IN the NAME of ALLAH, the IN the NAME of ALLAH, the MOST BENIFICIENT, the MOST MOST BENIFICIENT, the MOST

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Linguistic and Social InequalityLinguistic and Social Inequality

By: By: Waseem Azhar GilanyWaseem Azhar Gilany

Linguistic and Social Linguistic and Social InequalityInequality

IntroductionIntroduction Use of different linguistic items by a speaker for Use of different linguistic items by a speaker for

communicating the same message with in communicating the same message with in different social situation gave birth to the idea of different social situation gave birth to the idea of linguistic and social inequality. When a speaker linguistic and social inequality. When a speaker makes a choice with in the vast range of makes a choice with in the vast range of linguistic choices, the selection made by the linguistic choices, the selection made by the speaker shows a degree of preference for any speaker shows a degree of preference for any choice. All this depends on the social and choice. All this depends on the social and educational status of the speaker.educational status of the speaker.

Means to say people have different levels of Means to say people have different levels of linguistic competence and linguistic performance linguistic competence and linguistic performance which provide basis for the notion of linguistic which provide basis for the notion of linguistic inequality. inequality.

In the same way people with different In the same way people with different social and cultural background shows the social and cultural background shows the levels of social inequality as well as levels of social inequality as well as different social status.different social status.

In the twentieth century, linguistic In the twentieth century, linguistic commonalities have been given more commonalities have been given more importance than the linguistic importance than the linguistic differences. The linguists have been differences. The linguists have been trying to find similarities among all the trying to find similarities among all the languages of the world. Inspite these languages of the world. Inspite these notions based on linguistic equality, it is notions based on linguistic equality, it is acknowledged that linguistic and social acknowledged that linguistic and social inequality affects the language and its inequality affects the language and its use to a great extentuse to a great extent. .

Types of Linguistic Types of Linguistic InequalityInequality

LinguisticLinguistic InequalityInequalityLinguisticLinguistic InequalityInequality

Subjective Inequality

Subjective Inequality

Linguistic InequalityLinguistic Inequality

Communicative Inequality

Communicative Inequality

1. Subjective Inequality1. Subjective Inequality It concerns what people think about It concerns what people think about

each other’s speech. Linguistic Prejudice each other’s speech. Linguistic Prejudice is a product of subjective inequality. is a product of subjective inequality.

It is a very common notion that It is a very common notion that people are thought more or less people are thought more or less intelligent or friendly according to the way intelligent or friendly according to the way they speak. This is a common thinking they speak. This is a common thinking that right way of speaking conveys that that right way of speaking conveys that the speaker is much valuable than the one the speaker is much valuable than the one who uses wrong way of speaking. So who uses wrong way of speaking. So language is a source of social inequality. language is a source of social inequality.

2. Linguistic Inequality2. Linguistic Inequality

It is typically a different concept than It is typically a different concept than which runs through the whole chapter as which runs through the whole chapter as general idea of the linguistic inequality.general idea of the linguistic inequality. It It relates to the relates to the linguistic itemslinguistic items that a person that a person knows. The linguistic items one knows show the knows. The linguistic items one knows show the experience of the person. Vocabulary is the field experience of the person. Vocabulary is the field where this experience can be most obvious where where this experience can be most obvious where some individual has a rich set of technical some individual has a rich set of technical terminology for a particular field of life e.g. terminology for a particular field of life e.g. agriculture, fishing, linguistics etc. In different agriculture, fishing, linguistics etc. In different social situation the people perform differently social situation the people perform differently because of the linguistic items they know. because of the linguistic items they know.

3. Communicative 3. Communicative InequalityInequality

It is concerned with knowledge of how to It is concerned with knowledge of how to use linguistic items to communicate use linguistic items to communicate successfully rather than simply with knowledge successfully rather than simply with knowledge of linguistic items. In the past the importance of of linguistic items. In the past the importance of linguistic inequality has been over exaggerated. linguistic inequality has been over exaggerated. But communicative inequality refers to the kind But communicative inequality refers to the kind of knowledge or skill that is needed when using of knowledge or skill that is needed when using speech to interact with other people. speech to interact with other people.

Linguistic prejudice is the phenomenon that is Linguistic prejudice is the phenomenon that is the major cause of linguistic inequality and the major cause of linguistic inequality and social inequality. It is going to be dealt in detail social inequality. It is going to be dealt in detail in the next coming discussion in the next coming discussion

LinguisticLinguistic PrejudicePrejudice

AA speaker uses speech as a source of social speaker uses speech as a source of social distinction. He always communicates to let the distinction. He always communicates to let the other people know about his position. On the other people know about his position. On the other hand listener is also keen to make value other hand listener is also keen to make value judgments about the speaker’s social status.judgments about the speaker’s social status.

