Domestic activities and spatial distribution in Ain Abû Nukhayla (Wadi Rum, Southern Jordan): The use of phytoliths and spherulites studies

ARTICLE IN PRESS

1040-6182/$ - se

doi:10.1016/j.qu

�CorrespondE-mail addr

Quaternary International 193 (2009) 174–183

Domestic activities and spatial distribution in Ain Ab %u Nukhayla (WadiRum, Southern Jordan): The use of phytoliths and spherulites studies

Marta Portilloa,b, Rosa M. Albertb,c,�, Donald O. Henryd

aInstitute of Archaeology, University College London, 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, UKbResearch Group for Palaeoecological and Geoarchaeological Studies, University of Barcelona, Spain

cCatalan Institution for Research and Advances Studies (ICREA)/Research Group for Palaeoecological and Geoarchaeological Studies,

Department of Prehistory, Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Barcelona, c, Montalegre, 6-8, 08001 Barcelona, SpaindDepartment of Anthropology, Harwell Hall, University of Tulsa, Tulsa, OK 74104-3126, USA

Available online 23 June 2007

Abstract

The Pre-Pottery Neolithic B site of Ayn Ab %u Nukhayla (Wadi Rum, Jordan) contains structural installations (loci) composed of inter-

connected oval, rock-walled, pithouses. Questions that arose from their study centered on how to identify possible herding and

agricultural activities and to assess any differences in how the loci were used. The combined study of phytoliths and spherulites identified

from different loci are presented here.

The results of quantitative, morphologic and morphometric analyses of phytoliths and spherulites identified in the different loci are

discussed. Cereal processing is evident in some loci by the concentration of the inflorescent parts of festucoid grass phytoliths associated

with the presence of handstones and querns. These loci appear to have encompassed specific areas in which domestic activities, including

the grinding of cereals and the preparation of other plant resources, were undertaken. In contrast, other loci (such as Locus 20) seem to

have been used as pens for herd animals (sheep/goats) as indicated by very high densities of spherulites. The results of this study provide

new insights on plant uses, herding practices, and the economic diversity of Early Neolithic communities in the Levant.

r 2007 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) site of Ayn Ab %uNukhayla is located on a hillock on the western side of adeep canyon, the Wadi Rum, in southern Jordan near theSaudi Arabian border (Fig. 1). The site rests on a sedimentlobe formed by successive alluvial fan, aeolian sand, andanthropogenic deposition (Henry et al., 2001, 2002, 2003).The upper parts of rock walls defining an inter-connectedlattice of oval pithouses (loci) extend over an area of ca.1200m2. Loci also often display internal divisions repre-sented by voids between adjoining walls of adjacentstructures and by installations created by internal partitionwalls (Henry et al., 2001, 2002, 2003).

Research at the site addresses questions related to theidentification of domestic activities and their spatial

e front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights re

aint.2007.06.002

ing author. Tel.: +34934037525; fax: +34934037541.

ess: [email protected] (R.M. Albert).

distributions relative to both household (intra-locus) andcommunity (inter-loci) patterns. Excavation of two blocks(Block I and II), placed along a NW–SE trending transectin the western portion of the site and encompassing ca.151m2 has exposed 12 loci with wall depths of ca. 1.5m(Henry et al., 2003; Albert and Henry, 2004; Fig. 2). Theradiocarbon chronology places the site’s occupation withinthe later part of the Middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic B(PPNB) (Kuijt and Goring-Morris, 2002) with a commondate of 8509764 BP (uncalibrated) and an estimatedduration of occupation of 180–260 years.The inhabitants of the settlement are thought to have

followed a combination of foraging, herding, and farmingintegrated within a strategy of transhumance (Henry et al.,2003). Indicators of herding are the presence of very highproportions of ovicaprins (490%) within the largemammal component of the archaeofauna, the presence ofsheep (and perhaps goat) in a setting well outside of theirnatural habitats, and the identification of high frequencies

served.

dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2007.06.002

mailto:[email protected]

ARTICLE IN PRESSM. Portillo et al. / Quaternary International 193 (2009) 174–183 175

of faecal spherulites, indicative of dung (Henry et al., 2003;Albert and Henry, 2004).

