Development Administration chapter 6 (UNPAS 2012)

Prof. Ginandjar Kartasasmita

Program Doktor Bidang Ilmu SosialUniversitas Pasundan

Bandung2011

CULTURAL PROCESSES UNDERLIE MUCH OF WHAT HAPPENSIN MODERN ORGANIZATIONS. CULTURE FILTERS THE WAYSIN WHICH PEOPLE SEE AND UNDERSTAND THEIR WORLDS.CULTURE PRESCRIBES SOME BEHAVIORS AND FORBIDSOTHERS. CULTURE COLORS THE EMOTIONAL RESPONSESTHAT PEOPLE HAVE TO EVENTS.

FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION,SCHOLARS DEFINE CULTURE AS EXISTING AT THREE DISTINCTLEVELS: SOCIETAL, POLITICAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE.

CULTURAL PROCESSES UNDERLIE MUCH OF WHAT HAPPENSIN MODERN ORGANIZATIONS. CULTURE FILTERS THE WAYSIN WHICH PEOPLE SEE AND UNDERSTAND THEIR WORLDS.CULTURE PRESCRIBES SOME BEHAVIORS AND FORBIDSOTHERS. CULTURE COLORS THE EMOTIONAL RESPONSESTHAT PEOPLE HAVE TO EVENTS.

FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION,SCHOLARS DEFINE CULTURE AS EXISTING AT THREE DISTINCTLEVELS: SOCIETAL, POLITICAL, AND ADMINISTRATIVE.

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SocietalCulture

PublicAdministration

Adminis-trativeCulture

PoliticalCulture


AROUND THE GLOBE, THE TYPICAL PUBLIC ORGANIZATION ISDEEPLY ENTRENCHED IN THE CLASSICAL WEBERIAN-TYPEBUREAUCRATIC MODEL. WITH EMPHASIS ON CONTROL ANDCOMPLIANCE, THE TRADITIONAL PUBLIC ORGANIZATION ISA DETERMINISTIC SYSTEM SEEKING EQUILIBRIUM ANDSTABILITY IN WHICH DISORDER AND UNCERTAINTY AREVIEWED AS DYSFUNCTIONAL.

AROUND THE GLOBE, THE TYPICAL PUBLIC ORGANIZATION ISDEEPLY ENTRENCHED IN THE CLASSICAL WEBERIAN-TYPEBUREAUCRATIC MODEL. WITH EMPHASIS ON CONTROL ANDCOMPLIANCE, THE TRADITIONAL PUBLIC ORGANIZATION ISA DETERMINISTIC SYSTEM SEEKING EQUILIBRIUM ANDSTABILITY IN WHICH DISORDER AND UNCERTAINTY AREVIEWED AS DYSFUNCTIONAL.


THEREFORE, TRANSFORMATION OF THE STRUCTURES,PROCESSES, AND CULTURES WITHIN PUBLICBUREAUCRACIES IS NOT LIKELY TO OCCUR VIA SELF-ORGANIZING PROCESSES. TO REALIZE FUNDAMENTALREFORM OF PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS THUS REQUIRES ANORGANIC PROCESS THAT FITS WITH ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS[ARKADY IN BOX, IBID]. NEEDLESS TO SAY AN ORGANICPROCESS IS A CULTURAL PROCESS.

THEREFORE, TRANSFORMATION OF THE STRUCTURES,PROCESSES, AND CULTURES WITHIN PUBLICBUREAUCRACIES IS NOT LIKELY TO OCCUR VIA SELF-ORGANIZING PROCESSES. TO REALIZE FUNDAMENTALREFORM OF PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS THUS REQUIRES ANORGANIC PROCESS THAT FITS WITH ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS[ARKADY IN BOX, IBID]. NEEDLESS TO SAY AN ORGANICPROCESS IS A CULTURAL PROCESS.


MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY. CULTURAL VARIATION DOES NOTONLY DISTINGUISH ONE SOCIETY AGAINST THE OTHER, BUTWITHIN A SOCIETY, ESPECIALLY IN A COUNTRY SUCH ASINDONESIA WHICH IS A MULTICUTURAL SOCIETY. VALUES,NORMS AND TRADITION IN ACEH IS DIFFERENT THAN INJAVA OR IN BALI OR IN PAPUA.

MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY. CULTURAL VARIATION DOES NOTONLY DISTINGUISH ONE SOCIETY AGAINST THE OTHER, BUTWITHIN A SOCIETY, ESPECIALLY IN A COUNTRY SUCH ASINDONESIA WHICH IS A MULTICUTURAL SOCIETY. VALUES,NORMS AND TRADITION IN ACEH IS DIFFERENT THAN INJAVA OR IN BALI OR IN PAPUA.


INDEED MANY NATIONS ARE MULTICULTURAL AND DIVERSEIN TERMS OF RACE, ETHNICITY, RELIGION, IDENTITY,TRADITION. IN MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY PUBLICADMINISTRATORS WORK IN DIVERSE ORGANIZATIONS ANDDEAL WITH A DIVERSE CITIZENRY. MULTICULTURALISMIMPACTS PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN TWO MAJORDOMAINS: WITHIN PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS AND IN THEGREATER SOCIETY [ARKADY, IBID].

INDEED MANY NATIONS ARE MULTICULTURAL AND DIVERSEIN TERMS OF RACE, ETHNICITY, RELIGION, IDENTITY,TRADITION. IN MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY PUBLICADMINISTRATORS WORK IN DIVERSE ORGANIZATIONS ANDDEAL WITH A DIVERSE CITIZENRY. MULTICULTURALISMIMPACTS PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN TWO MAJORDOMAINS: WITHIN PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS AND IN THEGREATER SOCIETY [ARKADY, IBID].


DAHL AND WALDO ALSO POINTED OUT, CULTURALFACTORS COULD MAKE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONS ONONE PART OF THE GLOBE QUITE A DIFFERENT ANIMALFROM PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ON ANOTHER PART.

THE MOVEMENT GAVE RISE TO A SEMIAUTONOMOUSSUBFIELD OF COMPARATIVE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONIN WHICH DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATIONCONCENTRATES ON THE DEVELOPING NATIONS.

DAHL AND WALDO ALSO POINTED OUT, CULTURALFACTORS COULD MAKE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONS ONONE PART OF THE GLOBE QUITE A DIFFERENT ANIMALFROM PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ON ANOTHER PART.

THE MOVEMENT GAVE RISE TO A SEMIAUTONOMOUSSUBFIELD OF COMPARATIVE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATIONIN WHICH DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATIONCONCENTRATES ON THE DEVELOPING NATIONS.


THE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF AN EMERGINGNATION INEVITABLY INCARNATES PARTICULAR NEEDSAND DEMANDS THAT REQUIRE SPECIFICADMINISTRATIVE ABILITIES.

THIS TYPE OF ADMINISTRATION OR MANAGEMENT,ADAPTED FOR THE PARTICULAR NEEDS OFDEVELOPING COUNTRIES, HAS BEEN REFERRED TOINTERCHANGEABLY AS DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION OR DEVELOPMENTMANAGEMENT.

THE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF AN EMERGINGNATION INEVITABLY INCARNATES PARTICULAR NEEDSAND DEMANDS THAT REQUIRE SPECIFICADMINISTRATIVE ABILITIES.

THIS TYPE OF ADMINISTRATION OR MANAGEMENT,ADAPTED FOR THE PARTICULAR NEEDS OFDEVELOPING COUNTRIES, HAS BEEN REFERRED TOINTERCHANGEABLY AS DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION OR DEVELOPMENTMANAGEMENT.


BROADLY, DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IS ANINTEGRAL PART OF SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT AND ISPROFOUNDLY INFLUENCED BY THE OVERALLPOLITICAL, ECONOMIC, AND CULTURAL ATTRIBUTESOF THE SOCIETY.

DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IS DIFFERENTFROM ADMINISTRATIVE DEVELOPMENT, WHICHCOULD BE ANY ADMINISTRATION IN ANY SETTINGSEEKING REFORM, CHANGE, OR IMPROVEMENT OFITS CAPACITY.

BROADLY, DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IS ANINTEGRAL PART OF SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT AND ISPROFOUNDLY INFLUENCED BY THE OVERALLPOLITICAL, ECONOMIC, AND CULTURAL ATTRIBUTESOF THE SOCIETY.

DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IS DIFFERENTFROM ADMINISTRATIVE DEVELOPMENT, WHICHCOULD BE ANY ADMINISTRATION IN ANY SETTINGSEEKING REFORM, CHANGE, OR IMPROVEMENT OFITS CAPACITY.


PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

COMPARATIVEPUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

COMPARATIVEPUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

DEVELOPEDCOUNTRIES

DEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES

DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION


THE OBJECTIVE OF DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION

THE CONCERN OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION ISHOW CAN THE IDEAS AND MECHANISMS OF PUBLICADMINISTRATION BE USED AS INSTRUMENTS OFSOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT?

THE OBJECTIVE OF DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION

THE CONCERN OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION ISHOW CAN THE IDEAS AND MECHANISMS OF PUBLICADMINISTRATION BE USED AS INSTRUMENTS OFSOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT?


PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

MAIN IDEAS MECHANISM

ORGANIZATION

MANAGEMENT

EFFICIENCY

EFFECTIVENESS

ECONOMY

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“DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION” IS GENERALLYSIMILAR TO THE TRADITIONAL “PUBLICADMINISTRATION” IN ITS CONCERN WITH HOW AGOVERNMENT IMPLEMENTS ITS RULES, POLICIES, ANDNORMS.

IT DIFFERS, HOWEVER, IN ITS OBJECTIVES, SCOPE, ANDCOMPLEXITY.

DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IS MORE INNOVATIVE,SINCE IT IS CONCERNED WITH THE SOCIETAL CHANGESINVOLVED IN ACHIEVING DEVELPOMENTAL OBJECTIVES.

“DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION” IS GENERALLYSIMILAR TO THE TRADITIONAL “PUBLICADMINISTRATION” IN ITS CONCERN WITH HOW AGOVERNMENT IMPLEMENTS ITS RULES, POLICIES, ANDNORMS.

IT DIFFERS, HOWEVER, IN ITS OBJECTIVES, SCOPE, ANDCOMPLEXITY.

DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IS MORE INNOVATIVE,SINCE IT IS CONCERNED WITH THE SOCIETAL CHANGESINVOLVED IN ACHIEVING DEVELPOMENTAL OBJECTIVES.


DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IS THE NAMEOFTEN GIVEN TO THE WAY A COUNTRY’SGOVERNMENT ACTS TO FULFILL ITS ROLE INACHIEVING DEVELOPMENT.

