shown). The lastone gives finer grained deposits than the others.This is in accordance with the views of Gardam14

that the logarithmic relationship is an indicationof the frequent formation of new nuclei. The loga­rithmic relationshipt ogether with fine grained depo­sits has also been obtained during the plating oftin, zinc, copper and nickel from the pyrophosphatebath13.

The bath possesses good throwing power. In viewof the greater slope of the potential-current densitylines, the throwing power of the pyrophosphate bathis greater than that of the acid baths. The throwingindex is also higher. The throwing power of thepotassium pyrophosphate bath is greater than that ofthe sodium salt bath due to its lower resistivity.

VASANTA SREE: LEAD PLATING FROM THE PYROPHOSPHATE BATH

FIG. 9 - PHOTOMICROGRAPHS OF LEAD DEPOSITS X 700[Cathode copper; c.d., 2·8 amp./sg. dm.; other experimentalconditions are the same as those described in Table 3.(A) Pyrophosphate bath; Na salt; (B) pyrophosphate bath;

K salt; (C) tluoborate bath; (D) sulphamate bath]

Under optimum conditions Cfable 3) and in thecurrent density range 0·7-2·8 amp./sq. dm., thethrowing power of the potassium salt bath is 60-88per cent (Field), and 6-20 per cent (Gardam). Thethrowing index is 13·3.

The anode potentials of lead in pyrophosphate solu­tions indicate the phenomenon o'f passivity (Figs. 5and 6). As long as the anode is dissolving normallythe potential is in the range -0,15 to -0'40 V.,which is the active value. In the partially pass­ive state the potentials are of the order of +0·2 V.This region is very narrow, and a small rise in thecurrent density causes a sudden jump in the potential

to +1·2 V. and above. Complete passivity now setsin and the anode efficiency is practically zero percent. The anode is first partially covered with athin film, and in the last stages of complete passivity,there appears an adherent, non-washable coating. Inaccordance with the anodic behaviour of lead insodium hydroxide solutionsl5, anode potential toge­ther with the bath voltage values can be used tofollow the course of corrosion and passivity in pyro­phosphate solutions. When the experimental condi­tions are properly controlled, the efficiency of theanode is very close to 100 per cent in the workingcurrent density range. The anode polarization is ofthe order of 0·05-0'30 V.

The electrodeposition of alloys of lead with tinfrom this bath has been reported elsewhere2•

Acknowledgement

My thanks are due to Dr T. 1. Rama Char forsuggestions and guidance, and to Prof. K. R. Krishna­swami for his keen interest in the work.

References

I. VAID, J. & RAM A CHAR, T. L., ]. eleetroehem. Soc., 104(1957). 460.

2. VASANTA SREE, VAID, J. & RAMA CHAR, T. L.,]. eleetro­ehClN. Soc. } apan, 26 (1958), 224, E 78.

'3. VAID, J. & RAM ACHAR, T. L., Bull. India See. eleetroehetn.Soc., 7 (1958), 5.

4. VAID, J. & RAMA CHAR, T. L., ]. eleetroehetn. Soc., 104(1957), 282.

5. HARING, H. E. & BLUM, W., Trans. eleetrochetll. Soc., 44(1923),313.

6. FIELD, S.,). eleetrodep. tech. Soc., 9 (1934), 144.7. GARDAM, G. E., Trans. Faraday Soc., 34 (1938), 698.8. GRAY, A. G., Modern Electroplating (John Wiley & Sons,

New York), 1953.9. JELINEK, R. V. & DAVID, H. F., ]. eleetroehetn. Soc., 104

(1957), 279.10. BELVAEV, P. P., Chem. Abstr., 36 (1942), 4031.11. KUDRYAVTSEV, N. T., SOLOKHINA, V. G. & MATLlS,

YA V., Chetn. Abstr., 50 (1956), 12697.12. LIGER, A. W., U.S. Pat. 2,474,092 (1949).13. RAMA CHAR, T. L., Eleetropl. Met. Finish., 10 (1957), 347.14. GARDAM, G. E., Disc. Faraday Soc., 1 (1947), 182,15. BROWN, O. W., HENKE, C. O. & SMITH, LT., ]. Phys.

Chem., 24 (1920), 367.

483

REVIEWSCOATED ABRASIVES: MODERN TOOL OF INDUSTRY

by Coated Abrasives Manufacturers' Institute(McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York), FirstEdition, 1958. Pp. v + 426. Price $ 8.50

The book represents the combined effort of a team oftop technical personnel working in the field and thesubject matter has been so detailed and arrangedthat it will prove useful and interesting as com­prehensive guide to bperators, supervisors and pro­duction engineers, particularly those engaged in thefinishing trades. It can also serve as a text-book aswell as a reference book to the technical studentsand will be of special interest to those manufacturers,big and small, who want to cut down their finish­ing costs by adopting the concepts discussed in thebook.

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The first two chapters describe the abrasives andvarious other raw materials used and tests prescribedfor maintaining the quality of the finished product.The next three chapters contain the various appli­cations and the machines used for a wide range ofoperations. Of particular interest are the sketches ofbasic designs for such applications and the adapta­tion of the process for automatic polishing. Oneexclusive chapter is devoted to the details of thecontact wheels, pressure pads and plattens givinguseful data for their selection and use.

Subsequent chapters enumerate the various tradeswhere the coated abrasives are employed with dueconsideration of the economics involved. Whetherit be wood working, metal polishing, enamelling, shoe

484

repair, glass and plastic polishing, automobile repair,egg polishing, contour polishing, etc., coated abrasivesprovide a suitable answer. The discussion of theeconomic considerations in the use of the variousforms of the coated abrasives provides interestingmaterial for a production engineer.

The book is distinctive in many ways and providescomprehensive coverage of the many recent advancesas well as the principles underlying the conventionalusage of the various materials, processes, such ascontour polishing, and the use of cutting oils andcoolants. It can be recommended as a useful addi­tion to technical libraries, and as a reference bookfor use in the workshop.

OM PRAKASH

ELECTROANALYTItAL CHEMISTRY by James J. Lin­gane (Interscience Publishers Inc., New York),Revised & Enlarged Second Edition, 1958.Pp. xiv + 669. Price $ 14.50

Since the first edition 'of this book appeared in 1953,considerable additions have been made to our know­ledge of electroanalytical chemistry. It is appro­priate, therefore, that a second edition of this use­ful book has been published. In this edition, thesubject of amperometry and amperometric titration,which is becoming increasingly popular, has beenallotted a full chapter. The treatment of coulometrictitration has also been expanded into two chapters inkeeping with the extensive researches that have beendone in the subject in recent years. The electro­analytical technique of chronopotentiometry has beentreated comprehensively in a new chapter. A chap­ter on polarography and one on electrical measure­ments have been added, which has rendered the bookmore comprehensive and useful.

The high standard of presentation, characteristicof the publishers, is maintained. As exceptions,one may point out that on page 28, line 9, the refer­ence to the figure is not correctly given. On page569, line 16, " +2" should be replaced by " +3 ".On page 71, more potent reasons for adopting pHscale could have been stated. On page 82, the dis­cussion with regard to conditions to be satisfied for anelectrode being suitable for pH determination is notvery happy. On page 192, the later work of N. V.Achar [Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 16 (1942), 332],which appears to have some advantages, could havebeen referred to. On pages 495 and 607, undercoulometric titration of acids, the reference to reduc­tion of water to OH- does not appear to be correct.

REVIEWS

Water is ionized into H+ and OH- and H+ isreduced to H2• OH- is just a dissociation productand not one of reduction.

The objective and impartial presentation of thesubject is striking as the author has made a detachedassessment of all contributions including his own asfor instance on pages 280, 470, 480 and 596.

The term' titrate' to represent the liquid in thetitration flask is a convenient innovation.

A description of Polarization Titration of Franck(1954) for finding out the end-point was desirableas also the pulse-coulometric titration of M. A. V.Devanathan (1956). A section on determination ofthickness of electroplates by the method of electro­lytic stripping would have been welcome. Anauthor index would have added to the utility of thebook.

The book is undoubtedly a very useful addition 'tothe libraries of all colleges and research institutionsdealing with electrochemistry.

, K. S. G. Doss

NUMBER-AvERAGE MOLECULAR WEIGHTS - FUNDA­MENTALS AND DETERMINATION by Robert U.Bonnar, Martin Dimbat 8< Fred H. Stross(Interscience Publishers Inc., New York), 1958.Pp. x + 310. Price $ 7.50

The book deals with the theory and experimentaldetails of the various methods of determining thenumber-average molecular weight, M. The methodsin particular are the well-known ones depending onthe experimental determination of freezing point·depression, boiling point elevation, osmotic pressure,lowering of vapour pressure, vapour density andfunctional group analysis. A separate section isdevoted to each of the methods, wherein have beendiscussed the underlying theory, the types of appa­ratus employed and the experimental procedureswith relative merits of each, the precautions, thetreatment of experimental data to obtain the bestestimate and also the interpretation of the experi­mental results. It is reassuring to come across sucha wealth of ingenuity directed towards constructionaldetails and treatment of data even in recent years inthe development of some of these almost ' classical'apparatus into speedier and less laborious instru­ments without significant loss of accuracy.

Such a book which serves as a via media betweenlaboratory manuals and original research publicationson a subject which is' of great practical importance inany chemical laboratory, was long overdue. Thetreatment is comprehensive, balanced and adequate,specially with regard to the first three methods.Particular attention has been paid to the requirementof industrial laboratories where routine determina-

tion on a large number of samples are made byoperational staff.

The present book would be of immense help toanyone interested in the determination of molecularweight and would eventually find a place in thebook-shelf of every laboratory having to do anythingwith experimental determination of molecular weight.

S. R. PALIT

THE INDIAN EPHEMERIS AND NAUTICAL ALMANACFOR THE YEAR 1960 (Manager of Publications,Government of India, New Delhi), 1959. Pp.

.xxviii + 444. Price Rs 13.00 or 20s. 6d.This is the third volume in the series published by theGovernment of India and has come out commendablyearly to serve the purpose these volumes are intendedfor. While some of the criticisms of the earlier volumesare still valid, the new volume has features of greateruse to the local almanac makers, though there are stillseveral who refuse to use the data. In· the currentvolume under review, nine new tables have beenadded, making the almanac more useful for localpractices. If the ephemeris continues to come outas early as the current one, in future, there will be nojustification for the State Governments adopting adifferent calendar for fixing the holidays in a year.The reviewer did not come across any serious mis­prints and the production compares well with theBritish and American analogues.

S. V. ANANTAKRISHNAN

STRUCTURAL DESIGN FOR DYNAMIC LOADS byCharles H. Norris, Robert J. Hansen, Myle J.Holley, Jr, et al. (McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.,New York), 1959. Pp. xviii +453. Price $12.50

A number of factorS such as the failure of the TacomaNarrows Bridge, the occurrence of major earthquakes,developments in the field of atomic weapons, highspeed aircraft and guided missiles have stimulatedresearch in the field of structural dynamics in theU.S.A. in recent years. To give the civil engineera grounding in the principles and applications ofstructural dynamics, a short-term summer course wasorganized at the Massachusetts Institute of Techno­logy in 1956. The book under review is an ampli­fication of the lectures delivered at this course.

The first of the four parts into which the book isdivided deals with the behaviour of structural mate~rials like concrete and steel under dynamic loads.In the second part, the response of structural systemsto dynamic loading is presented. Part 3 discussesthe tools of analysis. Methods of numerical inte­gration are explained followed by a short introductionto the use of analogue and digital computers. Theintroduction of high speed computers is perhaps the

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J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

most significant development in the field of structuraldynamicS in recent years. Analysis of complexstructural systems under dynamic loads has nowbecome possible. Parts I, 2 and 3 serve as an intro­duction to Part 4 wherein the principles and tech­niques described in the previous parts are applied tothe design of structures for blasts, earthquakes andvibrations under moving loads. Of particular interestto us in India are the chapters devoted to earthquake­resistant design, as an Indian Code of Practice on thesubject is on the anvil. Written by a Japaneseexpert, these chapters emphasize the recent trend inthe United States Of treating the action of earthquakeson structures as a dynamic problem. Empirical co­effi.cie~ts are gradually giving place to the approachbased on the earthquake spectrum. This is reflectedin the provisions of the Joint Committee Code forlateral forces to which the author makes reference.The provisions of the Japanese Code are also dis­cusses!. Of special interest is the illustrative examplegiven by the author wherein the different methods ofanalysis are compared.

The book represents the labours of six differentauthors and this accounts for a certain lack of conti­nuity in the treatment. Part 2 does not refer to theLagrange's equations of motion which form thefoundations of dynamics. In fact, many of therelations in Part 2 can be derived from these funda­mental equations. The value of the chapter ondigital computers would have been enhanced if atypical 'programme' for a dynamic problem hadbeen given. In the section devoted to earthquake­resistant design, tall slender structures like refineryvessels and elevated water tanks do not receiveadequate treatment. Another significant omission isthe effect of earthquakes on water-retaining struc­tures like dams. The authors modestly state that thework is to be regarded neither as a reference nor atext-book. It woUld, however, serve as an excellentintroduction to all those who are working in thefield of structural dynamics.

G. S. RAMASWAMY

THE PHYSICAL METALLURGY OF MAGNESIUM AND ITsALLOYS - International Series of Monographs onMetal Physics & Physical Metallurgy, Vol. 5­by G. V. Raynor (Pergamon Press Ltd, London),1959. Pp. ix + 531. Price 755. net

This is an excellent treatise from an internationallyrenowned physical metallurgist, Prof. G. V. Raynor,and it is said to be partly based on his lecturesto final year undergraduates at the University ofBirmingham.

In the early chapters, the book deals with thefundamental nature of magnesium, its electronic

486

constitution and the effects of alloying. Next thetheories regarding the solid solubility limits, liquiduscurves, formation of intermetallic compounds, andvariations in lattice spacings are discussed; also thegeneral interrelations between the intermediatephases are discussed in some detail. This is thenfollowed by an outline of the essential deformationcharacteristics of the single crystals and polycrystal­line aggregates. The latter half of the book ismainly devoted to the discussion of the various alloysystems formed with magnesium, especially those ofcommercial significance.

The book contains 220 illustrations and 50 tablesbut only 6 photomicrographs. Metallographic detailsare rather conspicuous by their absence and quite afew topics are more ' metal physics' than ' physicalmetallurgy'. Nevertheless, the book is an excellentsurvey of the technological aspects of magnesiummetallurgy and is commended to the serious physicalmetallurgist.

A. A. KRISHNAN

LEHRBUCH DER ORGANISCHEN CUEMIE (A Text-bookof Organic Chemistry) by Hans Beyer (S. HirzelVerlag, LeipzigCI, SchuhmachergaBchen 1-3), 1959.Pp. xvi +690. Price DM 22.50

This book, written by an East German Professor, hasbeen quite popular. It was first published in 1953and has already passed through seven editions. Asis claimed in the preface, it is quite a modem bookand contains a full treatment of recent developments

. in theory and practice. Not only are the theoreticalprinciples introduced early but they are applied inthe interpretation of different reactions all throughthe book. Practically all the well-known majoritems in the field of organic chemistry have beenincluded though in many cases the accounts are briefin view of the size of the book. For example, quitesatisfactory treatment is given of pterins and enzymes.This book covers very satisfactorily the requirementsof the Honours course of Indian universities. Sinceit is written in German it may not be suitable for themajority of Indian students. But we are informedthat an English translation is expected to be ready by1960. If the translation is rendered properly so thatthe English is simple, one would expect that it wouldbe a highly satisfactory book for the study of organicchemistry and should be warmly recommended. Onesuggestion could be made in this connection. Inorder to help students to study further on theirown, references could be given to review articlesand books on major topics particularly in English,e.g. acetylenic compounds by Johnson and tropolonesby Nozoe.

T.R.S.

REVIEWS

MATHEMATICS DICTIONARY, edited by Glenn James &Robert C. James (D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc., NewYork), Multilingual Second Revised Edition, 1959.Pp. vi +546. Price 112s. 6d.

This is an enlargement and revision of the Mathe­matics Dictionary (1949) and underlines the impor­tance of the study of mathematical sciences inall types of scientific and technological disciplines.There has been so much advance in every field ofscientific activity that narrow specialization has<;ome into vogue. Thus arises the need for adictionary which the specialist can readily makeuse of.

The present edition incorporates a number ofcorrections. Its special feature is the multilingualindex in French, German, Russian and Spanishwhich will prove to be of great help to all workers.

A wide range of mathematics, both pure and ap­plied, is covered. It includes elementary terms inarithmetic, calculus, differential equations, geometry,topology, set and measure theories, integral equations,matrices and determinants, linear and dynamic pro­gramming, computation, statistics, theory of poten­tial, analytical mechanics.

It will be too much to expect that a single bookcan cover all the mathematical terms. It is nowonder, therefore, that applied mathematics has notreceived the same attention as that given to puremathematics. Important omissions include Vander Pol equation, Cornu's spiral, tautochrone, Lan­Emden equation, viscosity, centre of flexure, andnon-Newtonian mechanics.

The book can be profitably used by engineersand all those workil'g in any branch of appliedscience.

B. R. SETH

BORON FLUORIDE AND ITs COMPOUNDS AS CATALYSTSIN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY by A. V. Topchiev, S. V.Zavgorodnii & Ya M. Paushkin. Translated intoEnglish' by J. T. Greaves (Pergamon Press Ltd,London), 1959. Pp. 326. Price 80s.

Boron fluoride (more usually known as boron tri­fluoride) is a versatile catalyst, used both in thelaboratory and in technical practice, for condensa­tions and polymerizations. A simple illustration ofits catalytic activity is the preparation of acetyl­acetone from acetone and acetic anhydride. Othercommon laboratory uses are in alkylations (of aro­matic hydrocarbons, phenO'ls, acetoacetic ester, etc.)and in the preparation of phenolic ketones by theNencki reaction. As a strong Lewis acid or electronacceptor it readily forms co-ordination compoundswith molecules containing electron-donor atoms suchas oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur; and boron fluoride

etherate, for instance, is a convenient form in whichthe catalyst can be used for esterification andother reactions. In the petroleum processing andother industries boron fluoride is a valuable catalystor initiator for cationic polymerization, alkylationand isomerization. Notwithstanding its greater costit has advantages over aluminium chloride andsulphuric acid. Although there are innumerablepapers and patents on the uses of boron fluoride,only one book (Booth and Martin, Boron Trifluorideand Its Derivatives, 1949) preceded the presentvolume, which gives a clear and comprehensiveaccount of this important subject in the rela­tively short space of 326 pages. AcademicianTopchiev of the Institute of Petroleum, U.S.S.R.Academy of Sciences, has made notable contri­butions to the chemistry and utilization of boronfluoride, among them being the molecular com­pounds of boron fluoride and phosphoric acid.Topchiev and his collaborators, therefore, write withauthority.

The twelve chapters of the book cover the prepara­tion of boron fluoride, the physical and chemicalproperties of boron fluoride and its derivatives,co-ordination compounds, compounds with hydrogen,alkylations, polymerizations, addition of 'oxygen andsulphur-containing compounds to ethylenic com­pounds, dimes and acetylene derivatives, isomeriza­tions, cyclizations, nitration and sulphonation, con­densations and miscellaneous reactions. In additionto hundreds of references in each chapter, there is along supplementary list of references to work whichbecame more recently available to the Russianauthors. The work of Butlerov, Nesmeyanov andother Russians naturally receives special attention,but no work of any significance outside Russia hasbeen neglected. A serious defect is the absence of asubject index.

K.V.

MACHINE DESIGN by R. C. Patel & A. D. Pandya(Acharya Book Depot, Baroda), Second Edition,1958. Pp. xiv + 424. Price Rs 12.50

The first edition of this book published in January1958 was smaller in size and content than the presentedition, and contained many printing errors andomissions. In the second edition many of thesehave been rectified, and its publication six monthsafter the first edition is an indication of its popu­larity. The book incorporates some advanced prob­lems on bending moment, eccentric loading and steamengine, and machine parts like pulleys, gears, etc.It is primarily meant for students preparing for thedegree or diploma examinations and contains select­ed, solved and unsolved problems. Fundamental

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J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

principles of machine design are not dealt with,so also the derivation of various formulae and basicequations. This has been done because the authorsfeel that the students are expected to be wellacquainted with the subject of applied mechanicsby the time they take to the study of machinedesign. This is a handicap both for the student andthe teacher, and it may be useful if some space isdevoted to the fundamentals of applied mechanicsin the next edition.

Whatever may be the drawbacks and defects ofthe book, the authors deserve to be congratulat­ed in their praiseworthy attempt to bring out abook on such a vast and varied subject as machinedesign.

S.P.L.