The cultivation of cereal by the site’s occupants issuggested by the large number (4300) and diversity ofgrinding stones (Kadowaki, 2002) that have commonlybeen associated with the processing of cereals (Wright,1992), and flint blades with macro- and microscopic silica

Fig. 2. Photograp

Fig. 1. Map of the area indicating the location of Ayn Ab %u Nukhayla

(Wadi Rum, Jordan).

polish. The presence of sickle blades implies that cerealswere not only processed on the site, but also harvestednearby (Henry et al., 2003). Direct paleobotanic evidencefrom pollen and phytolith analyses also points to theprocessing of cereals at the site (Emery-Barbier in Henryet al., 2003; Albert and Henry, 2004). Moreover, theidentification of relatively high frequencies of stamenssuggests a late spring–early summer harvest period.Phytoliths were first identified in a pilot study performed

by Scott-Cummings (Henry et al., 2003). Subsequently, alarger, systematic study of phytoliths and faecal spherulitesrecovered from the sediments of different loci confirmedthat activities related to both herding and cereal processingwere undertaken at the site and that there was inter-locivariability in activities (Albert and Henry, 2004).Phytoliths from the inflorescences of festucoid grasses

were abundantly identified in Locus 2 (Block I) associatedwith a cluster of grinding stones—including both quernsand handstones. Moreover, the study of faecal spherulitesshowed that dung was abundant in Locus 20 (Block II), butonly present in low frequencies in Locus 2 (Albert andHenry, 2004). These initial studies have traced differentuses for two loci: a residential structure accompanied bydomestic activities including the grinding of cereals (Locus2) and another residential structure (Locus 20) that inconjunction with domestic activities was used as a holdingpen (perhaps a lambing pen) for sheep/goat (Albert andHenry, 2004).In view of these earlier results, the research reported upon

here emphasized: (i) enlarging the studies of phytoliths andfaecal spherulites to include other loci in an effort to gain abetter understanding of the spatial distribution of inter-lociactivities, (ii) using morphometric analyses to identify thetype(s) of cereal present in the loci and (iii) comparing thegrass phytoliths of the archaeological sediments with thoserecovered from nearby, in situ grinding stones.

h of Block I.

ARTICLE IN PRESSM. Portillo et al. / Quaternary International 193 (2009) 174–183176

2. Materials and methods

Twenty-nine samples were selected in total for phytolithand spherulite analyses. Samples were collected fromdifferent units from Locus 2, 3 and 4 (Block I) (Fig. 3).Tables 1a–c list the samples analyzed as well as the mainresults obtained. Samples were selected given their well-defined living floors associated with features such as stonestructures and pavements as well as grinding stones.

Fig. 3. Plan of the loci studied: Locus 2, 3 and 4 (a) and photograph of

Locus 3 showing the locations of the grinding stones studied (b).

Table 1a

Description of samples and main phytolith and spherulite results obtained fro

Sample number Unit % AIF N. phyt. 1 g

AIF

Locus 2 F06 91.1 12.000

Locus 2 G04 91.7 101.000

Locus 2 G05 87.5 160.000

Locus 2 G06 91.7 317.000

Locus 2 G07 93.3 9.000

Locus 2 H05 92.2 110.000

Locus 2 H07 86.4 45.000

Locus 2 H04 94 11.000

Locus 2 E05 96 11.000

Locus 2 I06 90.6 31.000

Locus 2 F06d 76.1 42.000

Locus 2 F06a 79.2 131.000

Sediments and the milling surfaces of selected grindingstones (only active parts, namely handstones) were analyzed.

2.1. Phytolith analyses

Quantitative and morphological phytolith analysis fromboth sediments and grinding stones surface followed themethods of Albert et al. (1999). A weighed aliquot of about1 g of air-dried sediment was treated with 10ml of anequivolume solution of 3N HCl and 3N HNO

3to

eliminate carbonates and phosphates. The organic materialwas oxidized with 10ml of 30% hydrogen peroxide. Thesample was dried and the remaining sediment was weighed.This is referred to as the inorganic acid insoluble fraction(AIF). The mineral components of the AIF were thenseparated into different density fractions using 5ml ofsodium polytungstate solution [Na6(H2W12O40) �H2O] of2.4 g/ml density, in order to concentrate the phytoliths.For examination under the optical microscope, samples

were mixed with Entellan New (Merck), and a cover slipwas placed over the suspension. The aerial coverage of thesample on the slide was estimated by counting the totalnumber of fields containing sample grains. Slides wereexamined using an Olympus BX41 optical microscope anddigital images were obtained using an Olympus CamediaC-5060 camera and Olympus DP soft 5.0 software.Phytoliths in a known number of randomly chosen fieldswere counted at 400� magnification. If possible aminimum of 200 phytoliths with diagnostic morphologieswere counted. Albert and Weiner (2001) demonstrated thatthe counting of 194 phytoliths gives an error margin of23% whereas for 265 phytoliths the error margin is 12%.Morphological identification of phytoliths was based on

standard literature (Twiss et al., 1969; Brown, 1984;Mulholland and Rapp, 1992; Piperno, 2006). Whenpossible, the terms describing morphologies follow theInternational Code for Phytolith Nomenclature (ICPN)(Madella et al., 2005).Morphometric analysis of phytoliths was used for

differentiating between phytoliths produced by closely

m Locus 2

of % phyt. WM N. spherulites 1 g

of sediment

Description

12.8 52.000 Sediment

10.6 175.000 Sediment


8.4 39.000 Sediment







61.3 Grinding stone

26.9 Grinding stone

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Table 1b

Description of samples and main phytolith and spherulite results obtained from Locus 3