(RIGGS, 1977)

DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IS THE NAMEOFTEN GIVEN TO THE WAY A COUNTRY’SGOVERNMENT ACTS TO FULFILL ITS ROLE INACHIEVING DEVELOPMENT.

(RIGGS, 1977)


THE THREE AREAS OF CONCERN :1. HOW PURPOSEFULLY TO GUIDE GOVERNMENT ACTION

TOWARD DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES;2. HOW ACTUALLY TO TAKE ACCOUNT OF THE MANY AND

COMPLEX INTERDEPENDENCIES OF SOCIETAL CHANGE; AND3. HOW TO INSURE THAT GOVERNMENTAL ADMINISTRATION

IS DYNAMIC AND INNOVATIVE.

THE THREE AREAS OF CONCERN :1. HOW PURPOSEFULLY TO GUIDE GOVERNMENT ACTION

TOWARD DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES;2. HOW ACTUALLY TO TAKE ACCOUNT OF THE MANY AND

COMPLEX INTERDEPENDENCIES OF SOCIETAL CHANGE; AND3. HOW TO INSURE THAT GOVERNMENTAL ADMINISTRATION

IS DYNAMIC AND INNOVATIVE.


THE FUNCTION OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

TO ASSURE THAT AN APPROPRIATELY CONGENIALENVIRONMENT AND EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATIONSUPPORT ARE PROVIDED FOR DELIVERY OF CAPITAL,MATERIALS, AND SERVICES WHERE NEEDED IN THEPRODUCTIVE PROCESS –WHETHER IN PUBLIC, PRIVATE,OR MIXED ECONOMIES.

(GANT, 1979)

THE FUNCTION OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

TO ASSURE THAT AN APPROPRIATELY CONGENIALENVIRONMENT AND EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATIONSUPPORT ARE PROVIDED FOR DELIVERY OF CAPITAL,MATERIALS, AND SERVICES WHERE NEEDED IN THEPRODUCTIVE PROCESS –WHETHER IN PUBLIC, PRIVATE,OR MIXED ECONOMIES.

(GANT, 1979)


SIX GROUPS OF NEEDED INPUTS:1) SKILLED MANPOWER,2) FINANCES,3) LOGISTICS (OR FACILITIES FOR THE PHYSICAL FLOW OF

GOODS AND SERVICES),4) INFORMATION (FACILITIES FOR THE PHYSICAL

TRANSMISSION OF DATA),5) PARTICIPATION (OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS), AND6) LEGITIMATE POWER (TO ENFORCE DECISIONS).

THESE SIX INPUTS TOGETHER COMPOSE THECONTENT OF DEVELOPMENT ACTION.

SIX GROUPS OF NEEDED INPUTS:1) SKILLED MANPOWER,2) FINANCES,3) LOGISTICS (OR FACILITIES FOR THE PHYSICAL FLOW OF

GOODS AND SERVICES),4) INFORMATION (FACILITIES FOR THE PHYSICAL

TRANSMISSION OF DATA),5) PARTICIPATION (OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS), AND6) LEGITIMATE POWER (TO ENFORCE DECISIONS).

THESE SIX INPUTS TOGETHER COMPOSE THECONTENT OF DEVELOPMENT ACTION.


MODELS OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

THERE IS A LACK CONSENSUS ON WHAT IS CHARACTERISTIC OFTHE ADMINISTRATIVE SITUATION IN TRANSITIONAL SOCIETIES,ON POSSIBLE STAGES OR SEQUENCES IN THE PROCESS OFADMINISTRATIVE TRANSFORMATION, ON RELATIONSHIPSBETWEEN ADMINISTRATIVE CHANGE AND CORRESPONDINGPROCESSES OF POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, AND CULTURALDEVELOPMENT.

THERE IS EVEN DISAGREEMENT ON THE RELATION BETWEENADMINISTRATION AND CULTURE—WHETHER ADMINISTRATIVEBEHAVIOR IS UNIQUELY DETERMINED BY PARTICULAR CULTURESOR CORRESPONDS TO GENERAL LEVELS OF SOCIOPOLITICALINTEGRATION" (RIGGS).

MODELS OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

THERE IS A LACK CONSENSUS ON WHAT IS CHARACTERISTIC OFTHE ADMINISTRATIVE SITUATION IN TRANSITIONAL SOCIETIES,ON POSSIBLE STAGES OR SEQUENCES IN THE PROCESS OFADMINISTRATIVE TRANSFORMATION, ON RELATIONSHIPSBETWEEN ADMINISTRATIVE CHANGE AND CORRESPONDINGPROCESSES OF POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, AND CULTURALDEVELOPMENT.

THERE IS EVEN DISAGREEMENT ON THE RELATION BETWEENADMINISTRATION AND CULTURE—WHETHER ADMINISTRATIVEBEHAVIOR IS UNIQUELY DETERMINED BY PARTICULAR CULTURESOR CORRESPONDS TO GENERAL LEVELS OF SOCIOPOLITICALINTEGRATION" (RIGGS).


IN ADMINISTRATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES(1964), RIGGS PRESENTED THE CONCEPT OF"PRISMATIC SOCIETY" TO EXPLAIN THE UNIQUECONDITIONS AND THE DYNAMICS OF POLITICSAND ADMINISTRATION IN DEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES.

IN ADMINISTRATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES(1964), RIGGS PRESENTED THE CONCEPT OF"PRISMATIC SOCIETY" TO EXPLAIN THE UNIQUECONDITIONS AND THE DYNAMICS OF POLITICSAND ADMINISTRATION IN DEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES.


AS AN ALTERNATIVE MODEL FOR CONCEPTUALIZINGDEVELOPING COUNTRIES, RIGGS OFFERED HIS"PRISMATIC MODEL“, BASED ON THE METAPHOR OF APRISM. WHEN WHITE LIGHT (THAT IS, LIGHT MADE UPOF ALL VISIBLE WAVELENGTHS) PASSES THROUGH APRISM, IT IS DIFFRACTED, BROKEN INTO A VARIETY OFCOLORS—A RAINBOW.

SIMILARLY, RIGGS CONTENDED, SOCIETIES IN THEPROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT MOVE FROM A FUSEDMODE, IN WHICH LITTLE OR NO DIFFERENTIATIONEXISTS, TO A DIFFRACTED CONDITION IN WHICH THEREIS A HIGH DEGREE OF FUNCTIONAL SPECIALIZATION.

AS AN ALTERNATIVE MODEL FOR CONCEPTUALIZINGDEVELOPING COUNTRIES, RIGGS OFFERED HIS"PRISMATIC MODEL“, BASED ON THE METAPHOR OF APRISM. WHEN WHITE LIGHT (THAT IS, LIGHT MADE UPOF ALL VISIBLE WAVELENGTHS) PASSES THROUGH APRISM, IT IS DIFFRACTED, BROKEN INTO A VARIETY OFCOLORS—A RAINBOW.

SIMILARLY, RIGGS CONTENDED, SOCIETIES IN THEPROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT MOVE FROM A FUSEDMODE, IN WHICH LITTLE OR NO DIFFERENTIATIONEXISTS, TO A DIFFRACTED CONDITION IN WHICH THEREIS A HIGH DEGREE OF FUNCTIONAL SPECIALIZATION.


RIGG’S PRISMATIC MODEL

SOCIETY: FUSED PRISMATIC DIFFRACTEDBUREAUCRATIC:

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The four cells of a 2 X 2 matrix relating two combinations of locusand focus


THE RISE AND FALL OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

WITH THE INVENTION OF DEVELOPMENT BY THEWESTERN NATIONS IN THE IMMEDIATE POST-WARPERIOD AND ITS ADOPTION AS STATE IDEOLOGY BY THEGOVERNMENTS AND EMERGING ELITES OF THE POORERNATIONS, THE QUESTION AROSE AS TO HOW THEPROMISED SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION WAS TO BEACHIEVED.

‘THE PRIMARY OBSTACLES TO DEVELOPMENT AREADMINISTRATIVE RATHER THAN ECONOMIC', DECLAREDDONALD STONE (1965). OTHERS AGREED ANDDEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION WAS CREATED TO PLAYA MAJOR ROLE IN FACILITATING DEVELOPMENT.

THE RISE AND FALL OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

WITH THE INVENTION OF DEVELOPMENT BY THEWESTERN NATIONS IN THE IMMEDIATE POST-WARPERIOD AND ITS ADOPTION AS STATE IDEOLOGY BY THEGOVERNMENTS AND EMERGING ELITES OF THE POORERNATIONS, THE QUESTION AROSE AS TO HOW THEPROMISED SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION WAS TO BEACHIEVED.

‘THE PRIMARY OBSTACLES TO DEVELOPMENT AREADMINISTRATIVE RATHER THAN ECONOMIC', DECLAREDDONALD STONE (1965). OTHERS AGREED ANDDEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION WAS CREATED TO PLAYA MAJOR ROLE IN FACILITATING DEVELOPMENT.


MANY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES FACE ANONGOING NEED TO BUILD INSTITUTIONS ANDORGANIZATIONS ABLE TO OVERCOMETRADITIONAL BARRIERS TO THE EFFECTIVEIMPLEMENTATION OF DEVELOPMENTAL POLICIES.

MANY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES FACE ANONGOING NEED TO BUILD INSTITUTIONS ANDORGANIZATIONS ABLE TO OVERCOMETRADITIONAL BARRIERS TO THE EFFECTIVEIMPLEMENTATION OF DEVELOPMENTAL POLICIES.


DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION REPRESENTED THEPRACTICAL APPLICATION OF MODERNIZATIONTHEORY. ITS PROMOTERS SAW IT AS 'A MIDWIFE FORWESTERN DEVELOPMENT-CREATING STABLE ANDORDERLY CHANGE' (DWIVEDI AND NEF, 1982).

IT WAS A FORM OF SOCIAL ENGINEERING IMPORTEDFROM THE WEST AND EMBODYING FAITH IN THEAPPLICATION OF RATIONAL SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLESAND THE EFFICACY OF KEYNESIAN WELFAREECONOMICS.

DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION REPRESENTED THEPRACTICAL APPLICATION OF MODERNIZATIONTHEORY. ITS PROMOTERS SAW IT AS 'A MIDWIFE FORWESTERN DEVELOPMENT-CREATING STABLE ANDORDERLY CHANGE' (DWIVEDI AND NEF, 1982).

IT WAS A FORM OF SOCIAL ENGINEERING IMPORTEDFROM THE WEST AND EMBODYING FAITH IN THEAPPLICATION OF RATIONAL SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLESAND THE EFFICACY OF KEYNESIAN WELFAREECONOMICS.