THE THEORY AND DESIGN OF MAGNETIC AMPLIFIERS- Automation & Control Engineering Series­by E. H. Frost-Smith (Chapman & Hall Ltd,London), 1959. Pp. xix + 487. Price 755. net

The volume, the first of a series on automation andcontrol engineering, is intended for engineers design­ing or using magnetic amplifiers as well as for uni­versity students. The author builds comprehensivelyall aspects of the subject from basic principles todetails of design. His discussions reveal real appre­ciation of practical problems.

A lucid account of the basic operation of trans­ductors is followed by an exha.ustive analysis ofthe steady state and transient operation of theidealized transductor both under self-excitation andauto-excitation. The frequency response character­istics of transductors are discussed in detail. This isfollowed by a clear account of high speed transductorsand magnetic amplifiers as well as balanced amplifiercircuits. Amplification at low levels and magneticmodulation are also covered. The basic principlesdeveloped are then applied to the practical designof magnetic amplifiers. The author's rich ex-'perience as a control engineer has enabled him tooutline several practical applications of magneticamplifiers.

The contents of the book, strictly within the con­fines of its title, can hardly be criticized. But con­sidering amplifying devices in general, it is unfor­tunate that the book gives little help to the readerto rate the position of magnetic amplifiers in therange of such devices. A comparative study of thedifferent types of amplifying devices and an elucida­tion of the conditions under which magnetic ampli­fiers would be more suitable than other amplifyingdevices for specific problems would have been valu­able both from the point of the university student aswell as the control engineer.

488

The book, scholarly in presentation and masterlyin practical details, is perhaps the most completework on the subject so far available.

C. BALAKRISHNAN

MODELMAKING FOR INDUSTRIAL DESIGN by RalphR. Knoblaugh (McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., NewYork). 1958. Pp. xi + 276. Price $ 9.75

Modelmaking today has come to occupy an impor­tant place in science and industry, and a modelmaking.department has become a vital unit of most industria.lestablishments. In all branches of engineering, parti­cularly architecture and town planning, study ofmodelmaking' is given particular attention. Bookson this subject are few, and a practical treatise likethis should be welcomed by all those engaged in theart of modelmaking.

.In this essentially practical manual, the treatmentis confined to such models as are commonly made inthe workshop of an average industrial designer.Modelmaking in plaster of Paris has received moredetailed treatment, as information on this subject israther meagre; some of the plaster-working processeshave been described for the first time in English. Inaddition, modelmaking in wood, plastics and metal,with simple hand tools and small power tools, isdescribed.

Four kinds of models employed during the deve­lopment of an industrial product are dealt with.They are: (1) study models; (2) presentation models;(3) mock-ups; and (4) prototypes. The processes in­volved in the making of these models are describedand each step is explained with the help of excellentdrawings and photographs of actual works in progress.Valuable hints are provided for the selection of mate­rials and processes to be employed for a particularjob. Practical tips are given on processing, assem­bling, and painting'of the various components of themodel and its finishing. How to judge whether amodel is good or bad is discussed.

Both the hobbyman and the professional modelmaker will find this well-produced and illustratedbook instructive, and of help in improving their modelmaking techniques and expressing industrial designideas more readily in three dimensions.

M. A. REGE & T. S. RAGHURAM

PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES - McGraw-HillSeries in Engineering Sciences - by P. G.Hodge, Jr (McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York,Toronto, London), 1959. Pp. xiv + 364. Price$ 10.50

This book is primarily a text-book presenting syste­matically the available techniques used in plasticanalysis of structures. The structures dealt with are

REVIEWS

beams, frames, plates, shells and plates with cut-outs.Their load carrying capacity is determined by meansof the two well-established basic theorems relatingto the upper-bound and lower-bound values whichcan be calculated from considerations of kinematicsand statics respectively of the given structure. Incomplex structures, in addition, the assumption thatthe material yields by Tresca's or Mise's yield condi­tion is also made.

In two parts the book deals with (1) simple struc­tures like beams and frames which f'lil principallyin bending and (2) structures under combined stresses,i.e. beams under combined stresses, plates, shells,plates with cut-outs, etc. Worked out problems areincluded to illustrate the application of the principlesto the various types of structures.

The theorems relating to plastic analysis are givenand proof for each of the theorems is given at the endof the respective chapters. Problems for solutionand selected bibliography for further reading are alsoincluded.

The treatment of the book is mathematical and itwill appeal more to theoretical investigators andresearch workers interested in plastic design. Thetheories dealt with are applicable to structures ofductile materials (because of the assumed law offailure). On the other hand, there are a number ofstructures of other materials (like reinforced con­crete) which have limited capacity for deformation.They do show limited plastic yielding and plasticredistribution. These cannot be analysed by themethods of analysis presented in this book and theyhave to be modified to suit the particular mate­rial. Also, the subject treated is limited in scopeas problems in plastic buckling, creep, flaw, etc.,associated with plastic failure, are left out; this isunavoidable in a text-book of limited size.

The book will serve not only as a good text-bookfor undergraduate and postgraduate study on plasticdesign of structures, but also as a good introductionto those who want to make a special study of plasticanalysis of structures. The author deserves creditin presenting most of the existing basic informationon the subject, which was otherwise available onlyfrom published papers, in a handy volume.

P. C. VARGHESE

NUCLEAR REACTOR PHYSICS by Raymond 1. Murray(Macmillan & Co. Ltd, London), 1959. Pp. xi +317. Price 30s. net

In the past few years, rapid progress has been madein the field of reactor physics and several books havebeen written on the subject. The book under review,based on a series of undergraduate and graduatecourses given by the author, is intended to serve as an

introduction to the physical concepts and calculationmethods employed in reactor design.

This book starts with an introduction to thegeneral concepts of a nuclear chain reactor anddifferent design problems. Next, the problems ofspace-energy distribution of neutron flux in a mode­rator and multiplying medium are discussed. Morerigorous derivations, employing the transport theory,are also described. Reactor constants and methodsfor calculating the critical conditions of a reactor aredealt with in a llirect manner. The transient beha­viour, temperature effects and the control of a reactoras source of heat are described in considerable de­tail. Special problems of slowing down of neutronsin hydrogenous materials and spherical harmonicsmethod are also described.

The treatment of different problems is straight­forward and clear-cut. This is further aided by seve­ral detailed examples and num~rical illustrations ofpractical applications. Several problems are givenat the end of each chapter together with references.

This book is specially useful to design engineers andphysics students interested in reactor technology.

V. P. DUGGAL

NOMOGRAPHY by 1. Ivan Epstein (Interscience Publi­shersInc., New York, London), 1958. Pp. x + 134.Price $ 4.50

Rapidity in calculation, saving of time in • trial anderror' computations and quick results even by thosenot familiar with the slide-rule and logarithms havemade the technique of • nomography' almost indis­pensable in research, design and plant control.Many of the excellent text-books available on thesubject discuss the methods of construction of nomo­graphs. which represent various types of formulaeusually encountered in scientific and technologicalfields. While practical and automatic constructionof the charts is all that is required in actual practice,the scientist and the engineer should also understandthe theoretical basis. Written to serve this purpose,the present volume combines a " discussion of methodsof construction with a thorough presentation of theunderlying theory". The first chapter on deter­minants forms the basis of the next one where theconstruction of nomograms representing a few simpleequations, using deductive and semi-deductive me­thods, is clearly explained. Further chapters dealwith applications of • projective transformations','matrix multiplication' and 'non-projective trans­formations in nomography'. Separate chapters havebeen devoted to • empirical nomography' and treat­ment of equations involving more than three vari­ables. • Kellogg's methods' of ascertaining whethera given equation can be nomographed are discussed in

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sufficient detail. Problems have been set mainly tomake the reader work out simpler proofs required forthe theoretical discussion and there are also a fewpractice problems. The book is complete in itself,containing concise treatment of the required topicsin mathematics sufficient to acquire the necessaryknowledge for following the subject matter. Thebook should prove equally useful to the student,research worker and plant executive.

B. NARAYANA DAS

PUBLICAnONS RECEIVED

QUANTITATIVE METHODS IN HUMAN PHARMACOLOGYAND THERAPEUTICS - Proceedings of a Sympo­sium (held in London on 2f and 25 March 1958)sponsored by the Biological ~ouncil's Co-ordinat­ing Committee for Symposia on Drug ActIOnSeries, Vol. 3, edited by D. R. Laurence (Perga­mon Press Ltd, London), 1959. Pp. xvii + 253.Price 45s. net

THE SCIENCE OF BIOLOGY by Paul B. Weisz (McGraw­Hill Book Co. Inc., New York), 1959. Pp. xvi +796. Price $ 7.95

ADVERTISING LAYOUT AND ART DIRECTlON­McGraw-Hill Series in Marketing and Adver­tising - written and designed by StephenBaker (McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York),1959. Pp. x + 326. Price $ 13.50

SOIL MECHANICS FOR RAILWAY ENGINEERS byU. G. K. Rao (Railway Testing & Research Centre,Lucknow), 1958. Pp. xiv + 206. Price Rs 7.50

THE WEALTH OF INDIA: RAW MATERIALS - Vol. V(H-K) (Council of Scientific & Industrial Re­search, New Delhi), 1959. Pp. xxviii + 332 + xii.Price Rs 30.00

FLUIDIZATION - McGraw-Hill Series in ChemicalEngineering - by Max Leva (McGraw-Hill BookCo. Inc., New York), 1959. Pp.xiii+327. Price$ 11.50

490

THE CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS ASFOOD AND FEED, edited by Samuel A. Matz(AVI Publishing Co. Inc., Westport, Connecticut),1959. Pp. xv + 732

TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FORMETALS: Vol. LI, edited by Ray T. Bavless(American Society for Metals, Cleveland, Ohio),1959. Pp. xx + 1136 .

COMPREHENSIVE ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY: Vol. IA­CLASSICAL ANALYSIS, edited by Cecil L. Wilson& David W. Wilson (Elsevier Publishing Co.,London; Distributors: D. Van Nostrand Co. Ltd,London), 1959. Pp. xix + 577. Price lOSs.

RADIATION PROTECTION - Recommendations of theInternational Commission on Radiological Pro­tection (Pergamon Press Ltd, London), 1959.Pp. v + 18. Price 3s. 6d.

SOVIET REVIEWS OF NUCLEAR SCIENCE (on the 40thAnniversary of the October Revolution)- Inter­national Series of Monographs on Nuclear Energy(Vol. 3, No. 11 of Atonznaya Energiya, Nov.1957)-edited by R. A. Charpie & J. V. Dunworth(Pergamon Press Ltd, London), 1959. Pp. 108.Price 30s. net

A PRACTICAL MANUAL ON THE MONTE CARLO METHODFOR RANDOM WALK PROBLEMS by E. D. Cashwell& C. J. Everett ( Pergamon Press Ltd, London),1959. Pp. ix + 153. Price 4Os. net

NATURAL RESOURCES - University of California En­. gineering Extension Series - edited by Martin

K Huberty & Warren L. Flock (McGraw-HillRook Co. Inc., New York), 1959. Pp. xviii + 556.Price $ 11.00

CLOSE BINARY SYSTEMS - The International Astro­physics Series - Vol. V, by Zdenek Kopal(Chapman & Hall Ltd, London; Distributors inIndia: Asia Publishing House, Bombay), 1959.Pp. xiv + 558. Price lOSs. net

MODERN TRENDS IN DOCUMENTATION - Proceed­ings of a Symposium held at the University ofSouthern California, April 1958 - edited byMartha Boaz (Pergamon Press Ltd, London),1959. Pp. viii + 103. Price 35s. net

NOTES & 'NEWSPlasma engine

THE FEASIBILITY OF A PLASMAengine, which could harness thepower of a brief shock wave gene­rated by an electric current dis­charged through air in a cylinder,has been demonstrated in a labora­tory model. This achievementholds good prospects for the use ofsuch engines, with further improve­ments, in future space ships.

By using curved electrodes in thecylinder and by attaching a nozzleto its bottom end, the shock wavehas been directed to produce usefulthrust; the shock wave producedcould blow away a little disc intothe air with a force of 4000 lb. Ithas been calculated that a 27,300 lb.space vehicle including a 5000 lb.instrumented pay-load could makea one-way trip to Mars in just over8 months. The engine would giverapid bursts of low-level powerover a long period and could deve­lop 9000 lb. of thrust per pulse.But operating at a pulse rate of500 pulses/sec., each pulse lastingonly O'39 sec., an average thrust of1·8 lb. would be developed. Thoughsmall, this thrust is adequate as theengine is specifically designed towork outside the earth's gravity.

The potentialities of the plasmaengine can be gauged by comparingan interesting statistic of this typeof engine with those of other con­ventional ones. This statistic isthe' specific impulse', which is therocket engineer's equivalent of, miles-per-gallon " and is 1700 sec.for the plasma engine. This meansthat I lb. of thrust is delivered foreach pound of fuel over an operat­ing period of 1700 sec. The speci­fic impulse of the V-2 rocket was200 sec. and chemical rockets withspecific impulses of 400 sec. aretheoretically possible. The designof plasma engines with specificimpulses of 5000 sec. is now con­sidered practicable [Sci. NewsleU.Wash., 76 (1959), 21].

New method for studyingshock waves in metals

AN ACCURATE AND EASY METHOD OF

measuring and recording transient

elastic waves created in metals byimpacts and explosions is reported.The new method gives researchengineers a means of studying thepatterns of shock waves and theirspeed of transmission in solidmaterials in order to establish de­sign criteria to minimize the effectsof explosive shock on finished(military) equipment.

In operation, an explosion set offat one end of a metal bar to whicha strain gauge has been attached,sends a shock wave down the barat an extremely high speed. Thestrain gauge picks up a readingfrom the shock wave and transmitsa signal to a set of amplifiers, whichin turn, display a reading on thecalibrated face of an oscilloscope inthe form of a pip of light. Apolaroid camerawith shutter openedis prefocussed on the face of theoscilloscope and records the pip inthe form of a line as it passes. Thecurve of the pip of light indicatesthe speed of propagation of theshock wave, maximum strain, shapeand changes of the wave, andduration of strains. The oscillo­scope is set for a 4-fLsec. sweep toreproduce a detailed display of thesignal picked up by the strain gauge[J. Franklin Inst., 267 (1959), 548].

Amplification ofmagnetic resonance signals

A METHOD FOR INCREASING THE

strength of nuclear, magnetic reso­nance (NMR) signals by factors upto 100 or even more is described.The values of the quality factor(Q) of a circuit attained in practicehave rarely exceeded 250 (a com­mon value being 100) due to lossesin the circuit arising from anumber of causes like skin effect,dielectric losses in the coil formand the presence of a metallic shieldround the coil. In this methodthe quality factor of a coil con­taining the sample is increasedby the use of an active networkto supply energy to the tunedcircuit to compensate the losses,by introducing a shunt negativeresistance in parallel with coil.

Using this principle, experimentson proton resonance in a sample of

water, treated with ferric nitratesolution, have been conducted withthe amplitude bridge of Thomasand Hunton. A Q-multiplier,which employs a single tube actingas a cathode follower in the feed­back path and consequently has ahigh inherent stability, has beenused. A slight modification madein the Q-multiplier involved theapplication of feedback to thejunction between two fixed capa­citors connected in series across themain tuning condenser instead ofsplitting the latter. A variableresistance served to maintain agiven voltage across the coil fordifferent effective values of Q.The attainable Q-multiplicationwas limited because the shuntresistance of the tuned circuit wassmaller than the minimum shuntnegative resistance that could begenerated by this simple Q-multi­plier. However, it is ideal for workin low field NMR spectroscopy.The circuit should be fed from aconstant current source even athigh values of the Q-multiplicationfactor for maximum benefit. Atfrequencies of the order of a fewMc/s. it is desirable to use an ampli­fier with a stabilized gain of c. 10.At 7·35 Mc/s. a maximum increasein signal strength by a factor ofabout five has been observed.Incidentally, the circuit offers twoadvantages: firstly, the amplifiernoise at the output will be slightlyless due to the lower amplificationnow required, and secondly, theremay be a slight improvement foran oscillographic display due tothe increased selectivity of the cir­cuit [Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., 50A(1959), 63].

Recovery of uranium

A NON-AQUEOUS METHOD FOR THErecovery of uranium from zirco­nium tin alloy (Zircaloy) in nuclearfuel elements is being tested at theBrookhaven National Laboratoryof the Atomic Energy Commission,U.S.A. The process has two ad­vantages over the currently usedaqueous hydrogen fluoride tech­nique: it uses less and smallerequipment and produces smallervolumes of radioactive wastes.

In actual practice, spent Zircaloyfuel elements are first dissolved ina mixture of 15 mole per centnitrogen dioxide and 85 mole percent hydrogen fluoride. The nitro-

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J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

gen dioxide is used to dissolveZr-Sn and to prevent uranium fromforming a stable complex salt.

The solution containing Zircaloyis then filtered to remove fissionproducts and most of the zirconiumin the form of a mixture of(HzNOa)zZrF6 and (NOz)zZrF6. Thesolvent is then filtered, thus leavingsoluble uranium and the solublezirconium salts. Bromine trifluo­ride is added to the solution, whenuranium is converted to uraniumhexafluoride. Repeated evapora­tion separates uranium hexafluo­ride and the bromine trifluoridefrom the remaining zirconium andnon-volatile fission product fluo­rides. Finally, uranium hexafluo­ride is separated from brominetrifluoride and the volatile fissionproducts by fractional distillation[Chem. Engng News, 37 (20) (1959),56].

A new paper chromatographyand electrophoresis technique

A SIMPLE APPARATUS EMPLOYINGcentrifugal force has been developedfor use in the separation techniquesof paper chromatography and elec­trophoresis; the technique can beused for one or two-dimensionalseparations on circular paper sheetsrotating in a horizontal plane.

The developed chromatogramsclosely resemble those of the classi­cal radial pattern. The sheets arefixed at the centre and are held ina taut position by rotation at 300­1000 r.p.m. The developing sol­vents are fed to the paper in a con­tinuous stream at a point slightlyaway from the centre of the rota­tion. The sample solution isapplied in the form of spots on aring marked round the centre ofrotation or alternatively it can beintroduced as segments or wholerings. The use of centrifugal forcespeeds up chromatographic sepa­rations quite markedly.

For electrophoresis, a suitablechamber is obtained by clampingtogether a bakelite (lower) and pers­pex (upper) tray. Platinum stripelectrodes are clamped along thefull length of the two long edges ofthe paper strip. When the paperis correctly positioned it makescontact with neither the upper norlower plates. The short ends ofthe paper are serrated and the nineteeth at either end dip into com­partmented troughs which are posi-

492

tioned in such a way that theyswing out into the plane of thepaper when the unit rotates. Thesample is applied at two pointssymmetrically distributed aboutthe centre of rotation along thecentral longitudinal axis of thepaper. As the sheet rotates moreliquid is introduced at a point nearthe centre of rotation to preventdrying out of the paper.

In this way the developing solu­tion is applied as a ring and movesout uniformly under the influenceof capillary and centrifugal motionas a circular front till it reachesthe platinum strip electrodes. Itthen streams along the edges ofthe electrodes till it passes into thefour corner collecting compart­ments of the two troughs. Thisensures continuous removal of elec­trolysis products from the elec­trodes.

The patterns obtained by thismethod are such that the onedeveloped on one half of the paperis the mirror image of that onthe other half. Consequently anauthentic sample of a substancecan be applied on one side and amixture for analysis on the other.When the separation has proceededto the necessary extent, the sheetcan be folded in half and the pre­sence or absence of the given subs­tance can be determined by observ­ing congruence of the' known' and, unknown' zones [Chem. Age, 81(1959), 937].

Boron measurement inliquid streams

AN INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING

boron in liquid streams conti­nuously to meet large-scale pro­duction control needs is described.It is based on the large capacity ofboron for neutron absorption.

Slow neutrons (0,035 electronvolts) from a radium-berylliumsource are allowed to pass througha concentrically arranged stainlesssteel sample cell and into a propor­tional tube filled with boron tri­fluoride gas containing 96 per centof the isotope Blo, which capturesthe neutrons. Each captured neu­tron causes a pulse on a wire(carrying about 2000 volts) in theproportional tube. The pulses areamplified and counted. A time­measuring device tied to the coun­ter gives a rate measurement of thepulses. The rate of pulse genera-

tion is inversely proportional toboron concentration in the stream.

A pneumatic integrator, adjust­able for the range of boron contentin the plant streams, is used formeasurement. Components of theinstrument can be located almostas desired. No thermosetting isneeded, since a change in ambienttemperature from 70° to 120°F.has no noticeable effect on thereading [Chem. Engng News, 37(23) (1959),52].

Direct mass-flow meter

A TRUE MASS-FLOW METER - ONE

that measures fluid flow directly inpounds - has been developed bythe General Electric Co. Since itsoperation does not depend onvolume it can bypass such variablesas pressure, temperature and den­sity. The meter, made up of threemajor components - flow ratesensor, gyroscopic integrator, andsix-digit cyclometer register - canbe used with many industrial fluids,such as naphtha, gasoline andother hydrocarbon liquids, refineryand natural gas, oxygen, nitrogen,and liquefied hydrocarbon gases,such as butane and propane. Thedevice may also prove useful forlight gases such as hydrogen andhelium, as well as high temperature,corrosive, and cryogenic fluids.