Sample number Unit % AIF N. phyt. 1 g of

AIF

% phyt. WM N. spherulites 1 g

of sediment

Description

Locus 3 E09d 82.8 76.000 11.9 43.000 Sediment

Locus 3 F09b 94.5 9.000 9.8 72.000 Sediment

Locus 3 F09c 94.7 25.000 11.5 29.000 Sediment

Locus 3 F10b 92.9 14.000 26 16.000 Sediment

Locus 3 F11c 91.8 54.000 14.7 Sediment

Locus 3 G09a 93.9 20.000 19.1 44.000 Sediment

Locus 3 G10c 93.1 12.000 22.7 111.000 Sediment

Locus 3 H09a 92.4 18.000 15.2 17.000 Sediment

Locus 3 H10a 92.2 90.000 6.3 96.000 Sediment

Locus 3 F09c-1 72.9 63.000 12.3 Grinding stone

Locus 3 F09c-2 69.6 302.000 4.3 Grinding stone

Locus 3 F10a 71.1 259.000 11.1 Grinding stone

Locus 3 H09a-1 72.8 59.000 12 Grinding stone

Locus 3 H09b 74.4 51.000 24.1 Grinding stone

Table 1c

Description of samples and main phytolith and spherulite results obtained from Locus 4

Sample number Unit % AIF N. phyt. 1 g of

AIF

% phyt. WM N. spherulites 1 g

of sediment

Description

Locus 4 K03d 93.3 11.000 46.7 21.000 Sediment

Locus 4 K04c-1 59.2 48.000 30 Grinding stone

Locus 4 K04c-2 78.6 20.000 37.1 Grinding stone

Table 2

Descriptive statistics for morphometries of the dendritic phytoliths from modern species and archaeological samples

Morphometric Description T. dicoccum T. aestivum H. marinum H. vulgare Sample F09b Sample

F09c-2

Mean STD Mean STD Mean STD Mean STD Mean STD Mean STD

Area Simple area of the feature 455.1 244.5 258.1 122.5 194.9 75.1 112.6 42.2 177.1 87 176.5 124.3

Convex area Area within a taut-string around the feature 715.3 296.5 451.7 196.9 389.9 168.0 229.2 85.0 301 151 268.5 159.4

Perimeter Length of the feature boundary 272.7 66.5 190.4 64.1 196.8 69.7 139.4 40.4 126.4 39 114.9 38.3

Convex

perimeter

Length of a taut-string around the feature 141.0 29.3 107.2 28.1 97.4 32.2 78.4 24.1 76 20.8 70.1 23.7

Length Longest cord within the feature 57.9 12.9 42.1 13.0 38.1 14.8 31.3 10.9 28.3 8.2 25.7 10.3

Breadth Minimum caliper diameter of the feature 15.2 4.0 13.2 3.9 12.3 3.0 9.4 1.8 12.6 4.4 11.9 3.4

Fiber length Length of the feature along its medial axis 52.8 12.6 37.5 12.7 33.5 15.6 27.7 11.0 24.8 8.5 21.4 10.7

Width Minor dimension of the feature 4.0 2.6 2.6 1.2 2.1 0.7 1.4 0.5 2.9 1.6 3.6 1.9

Equivalent

diameter

Diameter of a circle with the same area as the

feature

58.8 12.8 43.1 12.9 37.7 15.9 32.3 11.0 29.6 8 27 10.2

Inscribed radius Radius of largest circle that can be drawn in the

feature

29.4 6.4 21.6 6.5 18.9 7.9 16.2 5.5 14.8 4 13.4 5.1

Measurements in microns (mm or mm2).

