2-Foundations of individual behavior

8/7/2019 2-Foundations of individual behavior

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FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL

BEHAVIOR

Sanyukta Jolly

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FACTORS AFFECTING INDIVIDUAL

BEHAVIOR

Biographical characteristics

Ability

Learning

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BIOGRAPHICAL

CHARACTERISTICS

Personal characteristics like:

Age

Gender

Marital status

Tenure that are objective and easilyobtained from personnel records.

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ABILITY

Intellectual ability

Physical abilities

The ability-job fit

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Number aptitude

Verbal comprehension

Perceptual speed

Inductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning

Spatial visualization

Memory

Number aptitude

Verbal comprehension

Perceptual speed

Inductive reasoning

Deductive reasoning

Spatial visualization

Memory

DIMENSIONS OF

INTELLECTUAL ABILITY

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1. Number Aptitude: Ability to do speedy and accurate

arithmetic

2. Verbal Comprehension: Ability to understand what isread or heard and the relationship of words to each other.

3. Perceptual Speed: Ability to identify visual similarities

and differences quickly and accurately.

4. Inductive Reasoning: Ability to identify a logicalsequence in a problem and then solve the problem.

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5. Deductive Reasoning: Ability to use logic and assess the

implications of an argument.

6. Spatial Visualization: Ability to imagine how an object

would look ifits position in space were changed.

7. Memory: Ability to retain and recall past experiences.

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PHYSICAL ABILITY

The capacity to do tasks demanding

stamina, dexterity (swiftness or

precision), strength, and similar

characteristics.

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Other Factors

Body coordination

Balance

Stamina

NINEPHYSICAL ABILITIES

Strength Factors

Dynamic strength

Trunk strength

Static strength

Explosive strength

Strength Factors

Dynamic strength

Trunk strength

Static strength

Explosive strength Flexibility Factors

Extent flexibility

Dynamic flexibility

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1. Dynamicstrength: Ability to exert muscular force

repeatedly or continuously over time.

2. Trunk strength: Ability to exert muscular strength using

the trunk (particularly abdominal) muscles.

3. Staticstrength: Ability to exert force against external

objects.

4. Explosive strength: Ability to expend a maximum of

energy in one or a series of explosive acts.

5. Extent flexibility: Ability to move the trunk and back

muscles as far as possible.

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6.Dynamic flexibility: Ability to make rapid, repeated flexing

movements.

7.Body coordination: Ability to coordinate the simultaneous

actions of different parts of the body.

8.Balance: Ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces

pulling offbalance.

9.Stamina: Ability to continue maximum effort requiringprolonged effort over time.

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Ability-JobFit

THE ABILITY-JOB FIT

EmployeesEmployees

AbilitiesAbilities

Jobs AbilityJobs Ability

RequirementsRequirements

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LEARNING

Explicit knowledge is organized and can becommunicated from one person to another, e.g.lecture.It can be written down and given to

others.

Tacit knowledge is embedded in our actions

and ways of thinking, and transmitted onlythrough observation and experience.It is notdocumented but action-oriented

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Learning can be unlearned

Observation can lead to learning

Learning requires an operational

memory system

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Any relatively permanent change in

behavior that occurs as a result ofpractice or experience.

Theories of learninginclude:

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Social learningDirect experience

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Classical conditioning is learning byassociation

Also called reflexive learning or respondent

conditioning

The Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov, andhis dog circa 1905

discovered classical conditioning by serendipity

received the Nobel Prize in science for discovery

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TERMINOLOGYOFCLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):any stimulusthat will always and naturally ELICITa response

Unconditioned Response (UCR):any responsethat always and naturally occurs at the

presentation of the UCS Neutral Stimulus (NS):any stimulus that does

not naturally elicit a response associated withthe UCR

Conditioned Stimulus (CS):any stimulus thatwill, after association with an UCS, cause aconditioned response (CR) when present to asubject by itself

Conditioned Response (CR):any response thatoccurs upon the presentation of the CS

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A form of leaning through association that involves

the manipulation ofstimuli to influence behavior.

Involves an initial stimulus (unconditioned stimulus)

and a conditioned stimulusin the learning of

behavior.

A type of conditioning in which an individual

responds to some stimulus that would notordinarilyproduce such a response

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THE CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

PROCESS

Behavior iscaused by an unconditioned

stimulus.

Aconditioned stimulusis paired with

the unconditioned stimulus.

The conditioned stimulusis able to

evoke the behavior.