The unit does not depend on aregulated power supply; it willmeasure flow rates of gases up to40,000 lb. per hour and liquids upto 240,000 lb. per hour. Themeter operates at pressures up to1500 p.s.i.g., and at ambient tem­peratures from -20° to 125°F.,and fluid temperatures from 0° to165°F. It is explosion-proof [Chem.Engng News, 37 (21) (1959), 88J.

Screening of anti-ozonants

AN EFFECTIVE TEST WHICHscreens organic compounds todetermine their potential as anti­ozonants in rubber has been report­ed. A model olefin, cyclohexene, isdissolved in an inert solvent, car­bon tetrachloride; a small amountof the compound to be tested isalso dissolved in the solvent. Thesolution is cooled to O°C. anda stream of air containing ozone(2 per cepL by volume) is passedthrough the solution.

The effluent is then scrubbedwith potassium iodide, dried and

analysed for oxygen with a Beck­man oxygen analyser. This oxy­gen content is recorded at 10 min.intervals for about 40 min., plottedand extrapolated to zero time.The extent to which the inhibitoris able to suppress the three-atomreaction is expressed in per centby volume of oxygen. This valueis then compared with that of areference standard, N, N'-dioctyl­p-phenylenediamine, which is arbi­trarily set at 100 [Chem. ElIgllgNews, 37 (23) (1959), 38].

Microbiological oxidation ofsteroids

A NEW ~IETHOD FOR THE MICRO­biological oxidation of steroids hasbeen developed at the ResearchInstitute of the PharmaceuticalIndustry, Budapest. The methodis simpler and gives a purer productthan the conventional fermenta­tion process and can be used forall microbiological conversionswhere the organism performing thetransformation can be grown inpellet form and the polarity of thesubstrate molecule to be convertedis not such as to make it solublein the aqueous fermentation broth.The method gives a product whichcan be continuously extracted fromthe system and is thus not subject­ed to further oxidation; the pro­duct can be easily separated fromthe mycelial tissues and no lossoccurs since the small quantityof untransformed steroid can betotally recovered.

R. lIigricans is grown as a volu­minous mucous mass and theinoculum (400 mI.) consisting of105 spores/litre in the pellet formare placed in a chromatographiccolumn of 4 em. diameter fittedwith a sintered glass plate. Thefluid rises through the lower four­way joint into the glass tube placedalongside the column. Air is blownthrough a capillary and thus thebroth is continuously forced fromthe tube into the column and satu­rated with air at the same time.To the fluid thus kept in constantcirculation, 160 mg. of progeste­rone dissolved in 4 ml. of acetoneare added. The speed of circula­tion of the broth was 250 ml./min.After the addition of progesterone,the fermentation broth (250 ml.) isdrained off at different intervalsand the same quantity of freshbroth added. The broth samples

NOTES & NEWS

are shaken with twice their volumeof dichloroethane, the myceliumglobules retained in the column areextracted twice with 10 ml. ofacetone and three times with di­chloroethane, using in all 100 ml.of the solvent. The extracts arewashed with a 2 per cent solutionof sodium bicarbonate, then withwater, dried with sodium sulphateand, finally, examined by paperchromatography. The conversionyield of progesterone was 86 percent [Nature, Lond., 183 (1959),1279].

Synthetic penicillins

A NEW CHEAPER AND SHORTERroute to l>iologically active synthe­tic penicillins, starting from com­mercially available penicillin G, hasbeen worked out. The new seriesof penicillins can act on organismswhich are resistant to the naturalpenicillins.

The first step in the new syn­thesis is the removal of phenyl­acetic acid side chain from penicillinG, which is done by treating thepotassium salt of penicillin G withmethanol containing triethylamineas catalyst. The resulting potas­sium ot-methyl-D-ot-benzyl penicil­loate is then directly convertedwith methanolic hydrogen chlorideto methyl-D-ot-4-carbmethoxy- 5,5-dimethyl-ot-amino-2-thiozolidine­acetate hydrochloride. This is thestarting compound upon which thewhole new synthetic series is based.The new intermediate also com­pletes a transition between anatural penicillin and a biologicallyactive synthetic penicillin series­which is not directly available byfermentation [Chem. Engng News,37 (24) (1959),43].

Isolation of anti-protein bodies

A CONVENIENT, REPRODUCIBLE ANDgentle method for the isolation ofantibodies (Ab) directed againstprotein antigens (Ag) is reported.The method has been used suc­cessfully to isolate pure rabbit Abto hen ovalbumin (OA) , bovineserum albumin (BSA), and bovineribonuclease (RNase).

A protein Ag is treated with N­acetyl D, L-homocysteine thiolac­tone (AHT), which places a numberof SH groups on its surface withoutseriously affecting its capacity toprecipitate with Ab directed to the

original protein. A specific preci­pitate is then prepared with thethiolated protein (T-Ag) and theAb. After the precipitate is freedfrom non-specific proteins, it isdissolved in a glycine- sulphatebuffer at pH 2'4, in which theAg-Ab bonds are largely disso­ciated and the appropriate amountof the bifunctional organic mer­curial 3,6-bis-(acetoxymercurime­thyl)-dioxane (MMD) is added. TheT-Ag is cross-linked by -S-Hg­bonds - and precipitates, leavingmuch of the Ab in solution [J.Amer. chem. Soc., 81 (1959), 2277].

Enzymatic synthesis ofcarbon-chlorine bond

THE FIRST ENZYMATIC SYNTHESISof carbon-ehlorine bond catalysedby an enzyme (or enzyme system)has been reported. The enzymeused is obtained from Caldario­myces fumago which excretes cald­ariomycin as the major chlorine­containing metabolite. Acetone­dried mycelial powders of thiswould catalyse the conversion ofchloride ion into an ether-extract­able organic form when supple­mented with ~-ketoadipic acid; asmall amount (5 mg.) of the radio­active enzymatically synthesizedcompound has been isolated. Thebehaviour of this unknown com­pound on a Dowex-l column(formate phase) and labile actiontowards IN NaOH indicate it to bea weaker acid than ~-ketoadipic

acid and it was concluded thatthe chlorine atom is situated ona carbon alpha to the ketone.Assuming a ~-decarboxylation,

these considerations limit the pos­sible constitution of enzymaticallysynthesized acid to either 3-chloro­levulinic acid or ~-chlorolevulinic

acid. The enzymatically synthe­sized acid has been found to beidentical with ~-chlorolevulinic acid[J. Amer. chem. Soc., 81 (1959),1011]. -

Duplication of virus inanimal cells

A MAJOR STEP TOWARDS THEunderstanding of viruses comesfrom a recent discovery that ananimal cell can manufacture acomplete virus from the nakednucleic acid of a virus inserted intoit. This clearly establishes thatthe animal cell has the machinery

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within it to duplicate a virus.Apparently there is a specificattachment between the surface ofa cell and the protein coat of avirus that determines whether thevirus attacks the cell or not. Acell resistant to polio virus, forexample, does not have the kindof protein on its surface thatwill combine with the polio virusprotein.

In an experimental study, pro­tein coat from polio virus wasremoved by chemical treatmentand the nucleic acid released wasthen introduced into naturallyresistant cells. The cells producedpolio virus from the nucleic acidthat was identical with the originalpolio virus. It has been foundthat susceptible human and monkeycells could be infected by thenew polio virus but resistant cellsfrom rabbits, mice, hamsters, chic­kens and guinea-pigs are immune.These studies shed some light onthe possible mode of evolution ofviruses; they may also lead to thedevelopment of new kinds of virusesand vaccines [Sci. Newslett. Wash.,75 (1959), 275].

Single-strand DNA

THE ISOLATION OF A SINGLE­stranded deoxyribonucleic acid'(DNA) is expected to lead to abetter understanding of the be­haviour and properties of manynucleic acids including how ribo­nucleic acid replicates.

While searching ·for a low mole­cular weight DNA with which tostudy biological activity as afunction of chemical structure ofDNA molecule, it has been ob­served that .pXDNA, isolated fromthe virus X174, does not act thesame way as DNA. Its radius ofgyration is smaller than predictedfor two-stranded DNA of the samemolecular weight. Also its radiusof gyration is a function of ionicstrength of the solution, in contrastto two-stranded DNA. The ultra­violet absorption of .pXDNA istemperature dependent between20° and 60°C., a phenomenon whichis not observed in two-strand­ed DNA. Its average molecularweight decreases upon enzyme de­gradation according to a functionexpected for a single-stranded mole­cule different from a function for atwo-stranded molecule. It reactswith formaldehyde at 37°C. and is

494

precipitated by Pb++ ions. Thisshows that the purine and pyri­midine rings are not tied up in ahydrogen-bonded complementarystructure but are available for re­action. It does not have a com­plementary nucleotide composition.Adenine and thymine contents andguanine and cytosine contents arenot equal. The simplest explana­tion for all these observations isthat .pXDNA is a single-strandedmolecule [Chem. Engng News, 37(22) (1959), 40].

Cholesterol-lowering activityof wheat gluten lipid

THE SUBSTITUTION OF WHEATgluten for casein as the dietaryprotein has been reported to causea marked reduction in the serumcholesterol concentration of ratsfed a hypercholesteremic diet. Ithas been recently observed that thecholesterol-lowering activity ofwheat gluten is associated withlipid material which is resistant toextraction with an ether-petroleumether-acetone mixture. A majorportion of the lipid material couldbe removed by continuous extrac­tion with hot absolute ethyl alcoholfor several days. Also, continuousextraction with hot n-butyl alcoholfor 24 hr led to recovery of 80-90per cent of this lipid material. Thelipid has been separated into twofractions, one fraction soluble inacetone which comprises 90 per centof the total lipids and anotherfraction insoluble in acetone, whichforms approximately 10 per centof the total lipids. Both these frac­tions possess cholesterol-loweringactivity. Wheat gluten extractedin this manner ,not only lost itscholesterol-lowering activity, butactually enhanced hypercholestere­mia when it was substituted forcasein in the hypercholesteremicdiet [Federation Proceedings ,U.S.A.,18 (1959), 539].

Symposium onInhaled Particles and Vapours

AN INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ONInhaled Particles and Vapours,organized by the British Occu­pational Hygiene Society, will beheld in Oxford, London, from 29March to 1 April 1960. Thesymposium, besides concerning it­self with the physical, chemical andphysiological factors governing the

entry of harmful substances intothe body via the respiratory system,will cover the following subjects:(1) Anatomy and physiology of therespiratory tract; (2) Distributionand retention of particles andvapours in the respiratory tract;(3) Elimination of material fromthe respiratory tract; (4) Reactionswith the respiratory tract arisingfrom the presence of particles andvapours; and (5) Sampling tech­niques simulating respiratory re­tention. The symposium will havebearing on many problems ofindustrial hygiene including sili­cosis, asbestosis and the otherpneumoconioses, and on the da­mage to health produced by smog,tobacco smoke, radioactive gasesand dusts, air-borne bacteria andtoxic vapours.

Further details can be had fromDr J. S. McLintock, Medical Ser­vice, National Coal Board, HobartHouse, London S.W.1.

Indian Institute of Technology,Madras

THE INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNO­logy, Madras, the third in the chainof four regional higher technologicalinstitutions being established by theGovernment of India, was inaugu­rated by the Minister for ScientificResearch and Cultural Affairs on31 July 1959. The other twoinstitutions, already functioning,are located at Kharagpur andBombay. The fourth, to be estab­lished at Kanpur (U.P.), is to startfunctioning next year.

The Institute, which is beingbuilt on a 600-acre site at Guindy,Madras, with the technical assis­tance of West Germany, is the firstto have a five-year integratedcourse, which will set the pattern ofengineering education in thecountry. The institute will have atotal strength of 1500 students forthe degree courses and about 500students for postgraduate courses.In addition, research work will becarried out on a wide variety ofengineering and technological sub­jects. The Institute is expected topartially reduce the existing im­balance between the number ofgraduate engineers and those en­gaged in postgraduate research anddiploma holders. The course atthe institute will include instruc­tion in human and social sciencesalso.

During the first year, the Insti­tute proposes to admit 120 studentsand will offer facilities for advancedstudies and research in a wide rangeof subjects such as machine tooltechnology, production engineering,mechanical handling of materials,metallurgy of iron and steel,foundry engineering, chemical en­gineering, plant design and fabri­cation, instrument teclmolo.sy,structural engineering and electro­nics.

The Institute represents anotherexample of international co-opera­tion and co-ordination in the scienti­fic and technological field, and isassisted by 20 experienced Germanprofessors who will serve the insti­tution for 5 years in training Indianengineers. Besides making avail­able the services of the technicalexperts, the West German Govern­ment has provided equipment anda fully equipped library, worth overRs I crore.

Physico-chemical data onantibiotics

As AN AID TO THE IDENTIFICATIONand study of antibiotics, the re­search staff of the HindustanAntibiotics Ltd, Pimpri, Poona,have prepared tables in which theknown antibiotics have been classi­fied by their physical, chemical andbiological properties. These arebeing published in the Bulletinissued by the Hindustan Anti­biotics Ltd. The first set in theseries of such tables published in arecent issue of the Bulletin [2(1959),13J presents data on the melt­ing points, ultraviolet absorptionmaxima and empirical formulae for235 antibiotics produced by fungi,bacteria and lichens. In the table,in which the antibiotics arearranged by their empirical for­mulae, the data provided includethe name of the organism producingthe antibiotic, crystal form andcolour, nature, melting point, ultra­violet absorption maxima, opticalrotation, antibiotic activity andstructural formula.

Proceedings of theSymposium on Chemotherapy

THE Proceedings of the Symposiumon Chemotherapy held at the Cen­tralDrug Research Institute, Luck­now, during 2-4 November 1958have been published. The 172-page

NOTES & NEWS

volume contains 44 technical paperspresented at the symposium alongwith the discussions on each paper.A report of the symposium hasalready been published in thisJournal [ISA (1959), 89J.

Copies of the publication (priceRs 12.00) are available from theDirector, Central Drug ResearchInstitute, Lucknow.

Solid State Electronics

THE PERGAMON PRESS LTD,London, has undertaken the publi­cation, under a distinguished inter­national board of editors, of a newbimonthly, Solid State Electronics,beginning with the autumn of 1959.The journal will cover broadly thefollowing subjects: Transistor tech­nology in all its aspects, crystalgrowing and handling; applicationof contacts, crystal detectors andpower rectifiers; preparation ofintermetallic and other binaryand tertiary semiconductors; designand performance of galvanomag­netic devices; thermo-electric pro­perties and their applications;electroluminescence; photoconduc­tors and photovoltaic cells, andsolid state batteries; and problemsconcerning encapsulation and work­ing life. Papers on circuitry willalso be included if they have adirect bearing on new technologicalaspects of the semiconductor de­vices concerned. The subscriptionfor the journal is £7 or $ 20.00 pervolume to libraries, and £ 5 or$ 14.00 per volume to certifiedprivate supscribers.

Journal of Research,National Bureau of Standards

THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STAN­dards, Washington, is now issuingthe Journal of Research in fourseparate sections to permit moreeffective dissemination of theBureau's contributions to scienceand industry, and meet moreeffectively the specialized needs ofscientists, engineers and mathe­maticians.

Section A: Physics and Chemistry,will cover a broad range of physicaland chemical research, with majoremphasis on standards of physicalmeasurement, fundamental cons­tants and properties of matter.This section will be issued six timesa year (annual subscription $ 4.00,postage extra). Section B: Mathe-

matics and Mathematical Physics,will present studies and compilationdesigned for the mathematician andtheoretical physicist. It will in­clude topics in mathematical sta­tistics, theory of experiment design,numerical analysis, theoreticalphysics and chemistry, and logicaldesign and programming of com­puters. It will be issued quar­terly (annual subscription $ 2.25).Section C: Engineering and Instru­mentation, will report results ofinterest chiefly to the engineer andthe applied scientist. It will alsocover some of the work in appliedmechanics, properties of engineer­ing materials, building researchand cryogenic engineering. It willalso be issued quarterly (annualsubscription $ 2.25). Section D:Radio Propagation, will reportresearch in radio propagation,communications, and upper atmo­spheric physics. It will be issuedsix times in a year (annual subs­cription $ 4.00).

In addition to research reportsthe new journal will contain reviewarticles.

Announcements

Ii Dr F. W. G. White has beenappointed Chairman, Council ofScientific & Industrial ResearchOrganization (C.S.I.R.O.), Austra­lia. Dr White was Professor ofPhysics at the Canterbury Uni­versity College, New Zealand,before corning to Australia in 1941at the invitation of the AustralianGovernment to work on radarresearch. When the C.S.I.R.O.was formed in 1949 he became theChief Executive Officer and in 1957the Deputy Chairman. He playedan important role in building upthe laboratories of the C.S.I.R.O.He has been particularly active inthe development of the C.S.I.R.O.Wool Research Laboratories andwas the Chairman of the FirstInternational Wool Textile Re­search Conference which met inAustralia in 1955.

• Award of Doctorate Degrees­Shri Sunil Priya Das Gupta andShri Hakam Singh have beenawarded the Ph.D. degree of theDelhi University for their respec­tive theses entitled Dielectric absorp­tion of long-chain aliphatic estersand Some aspects of the structuralchemistry of clay minerals.

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J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES. VOL., 18A, OCTOBER 1959

Shri Khodu Sorab Irani has beenawarded the Ph.D. degree of thePoona University for his thesisentitled Structural transformationsin spinels.

INSTRUMENTS ANDAPPLIANCES

Electronic microbalance

AN ELECTRONIC MICROBALANCE

which can automatically measureand record small variations ofweight or energy for which theconventional mechanical balancesare either inadequate or their useinvolves lengthy and elaborateoperations, has been designed.The instrument offers a numberof basic advantages not obtain­able in other presently availableones, like precise control of theweighing time and maximum im­munity to mechanical vibration.The accuracy of measurement isunaffected by impacts. The record­ings need not be in chronologicalevent sequence.

In the electronic microbalance,the movement produced by theweight or energy to be measured isentirely self-compensated by acounteracting electric current. Asmall deflecting magnet attached tothe quartz lever and moving withinthe field of an h.f. coil and per­manent magnet, indicates the posi­tion of the lever and produces thecounteracting moment. By suit­able arrangement of the electroniccircuits, other quantities, derivedfrom weight differential curves forthe determination of sedimentationweight variations gauged or re­corded by the balance can be usedindependently for monitoring orcontrolling other processes. Thespecifications of the balance are:maximum measurable load, 1 kg.;overall measuring range, 0'1-5 mg.full-scale deflection in 4 sensitivity

496

ranges; and error, 0·5 per cent offull-scale deflection [Europ. tech.Dig., 4 (6) (1959). 37].

Gamma ray-insensitivefast-neutron counter

A FAST-NEUTRON COUNTER, SIMPLEin construction and comparable inefficiency to other similar devicesin use, is described. Availabledevices to detect neutrons employ­ing organic phosphors suffer fromhigh gamma ray sensitivity, andthis counter is free from thisdefect.

The counter consists of a numberof thin rectangular lucite sheetscoated with zinc sulphide overtheir large faces and then sand­wiched together to form a rect­angular block which is mountedon a RCA 6342 photomultiplier.Zinc sulphide powder of thicknessless than 10 mg./sq. em. gives asatisfactory neutron response.Several lucite sheet thicknesseshave been tried and it has beenfound that for radium-berylliumneutrons the efficiency decreased forthicknesses greater than 0·125 in.Neutron detection efficiency hasbeen found, within the limits ofexperimental error, independent ofthe direction of entrance.

The pulse height spectra andabsolute efficiencies of'the countermeasured in the energy range 225keY. to 4·4 MeV. using neutronsfrom the T(P, n)He3 and D(d, n)He3

reactions and for 17-MeV. neutronsfrom the T(d, n) He4 reaction,showed that the dete.ction effi­ciency is dependent on the neu­tron energy. The curves for abso­lute efficiencies for C060 6-MeV.gamma rays indicate that a suit­able bias can be chosen withoutseriously impairing neutron detec­tion efficiency to give a gamma rayefficiency of 10-6 to 10- 10 of theneutron detection efficiency at that

bias [Canad. J. Phys., 37 (1959),858].