M. Portillo et al. / Quaternary International 193 (2009) 174–183 177

related taxa (Pearsall et al., 1995; Zhao et al., 1998; Ballet al., 1999; Berlin et al., 2003). Ten parameters were usedto measure inflorescences grass phytoliths, namely dendri-tic epidermal long cell, using ‘‘Motic’’ image analysissoftware (Table 2). A minimum of 35 phytoliths weremeasured from each analyzed sample. Statistical analysesused SPSS software for Windows, with calibration data

from the same species, following the methods of Ball et al.(1999) and Berlin et al. (2003).The phytoliths identified in the archaeological samples

were compared to a modern plant reference collectionof grasses from the Levant which includes two differ-ent species of wheat (Triticum aestivum and Triticum

dicoccum) and two different species of barley (Hordeum


marinum—non-domesticated—and Hordeum vulgare).Modern reference samples were divided into their differentparts, when possible (Albert et al., in press).

2.2. Spherulite analyses

Faecal spherulites are calcium carbonate crystals formedin the intestines of certain animals, mainly herbivores, andcan be found in sediments as a component of dung. Theirproduction varies quantitative and morphologically de-pending on the animal in which they were formed (Brochieret al., 1992; Canti, 1997, 1998, 1999; Shahack-Gross et al.,2003, 2004).

Following the methods proposed by Canti (1997),around 1mg of sample was deposited directly onto amicroscope slide. Slides were prepared using Entellan New(Merck). The aerial coverage of the sample on the slide wasestimated by counting the total number of fields containingsediment grains, as described above for phytoliths.Spherulites in a specific number of randomly chosen fieldswere counted at 400� magnification. Samples werecompared to a spherulite reference collection obtainedthrough the study of faecal remains from several herbivores(Albert et al., in press). The results are expressed as numberof spherulites per 1 g of ashed dung in Tables 1a–c.

3. Results

Tables 1a–c lists the samples analyzed, together withtheir location in the site and description, percentage of acidinsoluble fraction (AIF), numbers of phytoliths per 1 g ofAIF, percentage of phytolith weathered morphotypes(WM) and number of spherulites per 1 g of sediment.

The acid insoluble fraction (AIF) indicates the percen-tage presence of siliceous material, including quartz, clayand phytoliths. In general, all the samples showed a highpercentage of AIF. This is especially true for sedimentsamples from Locus 2 and 3 where the AIF average is91.4% for Locus 2 and 92% for Locus 3 (Tables 1a and b).In contrast, samples collected from grinding stones showeda lower AIF percentage in relation to sediment samples,which indicates a different distribution of the mineralogicalcomponents with a higher presence of carbonates, phos-phates and other non-siliceous minerals.

Phytoliths and faecal sperulithes were noted in differentamounts in the samples. Phytoliths presented, in generalsigns of dissolution at different degrees, due to post-depositional processes. Those phytoliths which where notpossible to identify because of their bad preservation stateare expressed as weathered morphotypes (WM). Othermicro-remains such as starch grains were not observed inthe samples.

3.1. Locus 2

Twelve samples from Floor 1 (level 8) in Locus 2 wereobtained from 10 different units and two grinding stones

listed in Table 1a. The present work compares the resultsfrom the study of sediment samples, published in Albertand Henry (2004), with the results obtained from the studyof grinding stones recovered from the same locus and floor.The sediment study (Albert and Henry, 2004) showed a

concentration of grass phytoliths stretching from the centerof the locus to the western wall, whereas the easternportion of the locus and the adjacent storage cists showedlesser amounts of these microremains. The concentrationof grass phytoliths is also spatially associated with a clusterof large grinding querns and handstones. Comparing therelative abundance of phytoliths, however, the grindingstones show much greater numbers. For example, sampleF06a yielded about 10 times more phytoliths than thesediment sample collected from the same unit (Table 1a).The morphological study indicated that grasses dom-

inate the phytolith record (Fig. 4). Grass inflorescenceswere more abundant in the samples with highest amount ofphytoliths. The percentage of grass presence is similar ingrinding stones and sediment samples with one exception(F06d). It is important to point out that dissolution wasmuch stronger in the latter, reaching over 61% (Table 1a).Dicotyledonous phytoliths were present in higher amountin unit E05, located in a storage cist situated in thenorthern part of the locus.Faecal spherulites were noted also in sediment samples

although not in large numbers (Table 1a). Sample G04showed the largest amount of spherulites which presented auniform rounded morphological type.