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The reflexive stimulus (UCS) and response(UCR) are unconditioned

The neutral stimulus is referred to as the

conditioned stimulus (CS) In classical conditioning, the CS is repeatedly

paired with the reflexive stimulus (UCS) Conditioning is best when the CSprecedes theUCS

Eventually the CSwill produce a response(CR) similar to that produced by the UCS

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EXAMPLE 1

UCS----------------->UCR

(food powder)--------------> (salivating)

NS--------------->UCS----------------->UCR

(bell)--->(food powder)-------------> (salivating)

CS---------------------------------------->CR(bell)------------------------------------> (salivating)

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EXAMPLE 2

UCS------------------>UCR

(onion juice)-----------------> (crying)

NS -------------->UCS ----------------->UCR

(whistle)-->(onion juice)---------------> (crying)

CS ---------------------------------------->CR(whistle)----------------------------------> (crying)

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GENERALIZATION AND

DISCRIMINATION

Stimulus Generalization: Learned response not only

to the original stimulusbut also to other similar stimuli

Fear of rats ..leading to fear of all furry objects

(Little Albertsstudy)

Stimulus Discrimination: Learned response to a

specificstimulusbut not to other, similar stimuli Pavlovs dogs learned to discriminate between

tones

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN EVERYDAY

LIFE

Prejudice

Phobias

Medical Treatments

Advertising

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OPERANT CONDITIONING

Operant conditioning is simply learningfrom the consequences of yourbehavior

It is a form of learning in which theconsequences of behavior leads to changes

in the probability of a behaviorsoccurrence.

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The process ofcontrollingbehavior by manipulating

itsconsequences.

Focuses on the interplay of antecedents, behavior,

and consequences.

A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary

behavior leads to a reward orprevents a

punishment

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Antecedents

The condition leading up to or cueingbehavior

(what happens before the behavior)

BehaviorThe action taken by the person

(what the person says or does)

ConsequencesThe outcome received by the person

(what happens after the behavior)

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LAW OF EFFECT

Theoretical basis for manipulating

consequences.

Behavior that resultsin a pleasant

outcome is likely to be repeated while

behavior that resultsin an unpleasantoutcome is not likely to be repeated.

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In operant conditioning, the stimulus isa cue, it does not elicit the response

Operant responses are voluntary

In operant conditioning, the response

elicits a reinforcing stimulus, whereasin classical conditioning, the UCS elicitsthe reflexive response

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APPLYING OPERANT CONDITIONING

Provide immediate and clear feedback

Reinforcers and punishersshould be

presented asclose in time to theresponse as possible

Reinforcement and punishment must beconsistent

Feedback must follow subjectsbehavior,not precede it

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SUMMARY OF CONDITIONING

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SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

The view that people can learn throughobservation and direct experience.

A theory stating that learning occursbyobserving others and then modeling the

behaviors that leads to favorableoutcomes and avoiding punishment.

Given by Albert Bandura

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Bandura called the process ofsocial learningmodelling and gave four conditions:

Attention: must pay attention to the model.

Retention: must be able to remember theobserved behaviour.

Motor reproduction: must be able to replicatethe behaviour being observed.

Motivation / Opportunity/Reinforcementprocess

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RELATED FEATURES

Behavior Modeling- increases self-

efficacy

Learningbehavior consequences

Self-reinforcement

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LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIENCE

KolbsExperiential Learning Model

Concrete

Experience

Active

Experimentation

Abstract

Conceptualization

Reflective

Observation

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Concrete experience involvessensory andemotional engagement in some activity.

Reflective observation involves listening,watching, recording and elaborating onexperience.

Abstract conceptualization is where conceptsare developed, integrate observationsinto

logically sound theories.

Active experimentation when previous

experience, reflection and conceptualizationare tested

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ACTION LEARNING

Avariety of experiential learning activitiesinwhich employees are involved in a real,complex and stressful problem, usually in

teams , with immediate relevance to thecompany.

It is the fastest growing form of experientiallearning and important way to develop

executive competencies, adding to better workprocess and service.

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SHAPING BEHAVIOR: A

MANAGERIAL TOOL

Key Concepts

Reinforcement is required to change behavior. Some rewards are more effective than others.

The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

Key Concepts

Reinforcement is required to change behavior. Some rewards are more effective than others.

The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

Systematically reinforcing each

successive step that moves an

individual closer to desired

response.

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The creation of a new behavior by the

positive reinforcement ofsuccessive

approximations leading to the desired

behavior.

Behavior isshaped gradually rather than

changed all at once.

Reinforcement is delivered for successive

approximations of the desired response

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ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

MODIFICATION (OB MODEL)

The systematic reinforcement of

desirable work behavior and the non-

reinforcement or punishment ofunwanted work behavior.

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Reinforcement emphasizesconsequences that

can be manipulated.

Extrinsic rewards:

Positively valued work outcomes that are give to the

individual by some other person.

Contrived rewards have direct costs and budgetary

implications.

Natural rewards have costs only in terms of the

managers time and efforts.

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TYPES OFREINFORCERS

Primary: satisfy a biological need, e.g.

food

Secondary: have learned value, e.g.

praise, money

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BASIC STRATEGIES FOROB

MODIFICATION

Positive reinforcement.

Negative reinforcement.

Punishment.

Extinction.

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POSITIVEREINFORCEMENT

The administration of positive consequences toincrease the likelihood of repeating the desiredbehavior in similar settings.

Rewards are not necessarily positive reinforcers.

A reward is a positive reinforcer only if the behaviorimproves.

Following a response with something pleasant, e.g.,boss praises an employee for job well done.