Semiconductor tetrode

A NEW FOUR-TERMINAL SEMICON­ductor device, which can perform anumber of electronic functions, hasbeen developed at the Bell Tele­phone Laboratories, New York.The device, called the field effecttetrode, can be made to function asa transformer, gyrator, isolator,non-distorting modulator, or ashort-circuit stable negative resis­tance. The new device has beenthe outcome of the theoretical workdone on the earlier field effectcurrent limiter. Functionally thedevice has no analogue, either inelectron tubes or in previous tran­sistors. As a transformer, it has avery decided advantage of con­siderable reduction in size for lowfrequency use, although it does notafford d.c. isolation. As a gyrator,it should be of considerable circuitinterest, e.g. for effecting impe­dance conversion. One such appli­cation may be to use the new de­vice to convert the reactance of aminiature capacitor into that of ahigh-Q inductor. If the device isbiased properly, it will function asan isolator, allowing passage ofalternating current in one directiononly. A chief application of thenew device may be as a distortion­less modulator, or electronicallycontrolled resistor for large signals.If a direct connection is madebetween the inner lead on one faceand the outer lead on the other,the device will function as a two­terminal a.c. short-circuit stablenegative resistance. In the experi­mental models, this performancehas been achieved over a range ofabout 30 to 250 V., at 0'1-0'6 rna.,in a boron-doped silicon crystal witha phosphorus diffused junction[J.Franklin Inst., 267 (1959), 547].

Progress

TOBACCO RESEARCH IN INDIA

STATISTICS REGAIWING THE ACREAGE UNDER TOBACCO

and the production during 1957-58 and the significantresults of researches carried out on different aspectsof tobacco cultivation at the \'arious research stationsunder the Indian Central Tobacco Committee arepresented in the committee's thirteenth annualreport. A slight fall was recorded both in areaunder cultivation and the total production from1029 thousand acres and 658·5 million lb. in 1956-57to 926 thousand acres and 564·5 million lb. respec­tively in 1957-58. The area under Virginia tobaccowas 176,000 acres, of which 167,000 acres were inAndhra Pradesh alone, yielding about 101 million lb.Virginia tobacco out of the total of 114 million lb.produced in India. During the year, 93·7 million lb.of tobacco worth Rs 15·8 crores were exportedagainst 99·9 million lb. worth Rs 13·8 crores during1956-57. Imports of manufactured tobacco fell from3·5 million lb., worth Rs 1·31 crores, in 1956-57 to2·8 million lb., worth Rs 1·27 crores, during 1957-58.

Agronomy - Application of farmyard manure asa layer, at the rate of 50 tons/acre, supplementedwith groundnut cake has been found to be beneficialfor nursery plants of cigarette tobacco. The bene­ficial effect is, however, not marked when farmyardmanure is mixed with the top soil. The number oftransplants is minimum when groundnut cake aloneis applied to supply about 80 lb. nitrogen/acre. Inthe case of cigar tobacco, the best results areobtained from a combination treatment with 100-200lb. nitrogen per acre in the form of farmyard manureand 200 lb. nitrogen/acre as night soil compost or100 lb. nitrogen as groundnut cake. For biditobacco, a combination of 80 lb. nitrogen fromcastor cake, 40 lb. from farmyard manure and 40 lb.from ammonium sulphate was found to be the best.Composting of the cake for one or two weeks beforeapplication proves advantageous.

A seed rate of 3 lb./acre has been found to beoptimum for raising nursery plants. Rabbing ofseed beds helps in increasing the number of trans­plants, more so when ash is mixed with the top soil.Cultural experiments on cigarette tobacco have ledto the following general conclusions: (I) Deepploughing increases the yield of bright grades andtotal bright leaf equivalent by as much as 28 and23 per cent respectively over normal ploughing;(2) application of 20 lb. nitrogen per acre increasesthe green leaf yield significantly under deep tillage.Addition of P20 5 , K20 and Mg to the nitrogenousmanure does not appreciably increase the yieldunder deep ploughing, but under normal ploughingtheir addition is beneficial; (3) artificial mulchingwith paddy straw at the rate of 3 cartloads/acre,immediately after the first interculturing, signi­ficantly increases the yield of the bright grade leaf andthe total bright leaf equivalent over that of nor­mal interculturing. Application of well-decomposed

Reports

organic matter, whether farmyard manure or com­posted tobacco stalks, improves the response of thecrop to fertilizers, while the application of undecom­posed chaffed tobacco stalks has an adverse effectin this respect; and (4) among different chemicalfertilizers, calcium ammonium nitrate appeared tobe most promising in producing more bright gradesand total bright leaf equivalent.

In the case of cigar tobacco, highest yields areobtained by manuring with 20 cartloads of farm­yard manure plus 50-100 lb. nitrogen per acre, halfas groundnut oke and half as ammonium sulphate.

The spacing 48 X 24 in. has been found to bemore convenient from the points of view of inter­culturing and inspection of leaf at harvest than theprevalent 33 X 33 in. spacing. In the case of Natutobacco, the farm method of topping at flower headand harvesting from bottom to top as in flue-curedVirginia tobacco, instead of topping, as in the con­ventional method, at about 14 leaves and harvest­ing from top to bottom has been found to give 27per cent increase in cured leaf yield.

Chemistry - Application of nitrogen, phosphorusand potassium, singly or in combination, does notinfluence the nitrogen content of the leaf. In thevarieties Chatham and Harrison Special, the nicotinecontent of the leaf increases with increasing amountsof nitrogenous fertilizers used. Application of P20 5

gives significant increase in the yield of bright gradesand total bright leaf equivalent. The chemical com­position of cured leaf is independent of the me­thod of cultivation; the total nitrogen and nicotinecontents increase while the total sugar content ofthe leaf decreases with the application of nitrogen.

Plant physiology - Seeds subjected to low tem­perature treatment have been found to germinatebetter and to give higher number of transplants thanuntreated seeds. The application of coconut oiland spraying of M.H. 30 considerably improves thecured leaf weight per plant. The total bright leafequivalent is more in Harrison Special and Delcrestwhen coconut oil or M.H. 30 is applied two weeksbefore topping. Application of mustard oil to topeight buds has been found to be most effective ineliminating the suckers in N. tabacum. Maleic anhy­dride was not only effective in controlling suckers,but also gave maximum yield of cured leaf as wellas first grade leaf.

Plant breeding - Delcrest variety, among the ciga­rette tobaccos, has proved superior to other varie­ties in its response to topping and giving a uniformand high proportion of bright grades in all pick­ings. Among the varieties of wrapper tobacco, anew variety, ' Dixie Shade " introduced recently wasfound to be best both from the point of yield andfirst grade leaf.

Plant pathology - Shell Copper, Coppesan, Blitoxand Cupravit have been found to reduce the growthof the fungus Pythium aphanidermalum. Applica­tion of 40 lb. sulphur/acre completely controls the

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incidence of powdery mildew. Spraying DithaneZ-78 and priming of the spotted and sand leavescontrol incidence of spot disease better than eitherof them independently. In the case of bidi tobacco,a seed rate of l-lilb./acre was found to give lessdamping off and produced larger number of trans-plants. .

Entomology - DDT, Rhothane and Endrin aremore or less equally effective in preventing damageto seedlings. Two applications appear to givebetter results in the case of DDT and Endrin thanone application. For cigarette beetle, the verticalsuction light trap with two baffle plates and a fanand with one bulb gave the highest average catch(533 per day). Hydrocyanic acid gave more than90 per cent kill of all the stages of cigarette beetleexcepting eggs in which case the mortality was 100per cent.

Endrin (10,01 per cent). Aldrin (0,05 per cent),DDT (10,2 per cent). Dieldrin (0,05 per cent) andFolidol (0,03 per cent), in order of preference, could.be used effectively to control tobacco stem borer.Aldrin (0,05 per cent), Dieldrin (0,05 per cent), DDT(0·2 per cent), Endrin (0,05 per l:ent) and Folidol,when sprayed at the rate of 2·5 gal. per bed of12 X 4 ft before the seeds germinate, have beenfound to be quite effective in controlling soil-bornepests of tobacco nursery. The addition of Aldrexemulsion in transplanting water at the rate of 0·5Ib./acre effectively controls the cutworms.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC & INDUSTRIALRESEARCH, NEW ZEALAND

THE ANNUAL REPORT OF THE DEPARTMENT OFScientific & Industrial Research, New Zealand, forthe year ended 31 March 1958, shows that the budgetof the Department during the period under reviewrose to £1,535,000, an increase of £130,000 over theprevious year. Three new research journals, theNew Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research (bi­montWy), New Zealand Journal of Geology andGeophysics (quarterly), and the New Zealand Journalof Science (quarterly) started publication during theyear; these replace the New Zealand Journal ofScienceand Technology.

During the year, the Department continued to.devote much attention to the work in connection withthe International Geophysical Year Programme andcollected valuable data on the topography and geo­logy of the Ross Dependency Area, and on seismo­logical, ionospheric, geomagnetic and auroral pheno­mena at Scott Base and Hallett Station. Radarexperiments have shown that the reflections of theradar beam come from a layer only a few km. (110km.) thick above the earth, which indicates that inthis region the atmosphere is ionized along tracksparallel to the direction of the earth's magnetic field.These tracks are probably left by protons arrivingfrom the sun. The regions that reflect the radarbeam are not the same as those that glow.visiblyduring auroral displays and the two do not neces­sarily occur simultaneously. These experimentsgive a better understanding and control of the trans­mission of radio signals past the Poles. From obser­vations on ' whistlers' it appears that the state of the

498

ionosphere fluctuates with the sun's activity butshows a delay of about 6 weeks, whereas the corona(much nearer the sun) is reported to show a delay ofabout 3 weeks.

A number of new or improved medical instrumentshave been designed and constructed: (1) An auto­matic isodose recorder for use with the 4 MeV. linearaccelerator. This instrument eliminates the tediumin the plotting of individual curves in the earliermethod and takes only 15 min. for ploUing a 15 X15 cm. field; (2) a repeating pistol for the implanta­tion of radon seeds which facilitates accurate controlof the implantation and minimizes radiation hazard.Special casettes loaded in protective containers canbe simply transferred to the pistol, which delivers oneseed at the tip of a hypodermic needle for eachoperation of the trigger; and (3) an improved cardio­tachometer which, by means of an automatic pulseamplitude control and a rate recording circuit, allowsan accurate record to be made of the short-term effectsof certain modern drugs.

Comprehensive work on the evaluation of indi­genous materials for their pozzolanic properties haveled to the selection of two suitable types of pozzolans,diatomite and pumicite, for use in mass concrete inhydro construction. Diatomite has been found topossess greater reactivity than pumicite. Measure­ments have conclusively shown that pumicite replace­ment in optimum proportions has decided advantages.Fine grinding of pumicite imparted greater strengthto the concrete and the drying shrinkage can be con­trolled satisfactorily. Early heat generation has alsobeen reduced.

A technique developed, involving the use of paperchromatography, has made possible the separationand identification, in human organs, of barbiturates.Another useful technique for studying metabolicpaths of hydrogen in photosynthesis or of oxygenin respiration has been developed. The difficultyof making radio-autographs with tritium has beenovercome by converting the beta particle energyto light quanta and photographing the light on afilm. Such radio-autographs should prove valuablein many fields of biochemical research.

The Auckland Industrial Development Laboratorieshave developed a method of measuring sap flowin plants (pines) by means of heat transport. Aninstantaneous line pulse of heat is released inthe sap-wood by passing electric current througha resistance wire (perpendicular to the sap stream)and the resulting temperature changes at a pointc. 0·5 in. downstream are measured by means ofa thermistor probe. Experimental values confirmthe theoretical predictions showing the usefulnessof the instrument in sap flow measurement.

Based on the finding that cell.size has a correlationwith the storage quality of apples, the Fruit ResearchDivision has devised an improved method by whichthe time of measuring of cell size in apples is consider­ably reduced and the section cutting is eliminated.In this method the apple cells are separated withoutaltering their size or shape by dissolving away thematerial that holds the cells together; once separated,the cells are easily measured. With this increasedspeed in testing, commercial forecasting of applestorage quality becomes a possibility.

Supplement

ABSTRACTSof Published Research Papers from National Laboratories and

Sponsored Research Projects of C.S.I.R.

APRIL-JUNE 1959

No.4, OCTOBER 1959

Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research

1959, Vol. 18, No.4

INDEX TO CONTENTS

SUBJECT ABSTRACT SUBJECT ABSTRACTNo. No.

Adhesives 369 'Leather Technology 373, 374Alkaloids 303 l\larine Biology 378Alloys 339,340 Metabolism 313Antibiotics 319 Mica 283Antifungal Agents 320 Optical Systems 275Bacteriology 375 Ore Processing 337Carbon & Graphite 334-6 Organic Chemical Processes 329

Catalysts 330-3 Organic Synthesis 296-302

Cestoda 376 Paints 365Chemical Kinetics 289-91 Peptic Ulcer 379, 380

Coal Technology 354-63 Pharmacognosy 381. 382Concrete 284 Pharmacology 383-7

Corrosion Protection 338 Pigments 309-11

Crustacea 377 Plant Chemistry 321-7Crystallography 273, 274 Polymeric Acids 295Dielectrics 279-82 Preparation (Biochemistry) 312Dyes 364 Proteins 304Electronics 287, 288 Pumps 285Enzymes 314-8 Rare Gases 294Essential Oils 305-8 Refractory Materials 344, 345

Fats &: Oils 368 Salt Technology 341-3

Fluorescence 278 Spectroscopy 276,277

Food Technology 346-52 Spices & Condiments 367Glass Technology 370. 371 Staining Reagents 293Heating Devices 286 Sugar Technology 353Industrial Electrochemistry 328 Surface Chemistry 292Insecticides 366 Textile Technology 372

ABSTRACTS[For the ciassificatio'l oj abstracts both the Colon and the V.D.C. systems have been adopted. The numberson the lejt-hand side oj the subject titles rejer to Colon Classification while those on the right-hand side rejer

to the V.D.C.]

C PHYSICS 53

C216 CrystallOl1raphy 53: 548.0

273. DESHPANDE, V. T., SIRDESHMUKH, D. B. &MUDHOLKER, V. M.: The lattice constant ofstrontium nitrate, Acta cryst., Copenhagen, 12(1959), 257

The value reported in literature for the lattice cons­tant of strontium nitrate being too high, an accuratedetermination of the lattice constant has been made.The mean value at 20°C. has been obtained as 7·7798±0·0002 A. The density of the crystal, calculatedfrom this value, is in good agreement with that givenin the International Critical Tables.

C216e Apparatus 53.07: 548.0

274. CHIDAMBARAM, R.: A magnetic storage systemfor a double Fourier series synthesizer, ]. sci.indus/r. Res., 18B (1959), 177

A magnetic storage system for an analogue computerfor the summation of double Fourier series in X-raycrystal structure analysis has been described. Thesystem uses a synchronous magnetic recorder to storethe structure amplitudes and phases in the form ofsinusoidal harmonic waves. These harmonics aregenerated photoelectrically by a chopper system,processed and then recorded with appropriate ampli­tudes and phases on two magnetic drums. Thephase shifting is done by a modified RC phase shifter.Long pickup heads perform the summations over oneof the running indices. Two new methods have beendescribed for indicating that the phase relationsbetween the reproduced voltages are correct. Thetransfer characteristics for normal and synchronousmagnetic recording have been compared and it hasbeen shown that, in the latter, the' supersonic' biasfrequency may be much lower than the signal fre-

quency. It has been suggested that the pickup headcan be used as a low pass filter to eliminate part of the·distortion in the recorded remanent induction. Theeffect of amplitude modulation of the reproducedwaveforms at a sub-harmonic of the fundamentalfrequency on the final contour map of electron den­sity has been investigated. The performance of thestorage system has been evaluated and some possibleimprovements in the design have been indicated.

C5: 1 Optical Systems 535.31

275. SEN GUPTA, M. K.: Calculation of last radiusof an optical system for tr.e correction of zonalchromatic aberration, ]. sci. indus/r. Res., 18B(1959), 221

In calculating the last radius of an optical system forthe correction of chromatic aberration, for a parti­cular zone, the last glass thickness is in generalignored, and set almost arbitrarily. This makesthe equations inexact and the chromatic correctionimperfect. An exact equation suitable for computingwith desk calculating machines has been derived bywhich the two coloured rays can be brought to exactreunion. The method has been illustrated by anumerical example.

C5 : 3 Spectroscopy 535.33

276. GARG, S. N. & SINGH, 1. S.: On the emissionspectrum of benzaldehyde,]. sci. Res., BanarasHindu Vniv., 9 (1) (1958), 61

The emission spectrum of benzaldehyde, obtained bytransformer discharge through flowing vapour ofbenzaldehyde (vapour pressure, c. 1 mm.), has beenstudied. The spectrum covers the region 3679­5983 A. A comparatively large number of vibrationshas been observed to be excited. The main fre­quency is 1733 cm.-1, which is identified as C=O

47

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

stretching frequency. Over this frequency and itsmultiples, other totally symmetrical as well as non­totally symmetrical vibrations are superposed. A de­tailed analysis of a large number of bands observedhas been made. .

277. PADDI REDDY, S.: New band systems of FeBrin the visible region, I sci. industr. Res., 18B(1959), 188

Four band systems attributed to the FeBr moleculehave been observed in the region 5720-6410 A. in thespectrum when excited both in a high frequencydischarge and in a heavy current discharge from agenerator. Starting from the shorter wavelengthside these have been designated as systems I. II, IIIand IV. In each of the first three band systems,only two sequences have been identified while in thefourth, three sequences have been observed. Thevibrational analyses of the four systems indicate thatsystems I, II and IV have a common lower statewhich may probably be the ground state of the FeBrmolecule. Systems I and II, which consist of singleheaded bands, may belong to a transition of the type~-~ with multiplicity 2or 4. The bands of systems IIIand IV show P and Q heads. In the 0, 0 band ofsystem IV, the 0 ' form' head has been identified inaddition to the P and Qheads. Ea~h of the systemsIII and IV may probably belong to a transition of thetype ~-~ with multiplicity 2 or 4.

C5 : 73 Fluorescence 535.37

278. PANT, D. D. & KHANDELWAL, D. P.: Fluores­cence spectrum of uranyl perchlorate solutionsat room temperature, I sci. industr. Res., 18B(1959), 126

The fluorescence spectrum of uranyl perchloratesolutions at room temperature has been found toconsist of a single series of lX-bands which are un- .affected by dilution, the solution being acidic. Thespectrum shows no noticeable change on addingexcess of perchloric acid. On increasing the pH ofthe solution, weak bands develop in between thelX-bands and finally these appear to the entire exclu­sion of lX-bands. On further increase of pH thespectrum becomes continuous due to the formationof higher hydrolysed species.

C6: 141 Dielectrics 537.226

279. ARVIND VYAS & SRIVASTAVA, H. N.: Relaxationtimes of some simple alkyl amines, I sci. industr.Res., 18B (1959), 195

48

Relaxation times of some simple alkyl amines havebeen determined using a modified Debye equationgiven by Gopal Krishna [Trans. Faraday Soc., 53(1957). 767]. It has been shown that for primary,secondary and tertiary amines the relaxation timeincreases with the length of the carbon chain. Also,the relaxation time for the amines increases from pri­mary to secondary and from secondary to tertiary.

280. NARASIMHA RAo, D. V. G. L.: A method forobtaining dipole moment and relaxation timefrom solution measurements, I sci. industr. Res.,18B (1959). 133

A method h~ been described for the determinationof dipole moment and relaxation time from measure­ments of the dielectric constant and dielectric loss ofdilute solutions at two frequencies, on either side ofthe peak of the absorption curve. The method hasbeen applied to four molecules - chloro-, bromo­and nitrobenzenes and benzophenone - and thederived values of dipole moment and relaxation timehave been found to agree with previous literaturevalues; the actual values of tan il also couipare wellwith previous measurements. It has been possibleto obtain approximate estimates of the distortionpolarization and hence the atom polarization fromthe same data.

281. EA]AN, R: Variation of relaxation time withviscosity - Benzyl alcohol and nitrobenzene,Curro Sci., 28 (1959), 238

Results of a study of the variation of dielectric relaxa­tion time with viscosity of the solvent in the case oftwo molecules, benzyl alcohol and nitrobenzene, havebeen reported. Measurements of dielectric constantand loss factor have been made on a wave guide setup at 3·20 em. using the standing wave method ofRoberts and von Hippel.

282. SRIVASTAVA, S. C. & CHARANDAS: Simpleequa­tion for estimating the dipole moment of a mole­cule from solution data, I chem. Phys., 30(1959), 816

A simple empirical equation for estimating the dipolemoment of a molecule from dielectric constantmeasurements in solution without any density orrefraction data has been suggested.

D ENGINEERING 62

D34-66 Mica: Electrical Properties 691.27 : 621.31

283. DHAR, R N., MANDAL, S. S. & Roy, S. B.: Elec­trical properties oflndianmica-D.C. resistivity,

ABSTRACTS

Bull. cent. Glass Ceram. Res. Inst., 6 (1) (1959),29

The d.c. resistivity of various classes of Bihar andMadras mica has been studied. No correlation isobserved between volume resistivity and the visualproperties on the basis of which the micas are gene­ralIy classified. The resistivity of green mica is muchlower than that of ruby mica.