3.2. Locus 3

Fourteen samples from Floor 1 (level 12) of Locus 3were selected from nine different units and five grindingstones (Table 1b). Floor 1 contained a cluster of grindingstones, including both querns and handstones, thatstretched across the central portion of the locus into thenortheast corner.Although none of the sediment samples reach the levels of

phytolith abundance as seen in the concentration of Locus 2,there is nevertheless a clear dichotomy in phytolithabundance between the sediment samples. Three of thesediment samples contain 54–90,000phytoliths/g, whereasthe others yield only 9–25,000phytoliths/g (Table 1b).Those samples with the greater abundance of phytolithstrace a concentration stretching along the eastern portion ofthe locus. This phytolith concentration overlaps spatiallywith the eastern portion of the swath of milling stonesstretching across the locus.Similar to Locus 2, the amount of phytoliths is higher in

grinding stones samples than in their correspondingsediment samples (Table 1b). Grasses dominate thephytolith record both in grinding stones and sedimentsamples from this locus (Fig. 5). There are no significantdifferences between the percentages of grasses and morespecifically, between phytoliths from inflorescences amongthe samples.

ARTICLE IN PRESS

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

F06 G04 G05 G06 G07 H05 H07 H04 E05 I06 F06d F06a

%

Grasses Dicotyledonous leaves Dicotyledonous wood/bark Weathered morphotype (WM)

Fig. 4. Histogram showing percentages of different phytolith morphologies in samples from Locus 2.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

E09d F09b F09c F10b F11c G09a G10c H09a H10a F09

c-1

F09

c-2

F10a H09

a-1

H09b

%



M. Portillo et al. / Quaternary International 193 (2009) 174–183 179

For the morphometric study two samples from Locus 3were selected: sediment sample F09b and grinding stonesample F09c-2, where dendritic epidermal long cellphytoliths were abundantly identified (Fig. 6a and b).The statistical results obtained were then compared to themodern plant reference collection. The results showed thatboth archaeological samples were practically identical and,as it can be observed in the correspondence analyses(Fig. 7), bear strong resemblances to measured morphol-ogies of Triticum. This figure also shows that bothHordeum species differ in morphometric measurementsfrom the archaeological samples.

As it was noted in Locus 2, dung spherulites wereidentified also in sediment samples although not insignificant amounts (Table 1b). Units G10c and H10ashowed the largest number of spherulites.

3.3. Locus 4

Only three samples were analyzed from Floor 1 of Locus4; one sample from sediment and two from grinding stones(Table 1c). The principal reason for studying Locus 4 wasto better understand the nature of a dark gray-black, fine-

grained deposit directly overlying a pavement constructedof small stones and covering the floor. A similar deposit,also overlying a stone pavement, in Locus 20 yielded verylarge numbers (190–488,000/g of sediment) of faecalspherulites (Albert and Henry, 2004). This indicated thatLocus 20 had been used as a pen for sheep and/or goats.Indirectly, it was thought that the pavement may have beenbuilt to reduce the animal’s hoof-contact with moistsediments and the contraction of foot rot caused by twoanaerobic bacteria (Fusobacterium necrophorum and Bac-

teroides nodosus). Modern animal husbandry practicessuggest keeping animal’s hooves dry through constructionof concrete floored pens (Whittier and Umberger, 1997).The relatively low yield of spherulites from the sediment

sample, however, failed to support this notion, at least, inregard to Locus 4 (Table 1c). Locus 4 also differs from theother loci in producing a much lower number of phytolithsper gram of AIF combined with a high dissolutionpercentage, with an average close to 38% (Table 1c).Grass phytoliths were the most common group identified(Fig. 8). Also in contrast to most of the samples fromLocus 2 and 3, almost no phytoliths produced in theinflorescences of the grass family were noted here. The few

ARTICLE IN PRESS

Fig. 6. Photomicrographs of grass phytoliths identified in Ayn Ab %u Nukhayla samples. The photographs have been taken at 400� . (a, b) Long cells with

dendritic margin identified in Locus 3 sediment (a) and grinding stone sample (b), (c) short cell rondel identified in Locus 2 grinding stone sample, (d) long

cell with echinate margin in Locus 2 grinding stone sample.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

K03d K04c-1 K04c-2

%



Fig. 7. Comparison of phytolith morphometries between archaeological and modern plant reference collection samples showing nearest neighbor analysis

using Pearson’s correlation index.

M. Portillo et al. / Quaternary International 193 (2009) 174–183180


samples studied from Locus 4 and their differences incomposition of phytoliths limit what can be said of theprehistoric activities associated with the locus.

4. Discussion

The results of the study have provided novel dataregarding domestic activities and their spatial distributionsat Ayn Ab %u Nukhayla. In Block I, different uses can berecognized for specific areas where agricultural activitieswere undertaken, especially grinding and plant processing.We will comment first some aspects involving theidentification of grinding patterns in the site.

