Semiotics and Visual Communication: Concepts and Practices

Semiotics and Visual Communication: Concepts and Practices

Edited by

Evripides Zantides

Semiotics and Visual Communication: Concepts and Practices, Edited by Evripides Zantides

This book first published 2014

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

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Copyright © 2014 by Evripides Zantides and contributors

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ISBN (10): 1-4438-5468-9, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-5468-9

…to all the graphic warriors

TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures.............................................................................................. x List of Tables ............................................................................................. xii Preface ...................................................................................................... xiii Acknowledgements ................................................................................. xvii Chapter One: Architectural and Spatial Design-Design for Three Dimensional Products Embedded, Introspective and Poetic Narratives in 3-Dimensional Design .... 2 Ralph Ball How Type Can Move Us—Type in the Environment: France .................. 11 Jeff Leak Double Writing in Architectural Design: A Phenomenological- Semiotic Approach .................................................................................... 23 Theodora Papidou Chapter Two: Design for Print Applications The Renaissance of Academic Publishing: The Deconstruction of the Journal into a Pragmatic Manifestation of a Postmodernist Set of Discourses ....................................................................................... 34 Artemis Alexiou Marketing Semiotics Applied to the Design of Integrated Graphic Communication Systems ........................................................................... 45 Dora Ivonne Alvarez Tamayo (De)coding the Fabric of the European Years’ Visual Representations .... 56 Camelia Cmeciu and Doina Cmeciu

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Intersemiotic Translation in Advertising Discourse: Plastic Visual Signs in Primary Function in Communication .......................................... 72 Evangelos Kourdis The Greek-Cypriot Dialect in Writing: Orthographic Conventions and Typographic Practices ......................................................................... 86 Aspasia Papadima, Ioli Ayiomamitou and Stelios Kyriacou Chapter Three: Design for Screen Based Media Signs at the Interface: An Exploration of Semiotics and Interaction Design ...................................................................................................... 100 Nikos Bubaris Ludic and Social Media Interaction Design Principles in Smart City Development ........................................................................................... 110 Patrick J. Coppock Typography and Language: A Semiotic Perspective ............................... 126 Jack Post Film and New Art Media Semiotics: On the Figural ............................... 139 Irini Stathi Kinetic Typography: A Semiotic Exploration ......................................... 150 Theo van Leeuwen and Emilia Djonov Chapter Four: Pedagogy of Visual Communication 100 Things: A Process for Foundation in Theory and Practice ............... 164 Law Alsobrook Visual Diasporas: Comics as Transcultural Phenomena ......................... 177 Holger Briel The Development of a Visual Literacy Course in Higher Education ...... 193 Anastasia Christodoulou and George Damaskinidis “My First Experiment” “My First Ex”: A Multimodal Tool Proposed in the Didactics of Literature ................................................................... 207 Symeon Degermentzides

Semiotics and Visual Communication: Concepts and Practices ix

Developing Students’ Visual Design Competence through Situated Literacy Practices: The Case of the Erasmus IP “P.S.BoWMa” ............. 224 Catherine Dimitriadou and Androniki Gakoudi The Quest for “Visual Thinking” and the Double Bind of Education ..... 239 Miltos Frangopoulos Project My City My Place: A Cross-Cultural Collaboration in Graphic Design ...................................................................................................... 256 Maryam Hosseinnia The Receiver is the Message? ................................................................. 269 Peter C. Jones A Course in Visual Communication ........................................................ 284 Tony Pritchard Children Are Painting Inscriptions: Pedagogy of Visual Communication in Local History ....................................................................................... 295 Evangelia Svirou, Ifigeneia Vamvakidou and Paraskevi Golia Chapter Five: Visual Arts Marks, Signs and Images: The Sense of Belonging and Commitment which Pre-Dates History but has now become a Powerful Global Language ................................................................................................. 310 Paul Middleton Showing Saying: On Speech Balloons .................................................... 322 Lizzie Ridout Contributors List ...................................................................................... 332