036: 81 Concrete: Testing 691.32: 620.179.1

284. CHATTERJEE, P. N. & SEN, B.: Use of resonantfrequency method as a standard for non-des­tructive testing of concrete, I Instn EngrsIndia, 39 (Pt 1) (1959), 985

Studies on the use of resonant frequency of longi­tudinal and flexural vibrations for non-destructivetesting of concrete have shown that the flexuralmethod is preferable from the point of view of excita­tion and detection of resonant frequencies while thelongitudinal method is more satisfactory from thetheoretical point of view, the equations involvedbeing exact. Correlations between the compressivestrength of concrete specimens of different ages andmixes with their corresponding modulus of elasticityhave been indicated and the possibility of using themodulus of elasticity of concrete as a measure of itsstrength has been discussed.

06, 9(085) Pumps 621.65

285. LAHIRI, A. K. & BANERJEE, T.: Cavitation ero­sion, a case of conjoint action, NML tech. I,1 (2) (1959), 38

Cavitation erosion has been attributed to a con­jointed action of chemical and mechanical factorsgiving rise to a serious type of erosion. A case ofseriolls failure of cast iron pump impelIer by cavitationerosion investigated has shown that the hammeringeffect of collapsing cavities and corrosion by chloritesand chlorine are the root causes of attack. Preven­tive measures suggested include control of waterpressure head at the pump inlet, choice of metal,perfection in design, etc.

064e Heating Devices 697.35

286. MATHUR, K. N., KHANNA, M. L., DAVEY, T. N. &SURI, S. P.: Domestic solar water heater, I sci.industr. Res., 18A (1959), 51

An arrangement for heating water with solar energyfor supplying the domestic needs of a small familyat Delhi, using easily available and inexpensive cons-

truction materials (galvanized iron sheets), has beendescribed. The heat colIector unit consists of a woodenbox, insulated at the bottom, in which are formed'the flow channels for water by one corrugated andone plane galvanized iron sheet. The upper sideof the box is glazed with one or more layers of1 in. thick window glass sheets to reduce heat losses,keeping a 2 in. gap between the glass sheets and thewater flow channels.

As the length of the day is short and hot water re­quirements large during winter, the heating unit isset up at an angle of 45 0 to the horizontal to make thebest use of sunlight. Flow rates of water, throughthe colIector unit, in the range 4-21 gaL/hr, have beenused and a rate of 7-10 gaL/hr has been found to beoptimum under the experimental conditions em.­ployed. The efficiency of heat transfer on a clearday is about 70 per cent which is more than that forthe usual types of heat collector units using copperpipes soldered to flat copper sheets.

D65 Electronics 621.38

287. KRISHNAN, S.: Cathode-folIower for a d.c.reference level, Electron. Radio Engr, 36 (1959),192

The equivalent circuit for the cathode-folIower as asource for clipping circuits requiring variable clippinglevel is given. Better performance is obtained withclipping at negative voltages. On the positive side,the height of the input pulses is limited by the cut-off;the probable maximum height of the pulses to beclipped has to be taken into account while designingthe circuit.

288. KRISHNAN, S.: Diode phase detectors: Charac­teristics of simple and balanced push-pulI cir­cuits, Electron. Radio Engr, 36 (1959), 45

A theory common to diode phase-meters and phase­sensitive detectors has been worked out for twotypes of detectors (the simple push-pulI and thebalanced push-pulI detectors). The general case ofunequal sinusoidal voltages being compared forphase has been discussed and it has been shown thatequality of the two comparison voltages, assumed byprevious workers to be the most suitable for phase­meter use, is inconvenient in certain cases. An alter­native operating condition has been suggested inwhich the signal, is considerably larger than thereference voltage. A study of the effect of the outputtime constant indicates that, if the output capacitoris dispensed with, the output of the balanced push­pulI arrangement becomes strictly proportional tothe signal.

49

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

E CHEMISTRY 54

E : 213 Chemical Kinetics 541.12

289. PALlT, SANTI R. & GUHA, TILAK: Some observa­tions on the effect of the physical nature of theseparating phase on the rate of heterogen€Ouspolymerization, J. Polym. Sci., 34 (1959), 243

Study of the polymerization of methyl methacrylateand acrylonitrile in aqueous solution in a redox­initiated system consisting of NaISSO,-KzSzOs hasrevealed that the initial rate of polymerization in-

, creases with increase in concentration of the catalystor activator, and this is followed by a fall in ratewith a further increase in concentration of either oft,he two, and finally the rate increases again withhigher concentration of the catalyst or activator.This peculiarity has been linked with the physicalstate of the separating phase. In the region wherethe rate is increasing with increasing catalyst concen­tration, the insoluble phase is in the form of a fine sol.In the region where the rate falls with increasedcatalyst or activator concentration, the separatingphase is in the form of a coarser, less stable sol(milky sol or latex). In the region where the rateagain increases, the insoluble phase is in the form of acoarse precipitate or coagulum.

290. RASTOGI, R. P. & SRIVASTAVA, R. c.: Gene­ralized theory of thermal transpiration andthermal diffusion based on the thermodynamicsof irreversible processes, Physica, 'sGrav., 25(1959), 391

A generalized theory of thermal transpiration andthermal diffusion based on the thermodynamics ofirreversible processes has been developed for a mixtureinvolving a single chemical reaction. The theory isvalid even when a non-linear relation between che­mical reaction rate and affinity exists but the rangeof validity of the theory cannot exceed the range ofvalidity of the Gibbs formula for entropy production.

A quantitative estimate of the difference in thevalues of thermal diffusion factors with and with­out chemical reaction for ortho- and para-hydrogenmixtUl e has been made.

291. TEWARI, K. K. & KRISHNAN, P. S.: Furtherstudies on the metachromatic reaction of meta­phosphate, Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 82 (1959),99

A quantitative study has been made of the metachro­matic reaction of polymetaphosphates (weight-ave­rage molecular weights ranging from 690 to 20,600)with toluidine blue by the spectrophotometric tech­nique. The lower members of the series give only a

50

weak reaction; the higher members are stronglymetachromatic. The latter yield the same meta­chromatic intensity for a given weight of the polymer,irrespective of the molecular weight. Slight altera­tions in the molecule of the polymer brought aboutby storage of solutions or subjection to ultrasonicvibrations do not result in significant changes in themetachromatic response.

E : 232 Surface Chemistry 541.83

292. PURl, B. R., KHANNA, S. N. & MVER, Y. P.:Studies in properties of capillary-held liquids:Part VI - Hysteresis effect in adsorption byporous bodies, J. sci. indus/r. Res., 188 (1959),67

Hysteresis in the sorption-desorption isotherms ofbenzene, toluene and m-xylene on silica and aluminagels has been found to be reversible. The relation­ship between adsorption and desorption pressure atdifferent points on the respective isotherms has beenfound to be fairly in accordance with Cohan's quanti­tative treatment of the open-pore theory of hysteresis[J. Amer. chem. Soc., 60 (1938), 433].

E: 33051 Paper Chromatoltraphic Analysis544: 545.844

E: 33051 (95) Staining Reagents544 : 545.844 : 667.21

293. CHANAN SINGH: New staining reagents for thedetection of condensed phosphates, J. sci.indus/r. Res., 188 (1959), 249

Fifty-eight basic dyes have been examined for theirsuitability as reagents for paper chromatographicdetection of condensed phosphates. Of these dyes,toluidine blue has been found to be the reagent ofchoice because of its sensitivity and relative specificity.Another advantage of the use of toluidine blue is thatit permits the recovery of the detected compound(free from the reagent) by a simple and mild pro­cedure. The reaction between this dye and thepolyanions on filter paper is adversely influencedby a lar~e number of organic and inorganic cations.

EI0 : 228 Rare Gases: Diffusion 546.29: 533.15

294. SRIVASTAVA, B. N. & SRIVASTAVA, K. P.: Mutualdiffusion of pairs of rare gases at differenttemperatures, J. chem. Phys., 30 (1959), 984

The coefficient of mutual diffusion of the binary gasmixtures Ne-A, A-Kr and Ne-Kr has been determined

ABSTRACTS

at 0°, 15°, 30° and 45°C. From the experimentallydetermined values of the diffusion coefficient at dif­ferent temperatures the unlike interaction parametersfor the above gas pairs have been calculated by twodifferent methods on the Lennard-Jones 12: 6 model.These values of the force parameters are in goodagreement with those obtained from the usual com­bination rules and also from thermal diffusion data.The values are found to .reproduce the experimentaldata on mutual diffusion qHite satisfactorily. Thedata have also been utilized to calculate the self­diffusion coefficient of neon, argon and krypton.

E5-38 : 26 Polymeric Acids: Electrochemistry541.13: 678-1

295. PAL, MADINI KANTA: On the electrochemistryof polymeric acids: Part I - Vinyl acetate­maleic acid copolymer, J. sci. indus/To Res., 18B(1959), 109

During the potentiometric titration of a copolymer ofvinyl acetate and maleic anhydride in the ratio ofI: 1'4, the polymeric acid has been found to behaveas a monobasic acid. Consideration of the relationbetween pH and percentage neutralization from thepoint of view of Katchalsky and Gills [Rec. TTav.chim. Pays-Bas, 68 (1949), 879] has shown that theintrinsic pK of the carboxyl group is higher in thiscase than those of the 'polymeric acids with randomdistribution of carboxyl groups. This has been attri­buted'to the inductive effect of the carboxyl groups atthe adjacent positions.

E5: 4 Oraanlc Synthesis 547: 542.91

296. BANERJEE, D. K. & DAS GUPTA, S. K.: Syn-. thesis of 4-keto-7-methoxy-l: 2: 3: 4: 4a: 9: 10:

10a-octahydrophenanthrene, J. Indian chem.Soc., 36 (1959), 223

4-Keto-7-methoxy-1: 2: 3 : 4: 4a: 9 : 10: lOa-octahy­drophenanthrene has been prepared as a modelfor the synthesis of aromatic analogues of 11-keto­steroids.

297. DHAR, M. M.: Some tuberculostatic derivativesof isonicotinic acid hydrazide, J. sci. indus/ToRes., 18C (1959), 117

The condensation of isopropylidene isonicotinic acidhydrazone with 30 per cent hot formaldehyde hasbeen found to give a compound of the formulaCU HU 0 6N.. The condensation of cyclohexylideneisonicotinic acid hydrazone or INH with formalde­hyde also gives the same compound. The conden-

sation of crotonaldehyde with INH in water oralcohol gives a compound, of the formula C1oHllONa.

298. GUPTA, A. S. & AGGARWAL, J. S.: Some deri­vatives of hexadecane-1: 16-dicarboxylic acid­IX, IX'-Diaryl diketones, J. sci. indus/To Res., 18B(1959), 205

Hexadecane-1: 16-dicarboxylic acid has been esteri­fied with a number of mono- and dihydric phenolsusing sulphonic acid catalysts and the phenolicesters formed have been changed through Friestransformation to the corresponding 0- and p-diaryldiketones which are high melting waxy substances.The diaryl diketones have been further reduced byClemmensen's method to the corresponding diaryloctadecanes as possible antioxidants. During theesterification of the dicarboxylic acid by IX-naphtholFries transformation also seems to take place.

299. NEELAKANTAN, S., RAJAGOPALAN, T. R.. &SESHADRI, T. R.: A new synthesis of islandicinand cynodontin, PTOC. Indian Acad. Sci., 49A(1959), 234

2-Methylanthraquinones with the 1: 4-dihydroxysystem are conveniently prepared by the persulphateoxidation of the intermediate benzoylbenzoic acidsand subsequent ring closure. 2-Methylquinizarin,islandicin and cynodontin have been prepared by thismethod as typical examples. .

300. PAUL, R., POPLI, S. P. & DHAR, M. L.:.Studiesin possible oral hypoglycemic agents: Part I ­Synthesis of some hydantoins, hydantoic estersand related compounds, J. sci. indus/To Res.,18C (1959), 21

Based on the fact that most of the synthetic oralanti-diabetic agents are built round a guanidine, allrea or a potential thiourea moiety, a number ofa-substituted. hydantoic esters, 3- 'or 5-substitutedhydantoins and some of the corresponding thiohydan­toins have been prepared with a view to testing themfor their hypoglycemic activity.

301. SEN GUPTA, S. K. & BHATTACHARYYA, B. K.:Studies in Michael condensation: Part IV­Condensation of 8-methylbicyclo-[4: 3: O]-non­anone-4 with 1-methyl-2-acetylcyciohexene, J.Indian chem. Soc., ~6 (1959), 273

The condensation of 1-methyl-2-acety'lcyciohexenewith 8-methylbicyclo-[4: 3: 0]-nonanone-4 in pre­sence of a base furnishes a mixture of two products;the presence of two double bonds in both the pro­ducts has been established by hydrogenation. Treat­ment of the mixture with LiAIH6 and acid affordseither a mixture of 2,4b-dimethyl-1,2-cyciopentano-1,

51

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

2,3,4,4a,4b,5,6,7,8-decahydrophenanthrene and 2,4b­dimethyl-1,2 - cyclopentano - 2,3,4,4a,4b, 5,6, 7, 8,8a­decahydrophenanthrene or 2,4b-dimethyl-1,2-cyclo­pent -A1,1'-eno-1 ,2,3,4,4a,4b,5 ,6,7,8,8a,9-dodecahydro­phenanthrene, depending on the condition and theacidic reagent. The former mixture of the aforemen­tioned dienes reacts with maleic anhydride to yieldan adduct and the mixture of the three dienes fur­nishes, on dehydrogenation, Diels' hydrocarbon. 9­Keto-2-methyl-1,2-cyclopentano-l ,2,3,4,4a,4b,5 ,6,7,8,8a,9-dodecahydrophenanthrene on catalytic hydro­genation affords 9-keto - 2-methyl-l,2-cyclopentano­1,2,3,4,4a,4b,5 ,6,7,8,8a,9,1 O,10a-tetradecahydrophen­anthrene, indicating that the ~-side is less hindered,and on treatment with LiAIH4 followed by acid,affords a diene which is heteroannular.

302. SESHADRI, T. R. & VENKATASUBRAMANIAN,G. B.: Anew synthesis of diploschistesic acid,]. chem. Soc., (1959), 1658

Experimental support has been provided for thebiogenetic view that diploschistesic acid arises fromlecanoric acid by a Gattermann reaction of the latterwhich gives the 3-aldehyde whence Dakin oxidationaffords diploschistesic acid.

E92: 34 Alkaloids: Estimation 547.94: 545

303. KANNAN, L. V., SRIVASTAVA, S, K. & RAY,G, K.: Estimation of vasicine in Adhatodavasica Nees, Indian ]. Pharm., 21 (1959),108

A method for the estimation of the alkaloid vasicinein the leaves of Adhatoda vasica Nees has beenworked out, the variation in four estimations foreach sample being ±0·02 per cent. The loss ondrying, ash, acid-insoluble ash and alcohol-solubleextractive have'been determined for a number ofauthentic samples collected from different parts ofIndia.

E92Z2 Proteins 547.96

304. JOSEPH, K. THOMAS & BOSE, S. M.: Studies onthe reactive groups of collagen: III - Methyla­tion and guanidination, Bull. cent. Leath. Res.Inst., 5, (1959), 399 I

Full esterification of collagen has been achieved withmethanolic hydrochloric acid, methanol and thionylchloride and methanol and ethylchloroformate. Theesterification of collagen with methanol and ethylchloroformate is accompanied by an increase in theamino nitrogen content.

52

E94972 Essential Oils 547.913

305. CHAUDHARY, S. S., VISHWA PAUL & HANDA,K. L.: Chemical composition of essential oilfrom Angelica glauca roots growing in Jammuand Kashmir, Indian Soap]., 25 (1959), 288

Angelica glauca root oil has been found to containlactones and sesquiterpenes as major componentsand DL-pinene, DL-phellandrene, selinene, DL-cadi­nene, umbelliprenin and some terpene alcohols.

306. GURMIT SINGH, TEJ SINGH & HANDA, K. L.:Composition of Artemisia absenthium oil fromplants growing wild in Jammu and Kashmir,Indian Soap ]., 25 (1959), 305

The worm wood oil obtained from Artemisia absen­thium growing in Jammu and Kashmir has beenfound to consist mostly of esters of thujyl alcohol,thujane, cadinene and S-guaiazulene.

307. GURMIT SINGH, VISHWA PAUL & HANDA, K. L.:Composition of Origanum vulgare oil from plantsgrowing in Jammu and Kashmir, ]. sci. industr.Res., 18B (1959), 128

The oil.from Origanum vulgare growing in Jammu andKashmir has been found to contain palmitic acid,DL-pinene, dipentene, linalool and some bicyclic andtricyclic sesquiterpenes.

308. NIGAM, S. K., SHARMA, ·V. N. & KAUL, K. N.:The possibilities of growing Cymbopogon win­terianus J owitt in India, ]. sci. industr: Res.,18B (1959), 132

The growth and the essential oil content of Cymbo­pogon winterianus have been studied. The' yield ofthe oil is c. 0·38 per cent on the weight of the air­dried leaves.

E95 Pigments 547.97

309. KRISHNA MURTY, T. & SANKARA SUBRAMANIAN,S.: Isolation of carotene from Roccella montagnei,]. sci. industr. Res., 18B (1959), 162

A convenient method for the isolation of carotenefrom Roccella montagnei has been described. Besides~-carotene, which is the major carotene pigment,the presence of Y-carotene is also reported.

310. SESHACHAR, B. R. & PRABHAKARA RAO, A. V. S.:Observations on the pigment from an Indianspecies of Blepharisma (Ciliata: Protozoa),]. sci. industr. Res., 18C (1959), 76

The properties of the pigment from an Indian speciesof Blepharisma have been studied. Ethyl alcohol

ABSTRACTS

has been found to be the best solvent for extractingthe pigment, and the extraction is easier and morecomplete when the animals are wet. The pigmentgets bleached more quickly when the living animalsare exposed to sunlight than when the alcoholicextract is exposed to sunlight. The pigment loses itscolour intensity to a certain extent in the cold and inthe dark; the loss in intensity is more rapid at roomtemperature and when the extract is left uncovered.The pigment shows absorption maxima at 340, 480,540 and 580 mil. The pigment is purple in acid orneutral medium and turns green in alkaline medium.

311. SESHADRI, T. R. & VENKATARAMANI, B., Leuco­cyanidin from mangroves, J. sci. industr. Res.,18B (1959), 261

The barks of Bmguiera gymnorrhiza and B. parviflorahave been found to yield leucocyanidins which havethe flavan-diol structure. The leucocyanidin fromB. gymnorrhiza has a low rotation and that fromB. parviflora has a higher rotation.

E9G BIOCHEMISTRY 577.1

E9G: 11 Preparation 577.1: 542

312. RAGHAVENDRA RAO, M. R.: Preparation ofglucose-6-phosphate, J. sci. industr. Res., 18C(1959), 87

A method for preparing glucose-6-phosphate usinga phosphoglucoisomerase-free phosphoglucomutasepreparation has been described. The product isfree from fructose-6-phosphate but contains smallquantities of inorganic phosphate.

E9(G: 33) Metabolism 577.12

313. NATH, M. C. & BELKHODE, M. L.: Glucosecycloacetoacetate as a precursor to ascorbicacid in germinating green gram - Its confir­mation by paper chromatography, Nature,Lond., 183 (1959), 1258

It has been confirn1ed by paper chromatography thatascorbic acid is formed from glucose cycloacetoacetate(GCA) during germination of mung (Phaseolus radia­tus) beans. Chromatograms with standard ,ascorbicacid solution and deproteinized extracts of the sameweight of seeds germinated in (a) water, and (b) aque­ous solutions of GCA show bands with the same Rf

value. The intensity of the colour of the bands withextracts of seeds germinated along with GCA is muchhigher than that obtained with extracts of seedsgerminated in water alone, showing thereby that

the reducing substance formed from GCA is ascorbicacid, and its biosynthesis varies directly with theamount of GCA added in the germinating medium.

E9G982 Enzymes 577.15

314. ARORA, K. L., KRISHNA MURTI, C. R. & SHRI­VASTAVA, D. L.: Studies in the enzyme make-upof Vibrio cholerae: Part XIII - Tryptophanaseactivity of vibrios, J. sci. industr. Res., 18C(1959), 65

The distribution of tryptophanase in various choleri­genic and non-cholerigenic strains of vibrios, and theoptimu~ conditions for the extraction of the enzymein cell-free state have been described. The propertiesof the enzyme and the action of enzyme inhibitorsand coenzymes on it have also been studied.

Incorporation of sodium and potassium chloridesin the growth medium has been found to stimulate theproduction of the enzyme by the cells, and potassiumchloride solution has been found to be relativelyspecific for the extraction of the enzyme from viablecells.