One of the main characteristics in all the samplesanalyzed is the high presence of silicate minerals. This isespecially true for sediment samples in the three loci. Incontrast, samples collected from grinding stones showed ahigher amount of carbonates, phosphates and organicmatter. Handstones and querns of the site were mostlymade of the local sandstone. Raw materials appear to havebeen exploited mostly from the talus at the foot of the clifflocated ca. 60m west of the site. Clasts of different textures,sizes and forms are derived from the Cambrian sandstones(Umm Ishrin and Salib Arkose) and Pre-Cambrian granite(Qara) formations (Bender, 1974; Henry et al., 2003). Thisdifference in mineralogy, possibly relates both to the typeof sediment and to the lithology of the grinding stone. Thisphenomenon has also been observed in other grindingstones from several archaeological sites from differentgeographical areas (Albert and Portillo, 2005; Portillo,2006). In any case, detailed mineralogical analyses of boththe sediments (FTIR, XR diffraction) and the grindingstone raw materials (thin sections and XR Flourescence)should be performed in order to obtain more information.

The differing amounts of plant material identified in thesamples are also of significance. As noted, samplescollected from grinding stones often yielded higheramounts of grass phytoliths, mainly from inflorescences,than the sediment located next to them. The amount ofphytoliths present and the morphological types identifiedshowed that in the center and the southwestern part ofLocus 2 there is a concentration of plant remains. Thispattern has also been observed in Locus 3, where there is ahigh amount of these remains in sediments located in theeastern part of the locus in association with a cluster ofdifferent types of grinding stones.

The concentration of grasses in only certain areas ofthese loci also associated with clusters of both querns andhandstones, denote that they were most likely introducedfor grinding activities. Locus 2 and 3 appears to have beenused as residential structures in which domestic activitieshave been performed, such as the grinding of cereals andthe preparation of other plant resources.

The grasses identified belonged mostly to the C3festucoid subfamily (Fig. 6c). This group is uncommon inthe native grasses of the steppe and desert settings of theregion. However, it includes cereal grasses such as wheat

and barley that are native to the watered Mediterraneanareas. Due to the absence of grass multicellular structures inthe samples, as well as other type of micro-remains such asstarches, or macro-remains-seeds, the pilot morphometricstudy focused on dendritic long cells common in the samples.The results obtained suggest the presence of Triticum in twosamples from Locus 3. These preliminary results differ fromearlier speculations that barley would have been the cerealmost likely cultivated by the inhabitants of Ayn Ab%uNukhayla, given its tolerance to drier settings. Because ofits shorter life cycle than wheat, barley can be grown onmarginal areas of agriculture. The morphometric results alsoindicate that archeological samples would be more closelyrelated to T. aestivum although the differences in measure-ments between both wheat species are too minimal to clearlydifferentiate between them.

T. aestivum or common wheat, also known as breadwheat, is by far the most important wheat species incultivation today, with a long history in archaeologicalcontexts in the Near East (Helbaek, 1959; Kislev, 1984;Zohary, 1989; Zohary and Hopf, 2001). Instead, in theMiddle PPNB Southern Levantine sites the most commontypes of cereals grown were barley (H. vulgare), emmerwheat (T. dicoccum) and einkorn wheat (Triticum mono-

coccum) (Kislev, 1992; Zohary and Hopf, 2001). Thus, themorphometric results from Locus 3, according to thepresent knowledge would favor the use of T. dicoccum inour archaeological samples.In order to be able to discriminate between T. aestivum

and T. dicoccum, it is strictly necessary to continue withmorphometric analyses from this and other areas that canprovide more information on the type of wheat cultivatedand processed in the site. Further research could allow usto confirm the results obtained through this study,improving knowledge on domesticated cereal species inarchaeological contexts of this region and period. In anycase, distinguishing consistently cereal specific speciesthrough morphometric analyses provides a promisingapproach to delineating plant uses in the site.Regarding the methodology and the positive results

obtained, note the importance of studying not only samplescollected from the surfaces of milling stones but also fromsamples of nearby sediments. This provides a more reliableinterpretation and better understanding of grinding pat-terns and plant processing in the site. This is especiallyrelevant to tracing post-depositional processes and thetaphonomy of milling stones. The strong spatial co-variation observed between clusters of milling stones andconcentrations of grass (most likely cereal) phytolithsindicates that there has been little post-depositionaldisturbance of the living floors. This co-association ofmicroscopic and macroscopic behavioral residuals there-fore provides support for examining the spatial distribu-tions of other components (e.g., bone, shell, lithics) of thearchaeological inventory in an effort to better understandprehistoric behaviors at the household (intra-locus) andcommunity (inter-locus) scales.


The comparative mineralogical analysis provided infor-mation of the composition of the sediments, taking intoaccount the differences of the type of sediments and thelithology of the grinding stones. When analyzing thephytolith record, grass inflorescences dominated in similarpercentages. Moreover, the morphometric study performedin Locus 3 showed that both type of samples werepractically identical, suggesting the presence of Triticum.These results provided a more secure interpretation ofplant processing activities at the site.