A speaker sent social signals to show A speaker sent social signals to show his position in the multidimensional social his position in the multidimensional social space. The habit of using signals as a space. The habit of using signals as a source of information about the speaker is source of information about the speaker is called linguistic prejudice. called linguistic prejudice.

The judgments based on speech can be The judgments based on speech can be called instances of prejudice. These judgments called instances of prejudice. These judgments

can be better called value-judgments based on can be better called value-judgments based on speech.speech.

Types of Linguistic Types of Linguistic PrejudicePrejudice

Linguistic Linguistic InsecurityInsecurity

Linguistic Linguistic InsecurityInsecurity

PrestigePrestigePrestigePrestige

CognitiveCognitive UncertaintyUncertaintyCognitiveCognitive

UncertaintyUncertainty

LinguisticLinguistic PrejudicePrejudice

LinguisticLinguistic PrejudicePrejudice

1. Cognitive1. Cognitive UncertaintyUncertainty People use speech as a source of People use speech as a source of

information about he speaker in order to information about he speaker in order to plan their behavior. Speech gives us plan their behavior. Speech gives us information about speaker’s value, information about speaker’s value, reactions, morals etc. this basic need for reactions, morals etc. this basic need for information about the other person has information about the other person has been called been called CognitiveCognitive UncertaintyUncertainty (Berger Calabrese 1975, Berger 1979). (Berger Calabrese 1975, Berger 1979).

This theory can be explained on the base This theory can be explained on the base of the basic concept of prototype. of the basic concept of prototype.

Example 1Example 1 When a person is given a plate of food to When a person is given a plate of food to

eat, he is in the state of cognitiveeat, he is in the state of cognitive uncertaintyuncertainty,, then he made guesses on then he made guesses on the base of his experience of prototypes the base of his experience of prototypes among the eatable. Then he could among the eatable. Then he could conclude what kind of dish, he is going to conclude what kind of dish, he is going to eat. eat.

Example 2Example 2 Toughness in speech can be valued Toughness in speech can be valued

negatively as well as positively in negatively as well as positively in different societies. (for roughness/ different societies. (for roughness/ bravery) bravery)

A person’s speech pattern is a permanent A person’s speech pattern is a permanent aspect of his social identity. Multidimensional aspect of his social identity. Multidimensional nature of linguist variants can place an nature of linguist variants can place an individual to some extent with a number of individual to some extent with a number of different groups at the same time.different groups at the same time.

Example 1Example 1

Keeping a working class accent while Keeping a working class accent while adopting middle class syntax and vocabulary. adopting middle class syntax and vocabulary.

Example 2Example 2

If parents tell children that their own way of If parents tell children that their own way of speaking is the ‘Right One’ then they will speaking is the ‘Right One’ then they will automatically follow that other groups speak automatically follow that other groups speak less well. less well.

2. Linguistic Insecurity2. Linguistic Insecurity

Some groups of people in Britain and Some groups of people in Britain and Untied States do not believe that they Untied States do not believe that they speak better than others but on the speak better than others but on the contrary think that they speak badly. This contrary think that they speak badly. This phenomenon is known as phenomenon is known as Linguistic Linguistic InsecurityInsecurity (Labov 1972). Schools and (Labov 1972). Schools and the media can be channels for creating the media can be channels for creating such kind of linguistic prejudices. such kind of linguistic prejudices.

33. . PrestigePrestige Degree of preference for any set of linguistic items Degree of preference for any set of linguistic items

determines the prestige given to any language. determines the prestige given to any language. ExampleExample A child who adopts the language of the upper class A child who adopts the language of the upper class

may lose the respect and affection of his friend’s may lose the respect and affection of his friend’s respect and even that of his family. So he cannot respect and even that of his family. So he cannot give up all the forms of his local group. He will use a give up all the forms of his local group. He will use a mixture of both the forms of language. He will select mixture of both the forms of language. He will select positive images of both the classes. But he gives positive images of both the classes. But he gives preferences to upper-class (it is known as overt preferences to upper-class (it is known as overt prestige) and the use of selected local forms (covert prestige) and the use of selected local forms (covert prestige). prestige).