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PRINCIPLES GOVERNING

REINFORCEMENT

Law ofcontingent reinforcement

The reward must be delivered only if the

desired behavior is exhibited.

Law ofimmediate reinforcement

The reward must be given assoon aspossible after the desired behavior is

exhibited.

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SCHEDULINGREINFORCEMENT

Continuous reinforcementAdministers a reward each time the desired behavior

occurs.

reinforcement occurs after every response

Produces rapid acquisition and issubject to rapid extinction

Intermittent /Partial reinforcement

Rewardsbehavior periodically either on the basis of time

elapsed or the number of desired behaviors exhibited.

Reinforcement occurs after some, but not all, responses

Responding on a partial reinforcement schedule is more

resistant to extinction

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SCHEDULES OF INTERMITTENT

REINFORCEMENT

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SCHEDULES OF INTERMITTENT

REINFORCEMENT

Variable schedules typically result in moreconsistent patterns ofbehavior than do fixedschedules.

Types ofintermittent schedules:

Fixed interval.

Fixed ratio.

Variable interval.

Variable ratio.

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INTERMITTENT SCHEDULES OF

REINFORCEMENT

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NEGATIVEREINFORCEMENT

Also known as avoidance.

The withdrawal of negative consequences to increase the likelihood of

repeating the desired behavior in similar settings.

Following a response by the termination or withdrawal ofsomething

unpleasant, e.g., If your college instructor asks a question and you do

not know the answer, looking through your lecture notesis likely to

preclude your beingcalled on.This negative reinforcement because you

have learned that lookingbusily through your notes prevents the

instructor from calling on you.

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EXAMPLES OF NEGATIVEREINFORCEMENT IN THEREAL

WORLD INCLUDE:

taking out the trash to avoid yourmother yelling at you

taking an aspirin to get rid of aheadache

paying your car insurance on time

to prevent cancellation of yourpolicy

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PUNISHMENT

The administration of negative consequences or

the withdrawal of positive consequences to reduce

the likelihood of repeating the behavior in similar

settings.

a procedure where an aversive stimulusis

presented to a subject contingent upon the subject

emitting an undesired behavior.

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Punishment should be used as a last resort in

behavior engineering; positive reinforcement

should be used first.Examplesinclude spanking,

verbal abuse, electrical shock, etc.

Causing unpleasant condition in an attempt to

eliminate an undesirable behavior, e.g., giving an

employee a two-day suspension from workwithout pay for showing up drunk is an example of

punishment.

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IMPLICATIONS OF USING

PUNISHMENT

Punishing poor performance enhances

performance without affectingsatisfaction.

Arbitrary and capricious punishment leads to poor

performance and dissatisfaction.

Punishment may be offset by positive

reinforcement from another source.

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SIDE EFFECTS OFPUNISHMENT

Increased aggression

Passive aggressiveness

Avoidance behaviorModeling

Temporary suppression

Learned helplessness

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REINFORCEMENT/PUNISHMENT

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EXTINCTION: THEPROCESS OF

UNLEARNING

EXTINCTION: THEPROCESS OF

UNLEARNING

Extinction is the process of unlearning a learnedresponse because of a change on the part of theenvironment (reinforcement or punishment orstimulus pairing contingencies)

Eliminating any reinforcement that ismaintaining a behavior is called extinction

Removing the source of learning

in CC, not pairing the NS with the UCS will result inextinction

in OC, not providing consequences causes extinction.

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The withdrawal of the reinforcingconsequences for a

given behavior.

The behavior is not unlearned; it simply is not

exhibited.The behavior will reappear ifit is reinforced again.

Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a

behavior, e.g., College instructors who wish to

discourage students from asking questionsin classcaneliminate thisbehavior in their studentsby ignoring

those who raise their hands to ask questions.

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SPONTANEOUSRECOVERY

Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of aconditioned response after extinction

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SUMMARY OF OB MODIFICATION

STRATEGIES

Positive and negative reinforcement.

Used for strengthening desirable behavior.

Punishment and extinction.

Used to weaken undesirable behavior.

Extinction may inadvertently weaken desirablebehavior.

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ETHICAL ISSUES WITHREINFORCEMENT

USAGE

Isimproved performance really due to reinforcement?

Is the use of reinforcement demeaning and dehumanizing?

Will managers abuse their power by exerting external control

over behavior?

How can it be ensured that the manipulation ofconsequencesis done in a positive and constructive

fashion?

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BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

Problem-solving Model

Identify critical behaviors

Develop baseline data

Identify behavioral consequences

Apply intervention

Evaluate performance improvement

Problem-solving Model

Identify critical behaviors

Develop baseline data

Identify behavioral consequences

Apply intervention

Evaluate performance improvement

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OB MOD ORGANIZATIONAL

APPLICATIONS Well Pay

Reduce absenteeism by rewarding attendance.

Employee Discipline

The use of punishment can be counter-

productive.

DevelopingTrainingPrograms

OB MOD methodsimprove training effectiveness. Self-management

Reduces the need for external management

control.

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2-Foundations of individual behavior