5. Conclusions

This study has allowed a better understanding ofagricultural activities being carried out at Ayn Ab %uNukhayla. The research performed in Block I has providednovel data for identifying plant processing patterns in thesite. The grinding of cereals in this area is attested inspecific structural installations—Locus 2, as it has beensuggested in a previous study (Albert and Henry, 2004),but also in Locus 3, as it has been demonstrated here.These loci appear to have been used as residentialstructures accompanied by domestic activities that includedthe grinding of wheat.

Acknowledgments

The research was made possible by funding and supportfrom the Office of Research of The University of Tulsa,Grants (SBR 9731418 & BCS 0410097) from the NationalScience Foundation, USA, and the Project Origins andDevelopment of Agricultural Practices in the Levant,funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Education(HUM2006-26456-E/HIST). Marta Portillo is a MEC/Fulbright Post-Doctoral Fellow.

References

Albert, R.M., Henry, D.O., 2004. Herding and agricultural activities at the

early Neolithic site of Ayn Ab %u Nukhayla (Wadi Rum, Jordan). The

results of phytolith and spherulite analyses. Paleorient 30 (2), 81–92.

Albert, R.M., Portillo, M., 2005. Plant uses in different Bronze and Iron

Age settlements from the Nuoro Province (Sardinia). The results of

phytolith analyses from several ceramic fragments and grinding stones.

Anejos de Complutum 10, 109–119.

Albert, R.M., Weiner, S., 2001. Study of phytoliths in prehistoric ash

layers using a quantitative approach. In: Meunier, J.D., Colin, F.

(Eds.), Phytoliths: Applications in Earth Sciences and Human History.

A.A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, pp. 251–266.

Albert, R.M., Lavi, O., Estroff, L., Weiner, S., Tsatskin, A., Ronen, A.,

Lev-Yadun, S., 1999. Mode of occupation of Tabun Cave, Mt Carmel,

Israel during the Mousterian Period: a study of the sediments and

phytoliths. Journal of Archaeological Science 26, 1249–1260.

Albert, R.M., Shahack-Gross, R., Cabanes, D., Gilboa, A., Lev-Yadun, S.,

Portillo, M., Sharon, I., Boaretto, E., Weiner, S. Phytolith-rich layers

from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages at Tel Dor (Israel): mode of

formation and archaeological significance. Journal of Archaeological

Science, in press. Available online 26 April 2007.

Ball, T.B., Gardner, J.S., Anderson, N., 1999. Identifying inflorescence

phytoliths from selected species of wheat (Triticum monoccum, T.

dicoccon, T. dicoccoides, and T. aestivum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare

and H. spontaneum). American Journal of Botany 86 (11), 1615–1623.

Bender, F., 1974. The Geology of Jordan. Gerbruder Borntraeger, Berlin.

Berlin, A., Ball, T.B., Thompson, R., Kittleson, D., Herbert, S.C., 2003.

Ptolemaic agriculture, ‘‘Syrian wheat’’, and Triticum aestivum. Journal

of Archaeological Science 30, 115–121.

Brochier, J.E., Villa, P., Giacomarra, M., Tagliacozzo, A., 1992.

Shepherds and sediments: geo-ethnoarchaeology of pastoral sites.

Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 11, 47–102.

Brown, D.A., 1984. Prospects and limits of a phytolith key for grasses in

the central United States. Journal of Archaeological Science 11,

345–368.

Canti, M.G., 1997. An investigation of microscopic calcareous spherulites

from herbivore dungs. Journal of Archaeological Science 24,

219–231.

Canti, M.G., 1998. The micromorphological identification of faecal

spherulites from archaeological and modern materials. Journal of

Archaeological Science 25, 435–444.

Canti, M.G., 1999. The production and preservation of faecal spherulites:

animals, environment and taphonomy. Journal of Archaeological

Science 26, 251–258.

Helbaek, H., 1959. Domestication of food plants in the Old World.

Science 130, 365–372.

Henry, D.O., White, J.J., Beaver, J., Kadowaki, S., Nowell, A., Ekstrom, H.,

Dean, R., Gregg, M., Harrower, M., McCorriston, J., Mussadeh, S.,

2001. Excavation of Ayn Ab%u Nukhayla. Report of 2001 Field Season.

Department of Antiquaries of Jordan, Amman.

Henry, D.O., White, J.J., Beaver, J., Kadowaki, S., Nowell, A., Cordova, C.,

Dean, R., Ekstrom, H., McCorriston, J., Scott-Cummings, L., 2002.