Another factor involved in determing the notion of Another factor involved in determing the notion of social inequality is the study of social inequality is the study of Stereo TypesStereo Types which which we are going to discuss here we are going to discuss here

Stereo TypesStereo Types For people speech is a clue to non-linguistic For people speech is a clue to non-linguistic

information about the speaker’s social background information about the speaker’s social background and personality traits like toughness or intelligence and personality traits like toughness or intelligence etc. People use informations in term of prototype. etc. People use informations in term of prototype.

There is a characteristic of speech A There is a characteristic of speech A And a characteristic of personality B And a characteristic of personality B A will be used both as a characteristic of speech A will be used both as a characteristic of speech

through which the characteristic of personality B through which the characteristic of personality B can be identified.can be identified.

A (speech) B (Personally) A (speech) B (Personally) A define (A) A define (A) and b and b A (stereotype) performs two functions at a timeA (stereotype) performs two functions at a time For the analysis of stereotype, we can assume that For the analysis of stereotype, we can assume that

here A can be referred as ling variable and B here A can be referred as ling variable and B non- non-linguistic variable. linguistic variable.

Subjective Reaction Test is the method for the Subjective Reaction Test is the method for the analysis of stereo type. analysis of stereo type.

Subjective Reaction TestSubjective Reaction Test We will useWe will use Subjective Reaction Test Subjective Reaction Test (Lambert (Lambert

Montreal) to analyze the stereotypes. Montreal) to analyze the stereotypes. Here the investigator prepares a tape-recording Here the investigator prepares a tape-recording

(recording of a series of people reading the same (recording of a series of people reading the same content or passage). Listener whose stereotypes content or passage). Listener whose stereotypes are going to be investigated might be asked to are going to be investigated might be asked to make ten to twenty judgments about the owner of make ten to twenty judgments about the owner of the speech and to fill a questionnaire. His the speech and to fill a questionnaire. His judgments can then be compared from one voice judgments can then be compared from one voice to another. The listener for example would be to another. The listener for example would be asked to locate the speaker somewhere on a asked to locate the speaker somewhere on a particular scale such as toughness, intelligence, particular scale such as toughness, intelligence, friendliness or geographical area. friendliness or geographical area. Seven point Seven point scalescale can be used for this purpose let say: can be used for this purpose let say:

i.i. very toughvery toughii.ii. toughtoughiii.iii. somewhat toughsomewhat toughiv.iv. neutralneutralv.v. somewhat gentlesomewhat gentlevi.vi. gentlegentlevii.vii. very gentlevery gentle

Different voices evoke different stereotypeDifferent voices evoke different stereotypein the mind of the same persons, whilst in the mind of the same persons, whilst

thethesame voice may suggest differentsame voice may suggest differentstereotypes to different people. To stereotypes to different people. To

concludeconcludewe can say that Stereotypes (speech) arewe can say that Stereotypes (speech) aresources to identify stereotypes sources to identify stereotypes

(personality).(personality).

Linguistic Prejudice Working in Linguistic Prejudice Working in Educational SystemEducational System

Now again we will explore the notion of Now again we will explore the notion of linguistic prejudice in order to have better linguistic prejudice in order to have better view about linguistic and social view about linguistic and social inequality. Here linguistic prejudices on inequality. Here linguistic prejudices on the behalf of members of educational the behalf of members of educational institutions are going to be discussed. institutions are going to be discussed.

Prejudice of Teachers:Prejudice of Teachers: Prejudice of PupilsPrejudice of Pupils

Prejudice of TeachersPrejudice of Teachers

Through educational system upper class Through educational system upper class prejudices prevail in society. School prejudices prevail in society. School teachers and their pupils both have fixed teachers and their pupils both have fixed speech stereotypes and we can identify a speech stereotypes and we can identify a number of ways in which teacher’s number of ways in which teacher’s prejudice may present problems for their prejudice may present problems for their pupils. pupils.

Concluded by (Giles & Powerland 1925) Concluded by (Giles & Powerland 1925) there can be certain evidences that most there can be certain evidences that most of the teacher base their impressions of of the teacher base their impressions of pupils on speech forms in preference to pupils on speech forms in preference to other sources of information other sources of information

Example 1Example 1 Giles and Powerland compare three Giles and Powerland compare three

types of information; a photograph, a types of information; a photograph, a recorded example of speech and an recorded example of speech and an example of school work and found example of school work and found that speech is given more that speech is given more weightage. weightage.

Example 2Example 2 It is also significant that, intelligence It is also significant that, intelligence

test and formal tests of ability used test and formal tests of ability used by the educational system put much by the educational system put much emphasis on language. emphasis on language.