THE CREATION AND USE OF THESE ABILITIES HAVEALWAYS BEEN PRIMARY CHALLENGES OFDEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION. THE ABSENCE ANDBREAKDOWN OF THESE ABILITIES HAVE OFTEN BEENMAJOR FACTORS IN DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION'S FAILURE TO MEET SATISFACTORYLEVELS OF PERFORMANCE.

AS A RESULT, DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION HASNOT FARED WELL IN SOME CRITICAL AREAS, SUCH ASTHE CONCEPTION OF AN INSPIRING, COMPATIBLEVISION AND MANAGING EFFECTIVELY TO ACHIEVETHIS VISION.

THE CREATION AND USE OF THESE ABILITIES HAVEALWAYS BEEN PRIMARY CHALLENGES OFDEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION. THE ABSENCE ANDBREAKDOWN OF THESE ABILITIES HAVE OFTEN BEENMAJOR FACTORS IN DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION'S FAILURE TO MEET SATISFACTORYLEVELS OF PERFORMANCE.

AS A RESULT, DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION HASNOT FARED WELL IN SOME CRITICAL AREAS, SUCH ASTHE CONCEPTION OF AN INSPIRING, COMPATIBLEVISION AND MANAGING EFFECTIVELY TO ACHIEVETHIS VISION.


IN UTILIZING MODERN TECHNIQUES, DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION, FOR EXAMPLE, SEEMS TO LAGBEHIND THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN LEVERAGINGTECHNOLOGY TO IMPROVE INTERNAL OPERATIONSAND TO ENHANCE THE OVERALL EFFECTIVENESS OFDEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS.

IN UTILIZING MODERN TECHNIQUES, DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION, FOR EXAMPLE, SEEMS TO LAGBEHIND THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN LEVERAGINGTECHNOLOGY TO IMPROVE INTERNAL OPERATIONSAND TO ENHANCE THE OVERALL EFFECTIVENESS OFDEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS.


UNABLE TO ATTAIN A TIMELY CORRECTION OF ITSDEFICIENCIES OR TO LEARN FROM ITS FAILURES,DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION LARGELYREMAINS BURDENED BY A COMBINATION OFINHERITED STRUCTURES AND BEHAVIORS ANDDEEPLY INTERNALIZED LOCAL CULTURAL PATTERNS.

THIS COMBINATION OF LEGACIES HAS HAD THEEFFECT OF IMPEDING PERFORMANCE ANDWASTING BADLY NEEDED INSTITUTIONAL ENERGIESON OTHER THAN PRODUCTIVE ENDEAVORS TOACCOMPLISH DEVELOPMENTAL MANDATES.

UNABLE TO ATTAIN A TIMELY CORRECTION OF ITSDEFICIENCIES OR TO LEARN FROM ITS FAILURES,DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION LARGELYREMAINS BURDENED BY A COMBINATION OFINHERITED STRUCTURES AND BEHAVIORS ANDDEEPLY INTERNALIZED LOCAL CULTURAL PATTERNS.

THIS COMBINATION OF LEGACIES HAS HAD THEEFFECT OF IMPEDING PERFORMANCE ANDWASTING BADLY NEEDED INSTITUTIONAL ENERGIESON OTHER THAN PRODUCTIVE ENDEAVORS TOACCOMPLISH DEVELOPMENTAL MANDATES.



REVIVAL OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

THE MOST IMPORTANT DIFFERENCE BETWEENADMINISTRATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND IN THEWEST WAS BEING INCREASINGLY IDENTIFIED AS THATENVELOPE OF FACTORS AND FORCES WHICH WECOLLECTIVELY CALL THE ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT.

WHETHER IT WAS THE SOCIAL CLASS CONTEXT, THEINFLUENCE OF THE WORLD BANK, THE TYPE OF REGIME,THE NATURE OF THE POLICYMAKING PROCESS OR SIMPLYTHE PREVAILING CULTURE, THE CENTRALITY OF THEENVIRONMENT FOR UNDERSTANDING ADMINISTRATIVEACTION AND PARALYSIS WAS BECOMING FIRMLYESTABLISHED.

REVIVAL OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

THE MOST IMPORTANT DIFFERENCE BETWEENADMINISTRATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND IN THEWEST WAS BEING INCREASINGLY IDENTIFIED AS THATENVELOPE OF FACTORS AND FORCES WHICH WECOLLECTIVELY CALL THE ORGANIZATIONAL ENVIRONMENT.

WHETHER IT WAS THE SOCIAL CLASS CONTEXT, THEINFLUENCE OF THE WORLD BANK, THE TYPE OF REGIME,THE NATURE OF THE POLICYMAKING PROCESS OR SIMPLYTHE PREVAILING CULTURE, THE CENTRALITY OF THEENVIRONMENT FOR UNDERSTANDING ADMINISTRATIVEACTION AND PARALYSIS WAS BECOMING FIRMLYESTABLISHED.


THE NEO-CLASSICAL ECONOMISTS HAD MEANWHILE GAINEDCONSIDERABLE INFLUENCE IN POLICY CIRCLES AND WEREALSO POINTING TO INEFFICIENCY AND INEFFECTIVENESS INTHE PUBLIC SECTOR.

BIG GOVERNMENT HAD NOT BEEN EFFECTIVE GOVERNMENTAND IT WAS TIME THE PRINCIPALS OF THE MARKET WEREALLOWED TO OPREATE. REDUCING THE SIZE OF THE STATEAND RESTRICTING THE OPERATION OF THE STATE WOULDBRING CONSIDERABLE SAVINGS.

PROGRAMMES TO INCREASE BUREAUCRATIC CAPACITY ANDEFFICIENCY AND TO ENCOURAGE PRIVATE SECTOR GROWTHTHROUGH MARKET MECHANISMS WOULD THEN ENSURETHAT DEVELOPMENT WOULD TAKE PLACE.

THE NEO-CLASSICAL ECONOMISTS HAD MEANWHILE GAINEDCONSIDERABLE INFLUENCE IN POLICY CIRCLES AND WEREALSO POINTING TO INEFFICIENCY AND INEFFECTIVENESS INTHE PUBLIC SECTOR.

BIG GOVERNMENT HAD NOT BEEN EFFECTIVE GOVERNMENTAND IT WAS TIME THE PRINCIPALS OF THE MARKET WEREALLOWED TO OPREATE. REDUCING THE SIZE OF THE STATEAND RESTRICTING THE OPERATION OF THE STATE WOULDBRING CONSIDERABLE SAVINGS.

PROGRAMMES TO INCREASE BUREAUCRATIC CAPACITY ANDEFFICIENCY AND TO ENCOURAGE PRIVATE SECTOR GROWTHTHROUGH MARKET MECHANISMS WOULD THEN ENSURETHAT DEVELOPMENT WOULD TAKE PLACE.


THE OLD DISTINCTION BETWEEN PUBLIC SECTOR ANDPRIVATE SECTOR MANAGEMENT BECAME BLURRED.THE DISSEMINATION OF THIS MODEL TO DEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES WAS UNDERTAKEN BY ENTHUSIASTICWESTERN ADVOCATES AND MULTILATERAL FINANCIALINSTITUTIONS SUCH AS THE WORLD BANK AND IMF.

THE OLD DISTINCTION BETWEEN PUBLIC SECTOR ANDPRIVATE SECTOR MANAGEMENT BECAME BLURRED.THE DISSEMINATION OF THIS MODEL TO DEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES WAS UNDERTAKEN BY ENTHUSIASTICWESTERN ADVOCATES AND MULTILATERAL FINANCIALINSTITUTIONS SUCH AS THE WORLD BANK AND IMF.


ANOTHER APPROACH FORCEFULLY ADVOCATED BY DWIVEDI AND, NEF (1982)

WAS THE SEARCH FOR ALTERNATIVE FORMS OFORGANIZATIONAL APPROACH TO DEVELOPMENT. INSTEADOF SIMPLY CRITICISING THE FAILURES, PEOPLE BEGAN TOLOOK AT THE SUCCESSES AND INNOVATIONS.

RONDINELLI (1983) WAS KEEN TO IDENTIFY LESSONS FROMPAST EXPERIENCE THAT COULD ENHANCE DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION IN THE FUTURE. HIS ANALYSIS INDICATEDTHAT THE MAIN REASON FOR POOR PAST PERFORMANCEIN THE PUBLIC SECTOR WAS THE FAILURE TO COPE WITHTHE COMPLEXITY AND UNCERTAINTY OF ORGANIZATIONALENVIRONMENTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.

ANOTHER APPROACH FORCEFULLY ADVOCATED BY DWIVEDI AND, NEF (1982)

WAS THE SEARCH FOR ALTERNATIVE FORMS OFORGANIZATIONAL APPROACH TO DEVELOPMENT. INSTEADOF SIMPLY CRITICISING THE FAILURES, PEOPLE BEGAN TOLOOK AT THE SUCCESSES AND INNOVATIONS.

RONDINELLI (1983) WAS KEEN TO IDENTIFY LESSONS FROMPAST EXPERIENCE THAT COULD ENHANCE DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION IN THE FUTURE. HIS ANALYSIS INDICATEDTHAT THE MAIN REASON FOR POOR PAST PERFORMANCEIN THE PUBLIC SECTOR WAS THE FAILURE TO COPE WITHTHE COMPLEXITY AND UNCERTAINTY OF ORGANIZATIONALENVIRONMENTS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.


THE REMEDY LAY IN CHANGING STRUCTURES ANDPROCEDURES SO THAT EXPERIMENTATION ANDLEARNING OCCURRED. THIS CREATIVE HYBRIDCOMPRISES A HUMAN-RELATIONS TYPE OFMANAGEMENT THEORY COUPLED WITH ACONTINGENCY-STYLE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF HIGHLYVARIABLE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS, INCLUDINGTHE POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT.

THE REMEDY LAY IN CHANGING STRUCTURES ANDPROCEDURES SO THAT EXPERIMENTATION ANDLEARNING OCCURRED. THIS CREATIVE HYBRIDCOMPRISES A HUMAN-RELATIONS TYPE OFMANAGEMENT THEORY COUPLED WITH ACONTINGENCY-STYLE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF HIGHLYVARIABLE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS, INCLUDINGTHE POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT.


IN THE LATE 1980s DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION WASEMERGING FROM SELF-CRITICISM AND DOUBT AND WASACQUIRING A NEW LEASE OF LIFE.