Interim report: Research at the PPNB site of Ayn Ab%u Nukhayla,

Southern Jordan. Neo-Lithics 2, 02, pp. 14–17.

Henry, D.O., White, J.J., Beaver, J., Kadowaki, S., Nowell, A., Cordova, C.,

Dean, R., Ekstrom, H., McCorriston, J., Scott-Cummings, L., 2003. The

early Neolithic site of Ayn Ab%u Nukhayla, Southern Jordan. Bulletin of

the American Schools of Oriental Research 330, 1–30.

Kadowaki, S., 2002. Structure of food processing activity and its

implications to the community organization at Ayn Ab %u Nukhayla,

Southern Jordan. M.A. Thesis. University of Tulsa, Tulsa.

Kislev, M.E., 1984. Botanical evidence for ancient naked wheats in the

Near East. In: Van Zeist, W., Casparie, W.A. (Eds.), Plants and

Ancient Man: Studies in Paleoethnobotany. Proceedings of the Sixth

Symposium of the International Work Group for Paleoethnobotany.

A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 141–152.

Kislev, M.E., 1992. Agriculture in the Near East in the VIIth millenium

AC. In: Anderson, P. (Ed.), Prehistoire de l’agriculture. Monographie

du CRA, 6. Editions CNRS, Paris, pp. 87–94.

Kuijt, I., Goring-Morris, A.N., 2002. Foraging, farming and social

complexity in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic of the southern Levant.

Journal of World Prehistory 16 (4), 361–440.

Madella, M., Alexandre, A., Ball, T.B., ICPN Working Group, 2005.

International Code for Phytolith Nomenclature 1.0. Annals of Botany

96, 253–260.

Mulholland, S.C., Rapp Jr., G., 1992. A morphological classification of

grass silica-bodies. In: Rapp, Jr., G., Mulholland, S.C. (Eds.),

Phytolith Systematics, Emerging Issues, Advances in Archaeological

and Museum Science. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 65–89.

Pearsall, D.M., Piperno, D.R., Dinan, E.H., Umlauf, M., Zhao, Z.,

Benefer, R.A., 1995. Distinguishing rice (Oryza sativa Poaceae) from

wild Oryza species through phytolith analysis: results of preliminary

research. Economic Botany 49, 183–196.

Piperno, D.R., 2006. Phytoliths: A Comprehensive Guide for Archae-

ologists and Paleoecologists. AltaMira Press, Lanham.

Portillo, M., 2006. La molta i triturat d’aliments vegetals durant la

Protohistoria en la Catalunya Oriental. Ph.D. Thesis. University of

Barcelona, Barcelona.

Shahack-Gross, R., Marshall, F., Weiner, S., 2003. Geo-ethnoarchaeology

of pastoral sites: the identification of livestock enclosures in abandoned

Maasai settlements. Journal of Archaeological Science 30, 439–459.


Shahack-Gross, R., Marshall, F., Ryan, K., Weiner, S., 2004. Reconstruc-

tion of spatial organization in abandoned Maasai settlements:

implications for site structure in the Pastoral Neolithic of East Africa.

Journal of Archaeological Science 31, 1395–1411.

Twiss, P.C., Suess, E., Smith, R.M., 1969. Morphological classification of

grass phytoliths. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 33, 109–115.

Whittier, W.D., Umberger, S., 1997. Control, Treatment, and Elimination

of Foot Rot from Sheep. Virginia Cooperative Extension, Sheep,

Publication 410-028, pp. 1–4.

Wright, K., 1992. Ground stone assemblage variation and subsistence

strategies in the Levant, 22000-5500 b.p. Ph.D. Thesis. Yale

University, New Haven.

Zhao, Z., Pearsall, D.M., Benefer, A.B., Piperno, D.R., 1998. Distinguish-

ing rice (Oryza sativa Poaceae) from wild Oryza species through

phytolith analysis, II: Finalized method. Economic Botany 52,

134–135.

Zohary, D., 1989. Domestication of the Southwest Asian Neolithic crop

assemblage of cereals, pulses and flax: the evidence from the living

plants. In: Harris, D.R., Hillman, G.C. (Eds.), Foraging and Farming.

The Evolution of Plant Exploitation. Unwin Hyman, London,

pp. 358–373.

Zohary, D., Hopf, M., 2001. Domestication of Plants in the Old World:

The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and

the Nile Valley. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Documents

Domestic activities and spatial distribution in Ain Abû Nukhayla (Wadi Rum, Southern Jordan): The use of phytoliths and spherulites studies