INTERSEMIOTIC TRANSLATION IN ADVERTISING DISCOURSE:

PLASTIC VISUAL SIGNS IN PRIMARY FUNCTION IN COMMUNICATION

EVANGELOS KOURDIS

Introduction In recent years, more and more advertising campaigns have been using synthetic elements that represent universal human values such as ecology, good health and respect for differences, which are based on contrastive rhetorical forms (pollution/ecology, illness/good health, etc.). Advertisers, we have noted, have not focused their efforts on key semiotic systems such as language (slogans) and images (photographs, paintings, drawings), but have, instead, upgraded their use of plastic visual signs, in particular colours, graphics and typography, which, up until the late 20th century, had been considered as supplementary semiotic systems of verbal and visual iconic signs. It is particularly interesting to say that for Eco (2001: 221) advertising is considered as a mass-communication text, a syncretic text, which often involves more than one semiotic system and moves across linguistic and cultural boundaries. According to him, this kind of text is also useful for dealing with cases of intersemiotic translation.

Bearing in mind that language is considered to be a primary semiotic system, I will show that secondary semiotic systems, as are plastic visual signs, sometimes play a central role in communication through advertising, despite being part of a broader semiotic system, that of iconism. I will also examine how intersemiotic translation could be an easy interpretative procedure, and at the same time a more complex constructive procedure, and how it depends on cultural knowledge of the verbal message’s connotative meaning.

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Visual signs in advertisements

Jean-Marie Klinkenberg (2001: 110), one of the founders of the Belgian Mu Group, or Groupe μ, mentions that visual semiotics aims to endow the reading of images (photos, cinema, paintings, designs, posters) with the same precision that textual semiotics was able to develop in literary, political and other speech. This precision was associated with the use of the semiotic system of language, which leading linguists and semioticians (Saussure 1986 [1916]: 9; Hjelmslev 1943: 109; Barthes 1964: 43-44; Jakobson 1970: 511; Lotman 2001 [1990]: x; Eco 1979: 174) described as a primary sign system. In contrast, where the visual system was concerned, such views were indeed expressed, but only where this system was accompanied by the verbal system (Barthes 1964: 43; Klinkenberg 2001: 110) with the aim of tackling the ambiguity of the visual system.

In the case of plastic visual signs, their value was noted from very early on, especially in the field of advertising. One of the first systematic works in semiotic studies in advertising to talk about plastic signs (however, without using this term) was Barthes’ essay (1964: 42) “The rhetoric of the image”. Barthes, in his study of the French advertisement of Panzani pasta, classified the semiotic systems or messages into two main types: verbal and non-verbal messages. He then classified non-verbal messages into codified iconic and non-codified iconic messages, plastic signs being the codified iconic messages. It is worth mentioning that in Barthes’ (1964: 43-44) classification, the verbal message is premised in relation to the iconic messages, since "writing and speech are always complete terms of informational structure" and because it confronts the polysemic character of the image. Guidère (2000: 39), commenting on this trilateral division of advertising signs, states that it has turned advertising language into an advertising giant, a cluster of disparate signs1.

Twenty years later, Groupe μ (1992), in their famous work “Traité du signe visuel” (1992)2, elaborated on Barthes’ classification, criticising linguistic imperialism and emphasising the specificity of the visual sign (Vandeloise1995: 423) since, while any visual sign can be verbalised, a visual sign does not correspond to any particular word. Groupe μ categorised non-verbal semiotic systems into iconic visual signs and plastic visual signs such as colour, form and texture. Groupe μ (1992:

1 My translation 2 Göran Sonesson said that this work was to visual communication what Saussure’s Cours de linguistique générale was to linguistics.

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361) defines the relationship between iconic visual and plastic visual signs in the following way:

the plastic, being phenomenologically the signifying of the iconic signs, enables the identification of the iconic. In turn, the iconic, once identified, enables one to attribute a content to the plastic elements which don’t belong to the iconic type.