MILTON ESMAN (1988) DECLARED THAT DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION HAS NOT ONLY SURVIVED THELIMITATIONS OF ITS FOUNDERS, BUT IT HAS SUCCESSFULLYADAPTED TO A MUCH MORE REALISTIC SET OFEXPECTATIONS ABOUT THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENTAND THE POTENTIALITIES OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR.

DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION, ACCORDING TO SUCHWRITERS, HAD MATURED BUT IT WAS STILL DYNAMIC.

IN THE LATE 1980s DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION WASEMERGING FROM SELF-CRITICISM AND DOUBT AND WASACQUIRING A NEW LEASE OF LIFE.

MILTON ESMAN (1988) DECLARED THAT DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION HAS NOT ONLY SURVIVED THELIMITATIONS OF ITS FOUNDERS, BUT IT HAS SUCCESSFULLYADAPTED TO A MUCH MORE REALISTIC SET OFEXPECTATIONS ABOUT THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENTAND THE POTENTIALITIES OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR.

DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION, ACCORDING TO SUCHWRITERS, HAD MATURED BUT IT WAS STILL DYNAMIC.


SO HOW DO WE CHARACTERIZE THE CONTEMPORARYPRACTICE OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION?

DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION REMAINS HEAVILY BUTNOT EXCLUSIVELY FOCUSED ON PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION.IT IS NO LONGER PREMISED ON THE NOTION OF BIGGOVERNMENT; THIS IS IN PART DUE TO DISAPPOINTINGRESULTS OF OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS ANDTO THE SHORTAGE OF FINANCIAL RESOURCES.

SO HOW DO WE CHARACTERIZE THE CONTEMPORARYPRACTICE OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION?

DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION REMAINS HEAVILY BUTNOT EXCLUSIVELY FOCUSED ON PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION.IT IS NO LONGER PREMISED ON THE NOTION OF BIGGOVERNMENT; THIS IS IN PART DUE TO DISAPPOINTINGRESULTS OF OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS ANDTO THE SHORTAGE OF FINANCIAL RESOURCES.


SUSTAINED INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT REQUIRESCERTAIN CONDITIONS. THESE REQUISITES HAVEINCREASINGLY BECOME MORE SPECIFIC:

1) TAPPING STAKEHOLDERS' SUPPORT,2) PROMOTING ONGOING STRATEGIC PLANNING,3) ENGAGING IN MARKETING, AND4) REDUCING DEPENDENCY THROUGH THE USE OF LOCAL

RESOURCES.(GOLDSMITH 1992, 586)

SUSTAINED INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT REQUIRESCERTAIN CONDITIONS. THESE REQUISITES HAVEINCREASINGLY BECOME MORE SPECIFIC:

1) TAPPING STAKEHOLDERS' SUPPORT,2) PROMOTING ONGOING STRATEGIC PLANNING,3) ENGAGING IN MARKETING, AND4) REDUCING DEPENDENCY THROUGH THE USE OF LOCAL

RESOURCES.(GOLDSMITH 1992, 586)


BOTH MACRO AND MICRO POLITICAL PROCESSES ARECENTRAL CONCERNS IN THE PRACTICE AND ANALYSIS OFDEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION.FURTHERMORE, AS WE HAVE IDENTIFIED DEVELOPMENT

ADMINISTRATION AS AN INSTRUMENTALITY OFDEVELOPMENT, ITS PRACTITIONERS MUST BE INTIMATELYCONCERNED WITH THE GOALS OF DEVELOPMENT.WHETHER IN ANALYSIS OR PRACTICE THERE IS NO VALUE

NEUTRALITY. ALL VIEWS AND ACTIONS HAVE SOME POLITICALMEANING, ESPECIALLY IF DEVELOPMENT SHOULD BEORIENTED TO THE POOR, MOSTLY DEFINED BY THE POORAND INCOPORATING A STRONG ELEMENT OF GRASSROOTSKNOWLEDGE AND WISDOM.

BOTH MACRO AND MICRO POLITICAL PROCESSES ARECENTRAL CONCERNS IN THE PRACTICE AND ANALYSIS OFDEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION.FURTHERMORE, AS WE HAVE IDENTIFIED DEVELOPMENT

ADMINISTRATION AS AN INSTRUMENTALITY OFDEVELOPMENT, ITS PRACTITIONERS MUST BE INTIMATELYCONCERNED WITH THE GOALS OF DEVELOPMENT.WHETHER IN ANALYSIS OR PRACTICE THERE IS NO VALUE

NEUTRALITY. ALL VIEWS AND ACTIONS HAVE SOME POLITICALMEANING, ESPECIALLY IF DEVELOPMENT SHOULD BEORIENTED TO THE POOR, MOSTLY DEFINED BY THE POORAND INCOPORATING A STRONG ELEMENT OF GRASSROOTSKNOWLEDGE AND WISDOM.


FINALLY, DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION (OR POLICY ORMANAGEMENT) APPLIES TO A HUGE NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN ALARGE NUMBER OF COUNTRIES. THE COUNTRIES VARYENORMOUSLY WHEN MEASURED BY STATISTICAL INDICATORSOF DEVELOPMENT OR IN TERMS OF CULTURE AND HISTORY.EVEN WITHIN NATIONS, HOWEVER SMALL IN POPULATIONTERMS, THERE CAN BE GREAT REGIONAL DIFFERENTIATION.COLLECTIVE TITLES SUCH AS THIRD WORLD OR THE SOUTH

GIVE AN IMPRESSION OF SIMILARITY TO A DISPARATE GROUPOF COUNTRIES. DIVERSITY IS WHAT DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION MUST ADDRESS.

FINALLY, DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION (OR POLICY ORMANAGEMENT) APPLIES TO A HUGE NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN ALARGE NUMBER OF COUNTRIES. THE COUNTRIES VARYENORMOUSLY WHEN MEASURED BY STATISTICAL INDICATORSOF DEVELOPMENT OR IN TERMS OF CULTURE AND HISTORY.EVEN WITHIN NATIONS, HOWEVER SMALL IN POPULATIONTERMS, THERE CAN BE GREAT REGIONAL DIFFERENTIATION.COLLECTIVE TITLES SUCH AS THIRD WORLD OR THE SOUTH

GIVE AN IMPRESSION OF SIMILARITY TO A DISPARATE GROUPOF COUNTRIES. DIVERSITY IS WHAT DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION MUST ADDRESS.


ADMINISTRATIONOF

DEVELOPMENT

DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION APPROACH

ADMINISTRATIONOF

DEVELOPMENT

ECONOMIC POLITICAL SOCIAL ADMINISTRATIVE

MANAGEMENT

ORGANIZATION/INSTITUTION


DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION = PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION +MANAGEMENT

OFDEVELOPMENT

DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION = PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION +MANAGEMENT

OFDEVELOPMENT


Some contemporary themes in development administration

1. Governments are limited in their capacity, and these limitationsshould be incorporated into the design of public programmes.

2. Because governments cannot do it all, alternative andcomplementary channels need to be identified and fostered.

3. Programme designers recognize and capitalize on the pluralisticproperties of public administration.

4. Participation is an important dimension in the administration ofPublic services.

5. Societal contexts provide both specific opportunities and specialconstraints for development administration.

6. There is an enhanced appreciation of the uncertainties andcontingencies inherent in deliberate efforts at developmentalchange.

7. There are renewed pressures on governments (a) to extract greaterproductivity from continuing expenditures and (b) to reorientgovernment bureaucracies to serve large disadvantaged publicsmore responsively.


Some contemporary themes in development administration

1. Governments are limited in their capacity, and these limitationsshould be incorporated into the design of public programmes.

2. Because governments cannot do it all, alternative andcomplementary channels need to be identified and fostered.

3. Programme designers recognize and capitalize on the pluralisticproperties of public administration.

4. Participation is an important dimension in the administration ofPublic services.

5. Societal contexts provide both specific opportunities and specialconstraints for development administration.

6. There is an enhanced appreciation of the uncertainties andcontingencies inherent in deliberate efforts at developmentalchange.

7. There are renewed pressures on governments (a) to extract greaterproductivity from continuing expenditures and (b) to reorientgovernment bureaucracies to serve large disadvantaged publicsmore responsively.

Source: Esman, M.]. (1988) 'The Maturing of Development Administration, Public Administration and Development,Vo. 8 (2), pp 125-34.

MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION TWO COMPETING PERSPECTIVE HAVE EMERGED.

THE FIRST FOCUSED ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGERIALCAPABILITIES AND INSTITUTIONS. UNDERLYING THIS APPROACHIS THE ASSUMPTION THAT ONCE CAPABILITIES ARE IN PLACE, THEVARIOUS ENTITIES IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR WILL BE ENDOWEDWITH THE ABILITY TO UNDERTAKE THE DEVELOPMENTAL TASKTHAT GOVERNMENT REQUIRES, TO USE RESOURCES EFFICIENTLY,TO SOLVE FRESH PROBLEMS AS THEY ARISE, AND TO SUSTAININCREASINGLY COMPLEX AND SOPHISTICATED ACTIVITIES OVERTIME. THIS, IN BRIEF, CONSTITUTES THE CAPACITY-STRENGTHENING AND INSTITUTION BUILDING PERSPECTIVE INDEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT (HONADLE AND VAN SANT, 1986).

(MILTON J. ESMAN, 1991)

MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION TWO COMPETING PERSPECTIVE HAVE EMERGED.

THE FIRST FOCUSED ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGERIALCAPABILITIES AND INSTITUTIONS. UNDERLYING THIS APPROACHIS THE ASSUMPTION THAT ONCE CAPABILITIES ARE IN PLACE, THEVARIOUS ENTITIES IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR WILL BE ENDOWEDWITH THE ABILITY TO UNDERTAKE THE DEVELOPMENTAL TASKTHAT GOVERNMENT REQUIRES, TO USE RESOURCES EFFICIENTLY,TO SOLVE FRESH PROBLEMS AS THEY ARISE, AND TO SUSTAININCREASINGLY COMPLEX AND SOPHISTICATED ACTIVITIES OVERTIME. THIS, IN BRIEF, CONSTITUTES THE CAPACITY-STRENGTHENING AND INSTITUTION BUILDING PERSPECTIVE INDEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT (HONADLE AND VAN SANT, 1986).