Assuming that teachers form their first Assuming that teachers form their first impressions of a pupil on the base of their impressions of a pupil on the base of their speech there is a problem for a child speech there is a problem for a child whose speech leads to a negative whose speech leads to a negative impressions in teachers mind. The impressions in teachers mind. The negative expectations by the teacher will negative expectations by the teacher will lead to negative performance by the lead to negative performance by the pupils. pupils.

. Even the teachers especially at primacy . Even the teachers especially at primacy level do not speak standard British level do not speak standard British English, then how can teacher expect the English, then how can teacher expect the student to speak standard British English. student to speak standard British English.

If teacher because of linguistic prejudice If teacher because of linguistic prejudice is not ready to speak standard British is not ready to speak standard British English, how can we expect a child to English, how can we expect a child to overlook his linguist prejudices in order to overlook his linguist prejudices in order to speak Standard British English.speak Standard British English.

Prejudice of PupilsPrejudice of Pupils First of all the questions arise whether First of all the questions arise whether

linguistic prejudice exists in school linguistic prejudice exists in school children or not. children or not.

Different researches as Howard Giles Different researches as Howard Giles (1925) show that;(1925) show that;

The children below secondary school The children below secondary school would be unaware of difference between would be unaware of difference between the local accent and accent of teacher. the local accent and accent of teacher.

In the secondary school career they were In the secondary school career they were found aware of difference of accent and found aware of difference of accent and dialects.dialects.

Perhaps the children paid more attention Perhaps the children paid more attention to the message when it was in their to the message when it was in their accent a Perhaps they were more inclined accent a Perhaps they were more inclined to trust the opinion of someone who to trust the opinion of someone who sounded like one of themselves. sounded like one of themselves.

It seems that the lingguistic prejudice of It seems that the lingguistic prejudice of both teachers and pupils are potential both teachers and pupils are potential sources of serious problem in Education sources of serious problem in Education process. Here Hudson suggests no process. Here Hudson suggests no solution to these problems. His only solution to these problems. His only purpose is to prove that linguistic purpose is to prove that linguistic prejudice can create Educational prejudice can create Educational Problems on the behalf of both teachers Problems on the behalf of both teachers and pupils. and pupils.

Reasons for Linguistic Reasons for Linguistic PrejudicePrejudice

Linguistic IncompetenceLinguistic Incompetence Competence, defined by Chomsky, is person’s Competence, defined by Chomsky, is person’s

specific linguistic knowledge, and the notion of specific linguistic knowledge, and the notion of linguistic incompetence concerns the lack of linguistic incompetence concerns the lack of linguistic knowledge of any language. Ling linguistic knowledge of any language. Ling incompetence can be a feature of language of babies incompetence can be a feature of language of babies and L2 learners and if some one forgot his/her L1. and L2 learners and if some one forgot his/her L1. Deficit TheoryDeficit Theory

The claim that linguistic incompetence is found in The claim that linguistic incompetence is found in the children from lower-class houses is known as the children from lower-class houses is known as Deficit Theory.Deficit Theory. This theory can be a dangerous This theory can be a dangerous nonsense that many school systems put the blame nonsense that many school systems put the blame of their educational failure on the inadequacies of of their educational failure on the inadequacies of the child. the child.

Some children rarely give anything more than Some children rarely give anything more than a single word in his answer to a teacher and a single word in his answer to a teacher and some teachers conclude that the child is some teachers conclude that the child is incompetent. But it is possible that fault lies incompetent. But it is possible that fault lies not in child’s linguistic competence but in the not in child’s linguistic competence but in the situation. He might be a very good speaker in situation. He might be a very good speaker in his family or friends. The student his family or friends. The student underestimated in this way faces a lot of underestimated in this way faces a lot of problems during his educational career.problems during his educational career.

Bernsten (1960’s) claimed that there are Bernsten (1960’s) claimed that there are two two ways of using languageways of using language. .

1. Elaborated1. Elaborated CodeCode It is a kind of speech which is relatively It is a kind of speech which is relatively

explicit and is a kind of speech required to be explicit and is a kind of speech required to be used in a formal context or situarion.used in a formal context or situarion.

2. Restricted2. Restricted CodeCode This is a kind of speech used between the This is a kind of speech used between the

people who know each other well. people who know each other well.

It is claimed that people from lower working It is claimed that people from lower working class use only restricted code. Whereas most class use only restricted code. Whereas most of the members of higher class use both of the members of higher class use both restricted and elaborated ode according to restricted and elaborated ode according to circumstances. circumstances.