According to Groupe μ, signifiers of an iconic entity coincide as a rule with signifiers of a plastic entity, and vice versa.

But is there any relation between the two types of visual signs? For Groupe μ (1995: 597), there is an iconoplastic relationship between iconic visual signs and plastic visual signs, and this relation:

[…] is evidence that the plastic element is autonomous from the iconic representation. In fact plastic and iconic elements complement each other. Because it is the phenomenological signifier of the iconic sign, the plastic element allows viewers to identify the iconic, while the iconic element thus identified makes it possible to discover a content in the plastic elements that do not belong to iconic types.

Another difference between the two types of visual sign is that iconic

visual signs create a triadic relationship between the signifying, the type3 (object) and the referent.

Plastic visual signs and intersemiosis

In contrast to iconic visual signs, plastic visual signs are independent of types. One of the reasons supporting the autonomy of plastic signs is that they can serve as one of the two poles in intersemiotic translation. The autonomy of signs is of primary interest for intersemiotic translation. According to Aguiar & Queiroz (2009: 205):

[...] intersemiotic translation can be described as a multi-hierarchical process of relation between semi-independent layers of description. The layers of organisation do not act independently but they are autonomous in functional and descriptive terms.

Plastic visual signs include signs such as colour, form and texture, but

only to the extent that they refer to a signified and that we can approach

3 For a definition of type, see Klinkenberg (2001: 111).

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them as a symbol or index (Klinkenberg 2001: 111). We should point out that some plastic signs are important because they exploit a plastic rhetoric (Klinkenberg 1996: 91) and that they are semiotic in that they associate forms of expression with forms of content (Groupe μ 1995: 584).

Vandeloise (1994: 438) argue that: [l]ike the distinctive features by which Jakobson represents linguistic signifiers, plastic signs are grounded in a system of oppositions. Pertinent contrasts are light/dark, simple/complex, vertical/horizontal, etc.

I will show later that these polarised elements are often used to create intersemiosis as an interaction between semiotic systems.

In fact, intersemiosis characterises the whole semiotic phenomenon, which is based on what Jakobson (2001 [1959]: 139) calls intersemiotic translation or transmutation, that is ‘‘[…] the interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of non-verbal systems’’. However, many researchers claim that intersemiotic translation should not necessarily include verbal semiotic systems. This position gives a dynamic dimension to intersemiotic translation which advertisers take into account, since, as Gorlée (1994: 167) remarks:

(the) strong points (of intersemiotic translation) are not information nor thought, but novelty and creativity, --in short, variance. Variance meaning openness and possibility, it permits, and even encourages, multiple interpretations.

For Torop (2003: 273): [t]he understanding of intersemiotic translation starts from the realisation of text processuality, on the one hand, and coexistence of diverse sign systems, i.e. semiotic heterogeneity, on the other hand.

As we will see below, plastic signs can serve as intersemiotic translations of verbal signs, in this way increasing the number of non-verbal signs that produce intersemiotic translations.

Analysing the material of the study

This paper presents three selected cases of intersemiotic translation in Greek advertisements adopting the Groupe μ (1992) approach. The intersemiosis takes place between the verbal semiotic system and the non-verbal semiotic systems, mainly the plastic signs, in the advertisements.

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The three advertisements analysed below are print advertisements that were placed in Greek newspapers and magazines.

The first advertisement (fig. 2-6) studied presents a banking product offered by Cyprus Bank. The advertisement is divided into two parts: the iconic message, situated above, takes up 3/5 of the composition, while below we have the verbal message, which consists of seven separate verbal messages. The verbal messages are placed in distinct positions within the space provided and are written in letters of different sizes, colours and thicknesses. However, two important pieces of verbal information have been placed in yellow boxes: the verbal message “λογαριασμός μισθοδοσίας extra” [extra payroll account] and the message directly below it, which is none other that the bank’s logo.