(MILTON J. ESMAN, 1991)


THE OTHER APPROACH EMPHASIZES THE MANAGEMENT OFCONCRETE DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES, ARGUING THAT THEPUBLIC SECTOR MUST CONCENTRATE PERFORMANCE –ONDELIVERING THE GOODS, MEETING NEEDS, AND PROVIDINGTANGIBLE BENEFIT. THESE SHORTER-TERM EXIGENCIES , IT ISARGUED, MUST TAKE PRIORITY IN THE ALLOCATION OFRESOURCES AND ENERGIES OVER LONG –TERM CAPACITYBUILDING; INDEED, SUCCESSFUL EXPERIENCE IN PROGRAMOPERATIONS AND IN CONCRETE PROBLEM SOLVING IS THESUREST WAY TO DEVELOP AND SUSTAIN MANAGERIALCAPACITY.

THE OTHER APPROACH EMPHASIZES THE MANAGEMENT OFCONCRETE DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES, ARGUING THAT THEPUBLIC SECTOR MUST CONCENTRATE PERFORMANCE –ONDELIVERING THE GOODS, MEETING NEEDS, AND PROVIDINGTANGIBLE BENEFIT. THESE SHORTER-TERM EXIGENCIES , IT ISARGUED, MUST TAKE PRIORITY IN THE ALLOCATION OFRESOURCES AND ENERGIES OVER LONG –TERM CAPACITYBUILDING; INDEED, SUCCESSFUL EXPERIENCE IN PROGRAMOPERATIONS AND IN CONCRETE PROBLEM SOLVING IS THESUREST WAY TO DEVELOP AND SUSTAIN MANAGERIALCAPACITY.


LONG-TERM CAPACITIES MUST BE DEVELOPED INGOVERNMENT AND IN THE PRIVATE REALM. AS THESECAPACITIES ARE UNLIKELY TO EVOLVES SPONTANEOUSLY,GOVERNMENTS MUST BE PREPARED TO INVEST ININDIVIDUAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL CAPABILITIES. AT THESAME TIME, POLICIES MUST BE CARRIED OUT, PROGRAMSMUST BE OPERATED, AND SERVICES MUST BE DELIVEREDWITH SUCH MANAGERIAL RESOURCES AS EXIT. BOTHOBJECTIVES MUST BE PURSUED SIMULTANEOUSLY, NOT ASTRADE-OFFS BUT AS COMPLEMENTARY MEASURES.

LONG-TERM CAPACITIES MUST BE DEVELOPED INGOVERNMENT AND IN THE PRIVATE REALM. AS THESECAPACITIES ARE UNLIKELY TO EVOLVES SPONTANEOUSLY,GOVERNMENTS MUST BE PREPARED TO INVEST ININDIVIDUAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL CAPABILITIES. AT THESAME TIME, POLICIES MUST BE CARRIED OUT, PROGRAMSMUST BE OPERATED, AND SERVICES MUST BE DELIVEREDWITH SUCH MANAGERIAL RESOURCES AS EXIT. BOTHOBJECTIVES MUST BE PURSUED SIMULTANEOUSLY, NOT ASTRADE-OFFS BUT AS COMPLEMENTARY MEASURES.


SCHOLARS LOOK UPON DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENTAS COMPRISING BOTH THE STRENGTHENING OFMANAGERIAL CAPABILITIES THAT CAN SUSTAINCOMPLEX ACTIVITIES THROUGH TIME AND CHANGINGCIRCUMSTANCES AND THE ONGOING MANAGEMENT OFDEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR.

SCHOLARS LOOK UPON DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENTAS COMPRISING BOTH THE STRENGTHENING OFMANAGERIAL CAPABILITIES THAT CAN SUSTAINCOMPLEX ACTIVITIES THROUGH TIME AND CHANGINGCIRCUMSTANCES AND THE ONGOING MANAGEMENT OFDEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR.


WHAT MOST DISTINGUISHED ADVANCE SOCIETIES ANDTHEIR GOVERNMENT IS NOT THEIR “CULTURE”, NORTHEIR NATURAL ENDOWMENTS, NOR THE AVAILABILITYOF CAPITAL, NOR THE RATIONALLY OF PUBLIC POLICIES,BUT PRECISELY THE CAPACITIES OF THEIR INSTITUTIONSAND THE SKILLS OF INDIVIDUALS, INCLUDING THOSE OFMANAGEMENT. TOGETHER THESE REFLECT THEIRDIFFERENTIAL CAPACITIES TO UTILIZE RESOURCES ,CAPITALIZE ON OPPORTUNITIES, AND ADJUST TOCHANGES (ESMAN, 1991).

WHAT MOST DISTINGUISHED ADVANCE SOCIETIES ANDTHEIR GOVERNMENT IS NOT THEIR “CULTURE”, NORTHEIR NATURAL ENDOWMENTS, NOR THE AVAILABILITYOF CAPITAL, NOR THE RATIONALLY OF PUBLIC POLICIES,BUT PRECISELY THE CAPACITIES OF THEIR INSTITUTIONSAND THE SKILLS OF INDIVIDUALS, INCLUDING THOSE OFMANAGEMENT. TOGETHER THESE REFLECT THEIRDIFFERENTIAL CAPACITIES TO UTILIZE RESOURCES ,CAPITALIZE ON OPPORTUNITIES, AND ADJUST TOCHANGES (ESMAN, 1991).


IT IS CRITICAL THAT SUBSTANTIAL ENERGIES ANDRESOURCES BE DEDICATED TO AND INVESTED IN THEENHANCEMENT OF THE HUMAN RESOURCES ANDINSTITUTIONAL CAPACITIES THAT DETERMINE THEABILITY OF SOCIETIES TO ACHIEVE AND SUSTAINECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS. IN AN IMPORTANTSENSE, THIS IS WHAT DEVELOPMENT IS ALL ABOUT.

IT IS CRITICAL THAT SUBSTANTIAL ENERGIES ANDRESOURCES BE DEDICATED TO AND INVESTED IN THEENHANCEMENT OF THE HUMAN RESOURCES ANDINSTITUTIONAL CAPACITIES THAT DETERMINE THEABILITY OF SOCIETIES TO ACHIEVE AND SUSTAINECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS. IN AN IMPORTANTSENSE, THIS IS WHAT DEVELOPMENT IS ALL ABOUT.


ECONOMIC

GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCTSTRUCTURE OF PRODUCTIONLABOURDOMESTIC CAPITALFOREIGN EXCHANGEFOREIGN AID AND DEBTINFRASTRUCTURETECHNOLOGYPOVERTY AND INEQUALITYINFORMAL SECTOR

CULTURAL

ETHNICITYFAMILY AND KINSHIPVALUES AND NORMSGENDERHISTORY

ENVIRONTMENTAL FACTORS FOR PUBLIC SECTORSMANAGERS

ECONOMIC

GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCTSTRUCTURE OF PRODUCTIONLABOURDOMESTIC CAPITALFOREIGN EXCHANGEFOREIGN AID AND DEBTINFRASTRUCTURETECHNOLOGYPOVERTY AND INEQUALITYINFORMAL SECTOR

DEMOGRAPHIC

POPULATION GROWTHAGE STRUCTUREURBANIZATION AND MIGRATIONHELATH

POLITICAL

STATE-SOCIETY RELATIONSLEGITIMACYREGIME TYPEIDEOLOGYELITES AND CLASSESINTERNATIONAL LINKSINSTITUTION

SOURCE: MODIFIEDFROM AUSTIN, J.E.(1990) MANAGING INDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES: STRATEGICANALIYSIS ANDOPERATINGTECHNIQUES (NEWYORK: FREE PRESS)

(MILTON ESMAN, 1991)


MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVESOF DEVELOPMENTADMINISTRATION

DEVELOPMENT OFMANAGERIAL CAPABILITIES

AND INSTITUTIONS

MANAGEMENT OFCONCRETE DEVELOPMENT

ACTIVITIES


1) PLANNING2) RESOURCE MOBILIZATION3) CIVIL-PARTICIPATION MOBILIZATION4) BUDGETING5) IMPLEMENTATION OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE PUBLIC

SECTOR6) COORDINATION7) MONITORING AND EVALUATION8) CONTROLLING (OVERSIGHT FUNCTION)9) INFORMATION SYSTEM

(KARTASASMITA, 1997)

1) PLANNING2) RESOURCE MOBILIZATION3) CIVIL-PARTICIPATION MOBILIZATION4) BUDGETING5) IMPLEMENTATION OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE PUBLIC

SECTOR6) COORDINATION7) MONITORING AND EVALUATION8) CONTROLLING (OVERSIGHT FUNCTION)9) INFORMATION SYSTEM

(KARTASASMITA, 1997)


IT IS CRITICAL THAT SUBSTANTIAL ENERGIES ANDRESOURCES BE DEDICATED TO AND INVESTED INTHE ENHANCEMENT OF THE HUMAN RESOURCESAND INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITIES THAT DETERMINETHE ABILITY OF SOCIETIES TO ACHIEVE ANDSUSTAIN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS. IN ANIMPORTANT SENSE, THIS IS WHAT DEVELOPMENT ISALL ABOUT.

IT IS CRITICAL THAT SUBSTANTIAL ENERGIES ANDRESOURCES BE DEDICATED TO AND INVESTED INTHE ENHANCEMENT OF THE HUMAN RESOURCESAND INSTITUTIONAL CAPACITIES THAT DETERMINETHE ABILITY OF SOCIETIES TO ACHIEVE ANDSUSTAIN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS. IN ANIMPORTANT SENSE, THIS IS WHAT DEVELOPMENT ISALL ABOUT.


PLANNING IS AN ORGANIZED, CONSCIOUS ANDCONTINUAL ATTEMPT TO SELECT THE BESTAVAILABLE ALTERNATIVES TO ACHIEVE SPECIFICGOALS.

(ALBERT WATERSTON, 1965)

PLANNING IS AN ORGANIZED, CONSCIOUS ANDCONTINUAL ATTEMPT TO SELECT THE BESTAVAILABLE ALTERNATIVES TO ACHIEVE SPECIFICGOALS.

(ALBERT WATERSTON, 1965)


'DURING THE 1960s AND 1970s PROJECTS BECAMETHE PRIMARY MEANS THROUGH WHICHGOVERNMENTS OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIESTRANSLATED THEIR PLANS AND POLICIES INTOPROGRAMMES OF ACTION' (RONDINELLI, 1993).

PROJECTS WERE SEEN AS THE 'CUTTING EDGE OFDEVELOPMENT' (GITTINGER, 1982), WHERERESOURCES WERE CONVERTED INTO IMPROVEDLIVELIHOODS AND ECONOMIC GROWTH.

'DURING THE 1960s AND 1970s PROJECTS BECAMETHE PRIMARY MEANS THROUGH WHICHGOVERNMENTS OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIESTRANSLATED THEIR PLANS AND POLICIES INTOPROGRAMMES OF ACTION' (RONDINELLI, 1993).