The Scale of VocabularyThe Scale of Vocabulary On the scale of vocabulary we can say that there On the scale of vocabulary we can say that there

are no significant differences in overall size of are no significant differences in overall size of vocabulary of lower and upper class children. The vocabulary of lower and upper class children. The above statement is about quantity of vocabulary. above statement is about quantity of vocabulary. But when we come to the quality we can say there But when we come to the quality we can say there is remarkable difference in the use of vocabulary is remarkable difference in the use of vocabulary between the working class children with low between the working class children with low proficiency and upper class with high proficiency in proficiency and upper class with high proficiency in language use.language use.

Communicative Communicative IncompetenceIncompetence

Communicative Competence is Communicative Competence is knowledge of language needed by a knowledge of language needed by a speaker or hearer to grasp the message speaker or hearer to grasp the message effectively. It includes our knowledge or effectively. It includes our knowledge or ability to use linguistic forms ability to use linguistic forms appropriately.appropriately.

ExampleExample

When to speak? and when not? When to speak? and when not?

What to talk? with whom, when, where What to talk? with whom, when, where and and in what manner?in what manner?

There is a clear difference between who have There is a clear difference between who have been to school and those who not been to been to school and those who not been to school. school. Non-schooledNon-schooled uses non-logical uses non-logical thinking. While thinking. While SchooledSchooled are taught logical are taught logical thinking to solve thinking to solve TraditionalTraditional SyllogismSyllogism in in order to create communicative competence. order to create communicative competence.

ExampleExample All people who own houses pay a house tax.All people who own houses pay a house tax. Bioma does not pay a have tax. Bioma does not pay a have tax. Does Bioma, own a house? Does Bioma, own a house? Some children do not want to learn the school’s Some children do not want to learn the school’s

schemata because of Subtractive Bilingualism. schemata because of Subtractive Bilingualism. It creates a difficulty for school in persuading It creates a difficulty for school in persuading some children to accept some of schemata of some children to accept some of schemata of school. school.

Some children do not want to learn the school’s Some children do not want to learn the school’s schemata because of Subtractive Bilingualism. It schemata because of Subtractive Bilingualism. It creates a difficulty for school in persuading some creates a difficulty for school in persuading some children to accept some of schemata of school. children to accept some of schemata of school.

The Communicative Competence of Lower-class The Communicative Competence of Lower-class ChildrenChildren

Having seen what lower-class children do badly, it is Having seen what lower-class children do badly, it is only fair to look at some of the things they often do only fair to look at some of the things they often do well. well.

Example 1Example 1 Picture: A man standing by a broken window and Picture: A man standing by a broken window and

shouting on a boy. shouting on a boy. Described by Middle class (Implicitly) Described by Middle class (Implicitly) Working class (Explicitly) Working class (Explicitly)

Example 2Example 2 Making up a Bed-Time story. Making up a Bed-Time story.

Lower class girl: More fluent Lower class girl: More fluent Lower class boy: Least fluent Lower class boy: Least fluent Middle class children: In between both of Middle class children: In between both of

them. them.

ConclusionConclusion The main problem of lower-class children at school is a The main problem of lower-class children at school is a

culture-clash between middle-class culture, which controls culture-clash between middle-class culture, which controls the teacher’s behavior, and lower-class culture, to which the teacher’s behavior, and lower-class culture, to which the children are accustomed. the children are accustomed.

It can be suggested that in order to achieve the objectives It can be suggested that in order to achieve the objectives of the educational system we should make use of of the educational system we should make use of communicative competence within the child’s own culture communicative competence within the child’s own culture which he brings to school,.which he brings to school,.

In the multidimensional social space, speaker always In the multidimensional social space, speaker always communicate to let the other people know about his communicate to let the other people know about his position in it. position in it.

On the other hand listener also tries to draw conclusions On the other hand listener also tries to draw conclusions about the speaker’s position in this multidimensional about the speaker’s position in this multidimensional social space.social space.

A speaker sent social signals to show his position in this A speaker sent social signals to show his position in this multidimensional social space in the form of the choice of multidimensional social space in the form of the choice of linguistic items while communicating in society. linguistic items while communicating in society.

It seems very right to say ‘Linguistic inequality breeds It seems very right to say ‘Linguistic inequality breeds social inequality and social inequality breeds linguistic social inequality and social inequality breeds linguistic inequality.’inequality.’

The EndThe End

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