Indole-3-acetic acid, indole-3-propionic acid, indole­3-butyric acid and acetyl DL-tryptophane are notdecomposed by the enzyme and they do not affectthe normal course of tryptophane breakdown by theenzyme. Cyanide, hydrazine and hydroxylamine, cop­per and mercury salts in very small concentrationsinhibit the activity of the enzyme completely. Com­pounds having sulphydryl groups also strongly inhi­bit the activity of the enzyme; glutathione is morepowerful than cysteine. Pyridoxal phosphate acti­vates tryptophanase of V. cholerae, whereas diphos­phopyridine nucleotide and riboflavin have no effect.

315. ARORA, K. L., KRISHNA MURTI, C. R. & SHRI­VASTAVA, D. L.: Studies in the enzyme make-upof Vibrio cholerae: Part XIV - Organic nitro­reductase, J. sci. industr. Res., 18C (1959), 105

Vibrio cholerae and related vibrios reduce aromaticnitro compounds, including chloramphenicol, pro­ducing the corresponding arylamines. '..An activecell-free preparation of this enzyme has been madeand factors affecting its activity have been studied.Chlorotetracycline, which has been shown to inhi­bit the E. coli enzyme, has no action on the V. cho­lerae extract. Isonicotinic acid hydrazide, however,is found to be inhibitory.

316. JOSHI, A. P. & RAMAKRISHNAN, C. V.: Detectionof oxalacetic hydrolase in citric acid producingstrain of Aspergillus niger, J. sci. industr. Res.,18C (1959), 62

53

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

Results of investigations on the presence of oxalacetichydrolase in Aspergillus niger in the initial stage offermentation have been reported.

317. SADANA, J. C. & MOREY, A. V.: The purificationof hydrogenase of Desulfovibrio desuljuricans,Biochim. biophys. Acta, 32 (1959), 592

Hydrogenase from D. desulfuricans has been purified,by ion exchange and cellulose chromatography to aspecific activity of 11040 X·10' IJoI. HI absorbed permg. N per hour. The purified enzyme is free fromcytochrome impuritie5 and· js completely inactivewithout added iron. The enzyme shows no activitywhen Fe is replaced by equivalent amounts of Mn++,Cu++, Ni++, Zn++, Pb++, molybdate, vanadate,tungstate, chromate and borate. These substanc~s

also have no stimulatory effect on enzyme activity inthe presence of optimum amounts of iron. The ob­servations indicate that iron is required for hydro­genase activity with methylene blue as hy'drogenacceptor.

318. SOHONIE, KAMALA, HUPRIKAR, S. V. & JOSHI,M. R.: Trypsin inhibitors in Indian foodstuffs:Part VI - Purification and properties of thedouble bean trypsin inhibitor, ]. sci. industr.Res., 18C (1959), 95

The physical and chemical properties of a purifiedpreparation of double bean (Faba vulgaris M.) trypsininhibitor have been examined. The elementarycomposition of double bean trypsin inhibitor has beenfound to be similar to that of trypsin inhibitors fromother sources and it has a molecular weight of 23,000.It is soluble and stable in 2·5 per cent solution oftrichloroacetic acid and is stable to heat and to acidand alkaline pH. The ultraviolet absorption spec­trum of the inhibitor is typical of proteins showingmaxima at 280 mlJo and minima at 252 mlJo. Of theknown trypsin inhibitors, the double bean trypsininhibitor appears to exhibit the least inhibitory acti­vity towards trypsin. It is, however, active againstother proteolytic enzymes.

/E9G (F56) Antibiotics 577.1: 615.779

319. SHETE, (Mrs) K. & VORA, V. C.: AntibioticX-1285: Part I - Isolation from a Streptomycesspecies, J. sci. industr. Res., 18C (1959), 48

An apparent mixture of antibiotic substances, desig­nated X-1285, has been isolated from a Streptomycesspecies, whose cultural characteristics have beendescribed. X-1285 is active against both gram­positive and gram-negative bacteria and is effectiveagainst Entamoeba histolytica infection in rats.

S4

E9G(F594) Antifungal Agents 577.1 : 615.77

320. SRIVASTAVA, O. P.: Antifungal activity of somesulphur-containing compounds against dermato­phytes and yeast-like fungi, J. sci. industr. Res.,18C (1959), 25

The antifungal activities of a copper chelate ofa sulphone hydrazide, two sulphoxides (p-methyl­amino-p'-aminodiphenyl and p-amylamino-p'-amino­diphenyl), three sulphides (diaminodiphenyl, p­methylamino-p'-aminodiphenyl and p-ethylamino-p'­aminodiphenyl) and a potassium salt of benzyl isothio­cyanate sulphonic acid have been tested against fivedermatophytes (Trichophyton Tl4brum, T. sulfureum,T. m~ntagrophytes, Microsporum audouini and M.gypseum) and three yeast-like fungi (Candida albicalls,Geotrichum sp. and Trichosporon cutaneum) usingundecylenic acid as the standard. The potassiumsalt of benzyl isothiocyanate suiphonic acid com­pletely inhibits the growth of all the fungi exceptM. audouini. It appears to be superior to unde­cylenic acid against seven fungi but not againstM. audouini. p-Methylamino-p'-aminodiphenyl andp-ethylamino-p'-aminodiphenyl sulphides completelyinhibit the growth of T. rubrum, T. sulfureum, T.mentagrophytes, Geotrichum sp. and Trichosporon cuta­neum at certain concentrations but have little or noeffect on M. audouini, M. gypseum and C. albicans.Diaminodiphenyl sulphide and the two sulphoxidesare able to stop the growth of T. rubrum, T. sulfureumand T. tnentagrophytes only at the highest concentra­tion used. Copper chelate of the suiphone hydrazidedoes not show much activity.

E(I) PLANT CHEMISTRY 54: 58

E(I) : 3 Chemical Analysis 543: 581

321. AGARWAL, K. P. & DHAR, M. M.: Chemicalexamination of Ophiorrhiza mungos Linn., J. sci.industr. Res., 18B (1959), 114

The chemical examination of Ophiorrhiza mungos,reported to be useful in the treatment of cancer, hasbeen carried out. ~-Sitosterol, 5(X-ergost-7-en-3~-o1

and 5(X-ergost-8-(14)-en-3~-01 (as an ester) have beenidentified in the extracts of the roots of the plant.

322. CHATTERJEE, S. K., NITYA ANAND & DHAR,M. L.: Chemical examination of Melodinusmonogynus Roxb.: Part II - Identification ofmonogynol A and monogynol B, J. sci. industr.Res., 18B (1959), 262

Monogynol A and mOl\ogynol B isolated from Melo­dinus monogynus Roxb. have been shown to be

F : 6 Industrial Electrochemistry 66.087

F TECHNOLOGY 66

318. KRISHNASWAMY, N.: Electrodialysis: Part 1-·Desalting of aqueous salt solutions, ]. sci.industr. Res., 18A (1959). 218

The construction and the performance characteristicsof a five-compartment electrodialysis cell using cationand anion ' Permaplex ' ·membranes have been des­cribed. It has been shown, in the case of feed solu­tions containing sodium or a mixture of sodium chlo­ride and calcium chloride, that the feed rate, undera constant applied potential, governs the extent ofdesalting, and that by recycling the salt content ofthe effluent can be reduced to any desired extent.

ABSTRACTS

triterpenes. Monogynol A possesses a lupeol skeletonand may be designated as lupan-32: O-dio!. Mono­gynol B has been found to be identical withlupeo!.

313. DHAR, M. L.,NEELAKANTAN, S., RAMANUJAM,S.& SESHADRI, T. R.: Chemical investigation ofIndian lichens: Part XXII,]. sci. industr. Res.,18B (1959), III

Four lichens of the Usnea species and five of the Par­melia species, collected from different parts of India,have been analysed. Among them, two varietiesof U. orientalis differ in the depsidone component.U. longissima is found to be a very good source ofusnic acid which is well known as an antibiotic. Thechemical components of six other lichens belongingto different genera have been recorded.

314. GROVER, P. K. &. SESHADRI, T. R.: Chemicalinvestigation of Indian lichens: Part XXIII­Imperfect lichens, ]. sci. industr. Res., 18B(1959), 238

Four Indian species of imperfect lichens have beenanalysed. These contain closely related compoundshaving the C18 skeleton and exhibit progressivemethylation of the system.

315. NAZIR, B. N. & HANDA, K. L.: Chemical investi­gation of Lochnera rosea, ]. sci. industr. Res.,18B (1959), 175

Chemical investigation of the roots of Lochnera roseaprocured from Travancore and the roots of the plantraised locally has shown that the roots contain 1·22and 1·18 per cent total alkaloids and 0·0195 and0·029 per cent reserpine respectively.

316. RASTOGI, R. P. & DHAR, M. L.: Chemical exami­nation of Picrorhiza kurrooa Benth.: Part IV ­Identification of kurrin as D-mannitol, ]. sci.indus/r. Res., 18B (1959), 219

Kurrin, isolated from Picrorhiza kurrooa, has beenidentified as n-mannitol by molecular weight deter­mination using the X-ray method, by infraredspectrum analysis, by comparison of melting pointsand by mixed melting point determinations.

F5: (E81) Or~anic Chemical Processes661.7: 66.094.3

319. TREHAN, B. S., SURI, I. K. & THAMPY, R. T.:Maleic anhydride by vapour phase oxidation ofbenzene using fluid bed catalyst, ]. sci. indus/r.Res., 18B (1959), 147

Optimum conditions have been determined for thevapour phase oxidation of benzene to maleic anhydrideby the fluid bed technique using a mixture of vana­dium and molybdenum oxides as the catalyst. Cata­lysts containing equal proportions of vanadium andmolybdenum oxides have been found to give the bestperformance. Addition of P20 3 to the catalystsprolongs their useful life and permits the reduction ofthe ratio of air to benzene to the minimum withoutappreciably affecting the yields of maleic anhydride.Catalyst carriers with medium porosity (alundum)are best suited for use in the fluid bed. Yields ofmaleic anhydride varying from 70 to 76 per cent areobtained at reaction temperatures varying between440° and 455°C. and with a contact period of 0·35sec. The ratio of benzene to air (by volume) can bevaried from 162 : 1 to 218 : 1, depending on the com­pcsition of the catalyst, without appreciably affectingthe yield of maleic anhydride.

317. SARKAR, B. & KHANNA, N. M.: Chemical exami­nation of Grewia populifolia Vah!., ]. sci.indus/r. Res., 18C (1959), 20

Results of chemical investigation of Grewia populi­folia Vah!. have been reported. A pale yellow oil,~-sitosterol, «-amyrin, ~-amyrin, faradiol, glucose, ara­binose, proline, serine, glutamic acid, phenylalanine,isoleucine and lysine have been obtained from theair-dried stems.

F: (E881) Catalysts 66.097.3

330. BOSE, S. K., BASAK, N. G. & LAHIRI, A.: Hydro­genation of Assam coal: Part II - Develop­ment of indigenous catalysts, ]. sci. industr.Res., 18B (1959), 255

The results of studies on the development of indi­genous catalysts for the hydrogenation of high sul­phur coals have been reported. Haematite, magne­tite and mill-scale yield results comparable with those

ss

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18.'\, OCTOBER 1959

of stannous sulphide and ammonium chloride mixture,and can, therefore, replace tin salts as catalysts.

Impregnation of coal with ferrous sulphate beforehydrogenation results in increased liquefaction.Iron pyrites have been found to favour conversion ofcoal to oil with increased formation of tar acids andneutral oil.

331. SATTUR, N. B., RAMALINGAM, K. V., RAo, E. S.,MASARGUPPI, J. A. & CHIPALKATTI, V. B.:Improved catalysis of urea-formaldehyde pre­condensates for textile applications, IndianText. J., 69 (1959), 502

Two new catalysts (Stabaca-l0l and Stabaca-l02)for use in urea-formaldehyde treatment baths de­veloped are particularly suited to Indian conditions.They confer improved stability to the urea-formalde­hyde treatment baths, and produce less loss in tensileand tear strength, compared to ammonium salt cata­lyst, at approximately equivalent crease-recoveries.

F: (E881-3053) X-ray Analysis 66.097.3: 544.64

332. BANERJEE, B. K., BASAK, N. G. & LARIRI, A.:Studies on a synthetic iron oxide hydrate fordesulphuriz..tion of industrial gases, J. sci.indl~str. Res., 18B (1959),70

Crystal phase composition of a hydrated iron oxidecatalyst developed for use in the desulphurization ofindustrial gases has been presented. The width andthe diffuseness of the lines in the X-ray diffractionpattern due to the hydrated iron oxide suggest itscolloidal state, a prerequisite for pronounced catalyticactivity.

The superiority of the prepared catalyst over bogiron has also been shown.

333. BANERJEE, B. K., BAsu, A. N., SARA, J. &.LARIRI, A.: X-ray study of vanadium oxidecatalyst, J. sci. industr. Res., 18B (1959),97

The X-ray method of analysis has been applied tothe investigation of a number of vanadium oxidecatalysts employed in the oxidation of naphthaleneoils to phthalic anhydride.

It has been observed that the method of preparationof the catalyst has a great influence on the particlesize of the catalyst, the dispersion of the particlesand its catalytic properties. Both the physical andchemical nature of the catalyst are affected by theduration for which it is used in the oxidation reaction.Prolonged use of the catalyst has a remarkableeffect on its structure and the catalyst starts sinteringat temperatures as low as 450°C. Both amorphousand crystalline phases are observed in the regenerated

56

catalyst and the crystalline phase is predominant,,contrary to the case of the active catalyst.

F140 Carbon & Graphite 661.666

F140: (C) Physi&al Properties 661.666: 53

334. ]OGLEKAR, G. D. & GOPALASWAMY, T. R:Smearing property of graphite, J. sci. industr.Res., 18B (1959), 127

A method for the quantitative assessment of thesmear,ng property of graphite powders has beendescribed. The smearing property is estimated fromthe reflectance of a white filter paper after it has beenused as a lining in a hollow cylinder in which thegraphite powder is made to rotate, a roller beingplaced in the cylinder to exert pressure on the particles.The loose particles of graphite sticking to the papermust be removed before measuring the reflectance.

F140: (C6: 3) Eledrual Properties661.666: 537.7

335. GOPALASWAMY, T. R, SUBRAMANIAN, N. R &]OGLEKAR, G. D.: Measurement of the electricalresistance of sized powders at different bulkdensities: Part II - Graphite powders, J. sci.industr. Res., 18A (1959), 60

Bulk electrical resistivity and bulk density of graphitepowders from different sources have been determinedwith a view to establishing criteria for identifyingthe source of the graphite samples and for determiningtheir suitability for specific industrial purposes.Measurements carried out with 20 samples haveshown that bulk electrical resistivity and bulkdensity of the graphites decrease progressively as theparticle becomes more arid more flaky. Electricalresistivity increases with increase in the finenessand the ash content of the powders; surface films onthe graphite particles also increase the resistivity.Bulk density decreases with increase in the finenessof the powders and increases with increase in ashcontent.

336. ]OGLEKAR, G. D., SEN, D. & GOPALASWAMY,T. R: Measurement of electrical resistanceof sized powders at different bulk densities:Part I - Petroleum coke and retort carbonpowders, J. sci. industr. Res., 18A (1959), 21

I The electrical resistances of sized powders of petro­leum coke and retort carbon at different bulk densitieshave been measured and the factors which affect suchmeasurements have been discussed. The resistivity

ABSTRACTS

of the powders has been found to increase with theirfineness and for a given size and bulk density, theresistivity of petroleum coke is much lower thanthat of retort carbon. The resistivity of the powdersis also an index of their graphitizability; petroleumcoke, which has a lower resistivity than retort carbon,is more easily graphitizable.

F191 METALLURGY 669

F191: (1/2) Ore Processing 669.051

337. BANERJEE, S. K. & NARAYANAN, P. I. A.:Processing of magnetite ores with particularreference to Salem magnetite, NML tech. j.,1 (2) (1959), 23

The results of studies on the beneficiation of lowgrade Salem magnetite, assaying 36·5 per cent Fe and44·2 per cent SiOI and containing principal1y mag­netite, quartz, hematite and goethite, have beenpresented. Using the same feed size of -48 mesh,tabling and magnetic separation yield the samegrade of concentrate assaying 62·5 per cent Fe witha recovery of about 87·0 per cent. The results ofsintering studies on the magnetic concentrate havealso been presented.

FI91 : (E21-895) (081) Corrosion Protection:Testing 669: 620.197

338. RAJAGOPALAN, K. S. & ANNAMALAI, P. L.:Chromate treatment of zinc and other metals:Part I - Accelerated testing of chromate coat­ings, j. sci. industr. Res., 18A (1959), 171

The protection afforded by chromate coatings to zincunder different atmospheric conditions has beenstudied and a new method of testing chromate c~at­

ings has been proposed. Studies on temperature andhumidity conditions under which the chromate coat­ing formed by Cronak process gives protection showthat in the presence of salt spray the temperatureat which the test is carried out is an importantvariable in determining the efficiency of protection ofchromate coating.

F191-193 Alloys 669.018

F191-193 (C2: 8) Structure 669.018: 539

339. BANERJEE, T.: Structure of electrolytic al1oys,NML tech. j., 1 (2) (1959), 15

Electrolytic deposition of al10ys at constant currentdensity and constant cathode p~tential has indicated

that the composition of the deposited al10ys ·remainsunaffected during the period of electrolysis carriedout at c.p. Atomic structure of electrolytic al1oys,such as, Cu-Zn, Ag-Cd, deposited at constant c.p.,has been compared with that of their thermal counter­parts and the mechanism of phase transformationin these al10ys has been explained on the basis ofthe discharge of ions in an amorphous unorderedcondition and in a state of high energy.

FI91-193: (081) Testing 669.018: 66.017

340. VED I'RAKASH & ENTWISTLE, K. M.: The effectof specimen size on the quench-ageing of analuminium-3·8 per cent copper al1oy, j. Inst.Met., 87 (1959), 262

Massive specimens of a high-purity aluminium-3'8per cent copper al10y show a much lower hardeningrate during the first stage of quench-ageing thanthin specimens. Experiments lead to the conclu­sion that the low hardening rate is due to the failureto retain vacancies in the large specimens.

F3 Salt Technology 664.4

341. BHAVNAGARY, H. M. & GADRE, G. T.: Potas­sium sulphate from sea bittern, Res. & Ind., 4(1959), 84

A process for the recovery of potassium, as sulphate,from sea bittern has been reported. Sea bittern issubjected to solar concentration and the mixed saltseparating in the density range 36-8° Be. is col1ected.A saturated solution of the mixed salt on cooling from110°C. yields schoenite, the double sulphate of mag­nesium and potassium, from which potassium sulphateis obtained by treatment with potassium chloride orlime, fol1owed by crystal1ization. Pilot plant scaletrials have indicated the feasibility of obtainingpotassium sulphate of 98 per cent purity.

342. SESHADRI, K. & BucH, (Late) S. D.: Exploita­tion of Sambhar Lake bitterns, J. sci. industr.Res., 18A (1959), 132 ,

A process for recovering sodium sulphate, sodiumchloride and sodium carbonate from liquid and solidbitterns and sub-standard salt, worked out on thebasis of phase rule studies, has been described. Itconsists of the fol1owing steps: (1) elimination ofalgae from the liquid bittern or aqueous extracts ofsolid bitterns by chlorine treatment; (2) adjustmentof the composition of the solution and chil1ing it toO°C.; (3) separation of NaISO,.IOHIO by centrifuging;(4) dehydration and purification of sodium sulphate

57

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

by solar heat; (5) recovery of sodium chloride bysolar evaporation of desulphated liquor until theliquid reaches 10 per cent sodium carbonate strength;and (6) carbonation of the desalted liquor for therecovery of sodium carbonate as bicarbonate.

Improvements in recoveries are effected by simplerecycling of the residual liquors. The overall re­coveries are: sodium sulphate, 90 per cent (technicalgrades of I.S.S.); sodium chloride (99 per centpurity), 55 per cent; and sodium carbonate (98 percent purity), 73 per cent.

343. SESHADRI, K. & BueH, (Late) S. D.: Exploita­tion of Sambhar pan crust, J. sci. it!dustr. Res.,18A (1959). 224

Three methods based on solubility data have beenworked out for the recovery of sodium sulphate fromthe Sambhar Lake pan crust. Ninety per cent ofsodium sulphate present in the crust is recovered astechnical grade quality sodium sulphate by thechilling process, 65-73 per cent by precipitation bythe addition of solid sodium chloride at 50°C. to thesolution prepared from the crust and 75-80 per centfrom the upgraded crust obtained by digesting itwith water.

F4414 Refractory Materials 666.76

344. MINHAS, G. S. & BHASKAR RAO, H. V.: Evalua­tion of quartzite for the manufacture of silicabricks, NML tech. J.. 1 (2) (1959). 32

Chemical, physical and inversion characteristics ofquartzites from different sources have been studiedto evaluate their suitability for the conventional aswell as superduty type of silica refractories. Resultsof small-scale trials carried out on quartzite sampleswith addition of lime and iron oxide and physicalproperties of the specimens after firing to 1450°C..have been presented and the suitability of indigenousquartzites has been assessed.