PROJECTS WERE SEEN AS THE 'CUTTING EDGE OFDEVELOPMENT' (GITTINGER, 1982), WHERERESOURCES WERE CONVERTED INTO IMPROVEDLIVELIHOODS AND ECONOMIC GROWTH.


UNFORTUNATELY, THE RIGOUR THAT SUCHTECHNIQUES BRING TO PROJECT ANALYSIS HASNOT ALWAYS REVEALED ITSELF IN TERMS OFPROJECT RESULTS. THE WORLD BANK (1988) HASFOUND THAT SOME 51 PER CENT OF ITS RURALDEVELOPMENT AREA PROJECTS, OVER THEPERIOD 1965 TO 1985, FAILED TO ACHIEVE THEBANK'S MINIMUM ACCEPTABLE RATE OF RETURNOF 10 PER CENT.

POOR DATA, UNCERTAINTY, LACK OF BENECIFIARYPARTICIPATION, POLITICAL INVOLVEMENT.

UNFORTUNATELY, THE RIGOUR THAT SUCHTECHNIQUES BRING TO PROJECT ANALYSIS HASNOT ALWAYS REVEALED ITSELF IN TERMS OFPROJECT RESULTS. THE WORLD BANK (1988) HASFOUND THAT SOME 51 PER CENT OF ITS RURALDEVELOPMENT AREA PROJECTS, OVER THEPERIOD 1965 TO 1985, FAILED TO ACHIEVE THEBANK'S MINIMUM ACCEPTABLE RATE OF RETURNOF 10 PER CENT.

POOR DATA, UNCERTAINTY, LACK OF BENECIFIARYPARTICIPATION, POLITICAL INVOLVEMENT.


ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO PROJECTPLANNING

THE SEARCH IS ON FOR APPROACHES THAT MAKEPROJECTS MORE EFFECTIVE, AND TWOFUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT RESPONSES CAN BEDISTINGUISHED.

ADAPTIVE ADMINISTRATIVE EMPOWERMENT

ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO PROJECTPLANNING

THE SEARCH IS ON FOR APPROACHES THAT MAKEPROJECTS MORE EFFECTIVE, AND TWOFUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT RESPONSES CAN BEDISTINGUISHED.

ADAPTIVE ADMINISTRATIVE EMPOWERMENT


ADAPTIVE ADMINISTRATIONRONDINELLI (1993) HAS MADE AN IMPASSIONED PLEA FOR

DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS TO BE CONCEPTUALIZED AS 'POLICYEXPERIMENTS' REQUIRING 'ADAPTIVE ADMINISTRATION'. HEARGUES THAT AN EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH WHICH PLACESELEMENTS OF PLANNING, IMPLEMENTATION ANDMONITORING IN THE HANDS OF PROJECT MANAGERS, ISESSENTIAL.THIS IS BECAUSE OF THE ENVIRONMENTS IN WHICH

DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS OPERATE (LIMITED INFORMATION,HIGH RISK, UNCERTAINTY AND POLITICAL MANIPULATION)AND THE CAPACITIES THAT ARE REQUIRED TO BECOMEEFFECTIVE IN SUCH ENVIRONMENTS (LEARNING,EXPERIMENTATION, CREATIVITY, ORGANIZATIONALFLEXIBILITY AND ACCESS TO LOCAL KNOWLEDGE).

ADAPTIVE ADMINISTRATIONRONDINELLI (1993) HAS MADE AN IMPASSIONED PLEA FOR

DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS TO BE CONCEPTUALIZED AS 'POLICYEXPERIMENTS' REQUIRING 'ADAPTIVE ADMINISTRATION'. HEARGUES THAT AN EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH WHICH PLACESELEMENTS OF PLANNING, IMPLEMENTATION ANDMONITORING IN THE HANDS OF PROJECT MANAGERS, ISESSENTIAL.THIS IS BECAUSE OF THE ENVIRONMENTS IN WHICH

DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS OPERATE (LIMITED INFORMATION,HIGH RISK, UNCERTAINTY AND POLITICAL MANIPULATION)AND THE CAPACITIES THAT ARE REQUIRED TO BECOMEEFFECTIVE IN SUCH ENVIRONMENTS (LEARNING,EXPERIMENTATION, CREATIVITY, ORGANIZATIONALFLEXIBILITY AND ACCESS TO LOCAL KNOWLEDGE).


EMPOWERMENT

FOR THE OTHER RADICAL CRITICS OF CONVENTIONALAPPROACHES TO PROJECT PLANNING, THE KEY THEMESOF ADAPTIVE ADMINISTRATION –EXPERIMENTATION,FLEXIBILITY, LEARNING AND CREATIVITY –ARE CRUCIAL,BUT THERE REMAINS TOO GREAT AN EMPHASIS ON THEROLE OF EXTERNAL EXPERTS, BUREAUCRATS AND AIDAGENCIES.

INSTEAD, WHAT IS REQUIRED IS AN APPROACH THATPERMITS MUCH GREATER BENEFICIARY INVOLVEMENTIN PROJECT IDENTIFICATION, SELECTION, DESIGN,IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION.

EMPOWERMENT

FOR THE OTHER RADICAL CRITICS OF CONVENTIONALAPPROACHES TO PROJECT PLANNING, THE KEY THEMESOF ADAPTIVE ADMINISTRATION –EXPERIMENTATION,FLEXIBILITY, LEARNING AND CREATIVITY –ARE CRUCIAL,BUT THERE REMAINS TOO GREAT AN EMPHASIS ON THEROLE OF EXTERNAL EXPERTS, BUREAUCRATS AND AIDAGENCIES.

INSTEAD, WHAT IS REQUIRED IS AN APPROACH THATPERMITS MUCH GREATER BENEFICIARY INVOLVEMENTIN PROJECT IDENTIFICATION, SELECTION, DESIGN,IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION.

www.ginandjar.com 59S3-Unpas_2012

ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENTMACRO SECTORALREGIONAL

DECENTRALIZATION SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT PARTICIPATION POLICY DIVERSITY

ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENTMACRO SECTORALREGIONAL

DECENTRALIZATION SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT PARTICIPATION POLICY DIVERSITY


CENTRALIZED DECENTRALIZED

OR

EITHER

CENTRALIZED DECENTRALIZED

CONTINUUM



WHY DECENTRALIZE?

A MAJOR OBSTACLE TO THE EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE OFPUBLIC BUREAUCRACIES IN MOST DEVELOPING COUNTRIESIS THE EXCESSIVE CONCENTRATION OR DECISION-MAKINGAUTHORITY WITHIN CENTRAL GOVERNMENT.PUBLIC SECTOR INSTITUTIONS ARE COMMONLY PERCEIVED

TO BE GEOGRAPHICALLY AND SOCIALLY REMOTE FROM'THE PEOPLE' AND TO TAKE DECISIONS WITHOUTKNOWLEDGE OR CONCERN ABOUT ACTUAL PROBLEMS ANDPREFERENCES.

WHY DECENTRALIZE?

A MAJOR OBSTACLE TO THE EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE OFPUBLIC BUREAUCRACIES IN MOST DEVELOPING COUNTRIESIS THE EXCESSIVE CONCENTRATION OR DECISION-MAKINGAUTHORITY WITHIN CENTRAL GOVERNMENT.PUBLIC SECTOR INSTITUTIONS ARE COMMONLY PERCEIVED

TO BE GEOGRAPHICALLY AND SOCIALLY REMOTE FROM'THE PEOPLE' AND TO TAKE DECISIONS WITHOUTKNOWLEDGE OR CONCERN ABOUT ACTUAL PROBLEMS ANDPREFERENCES.


SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

DECENTRALIZATION IS THE TRANSFER OFAUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY FOR PUBLICFUNCTIONS FROM THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT TOSUBORDINATE OR QUASI-INDEPENDENTGOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND/OR THEPRIVATE SECTOR

(WORLD BANK, 2001)

SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

DECENTRALIZATION IS THE TRANSFER OFAUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY FOR PUBLICFUNCTIONS FROM THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT TOSUBORDINATE OR QUASI-INDEPENDENTGOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND/OR THEPRIVATE SECTOR

(WORLD BANK, 2001)


DECENTRALIZATION

TRANSFER OFAUTHORITY CLOSER

TO THE PUBLIC TO BESERVED

TRANSFER OFAUTHORITY CLOSER

TO THE PUBLIC TO BESERVED

TERRITORIAL FUNCTIONAL


AUTONOMOUS LOCAL GOVERNMENT

LOCAL GOVERNMENT CAN BE SAID TO BEAUTONOMOUS IF THEY ENJOY A SUBSTANTIALDEGREE OF INDEPENDENCE, ALTHOUGH AUTONOMYIN THIS CONNECTION IS SOMETIMES TAKEN TOIMPLY A HIGH MEASURE OF SELF-GOVERNMENT,RATHER THAN SOVEREIGN INDEPENDENCE

(ADAPTED FROM HEYWOOD, 2002)

AUTONOMOUS LOCAL GOVERNMENT

LOCAL GOVERNMENT CAN BE SAID TO BEAUTONOMOUS IF THEY ENJOY A SUBSTANTIALDEGREE OF INDEPENDENCE, ALTHOUGH AUTONOMYIN THIS CONNECTION IS SOMETIMES TAKEN TOIMPLY A HIGH MEASURE OF SELF-GOVERNMENT,RATHER THAN SOVEREIGN INDEPENDENCE

(ADAPTED FROM HEYWOOD, 2002)


TYPES OF DECENTRALIZATION

1. POLITICAL

2. ADMINISTRATIVE

3. FISCAL

4. MARKET

TYPES OF DECENTRALIZATION

1. POLITICAL

2. ADMINISTRATIVE

3. FISCAL

4. MARKET


DECENTRALIZATION AND GOVERNANCE

DECENTRALIZATION IN SOME COUNTRIES HASBEEN SEEN AS POLITICALLY EXPEDIENT FORDEALING WITH REBELLIOUS REGIONS.

IT HAS HOWEVER, MORE BASIC VALUE TODEMOCRACY AND DEMOCRATIC CONSOLIDATION.MANY SCHOLARS HAVE PRESENTED THEARGUMENT THAT DECENTRALIZATION ENHANCESTHE LEGITIMACY, AND HENCE, STABILITY OFDEMOCRACY.

DECENTRALIZATION AND GOVERNANCE

DECENTRALIZATION IN SOME COUNTRIES HASBEEN SEEN AS POLITICALLY EXPEDIENT FORDEALING WITH REBELLIOUS REGIONS.