It is particularly interesting to see that the intersemiotic translation in the advertisement is achieved through two non-verbal signs found in the first of the seven verbal messages, namely the 5% interest rate offered to any civil servant who opens a payroll account at this bank. The sign “5%” comes under the semiotic system of mathematics and essentially consists of two signs, “5” and “%”, which, in this context, do not make any sense on their own. It is precisely this sign that the advertisers have translated intersemiotically in the advertisement’s iconic message, since it is the benefit that the depositor stands to gain, and it is this that the advertisement focuses on.

It is, however, also interesting to note in what way this translation has been achieved. The sign “5” is represented by a road with a broken dividing line, and the sign “%” by means of two bushes and a river. Here, the polarised elements are linked through intersemiosis, since the colours used in this advertisement are contrasting: the bright green surrounding the road contrasts with the light grey colour of this road, but is still not as strong a colour as the dark green of the bushes representing the zeros in the percentage symbol. In addition, the river is a bright blue that is in stark contrast to the green surrounding the road. Thus, as Van Leeuwen (2011: 11) remarks, ‘‘colour (is) used ‘textually’, to create coherence between the different elements of a larger whole and/or to distinguish between its different parts’’. Moreover, the use of the proxemic sign in the graphic and chromatic representation of the sign “5%” ensures that the latter can be decoded and translated.

The fact that the shadow of the two bushes is included in the iconic message allows us to claim that the transmutation of semiotic systems does not preclude the use of realistic means of portraying reality. This is also supported by the bushes scattered around the remaining iconic message and not affecting intersemiosis but rather adding a sense of

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realism to the iconic message. Furthermore, even though three colours, namely blue, green and grey, have been used to create the iconic message, it is the colour green that dominates, which indicates that the advertisement follows the current trend towards green and ecological products. Of course, the specific banking product has nothing to do with ecology, but the advertisers preferred to use a colour that represents a universal value and which advertisers have used ad nauseam in the last decade. In other words, they are banking on the positive connotations of the colour green. The verb “δρομολογήστε” [put under way], found in the first verbal message in the second person plural, is also rendered intersemiotically by the road. We can, therefore, claim that the graphic and chromatic representation of the sign “5%” in the iconic message conveys the same signified, but with a different signifier.

We thus have a differentiation, not of content, but rather of form4, which allows us to speak of the transmutation of signs or intersemiotic translation. Although Jakobson (2004 [1959]: 139) defined the two synonymous terms as the ‘‘interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of non-verbal sign systems’’, translation semioticians such as Petrilli (2003: 18) clarify that:

intersemiotic translation or transmutation […] consists of interpreting verbal signs by means of nonverbal signs and vice versa, as well as nonverbal signs of a given sign system with nonverbal signs of another sign system.

Interestingly, the non-verbal sign “5%” found in the verbal message is translated intersemiotically with the assistance of the additional non-verbal signs of graphics (display typography), colours and proxemics.

The second advertisement (fig. 2-7) forms part of the advertising campaign of Cosmote, a mobile network operator. Through this advertisement, Cosmote endeavours to show that it is able to see the world through its customers’ eyes, that it understands their different needs and meets them with even greater flexibility and vision5. We note that the operator’s logo (“Cosmote”) and the standard verbal message that always follows it (“ο κόσμος μας, εσύ”, meaning “our world is you”) has been

4 This formulation is seemingly in contrast to that of the Russian formalists (Erlich, 1980: 197), for whom content was determined by form and hence each different form had a different meaning. However, in advertisement we have fixed signifieds, semantically reduced, as they refer to a commodity. So, in the end in advertising the signified meaning is reduced to simple connotation. 5 See http://www.myphone.gr/forum/showthread.php?t=236992.

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placed in the bottom right-hand section of the composition, just as in the previous case (fig. 2-6). In this advert, the advertisers have also made use of the rhetorical practice of abduction, moving from the general “our world” to the specific “is you”, and employing the second person singular so that the reader may identify with the use of this particular product.