345. NOMAN KHAN. M. & BALABHEEM RAO: Indi-genous sources of ball clays, Res. & Ind., 4

~ (1959), 127Four samples of Kerala ball clays from Pedappak­kara, Cherumuthuseri, Cherukulam and Changana­cherri have been studied for the following properties:plasticity, shrinkage, strength, particle size, colourand porosity. The first three of the above propertiescompare well with those of a sample of English Dorsetball clay. The fired colour of Pedappakkara clay iswhiter than that of the English ball clay. Differen­tial thermal analyses of the four clays have shownthat these essentially belong to the kaolinite group.

58

Pedappakkara and Cherumuthuseri ball clays can beused satisfactorily in the production of porcelain.

F53 Food Teehnology 664

346. ANANTHARAMAN, K., SUBRAMANIAN, N., BHATIA,D. S. & SUBRAHMANYAN. V.: Nutritionalstudies on isolated groundnut protein, IndianOilseeds J., 3 (1959), 100

Nutritional studies on isolated groundnut protein aswell as the parent cake material have shown that theprotein has higher digestibility coefficient, but lowerbiological value. Supplementation of the protein orthe cake with methionine or casein does not increaseits biological value to that of casein indicating thatthe protein is deficient both in methionine and lysine.

347. ANANTHARAMAN, K., SUBRAMANIAN, N.• BHATIA.D. S. & SUBRAHMANYAN, V.: Processing ofgroundnut cake for edible protein, IndianOilseeds J., 3 (1959), 85

A method has been staI)dardized for the preparationof edible quality proteins from expeller' cakes ofgroundnut containing 8-10 per cent fat. The removalof fat from protein solution is effected by centrifugalforce. Bench-scale trials using 10 kg. of cake perbatch have yielded a protein having moisture 4·1.fat 1·0. ash 0·53 and nitrogen (on moisture, ash andfat-free basis) 15·36 per cent. The protein has asolubility of about 80·5 per cent in water at pH 7·5.The yield of protein based on the weight of the cakeis 34 per cent.

348. NARAYANAN, K. M., KAPUR, N. S. & BHATIA,D. S.: Effect of baking on the stability of B­vitamins in biscuits enriched with proteins andvitamins, Food Sci., 8 (1959), 79

The effect of baking on the stability of B-vitamins in, nutro • biscuits has been studied. There is no lossof B-vitamins during dough making. During baking,riboflavin and nicotinic acid are stable. The loss ofthiamine depends upon the pH and the level of forti­fication of the biscuit. The higher the pH and/orlevel of fortification, the greater is the percentageloss of thiamine.

349. PRUTHI, J. S.: Physico-chemical changes inlemon concentrate during commercial-scalevacuum concentration, Food Sci., 8 (1959). 39

Changes in refractometric solids (OBrix), viscosity,spectral reflectance (colour), pH, acidity, °Brix/acidratio and true ascorbic acid during commercial-scalevacuum concentration of lemon juice in forced cir­culation, single-pass falling-film evaporator have been

ABSTRACTS

discussed. With increasing concentration, the °Brix,acidity, viscosity and ascorbic acid of the juicegradually decrease; the °Brix/acid ratio does notchange but the pH faJls slightly. Up to four-foldconcentration of the juice. viscosity increases slightly,but after five-fold concentration the rise in viscosityis rapid. The losses in ascorbic acid during concen­tration up to seven-fold are within 5 per cent. Theuse of mid-season lemons at optimum maturity forjuice extraction and vacuum concentration of theflash-pasteurized juice up to five-fold concentrationhave been suggested.

350. SAMUEL, D. M. & SRINIVASAN, M.: Removal ofsaponins and bitter taste in the juice of agavestem by treatment with carbon, j. sci. indus!r.Res., 18B (1959), 264

It has been observed that carbon can remove saponinsand the bitter principle from the agave juice, beforeor after hydrolysis. The observation is significantfrom the point of view of production of fructosesyrup.

351. SASTRY, M. V. & SIDDAPPA, G. S.: Changes inascorbic aCid and tannin contents during thepreparation of amla (Phyllan!hus emblica) pre­serve, Food Sci., 8 (1959), 12

Prolonged brine treatment of amlas has beenfound to have a highly destructive effect on theascorbic acid content, the destruction being as muchas 93 per cent. In the case of amla preserve madeby the conventional method, using fruit not subjectedto brining, the retention of ascorbic acid is com­paratively low (15,9-39,9 per cent). The absolutevalues for ascorbic acid content are, however, highon account of the very high ascorbic acid contentof the fresh fruit. The retention of tannin in thefinal preserve is high (45·5-57·8 per cent).

Of the three methods of making preserves, viz.conventional, vacuum and incubation, the last onehas the most destructive effect on ascorbic acid andtannin contents, their retention being only 25·7 and42·2 respectively. The retention in the vacuummethod is 81·7 and 77·8 per cent respectively.

352. SIDDAPPA, G. S. & BHATIA, B. S.: Effect ofvariety, preliminary treatment and method ofpreparation on the quality of some Indianpreserves - Physico-chemical studies, Food Sci.,8 (1959), 47

Results of physico-chemical studies on the effect ofvariety, preliminary treatment and method of pre­paration on the quality of apple, carrot and pe!ha(ash gourd, Benincasa cerifera Savi) preserves havebeen discussed.

F(J94) Sugar Technology 664.1

F(J94) (C4: 55)e Concentrators 664.1.05: 621-8

353. KHANNA, MOHAN LAL, GARDNER, A. L., DAVEY,T. N. & SURI, S. P.: Plane-glass mirror solarenergy concentrators for concenttating sugar­cane and palm juices, J. sci. indus!r. Res., 18A(1959), 212

The design, construction and working details of aplane-glass mirror (9 in. square) solar energy con­centrator have been described. The results of experi­ments on the evaporation of water and cane juice,using reflectors with overall dimensions of 3 X 3 ftand 6 X 3 ft, have been presented. The advantagesof this type of collector over the conventional con­centrators, such as low cost, simplicity of cons­truction, ease of handling and portability, havebeen pointed out and the probable economy inthe sugarcane and palm gur manufacturing indus­tries, by the use of this type of reflector, has beenassessed.

F551 Coal Technology 662.66

354. AHUJA, L. D., KINI, K. A. & LAHIRI, A.:Effect of reduced ring structures on the cokingpower of coals, J. sci. indus!r. Res., 18B (1959),216

Investigations on the effect of reduced ring structureson the coking power of coals have confirmed thataddition of compounds containing such structuresimproves the coking quality of coals. The efficiencyof pitch in improving the caking index of coal hasalso been studied.

355. BANDOPADHYAY, J., SARKAR, S. & DAS GUPTA,N. N.: A method for evaluating the plasticproperties of highly swelling coals, J. sci. indus!T.Res., 18B (1959), 116

The plastic properties of highly swelling coals, deter­mined experimentaJly by the present methods, arenot accurate due to excessive frothing of the coalswhich leads to large increase in the volume of thetest sample during testing. A new method, whichenables the determination of the plastic propertiesof such coals accurately, has been reported. Theprocedure consists in (1) mixing the coal sample,stepwise, with increasing proportion of inert (elec­trode carbon), (2) testing the mixture in a Gieselerplastometer, (3) plotting the percentage inert againstlog maximum fluidity, and (4) extrapolating thestraight line plot obtained at higher inert content tozero inert content to arrive at the correct maximum

59

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

fluidity and resolidification of mixtures, correspond­ing to the minimum inert content when an inflexion,noted in the plot, represents the correct characteristicvalues of the coal sample.

356. BHOWMIK, J. N., MUKHERJEE, P. N. & LAHIRI, A.:Studies..on oxidation of coal at lower tempera­tures, Fuel, Lond., 38 (1959), 211

The mechanism of oxidation of coal in air at 200°C.has been discussed. From an estimation of theoxygen-containing functional groups in oxidizedcoal as well as hydrolysed samples, it has beenshown that there is a stoichiometric relation between-COOH and phenolic -OH groups that are formedon hydrolysis. The increase in these acid groupsis accompanied by a decline in the =CO groups.The probable mechanisms of the reaction have beendiscussed.

357. DAs, S. B. & DAS GUPTA, N. N.: Studies onhygroscopic characteristics of cokes, ]. Min.Met. Fuels, 7 (5) (1959), 1

The capacity moisture in cokes prepared from dif­ferent coals carbonized at different temperatures hasbeen determined. The values are maximum forcokes in the temperature range of 600-7OO°C. irres­pective of the rank of the parent coals. The capacitymoisture of cokes at 500°C. has a linear relationshipwith the rank of coals. A nearly linear relationshipalso exists between the capacity moisture of cokesand their strength.

358. IYENGAR, M. S. & LAHIRI, A.: Heat of wetting ofcoals, BrennslChemie, 18 (1959), 45

The interrelation between the briquettability, oxi­dizability, coking behaviour, inflammability, hydra­ting and sulphonating power as well as petrographicconstituents of normal and abnormal coals on the onehand and the heats of wetting in polar liquids on the.other has been studied. The heat of wetting is ameasure of the extent of reactive oxygen groupspresent in the coal.

359. MAZUMDAR, B. K., CHAKRABARTTY, S. K. &LAHIRI, A.: Aromaticity of coal- An appraisal,FI4el, Lond., 38 (1959), 115

A new method for the determination of aromaticityof coal has been suggested. After oxidizing coal inair in which the non-aromatic part of the coal canbe selectively oxidized at low temperatures (below200°C.), the unaffected aromatic skeleton or the aro­matic carbon and hence the aromaticity of the coalcan be determined. Dehydrogenation study withpitch has shown that this is not completely aromaticin nature.

60

360. MAZUMDAR, B. K., CHAKRABARTTY, S. K. &LAHlRI, A.: Dehydrogenation of coal and tarformation, Fuel, Lond., 38 (1959), 112

Based on a study of dehydrogenation of coal bysulphur, a direct relationship between the alicyclicpart of coal structure and tar formation has beenderived. Alicyclicities have been found to be nearlyequal and proportional to the yields of tar for allranks of coal. Dehydrogenation leads to inhibitionof tar formation by modification of the coal structure.

361. NANDI, S. P., KINI, K. A. & LAHIRI, A.: Reacti­vity of low temperature cokes and chars,BrenllstChemie, 18 (1959), 85

Active oxygen groups, surface area and heat ofwetting in methanol of samples of a low and a highrank coal, carbonized at different temperatures invacuum, have been determined. The active groupsexhibit a maximum in the region 4OO-500°C. forboth the coals, the increase being more pronouncedfor the high rank coal than for the low rank coal.Surface area is a maximum at about 800°C. for thehigh rank coal and at 600°C. for the low rank coal.The heat of wetting has been found to be the resul­tant of contributions from the surface area and theactive groups. In the region of low temperature cokeformation (500-600°C.), where the surface area startsincreasing, the concentration of active groups is high.

362. RAO, H. S., KAISER, F. & LAHIRI, A.: Actiyehydrogens in coal, Fuel, Lond., 38 (1959), 254

Active hydrogen in coal has been determined by thedeuterium exchange method and the results of studieson a sample of coal from the Raniganj field employingthis method have been presented.

363. SINHA, A. K., SARKAR, G. G. & LAHIRI, A.:Beneficiation of coal slurries of difficult cleaningand high ash middlings for metallurgical use,I Min. Met. Fuels, 7 (3) (1959), 1

The possibilities of upgrading high ash coal finesproduced on crushing lower seam coals and washerymiddlings have been investigated. Flotation tests

. have shown that better results are obtained by usingcombined reagents (e.g. kerosene, cresylic acid andmethyl amyl alcohol) in optimum proportions. Studieson the effect of conditioning prior to flotation haveshown that the efficiency decreases with increasingconditioning time.

F58 Dyes 667.62

364. SIVASANKARAN, K., SARDESAI, K. S. & SUK­THANKAR, S. V.: Cellulose acetate dyes: Part I -

ABSTRACTS

Synthesis of aminoanthraquinonyl acrylates andpyridinoanthraquinones, j. sci. indus/To Res.,18B (1959), 164

A series of aminoanthraquinones has been condensedwith diethyl ethoxymethylenemalonate and the re­sulting acrylates have been cyclized to the respectivepyridinoanthraquinones. Both the acrylates and thepyridinoanthraquinones have been tested as celluloseacetate dyes. The dyeing and fastness properties ofthe dyes synthesized have been explained on theore­tical considerations. The acrylate of l-aminoanthra­quinone and the cyclized compound, 4'-hydroxy-3'­carbethoxy- I(N) : 2 -pyridinoanthraquinone, possessgood dyeing and fastness properties. The fastnessto sublimation and gas fading of all the dyes issatisfactory. The improvement in the gas fad­ing fastness property of the dyes has been achievedby lowering the basicity of the amino group whilethe improvement in light fastness property hasbeen brought about by curbing the electron mobi­lity in the compound by locking up the basicnitrogen.

F5895 Paints 667.6

365. MENON, M. C. & AGGARWAL, J. S.: Anticorrosivepaints for ship bottoms, Pain/india, 9 (1959). 77

Thirteen varnish media for anticorrosive paints havebeen prepared from mostly indigenous raw materials.Results of pigmentation studies with 33 pigmentcompositions using 12 different pigments and theirmixtures have been presented. The characteristicsof the compositions have been evaluated according to1.S. specifications, and their water permeability hasbeen determined by radioactive tracer technique.The stability of the compositions during storage hasbeen investigated.

F594 Insecticides 615.777

366. KULKARNI, S. B., GHARPUREY, M. K. & BISWAS,A. B.: Water dispe.rsible DDT formulations: An .analysis of the problem, j. sci. indus/To Res.,18A (1959), 178

An analysis of the relative merits of the various typesof DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane) formula­tions used for insect control has been made on thebasis of physico-chemical considerations. The de­sirable properties of a formulation have been dis­cussed on the basis of the following factors: (I) sus­pensibility, (2) covering power, (3) lethal dose inminimum time, (4) residual toxicity and (5) techno­logical aspects. It is concluded that some type of

paste formulation incorporating a non-volatile lipoiddissolving oil and containing thin needle-shapedDDT particles may prove to be the best.

F596 Spices & Condiments 664.5

F596 (J67) Pepper & Chillies 664.51

367. ANANDASWAMY, B., MURTHY, H. B. N. &IYENGAR, N. V. R: Prepackaging studies onfresh produce: Capsicum grossum Sendt. &Capsicum acumina/um Fingh., j. sci. indus/ToRes., 18A (1959), 274

Prepackaging studies of Capsicum gTossum Sendt.(sweet pepper) and Capsicum acumina/um Fingh.(green chillies) in bags made of different packagingfilms such as (1) polyethylene, (2) plain transparentcellulose, and (3) moisture-proof heat-sealable trans­parent cellulose (M.S.T.), with and without aerationvents, have been carried out at different temperaturesand relative humidities. These studies have indi­cated that the shelf life of sweet pepper can be nearlydoubled by prepackaging it in 150 gauge polyethylenefilm with adequate respiration vents and also in M.S.T.bags at (i) lOO°F. and 90 per cent RH., (ii) 76-80°F.and 65-75 per cent RH., and (iii) 47-50°F. and 80-90per cent RH. The beneficial effect of prepackaginggreen chillies is seen only when they are packed inpolyethylene bags at (i) 76-80°F. and 65-75 per centRH., and (ii) at low temperature in all the threetypes of bags. The ascorbic acid content of bothsweet pepper and green chillies is not affected byprepackaging.

F94 Fats & Oils 665.3

368. RAJAGOPAL, N. S. & ACHAYA, K. T.: Fattropicalization phenomenon in sunflower seedoil, j. sci. indus/To Res., 18C (1959), 117

Results of studies on the fat tropicalization pheno­menon (relative saturation of fats obtained from ani­mals and vegetables raised in: the tropics over thosederived from the same species in cooler climates) insunflower seed oil have been presented. The lowacid value of the oils from the seeds of crops raised inHyderabad, kept in glass stoppered bottles for 1 to 3years, shows that sunflower seeds store well withoutdeterioration of oil. Figures for the individualcomponent fatty acids in relation to the iod. val. ofthe mixed fatty acids for Indian, African, Australianand English samples indicate that, both in gross iod.val. and in fatty acid composition, the tropicalizationoccurs to a varying degree.

61

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES., VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

F(J91) Adhesives 668.3

369. GHOSH, A. G.: Gelation time studies of someresorcinol adhesives, J. sci. industr. Res., 18A(1959), 58

The effect of pH, temperature and initial resorcinol­furfural ratio on the gelation time of some resor­cinol-furfural adhesives, when hardened in thenormal manner with paraform, has been investi­gated. The gelling time. of the adhesives decreaseswhen part of the resorcinol in them is replaced byphenol.

F(M6) Glass Technolo~y 666.1

370. ATMA RAM, BHATYE, S. V. & SHARMA, K. D.:Influence of TiOz on the viscosity and surfacetension of soda-lime-silica glasses, Bull. cent.Glass Ceram. Res. Inst., 6 (1) (1959), 3

Studies on the influence of TiOz on the viscosity andsurface tension of soda-lime-silica glasses have shownthat in an ordinary soda-lime-silica glass, substitutionof SiOI by TiOz or substitution by TiOz on an overallbasis lowers the high temperature viscosity of glassprogressively, the effect being greater in glasses whereSiOz is substituted by TiOz. With the addition ofTiOz, the extent of decrease in viscosity generallydiminishes below 1050° and ultimately, at a tem­perature near 800°, becomes negligible and a reversalof the effect sets in after which the viscosity increases.This increases the 'setting rate' of glass with in­creasing TiOz content. Substitution of SiOz by TiOzlowers the surface tension of glass, but the effect isvery little. The temperature coefficient for titaniacontaining glasses is negative and their behaviour issimilar to that of the base glass.

371. KUMAR, S.: Glasses in the systems containing.lead oxide, boric oxide, alumina and phosphoruspentoxide, Bull. cent. Glass Ceram. Res. Inst.,6 (1) (1959), 12

The systems BzOa-Pz0 5, BzOa-AIP04, PbO-BzOa-Pz0 5

and PbO-BzOa-AIP04 have been studied. Glasses areobtained only in the last two systems. Measurementof liquidus and deformation temperature has shownthat these two temperatures for lead borophosphateglasses are higher than those for lead borate or leadphosphate glasses.

Glasses containing PbO and BzOs generally showincrease in the coefficient of thermal expansion andpower factor with increasing lead content whileelectrical resistivity and to some extent chemicaldurability decrease. For lead phosphate glasses,however, the effects of increasing lead content on

62

power factor, electrical resistivity and chemicaldurability are reversed. On replacing BIOs by PI0 5in lead borophosphate glass, the power factor and thecoefficient of thermal expansion increase, while thespectrophotometric absorption edge due to the ambercolour of iron progressively shifts towards the shorterwavelength. On replacing BIOs by AIP04 in leadboroaluminophosphate glasses, the power factor,thermal expansion, the deformation temperature,chemical durability and electrical resistivity increase.The lead phosphate glass 1·0 PbO, 1·0 PZ0 5 showsexcellent chemical durability, low deformation tem­perature and very little visible absorption due to ironcompared to the other glasses.

F(M7) Textile Technolo~y 677

372. TANEJA, K., RAMALINGAM, K. V., SATTUR,N. B., MASARGUPPI, J. A., RAO, E. S. & CHIPAL­KATT!, V. B.: Srifirset compounds in textilefinishing, 16th All-India Textile ConferenceSouvenir (Textile Association of India, Banga­lore), 1959, 1

Five Srifirset compounds for various textile finishesand two stable bath catalysts, Stabaca-l0l andStabaca-l02, for use in the urea-formaldehyde resintreatment bath have been developed. The uses, ad­vantages and applications of the compounds havebeen discussed and results of large-scale mill finishingtrials have been presented.

F(M97) Leather Technology 675

373. MADHAVAKRISHNA, W. & BOSE, S. M.: Studieson enzymic unhairing and degreasing for pro­duction of leather, Bull. cent. Leath. Res. Inst.,5 (1959), 351

Comparative chemical, physical and microscopicalassessments of the quality of the leathers producedby the traditional liming process and by the twoenzymic unhairing processes utilizing a protease andan amylase have been made. The optimum condi­tions for the hydrolysis of skin lipids by castorseed lipase have been studied with respect to theeffects of pH, period of digestion, temperature andenzyme concentration and degreasing experiments

'with lipase on sheep skins before and after enzymicunhairing.