IT HAS HOWEVER, MORE BASIC VALUE TODEMOCRACY AND DEMOCRATIC CONSOLIDATION.MANY SCHOLARS HAVE PRESENTED THEARGUMENT THAT DECENTRALIZATION ENHANCESTHE LEGITIMACY, AND HENCE, STABILITY OFDEMOCRACY.


DECENTRALIZATION IS NOT JUST A POLITICALNECESSITY FOR KEEPING THE COUNTRY FROM FALLINGAPART OR FOR FOSTERING DEMOCRACY.

IF MANAGED WELL, DECENTRALIZATION CAN BRINGIMPORTANT BENEFITS TO THE COMMUNITIES AND THEECONOMY AS A WHOLE.

HOWEVER, IF MANAGED BADLY, IT COULD HARM THEPEOPLE AND SQUANDER RESOURCES AND BRINGINSTABILITY INSTEAD.

DECENTRALIZATION IS NOT JUST A POLITICALNECESSITY FOR KEEPING THE COUNTRY FROM FALLINGAPART OR FOR FOSTERING DEMOCRACY.

IF MANAGED WELL, DECENTRALIZATION CAN BRINGIMPORTANT BENEFITS TO THE COMMUNITIES AND THEECONOMY AS A WHOLE.

HOWEVER, IF MANAGED BADLY, IT COULD HARM THEPEOPLE AND SQUANDER RESOURCES AND BRINGINSTABILITY INSTEAD.


TRANSFERS OF REVENUE TO THE AUTONOMOUSDISTRICTS MUST BE ACCOMPANIED BY TRANSFERSOF EXPENDITURE RESPONSIBILITY AND ITSASSOCIATED FUNCTIONS. THEY ARE IMPORTANTTO PREVENT THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FISCALDEFICIT TO INCREASE UNABATEDLY CAUSINGSEVERE FINANCING AND DEBT PROBLEMS FOR THECOUNTRY IN THE FUTURE.

TRANSFERS OF REVENUE TO THE AUTONOMOUSDISTRICTS MUST BE ACCOMPANIED BY TRANSFERSOF EXPENDITURE RESPONSIBILITY AND ITSASSOCIATED FUNCTIONS. THEY ARE IMPORTANTTO PREVENT THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FISCALDEFICIT TO INCREASE UNABATEDLY CAUSINGSEVERE FINANCING AND DEBT PROBLEMS FOR THECOUNTRY IN THE FUTURE.


A NORMATIVE APPROACH: GRADUAL/INCREMENTAL PROCESS SYSTEMATIC PREPARATION NORMAL CONDITION IN TERMS OF POLITIC, SOCIAL

AND ECONOMY

A BIG-BANG APPROACH: ONCE FOR ALL LEARNING BY DOING TRANSITION CONDITION IN TERMS POLITIC, SOCIAL

AND ECONOMY

A NORMATIVE APPROACH: GRADUAL/INCREMENTAL PROCESS SYSTEMATIC PREPARATION NORMAL CONDITION IN TERMS OF POLITIC, SOCIAL

AND ECONOMY

A BIG-BANG APPROACH: ONCE FOR ALL LEARNING BY DOING TRANSITION CONDITION IN TERMS POLITIC, SOCIAL

AND ECONOMY


INDONESIA FOLLOWED THE “BIG BANG” APPROACHTO DECENTRALIZATION.

IT STARTED IN 1999, BUT MUCH OF THERESPONSIBILITY FOR PUBLIC SERVICES WASDECENTRALIZED IN 2001 AFTER THE SECONDAMENDMENT TO THE CONSTITUTION IN 2000.

INDONESIA FOLLOWED THE “BIG BANG” APPROACHTO DECENTRALIZATION.

IT STARTED IN 1999, BUT MUCH OF THERESPONSIBILITY FOR PUBLIC SERVICES WASDECENTRALIZED IN 2001 AFTER THE SECONDAMENDMENT TO THE CONSTITUTION IN 2000.


BY THE END OF THE OLD REGIME, AT THE ONSET OF THEDEMOCRATIZATION PROCESS AND POLITICAL REFORMSIN 1999, THERE WERE 26 PROVICES [NOT INCLUDINGEAST TIMOR], 234 DISTRICTS AND 59 MUNICIPALITIES,IN TOTAL 319 AUTONOMOUS REGIONS.

IN 2010, THERE ARE 33 PROVINCES, 398 DISTRICTS AND93 MUNICIPALITIES, IN TOTAL 524 AUTONOMOUSREGIONS, INCREASING IN TEN YEARS BY 205AUTONOMOUS REGIONS OR BY ALMOST TWO THIRD.

BY THE END OF THE OLD REGIME, AT THE ONSET OF THEDEMOCRATIZATION PROCESS AND POLITICAL REFORMSIN 1999, THERE WERE 26 PROVICES [NOT INCLUDINGEAST TIMOR], 234 DISTRICTS AND 59 MUNICIPALITIES,IN TOTAL 319 AUTONOMOUS REGIONS.

IN 2010, THERE ARE 33 PROVINCES, 398 DISTRICTS AND93 MUNICIPALITIES, IN TOTAL 524 AUTONOMOUSREGIONS, INCREASING IN TEN YEARS BY 205AUTONOMOUS REGIONS OR BY ALMOST TWO THIRD.


Desentralisasi 1999% kenaikan

Sebelum Sesudah

Desa 59.834 68.442 8.608 (14,4%)

Kelurahan 5. 935 8.068 2.133 (35,0%)

Kecamatan 5.480 6.519 1.039 (18,9%)

Kabupaten 234 398 164 (70,0%)

Kota 59 93 34 (57,6%)

Provinsi 27 33 6 (22,2%)

Kabupaten:Diluar 1 Kab. Adm. di DKI JakartaKota:Diluar 5 Kota Adm di DKI Jakarta


DISTRIBUTION OF AUTHORITIES AND FUNCTIONSDISTRIBUTION OF AUTHORITIES AND FUNCTIONSCentralCentral Local GovernmentLocal Government

Obligatory FunctionObligatory Function OptionalOptional1. Foreign Affairs1. Foreign Affairs 1. Planning and Monitoring1. Planning and Monitoring 1. Mining1. Mining2. Defense2. Defense 2. Spatial Planning2. Spatial Planning 2. Fishery2. Fishery3. Security3. Security 3. Social order and security3. Social order and security 3. Agriculture3. Agriculture4. Religion4. Religion 4. Public infrastructure services4. Public infrastructure services 4. Farm4. Farm5. Judicial5. Judicial 5. Health Services5. Health Services 5. Forestry5. Forestry6. Monetary and Fiscal6. Monetary and Fiscal 6. Educational Services6. Educational Services 6. Tourism6. Tourism7. Others7. Others 7. Social7. Social

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7. Others7. Others 7. Social7. Social8. Labor8. Labor9. SME’s and Cooperatives9. SME’s and Cooperatives10. Environment10. Environment11. Land (?)11. Land (?)12. Civil administration12. Civil administration13. Government Administration13. Government Administration14. Investment Administration14. Investment Administration15. Other services15. Other services16. Other obligatory function16. Other obligatory function


REVENUES SHARING BETWEEN CENTRAL AND LOCALREVENUES SHARING BETWEEN CENTRAL AND LOCAL

SharedShared--RevenuesRevenues

BeforeBefore AfterAfterCentralCentral ProvinceProvince District/District/

CityCityCentralCentral ProvinceProvince District/District/

CityCityShare toShare toOtherOther

District/District/CityCity

1. Property Tax1. Property Tax 10%10% 16.2%16.2% 64.8%64.8% 16.2%16.2% 64.8%64.8%2. Property Title Transfer Tax2. Property Title Transfer Tax 20%20% 16%16% 64%64% 16%16% 64%64%3. Levy on Forestry Right to3. Levy on Forestry Right to

operateoperate55%55% 30%30% 15%15% 20%20% 16%16% 64%64%

4. Commission on Forestry4. Commission on ForestryResourceResource

55%55% 30%30% 15%15% 20%20% 16%16% 32%32% 32%32%4. Commission on Forestry4. Commission on ForestryResourceResource

5. Land Rent on Mining Sector5. Land Rent on Mining Sector 20%20% 16%16% 64%64% 20%20% 16%16% 64%64%6. Royalties from Mining Sector6. Royalties from Mining Sector 20%20% 16%16% 64%64% 20%20% 16%16% 32%32% 32%32%7. Tax on Fisheries Operation7. Tax on Fisheries Operation 100%100% 20%20% 80%80%8. Tax on Fisheries Output8. Tax on Fisheries Output 100%100% 20%20% 80%80%

9. Oil Revenues9. Oil Revenues 100%100% 85%85% 3%3% 6%6% 6%6%

10. Natural gas Revenues10. Natural gas Revenues 100%100% 70%70% 6%6% 12%12% 12%12%

11. Personal Income Tax11. Personal Income Tax 100%100% 80%80% 8%8% 12%12%

Source: Government Regulation No. 104/2000 and Law No. 17/2003


SUBSTANTIAL AMOUNT OF GOVERNMENT BUDGET HAS BEENTRANSFERRED TO THE REGIONS.

FOR 2012, ALMOST ONE THIRD [32.8%] OR $52 BILLION ISDIRECT TRANSFER TO THE AUTONOMOUS REGIONS’ BUDGET,IN THE FORM OF NATURAL RESOURCES SHARING FUND FOR$11 BILLION, GENERAL ALLOCATION FUND FOR $30 BILLION,SPECIAL ALLOCATION FUND FOR $3 BILLION AND SPECIALAUTONOMY FUND FOR THE TWO PAPUA PROVINCES ANDACEH, $1.3 BILLION, AND ADJUSTMENT FUND [FORINFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT] FOR $6.5 BILLION.

BUT OVERALL GOVERNMENT BUDGET THAT GOES TO THEREGIONS THROUGH VARIOUS SCHEMES IS MUCH HIGHER,CLOSE TO TWO THIRD [62%].

SUBSTANTIAL AMOUNT OF GOVERNMENT BUDGET HAS BEENTRANSFERRED TO THE REGIONS.

FOR 2012, ALMOST ONE THIRD [32.8%] OR $52 BILLION ISDIRECT TRANSFER TO THE AUTONOMOUS REGIONS’ BUDGET,IN THE FORM OF NATURAL RESOURCES SHARING FUND FOR$11 BILLION, GENERAL ALLOCATION FUND FOR $30 BILLION,SPECIAL ALLOCATION FUND FOR $3 BILLION AND SPECIALAUTONOMY FUND FOR THE TWO PAPUA PROVINCES ANDACEH, $1.3 BILLION, AND ADJUSTMENT FUND [FORINFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT] FOR $6.5 BILLION.