Fig. 2-6: print advertisement of Cyprus Bank

Unlike the previous advertisement, the principal verbal message here (slogan) – “Τώρα το 3G σε ακολουθεί όπου και αν πας”, meaning “Now 3G goes wherever you go” – has been positioned in the middle of the composition. The slogan comprises three semiotic systems, two verbal (Greek, English) and one non-verbal (number), and has been made white in order to stand out from the blue (and other hues) of the sea. The advertisers have placed the additional verbal message at the bottom of the composition and have used black and white letters for contrasting purposes. The green background on which this message has been placed is the mobile network operator’s trademark colour.

As far as the colour system is concerned, we find that green and blue and their various shades have been used in this advertisement, too. The

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message “3G” found in the slogan and in the additional verbal message has been graphically and chromatically reproduced at the top of the composition. The number “3” has been reproduced in green as vegetation growing on a cliff, while the letter “G” is represented in the form of a cloud above the sea. For this portrayal to acquire semantic and semiotic content, the advertisers have also made use of the proxemic sign, positioning these two signs next to each other.

This advertisement, unlike the previous one, also has a purely visual iconic message, showing a beach with sunbathers and the surrounding mountain. It is on this visual iconic sign that the plastic visual signs forming the message “3G” have been added, which enables us to claim that an imaginary sign can be constructed on a real sign.

Fig.2- 7: print advertisement of the Greek mobile network operator Cosmote

The third advertisement composition (fig. 2-8), titled “Σκέψου

Πράσινα” [“Think Green”], is part of a new project launched by Piraeus Bank in the social media, on the benefits of an environmentally friendly way of life6. According to McCarthy & Mothersbaugh (2002: 671) “one inference found repeatedly in persuasion research is ‘length implies

6 See http://www.econews.gr/2011/02/28/skepsou-prasina-trapeza-peiraios.

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strength’ (and that) the logic is that the more a brand has to say about itself, the better the brand must be’’. We argue that this position is not applicable to this advertisement, where the principal verbal message is too short (only two words). We also note that green is the dominant colour in this advertisement. The verbal slogan (“Think Green!”) is here, too, found in the middle of the composition and has been written in the second person singular in an effort to establish direct communication with the reader. The principal advertising composition is placed within a coloured frame; around it is a second frame of a different colour containing the additional message “Μια πρωτοβουλία της Τράπεζας Πειραιώς” [“A Piraeus Bank initiative”]. The advertising composition as a whole and the two verbal messages appear to be in initial contrast with the business environment promoting them, since ecological consciousness is being advertised by a bank dealing in a starkly different environment – the financial world, an environment not known among different cultures for its promotion and respect for human values7.

Fig. 2-8: print advertisement of Piraeus Bank

What distinguishes this advertisement from the previous one is the double occurrence of intersemiotic translation: the verb “σκέψου” [“think”] is written in white, the same colour as its intersemiotic translation 7 This is not a new location. As Corner (2004: 236) observes ‘‘it is the belief that advertising does indeed work in a ‘dispersed’ way to encourage certain values and beliefs, as well as in a ‘concentrated’ way to sell goods, that has generated so much controversy about advertising as a communicative practice’’.

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provided in the form of the (human) brain, which has replaced the tree’s foliage in the iconic message. Directly underneath, the adverb “πράσινα” [“green”] is rendered iconically by the tree trunk supporting the (human) brain/foliage. It is interesting to see that different colours are used to distinguish between the two intersemiotic translations and that the translations include techniques of rhetorical expression. Thus, by intersemiotically translating the verb “think” through the (human) brain, the advertisers have chosen to translate/render the concept of thought, the whole, by means of the (human) brain, a part of the whole, using the expressive form of synecdoche. The same applies to the intersemiotic translation of the adverb “green”, which is used to express flora as a whole by means of the tree trunk, which represents part of the whole. There is no intersemiotic translation for the exclamation mark accompanying the slogan “Think Green”.

