Foundations of Individual Behavior

Chapter 2

2–2

After studying this chapter,you should be able to:

1. Define the key biographical characteristics.

2. Identify two types of ability.

3. Shape the behavior of others.

4. Distinguish between the four schedules of reinforcement.

5. Clarify the role of punishment in learning.

6. Practice self-management

L E

A R

N I

N G

O

B J

E C

T I

V E

S

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Biographical CharacteristicsBiographical Characteristics

Biographical Characteristics

Personal characteristics—such as age, gender, and marital status—that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records.

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Ability, Intellect, and IntelligenceAbility, Intellect, and Intelligence

AbilityAn individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.

Intellectual AbilityThe capacity to do mental activities.

Multiple IntelligencesIntelligence contains four subparts: cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.

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• Number aptitude

• Verbal comprehension

• Perceptual speed

• Inductive reasoning

• Deductive reasoning

• Spatial visualization

• Memory

• Number aptitude

• Verbal comprehension

• Perceptual speed

• Inductive reasoning

• Deductive reasoning

• Spatial visualization

• Memory

Dimensions ofIntellectual Ability

Dimensions ofIntellectual Ability

E X H I B I T 2–1E X H I B I T 2–1

2–6

Physical AbilitiesPhysical Abilities

Physical Abilities

The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.

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Other Factors

7. Body coordination

8. Balance

9. Stamina

Other Factors

7. Body coordination

8. Balance

9. Stamina

Nine Physical AbilitiesNine Physical Abilities

Strength Factors

1. Dynamic strength

2. Trunk strength

3. Static strength

4. Explosive strength

Strength Factors

1. Dynamic strength

2. Trunk strength

3. Static strength

4. Explosive strength Flexibility Factors

5. Extent flexibility

6. Dynamic flexibility

Flexibility Factors

5. Extent flexibility

6. Dynamic flexibility

E X H I B I T 2–2E X H I B I T 2–2

Source: Adapted from HRMagazine published by the Society for Human Resource Management, Alexandria, VA.

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Ability-JobFit

The Ability-Job FitThe Ability-Job Fit

Employee’sEmployee’sAbilitiesAbilities

Job’s AbilityJob’s AbilityRequirementsRequirements

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LearningLearning

Learning

• Involves change

• Is relatively permanent

• Is acquired through experience

Learning

• Involves change

• Is relatively permanent

• Is acquired through experience

Learning

Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

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Theories of LearningTheories of Learning

Key Concepts

• Unconditioned stimulus

• Unconditioned response

• Conditioned stimulus

• Conditioned response

Key Concepts

• Unconditioned stimulus

• Unconditioned response

• Conditioned stimulus

• Conditioned response

Classical Conditioning

A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.

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E X H I B I T 2–3E X H I B I T 2–3

Source: The Far Side ® by Gary Larson © 1993 Far Works, Inc. All rights reserved. Used with permission.

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Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Key Concepts

• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior

• Conditioned (learned) behavior

• Reinforcement

Key Concepts

• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior

• Conditioned (learned) behavior

• Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning

A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.

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Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Key Concepts

• Attentional processes

• Retention processes

• Motor reproduction processes

• Reinforcement processes

Key Concepts

• Attentional processes

• Retention processes

• Motor reproduction processes

• Reinforcement processes

Social-Learning Theory

People can learn through observation and direct experience.

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Theories of Learning (cont’d)Theories of Learning (cont’d)

Key Concepts

• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.

• Some rewards are more effective than others.

• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

Key Concepts

• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.

• Some rewards are more effective than others.

• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

Shaping Behavior

Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response.

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Types of ReinforcementTypes of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement– Providing a reward for a desired behavior.

Negative reinforcement– Removing an unpleasant consequence when the

desired behavior occurs. Punishment

– Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior.

Extinction– Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to

cause its cessation.

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Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated.

Intermittent Reinforcement

A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.

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Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals.

Variable-Interval Schedule

Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses.

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Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

Fixed-ratio

E X H I B I T 2–4E X H I B I T 2–4

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Intermittent Schedules of ReinforcementIntermittent Schedules of Reinforcement

E X H I B I T 2–5E X H I B I T 2–5

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Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)

E X H I B I T 2–5 (cont’d)E X H I B I T 2–5 (cont’d)

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Behavior ModificationBehavior Modification

Five Step Problem-Solving Model

1. Identify critical behaviors

2. Develop baseline data

3. Identify behavioral consequences

4. Develop and apply intervention

5. Evaluate performance improvement

Five Step Problem-Solving Model

1. Identify critical behaviors

2. Develop baseline data

3. Identify behavioral consequences

4. Develop and apply intervention

5. Evaluate performance improvement

OB Mod

The application of reinforcement concepts to individuals in the work setting.

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OB MOD Organizational ApplicationsOB MOD Organizational Applications

Well Pay versus Sick Pay– Reduces absenteeism by rewarding attendance,

not absence. Employee Discipline

– The use of punishment can be counter-productive.

Developing Training Programs– OB MOD methods improve training

effectiveness. Self-management

– Reduces the need for external management control.