374. RANGANATHAN, S., BOSE, S. M. & NAYUDAMMA,Y.: Studies on the formation of Mannich link­ages involving phenolic compounds with refer­ence to the interaction of collagen with certain

ABSTRACTS

tanning agents, Bull. cent. Leath. Res. Inst.,5 (1959), 447

Resorcinol has been shown to be capable of formingtris Mannich bases. Evidence for the hypothesisthat Mannich linkages are formed on retannage ofvegetable tanned leather with formaldehyde has beenpresented.

. G BIOLOGY 57

G91 Bacteriology 576.8

375. BHASKARAN, K.: Observations on the nature ofgenetic recombination in Vibrio cholerae, Indian]. med. Res., 47 (1959), 253

The occurrence of genetic recombination betweenV. cholerae strains has been found to be dependenton the lysogenic state (phage 129) of either of the twomating strains. The lysogenic cultures give rise toplaques on sensitive strains, but the filtrates are freeof phage particles. The genotype of the recombi­nants isolated from certain crosses between V. cho­lerae corresponds generally to one of the parents inthe cross. Certain unstable recombina'lt prototrophcolonies, which appear to be segregating diploids,have been identified.

K ZOOLOGY 59

K615 Cestoda 595.121

376. SINGAL, DHARAM PARKASH: Two new Anoplo­cephalid Cestodes belonging to the genusOochoristica Liihe, 1898 from Varanus monitor(Linnaeus, 1758), ]. sci. industr. Res., 18C(1959), 99

Two new Anoplocephalid Cestodes belonging to thegenus Oochoristica Liihe, 1898 from Varamts monitor(Linnaeus, 1758) have been reported. The twospecies, O. longivittata n.sp. and O. musculocirrosan.sp., are clearly distinguishable from other speciesunder the genus Oochoristica Liihe, 1898 and presentcertain distinctive characters with respect to dis­position and number of testes, size of eggs andonchospheres, shape of ovary and vitelline gland, tojustify the creation of new species.

K81 Crustacea 595.3

377. SRINIVASAN, T. K.: On a new species of woodboring isopod, Exosphaeroma madrasensis fromMadras,]. Timb. Dr. Pres. Ass. India, 5 (1959). 20

A new species of the wood boring crustaceanExosphaeroma madrasensis has been described. The

diagnostic features are: two tubercles at the base ofthe terminal abdominal segment, abdomen posteriorlyending in a trilobed structure with the middle lobebroader, 'W' shaped, on either side of which thereis a small tooth, with the outer ramus of theuropoda ovatolanceolate having an acute apex, bothrami of equal length extending a little beyond thetelson.

K (G9555) Marine Biology 59: 57(26)

378. SEBASTIAN, V. 0.: Notes on the occurrence ofHerdmania ennurensis Das, a fouling Ascidian atKerala coast of India, ]. Timb. Dr. Pres. Ass.India, 5 (1959), 19

The occurrence of Herdmania ennurensis in thebrackish water region of Neendakara, Quilon, hasbeen reported. They are found in the summermonths of December-May when salinity of thewaters is 25-30 per cent and they disappear duringthe rainy season when salinity is 7 per cent.

L MEDICINE 61

L: 474 Peptic Ulcer 616-002.4

379. SINGH, G. B. & SHUKLA, R. C.: Effect of gona­dectomy on experimental peptic ulceration,Indian]. med. Res., 47 (1959), 287

Ovariectomized rats show increased gastric secre­tion and significantly higher peptic activity thannon-ovariectomized rats. Neither gastric secre­tion nor the degree of ulceration is influencedby orchidectom,y. Gonadectomy alone, withoutligation, has no ulcerogenic effect on the gastricmucosa.

380. ZAIDI, S. R., BALKRISHNA & SINGH, G. B.:Experimental peptic ulceration: Part V -Adre­nal function in histamine-induced ulceration,Indian]. med. Res., 47 (1959), 280

Adrenals play an insignificant role in the productionof ulceration in guinea-pigs. Electroshock producescongestion and tiny haemorrhages without anypeptic ulceration. Involvement of adrenals is indi­cated by depletion of ascorbic acid with hypertrophyof the cells of Zona fasciculata. Guinea-pigs, pro­tected against acute histamine-induced ulcerationby oxyphenonium bromide, show marked depletion ofadrenal ascorbic acid and hypertrophy of corticalcells of Zona fasciculata. Administration of oxy­phenonium bromide to normal fasted animals showssimilar adrenal changes.

63

J. SCI. INDUSTR. RES.. VOL. 18A, OCTOBER 1959

L : 6 Pharmaco~nosy 615.43

381. MADAN, C. 1. & NAYAR, S. L.: Pharmacognosticstudy of the leaf and root of Vi/ex negundo Linn.,I sci. industr. Res., 18C (1959), 10

The macroscopic and microscopic characters of theleaf and root of Vitex negundo Linn., a commercialdrug used in indigenous medicine in India, have beendescribed.

382. NAYAR, S. 1. & BISHT, B. S.: The pharmacog­nosy of the bark of Ficus glomerata Roxb.,I sci. industr. Res., 18C (1959). 15

The macroscopic and microscopic characters of thebark of Ficus glomerata Roxb. have been described.

L : 63 Pharmacology 615.1

383. BALKRISHNA, CHAKRAVARTI, R. N. & ZAIDI,S. H.: Effect of IX-tocopherol on serum lipidsand lipoproteins in experimental cholesterolatherosclerosis, I sci. industr. Res., 18C (1959),57

Parenteral administration of DL, IX-tocopherol acetateduring the development of experimental athero­sclerosis produced progressive hypercholesterolaemiaand ~-lipoproteinaemia with a marked rise of C/Pratio and ~-cholesterol. In the untreated animalsfed with cholesterol in olive oil, the peak of hyper­cholesterolaemia was noted at six weeks which 'wasmaintained up to twelve weeks. Feeding of oliveoil alone did not give rise to an increase of serumcholesterol level but produced relative increase ofserum ~-lipoproteins.

384. CHATTERJEE, K. P., SINHA, K. K. & BANERJEE,S.: Effect of penicillin on blood glucose andlipide contents of tissues, J. sci. industr. Res., .18C (1959), 110

The effects of penicillin on blood glucose of normalrabbits and on lipide contents of normal rats havebeen investigated. Prolonged administration of peni­cillin increases blood glucose level and diminishesglucose tolerance. Glucose tolerance has been foundto return to' normal in seven days, after the with­drawal of penicillin. Total and ester cholesterol ofwhole body and only ester cholesterol of intestineincrease and ester cholesterol of brain diminishes inrats treated with penicillin. Phospholipide contentof kidney of penicillin-treated rats increases.

385. CHOPRA, 1. C. & CHOPRA, C. 1.: In vitro anti­tubercular activity of pristimerin, J. sci. industr.Res., 18C (1959), 85

Studies on the in vitro anti-tubercular activity ofpristimerin have shown that pristimerin completelyinhibits the growth of H37Rv (human) strain ofMycobacterium tuberculosis in a concentration of5·0 !J.g./ml., H52RS (streptomycin-resistant) andB19-3 (bovine) strains in a concentration of 6·()!J.g./ml. and B19-1 (avian) strain in a concentrationof 8·0 !J.g.Jml.

386. GUPTA, S. K., MATHUR, 1. S. & MUKERJI, B.:The therapeutic activity of some sulphides,quinazolones and pyrimidines in experimentaltuberculosis of guinea-pigs, I sci. industr. Res.,18C (1959), 1

A series of sulphides, pyrimidines and quinazoloneshas been screened against experimental tuberculosisin guinea-pigs. Only p,p'-diaminodiphenyl sulphide(D.D. sulphide) has been found comparable to Dap­sone (DDS), isoniazid (INH) and dihydrostrepto­mycin sulphate (DHS). A high correlation betweenthe spleen weight and pathological scores has beenestablished.

387. KHOSLA, M. C., KOHLI, J. D. & NITYA ANAND:Studies in metabolism, absorption, distributionand the mode of excretion of 4: 4'-diamino­diphenyl sulphide, J. sci. industr. Res., 18C(1959), 51

Conditions have been standardized for the estimationof 4: 4'-diaminodiphenyl sulphide in the presence ofbiological materials and its metabolism has beenstudied. The drug is absorbed gradually over a longperiod and is distributed fairly uniformly in all thetissues, except the brain, and it does not seem to beable to cross the blood-brain barrier. The mainroute of excretion is the kidney. The drug cir­culates in the blood mainly in the form of a polarconjugate of 4: 4'-diaminodiphenyl sulphide. Themajor metabolites in the rabbit and human urineare 4: 4'-diaminodiphenyl sulphide, the correspond­ing sulphoxide, sulphone and a polar unidentifiedcompound.

A method has been standardized for the salting outchromatography of 4: 4'-diaminodiphenyl sulphide,sulphoxide and suIphone ; the method is particularlysuitable for sulphides, since these give rather highand unpredictable R f values by conventional paperpartition chromatography.

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Iron 0·0002%

Empyreuma passes t hr. Bichromate Test

MANUFACTURERS OF

NEUTRAL GLASSAMPOULES

AcidAcetic

For further particulars, write to :

THE INTERNATIONAL CHEMICALINDUSTRIES

BOMBAY SCIENTIFICGLASS WORKS

103B UPPER CIRCULAR ROAD

CALCUTTAARAB HOUSE, KHETWADI 13TH LANE

BOMBAY 4

A28 J.S.I.R.- OCTOBER 1959

'WILD'

WILD THEODOLITE T3

HEERBRUGG (Switzerland)

The manufacturers of

Highest Class Precision Optical and

Mechanical Instruments

WORKSHOPS

LABORATORIES &

SURVEY

• Microscopes for colleges and research

• Microscopes for angle and thread measuring

• Testing instruments for plane surfaces

• Drawing instruments' of stainless steel

• Levels, theodolites and aerial cameras

• Distance measuring instruments, etc.

WILD LEVEL N2

Equipped with modern, High Precision Swiss Machines, Tools, Gauges and Collimatorsand with an expert Swiss trained Engineer, our Service Division undertakes repairs to

WILD Levels, Theodolites, etc.

SOLE AGENTS:

RAJ-DER-KAR & CO.SADHANA RAYON HOUSE, DR. D. NAOROJI ROAD

BOMBAYTelephone: 26-2304 Telegram: TECH LAB

Branch Office: 44/6 Regal Building, Connaught Place, New Delhi I

j.SJ.R.- OCTOBER 1959 A29

STUDENTS'

MICROSCOPE

ADVANCED CLASSES

Manuf~tured by:

INSTRUMENT RESEARCH LABORATORY Ltd.Gram: INRELABTRY

309 BOWBAZAR STREET, CALCUTTA 12Phone: 22- 5778

From

A MICRO

toA PHYSICAL BALANCE

you may depend on

~BALANCESfor their

SENSITIVITY, CONSTANCY &

DURABILITY

Manufactured by

Keroy ;3!va/e) Limited

A30

Service Station & Office

U LATAFAT HUSSAIN LANKCALCUTTA 10

Phone:14-3840

FlUiory

33~ NADESHWARVARANASI CANTT.

).5.1. R.- OCTOBER 1959

It's a dozen test instruments in one!-the Adjustable Span

Recorder

HERE'S a recording potentiometer that is a real jack.of.all.trades (and masterof each one) in any dcvelopment or test laboratory. Just turn the dials, and inseconds, you can set it up for the exact range and sensitivity you want. Youdon't have to do any rewiring or changing of calibrating·circuits.

50-to·I span adjustment. Millivolt span of the recorder is continuouslyvariable over. as much as a so: I range. Span adjustment is independent of urosetting.

Variable zero suppression. Coarse and fine adjustment dials let you movothe electrical zero point up and down scale, to concentrate recording on onlythe part of the span in which you're intefCSted. Zero adjustment docs not affectspan setting.

Sensitivity adjustment makes it easy to get the recording characteristics youwant to match the span being used.

Many optional features: you can choose from recording speeds of1,1,2,41.12 or 24 seconds full scale ... fully automatic, push·button, or solenoid·actuatedremote or locally controlled standardization.

~ Honeywell 1ii4t' w.,~Contact .

BLUE mSTARIWE STAR ENGINEERING CO. (Bombay) PRIVATE LTD.

KASTURI BUILDINGS. J"'MSHEDJI TATA RO"'D. BOMBAY IAIM at CALCUTTA. DELHI. HADIIAS

PSBS-33/1

LS.I.R.- OCTCBER 1959 A31

Instruments for Industrial Measurement & Controlbased on an experience of many decennaries

lIP) Ex: Messrs DREYER ROSENKRANZ & DROOP A.G., Germany

RECORDER

• Gauges: for all applications and requirements such as laboratory test, and

Inspector's Gauges, Duplex Gauges, Vacuum Gauges, Differential Pressure

Gauges, etc•• Pressure and Temperature Recording Instruments • Pneumatic

Motion Transmitters' Pneumatic Controllers' Diaphragm Motor Valves' Pres·

sure Reducing Valves • Spring·loaded Safety Valves • Dial Thermometers

• Electric Contact Devices and Transmitting Potentiometers for Pressure and

Temperature Measuring Instruments' Level Indicators' Hydraulic Load Cells

• Indicators for Steam Engines, Diesel Engines, Compressors, Locomotives and

Pumps' Testing Equipment for the Calibration of Pressure and Temperature

Measuring Instruments • Special Outfit, e.g. for Checking Temperatures, etc.

CONTACT SOLE AGENTS

TOSH N IWAL BROT'HERS PRIVATE LI M ITED198 JAMSHEDJI TATA ROAD, BOMBAY I

Branches: Ajmer Calcutta New Delhi Madras

EL.ECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS

A32

• Stabilized Power Supply Units • Scalers • Pulse Generators• Oscillators, Audio, H.F. & U.H.F. • H.F. Titration Apparatus

• Dielectric Polarization Measurement Apparatus, etc. etc.

EMISSION RADIO & VARIETIES120 LOWER CIRCULAR ROAD, CALCUTTA 14

Phone: 24·2513

1,5,LR,- OCTOBER 1959

Research Development Testin~

....,..0 .......1.11"1".U.'''r,

Tual$

JlU·:~T·"'U.C"UIIC"Coc."

101 !'AIIK STIIEET, CALCUTTA 16

~::~~I~.';S :.. ~~~~:;:~~}::T·V ~l''''~TIOM'''_''C.OM'

"

RAPID LABORATORYELUTRIATOR

Specialelutriator forwater· solublematerials.

Save Timeand Cut

Costs with

ICLLABORATORY EQUIPMENT

INTERNATI9NAL COMBUSTION (INDIA)PRIVATE LTD.

-

In development and research depart­ments, where tests concern grinding,screening, separating or filtering, ICLlaboratory equipment has many uses.It is also, frequently and profitablyemployed in conjunction with pilotplant for testing large scale processes.May we send you details?

Uniformmechanical

action.• Time switch

control.• Accommodates up to thirteen

8' diameter sieves.

RO·TAP SIEVE SHAKER-for accurate andconsistent sieve

testing.

for the grindingof non·abrasivematerialsin batchesup to 20 Ibs

RAYMOND LABORATORY SEPARATORa self·contained air separatingunit for particle sizeclassification in the dry state._ Separating chamber enclosesull rotating parts.

_ Simple 10 dismantle.Fan and whizzer combinQ/ionseasily changed to sait product.

_ Motor bea,ings grease·packed.No oiling required/or separator parts.

RAYMOND LABORATORY MILL-

_ Rotor has eight steelswing 1II11t1mers and runs at 10,000 r.p.m.

_ Supplied with ft.'e interchangeable '. :I . d . "!-':.." co .

stet screens to suit pro uct. This elutriator ".S.:." 1.~I.~:~~~~T'can be used C:l,......I~VI".

___Br_,_"_ze_h_o_us_ing_e_a_s'_'IY_d_is_ltI_a_n_tle_d_fi_or_c_le_a_n_'n_g'_-1for testing any .ii' --I. TV"

line powderinsoluble in 1I~

72~C;;esh~to f

Branch.. It: NEW DELHI" BOMBAY • South Indil A,enll: BINNY "CO. (MADRAS) LTD.

1.5.1.1\.- OCTOBER 1959 A33

VHF TRANS - RECEIVER(MF-8JO SERIES)

The MF·830 Series are extensively used by the Police,Electricity Boards, Irrigation Projects and other organisationsfor medium distance, noise.free two waycommunication. The Water-tight casing and shockmounting provided, make them ideallysuited for installation in locomotives, Vans, Cars etc.The sets can be supplied for frequencies between70·90.5 Mcjs and 156 - 174 Mc/s,

LOUDSPEAKER CONTROL BOX

A34

EP

J.HR.- OCTOBER 1959

Specially developed forthe vanaspati industryby Hoffmann-La Roche,Basle, Switzerland­VANITIN offers uniqueadvantages:

* A pure syntheticproduct-diluted withrefined, peroxide-freegroundnut oil

* No unpleasant tasteor odour

* Easy to use, andoffers unvarying qualityand uniform stability

* Supplied in differentbatch· size containers,direct fromair-conditioned godowns A

'ROCHE' Synthetic Vitamin A Acetate

EVanitin Vitamin A was first synthesisedby a Roche research team in 1947

Sole Distributors:

J.SJ.R.- OCTOBER 1959

ROCHE PRODUCTS PRIVATE LIMITED, Bombay.

VOLTAS LIMITEDBombay - Calcutta. - Madras - New Delhi - BangaloreCochin - Kanpur - Secunderabad - Ahmedabad

A35

+••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• +

LABORATORY EQUIPMENT

For all your requirements of laboratory glassware, apparatus, appliances,

instruments, acids, chemicals, stains, filtering aids,

water and gas taps, etc. etc.

please write to:

THE CENTRAL SCIENTIFIC SUPPLIESCOMPANY LIMITED

2 AGARAM ROAD, TAMBARAM

SOUTH INDIA

iTelegrams: SYPHON Telephone: 89 Extension 123

...... -_ --- .Branches at

17 STRINGER STREET, MADRAS I

53 NARASIMHARAJA ROAD, BANGALORE 1

+••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •• +

· ' .· I ·• Just issued •• •: IMP ACT • Vol. IX (1959), No.3:• •• GRAFTING FOR PRODUCTIVITY IN PLANTS AND •• ANIMALS •: Unesco's quarterly magazine for by Pierre Boiteau :

• those whose interest is the THE DEVELOPMENT OF OPTICS AND ITS IMPACT •• ON SOCIETY •• understanding of science and the by Vasco Ronchi •• •• improvement of social conditions. TEACHING THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE •• by Rene Taton •

: • ORIGINAL ARTICLES ON SCIENCE SCIENTIFIC PROBLEMS AND THE 1959·60 SEVEN· :• YEAR PLAN DEVELOPMENT IN THE U.S.S.R. •• AS A SOCIAL FORCE by N. Sisakyan •

• THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON •• • BOOK REVIEWS SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION •: by Paul Boquet :• • BIBLIOGRAPHIES •· _.: Annual subscription 9/6 sterling ~:

~ Sin:::,:::,;:::n:,:nng

~ I(~ tI ~• •: ORIENT LONGMANS LTD. :• BOMBAY. CALCUTTA. MADRAS PLACE DE FONTENOY, PARIS 7e •• •• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••A36 J.5.l.R.- OCTOBER 1959

CRAFTSMANA SYMBOL OF QUALITY & SERVICE

for

LABORATORY & PROCESS CONTROL EQUIPMENT

Offer

*FLUORESCENCE METERS & A COMPLETE RANGE OFPHOTOELECTRIC COLORIMETERS

* BOMB COLORIMETERS, EQUIPMENT & APPARATUS FOROIL INDUSTRIES

* POLAROGRAPHS, FLAME PHOTOMETER & KARL FISCHER

* CONTROLLERS, PYROMETERS & THERMOCOUPLES

*FURNACES, OVENS & INCUBATORS

* LABORATORY UTILITY ITEMS

Address your enquiries to:

CRAFTSMAN ELECTRONIC CORPN. (PRIVATE) LTD.SETHNA HALL, NESBIT ROAD, BOMBAY 10

Phone: 42346

SP/Cfl/J

J.$.I.R.- OCTOBER 1959

~(Jllenh(Jm~ New Development

Molecular Weights t:l tl~1letU tf.!l:U(Designed in co-operation with Mr. C. Heitler of Northampton College of

Advanced Technology (London)

• Determinations in 10 minutes• Accuracy I per cent with 0.2 g. samples

• Rapidly reaches equilibrium «3 minutes)• Thermistor sensing for response and high

sensitivity

• Borosilicate glass parts

• Additional equipment not required

• Simple to use• Quickly saves its own cost in time

gained

MANUFACTURED BY

A. GALLENKAMP & CO. LTO.LONDON, ENGLAND

ACCREDITED AGENTS

MARTIN & HARRIS (PRIV ATE) Ltd.SAVOY CHAMBERS, WALLACE STREET, BOMBAY I

rrintcd anti publisllCd by SURI B. l\. S.\STRI, Council of Scientific & Industrial Hcscarch, Kcw Delhi,at the Catholic Press, Hal1l.:ili, India