Cultural values, advertising and intersemiotic translation

For Ugo Volli (2000: 220), advertising belongs to a rich culture genre of texts closely related to intersemiotic translation. The three advertisements we have studied promote cultural values8 that are of primary interest for the consumers. This is a standard practice. According to O’Guinn, Allen & Semenik (2012: 187), ‘‘advertisers try to either associate their product with a cultural value or to criticise a competitor for being out of step with one’’. According to them:

[v]alues are enduring expressions of culture and they cannot be changed quickly or easily. They are thus different from attitudes, which can be changed through a single advertising campaign or a single advertisement. Attitudes are in turn influenced by values as well as by many other sources.

The three advertisements tried to influence consumers’ attitudes (to become clients of the two banks and of the mobile network operator), based on their cultural values (financial profit, easy communication and environment protection) and intersemiotic translation serves this effort through the use of plastic signs. It is worth mentioning the cultural dimension of plastic signs, especially that of colours. As Fowles (1996:

8 Even the direction of the letter's justification is a vehicle of cultural values. McCarthy & Mothersbaugh (2002: 673-674) state that the ‘‘direction of justification […] affect legibility […], and is likely culturally bound (e.g. right justification being most legible for those Asian readers who read from right to the left’’. In our case, the first two advertisements are written from the left to the right.

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159) observes, ‘‘advertising distils from the variety of human appearances the few that will be accepted as apotheosis and returns them in perfected form to an audience desiring to see such singular rendition’’.

General remarks

The study of the three advertisements confirms Van Leeuwen’s (2011: 92) remark that ‘‘the structure of texts in magazines, websites and other modern media is now often signaled, not by means of words, but by means of layout, colour and typography, so much so that without layout, colour and typography many of these texts would be incomprehensibl’’. Plastic signs play a major role in this effort, particularly when they signify something connotatively. In our three cases, no matter what the product advertised, green was used to enhance the advertisement since it has positive connotations and is an often-used and recognised advertising option in the Greek market. Colour differences and form (graphics) are plastic elements that dominate, compared with verbal and visual iconic signs, even though all the semiotic systems employed here have worked well to convey the message successfully. In fact, we could say that they have been upgraded in the compositions to the extent that they may have gained certain autonomy in the advertisements through the intersemiotic translation that has taken place with these particular signs.

It is, however, worth noting that the semiotic systems of proxemics and display typography9 are almost always used to assist in the intersemiotic translation of these signs. Display typography involves the interpretative and illustrative use of letterforms, providing opportunity for the associative values and the formal characteristics of letters to be explored and exploited to deliberate effect. The display typography of the number in the first advertisement and of the number and letter in the second advertisement is intericonic. In other words, their traditional, expected design combines – by incorporating into their form and composition – other icons that assist further in conveying the message. This visual-typographical game often appeals to viewers and enhances the advertisement due to the witty way in which it combines two ideas in one. 9 According to Baines and Haslam (2005: 48) by the time of the Industrial Revolution there was a growth in many kinds of printing to meet the demands of commerce and these new ephemeral uses and needs required new typeforms whose principal aim was to attract attention. Because of their scale and intended use, they are sometimes referred to as display faces.

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I believe that the advertisers’ choice to employ intersemiotic translation between verbal and plastic visual signs is a successful choice, since it helps them to break free from the visual iconic sign, whose interpretation is more complex, and it also brings into play methods of interpretation that are based on a cognitive procedure whose principal characteristics are quick decoding and wittiness.

In lieu of a conclusion

Plastic visual signs often participate to expressive forms of rhetoric, such as is synecdoche. Their polarised elements (for instance, light/dark) play a central role in intersemiosis where plastic visual signs are always present. Plastic visual signs, especially colours, can be used as symbols and indexes: green colour for nature and ecology, grey for roads, white for clouds. Thus, plastic visual signs in our study have all the characteristics described by Groupe μ, plus – and it is something important for our purposes – they can serve as one of the two poles in intersemiotic translations because of their status as autonomous signs. This remark shows us the importance the advertisers place upon them and that plastic visual signs can be considered as a new and growing field in advertising based on cultural knowledge and cognitive procedures.

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