BUT OVERALL GOVERNMENT BUDGET THAT GOES TO THEREGIONS THROUGH VARIOUS SCHEMES IS MUCH HIGHER,CLOSE TO TWO THIRD [62%].


GROWTH OF GENERAL ALOCATION FUND (GAF)GROWTH OF GENERAL ALOCATION FUND (GAF)VS AVERAGE FOR LOCAL GOVERNMENTVS AVERAGE FOR LOCAL GOVERNMENT

TOTALGROWTH AVERAGE GROWTH

SOURCE: MOF, 2011


GROWTH OF GOVERNMENT EMPLOYEESGROWTH OF GOVERNMENT EMPLOYEES

SOURCE: MOF, 2011


GOOD THEORY POOR PRACTICEGOOD THEORY POOR PRACTICE


POOR PRACTICEGOOD THEORY

• Basic Human Rights

• Democracy

• Decision Making

• Participation :i. Grass Root,ii. Empowerment,

iii. Responsiveness

• Prevent disintegration

• Disunity

• Warlordism

• Nepotism

• Exclusivism

• Local Elites

GOOD THEORY

• Basic Human Rights

• Democracy

• Decision Making

• Participation :i. Grass Root,ii. Empowerment,

iii. Responsiveness

• Prevent disintegration

• Disunity

• Warlordism

• Nepotism

• Exclusivism

• Local Elites



• Debureaucratization• Efficiency• Effectiveness• Span of Control• License and Permit• Client Interaction• Representativeness• Populism/Pluralism• Differentiated Public• Better:

i. Planningii. Executioniii. Supervisioniv. Monitoring

• Weak Institution

• Limited Human

Resources

• Unclear Responsibility

• Decentralization of

corruption

GOOD THEORY

• Debureaucratization• Efficiency• Effectiveness• Span of Control• License and Permit• Client Interaction• Representativeness• Populism/Pluralism• Differentiated Public• Better:

i. Planningii. Executioniii. Supervisioniv. Monitoring

• Weak Institution

• Limited Human

Resources

• Unclear Responsibility

• Decentralization of

corruption



• Efficiency• Resource Optimization• Equity

i. Resource allocation/distributionii. Povertyiii.Closing disparityiv.Opportunityv. Empowerment

• Demonopolization• Entrepreneurship• Environment• Inter-Regional Cooperation• Inter-Regional Competition• Ownership of Development

• Rich Region Richer• Poor Region Poorer• Regional Barrier to

Commerce• Environment knows no

Administrative border• National vs Local Rules• National vs Local Taxes

GOOD THEORY

• Efficiency• Resource Optimization• Equity

i. Resource allocation/distributionii. Povertyiii.Closing disparityiv.Opportunityv. Empowerment

• Demonopolization• Entrepreneurship• Environment• Inter-Regional Cooperation• Inter-Regional Competition• Ownership of Development

• Rich Region Richer• Poor Region Poorer• Regional Barrier to

Commerce• Environment knows no

Administrative border• National vs Local Rules• National vs Local Taxes



• Efficiency in Delivery ofi. Educationii. Healthiii. Other socialServices.

• Local Capabilities inService Delivery• Responsive to Local

i. Needsii. Potentialiii. Shortcomings

• Social Cohessivenes• Social Solidarity

• Different Level & Qualityofi. Educationii. Healthiii. SocialServices.

• Social Immobility

GOOD THEORY

• Efficiency in Delivery ofi. Educationii. Healthiii. Other socialServices.

• Local Capabilities inService Delivery• Responsive to Local

i. Needsii. Potentialiii. Shortcomings

• Social Cohessivenes• Social Solidarity

• Different Level & Qualityofi. Educationii. Healthiii. SocialServices.

• Social Immobility



• Plurality• Diversity• Preservation of local:

i. Languageii. Artsiii. Tradition• Dignity• Self Esteem• Confidence• Local Wisdom

• Primordialism

• Local vs Modern Values

GOOD THEORY

• Plurality• Diversity• Preservation of local:

i. Languageii. Artsiii. Tradition• Dignity• Self Esteem• Confidence• Local Wisdom

• Primordialism

• Local vs Modern Values


TATA RUANG PADA HAKIKATNYA MERUPAKANLINGKUNGAN FISIK YANG MEMPUNYAI HUBUNGANORGANISATORIS / FUNGSIONAL ANTARA BERBAGAIMACAM OBYEK DAN MANUSIA YANG TERPISAHDALAM RUANG – RUANG (RAPOPORT, 1980).

DI DALAM TATA RUANG TERDAPAT SUATU DISTRIBUSIDARI TINDAKAN MANUSIA DAN KEGIATANNYA UNTUKMENCAPAI TUJUAN SEBAGAIMANA DIRUMUSKANSEBELUMNYA. TATA RUANG DALAM HAL INI,MENURUT WETZING (1978), MERUPAKAN JABATARANDARI SUATU PRODUK PERENCANAAN FISIK.

TATA RUANG PADA HAKIKATNYA MERUPAKANLINGKUNGAN FISIK YANG MEMPUNYAI HUBUNGANORGANISATORIS / FUNGSIONAL ANTARA BERBAGAIMACAM OBYEK DAN MANUSIA YANG TERPISAHDALAM RUANG – RUANG (RAPOPORT, 1980).

DI DALAM TATA RUANG TERDAPAT SUATU DISTRIBUSIDARI TINDAKAN MANUSIA DAN KEGIATANNYA UNTUKMENCAPAI TUJUAN SEBAGAIMANA DIRUMUSKANSEBELUMNYA. TATA RUANG DALAM HAL INI,MENURUT WETZING (1978), MERUPAKAN JABATARANDARI SUATU PRODUK PERENCANAAN FISIK.


KONSEPSI TATA RUANG INI TIDAK HANYAMENYANGKUT SUATU WAWASAN YANG DISEBUTWAWASAN SPASIAL, TETAPI MENYANGKUT PULAASPEK – ASPEK NON SPASIAL ATAU A-SPASIAL(FOLEY, 1970). HAL INI DIDASARKAN PADAKENYATAAN BAHWA STRUKTUR FISIKS ANGATDITENTUKAN DAN DIPENGARUHI OLEH FAKTOR –FAKTOR NONFISIK SEPERTI ORGANISASIFUNGSIONAL, POLA SOSIAL BUDAYA, DAN NILAIKEHIDUPAN KOMUNITAS (PORTEOUS, 1981).

KONSEPSI TATA RUANG INI TIDAK HANYAMENYANGKUT SUATU WAWASAN YANG DISEBUTWAWASAN SPASIAL, TETAPI MENYANGKUT PULAASPEK – ASPEK NON SPASIAL ATAU A-SPASIAL(FOLEY, 1970). HAL INI DIDASARKAN PADAKENYATAAN BAHWA STRUKTUR FISIKS ANGATDITENTUKAN DAN DIPENGARUHI OLEH FAKTOR –FAKTOR NONFISIK SEPERTI ORGANISASIFUNGSIONAL, POLA SOSIAL BUDAYA, DAN NILAIKEHIDUPAN KOMUNITAS (PORTEOUS, 1981).


PENATAAN RUANG SECARA UMUM MEMILIKIPENGERTIAN SEBAGAI SUATU PROSES YANGMELIPUTI PROSES PERENCANAAN, PELAKSANAANATAU PEMANFAATAN TATA RUANG, DANPENGENDALIAN PELAKSANAAN ATAUPEMANFAATAN RUANG YANG TERKAIT SATUDENGAN LAINNYA.

PENATAAN RUANG SECARA UMUM MEMILIKIPENGERTIAN SEBAGAI SUATU PROSES YANGMELIPUTI PROSES PERENCANAAN, PELAKSANAANATAU PEMANFAATAN TATA RUANG, DANPENGENDALIAN PELAKSANAAN ATAUPEMANFAATAN RUANG YANG TERKAIT SATUDENGAN LAINNYA.


BERDASARKAN KONSEPSI INI, PENATAAN RUANGDAPAT DISEBUTKAN SECARA LEBIH SPESIFIKSEBAGAI UPAYA MEWUJUDKAN TATA RUANG YANGTERENCANA, DENGAN MEMPERHATIKAN: KEADAAN LINGKUNGAN ALAM, LINGKUNGAN BUATAN, LINGKUNGAN SOSIAL, INTERAKSI ANTAR LINGKUNGAN, TAHAPAN DAN PENGELOLAAN PEMBANGUNAN, KEMAMPUAN KELEMBAGAAN DAN SUMBER DAYA

MANUSIA.

BERDASARKAN KONSEPSI INI, PENATAAN RUANGDAPAT DISEBUTKAN SECARA LEBIH SPESIFIKSEBAGAI UPAYA MEWUJUDKAN TATA RUANG YANGTERENCANA, DENGAN MEMPERHATIKAN: KEADAAN LINGKUNGAN ALAM, LINGKUNGAN BUATAN, LINGKUNGAN SOSIAL, INTERAKSI ANTAR LINGKUNGAN, TAHAPAN DAN PENGELOLAAN PEMBANGUNAN, KEMAMPUAN KELEMBAGAAN DAN SUMBER DAYA

MANUSIA.


SALAH SATU KARAKTERISTIK ATAU CIRI SISTEMADMINISTRASI MODERN ADALAH BAHWAPENGAMBILAN KEPUTUSAN DILAKUKAN SEDAPAT –DAPATNYA PADA TINGKAT YANG PALING BAWAH(GRASS-ROOT LEVEL).

DALAM HAL INI MASYARAKAT, BERSAMA – SAMADENGAN APARATUR PEMERINTAH, MENJADISTAKEHOLDER DALAM PERUMUSAN, IMPLEMENTASI,DAN EVALUASI DARIS ETIAP UPAYA PEMBANGUNAN.DENGAN MENINGKATNYA PENDIDIKAN, MASYARAKATAKAN MENJADI SEMAKIN TERBUKA, SEMAKIN MAJUDAN MODERN.

95

SALAH SATU KARAKTERISTIK ATAU CIRI SISTEMADMINISTRASI MODERN ADALAH BAHWAPENGAMBILAN KEPUTUSAN DILAKUKAN SEDAPAT –DAPATNYA PADA TINGKAT YANG PALING BAWAH(GRASS-ROOT LEVEL).

DALAM HAL INI MASYARAKAT, BERSAMA – SAMADENGAN APARATUR PEMERINTAH, MENJADISTAKEHOLDER DALAM PERUMUSAN, IMPLEMENTASI,DAN EVALUASI DARIS ETIAP UPAYA PEMBANGUNAN.DENGAN MENINGKATNYA PENDIDIKAN, MASYARAKATAKAN MENJADI SEMAKIN TERBUKA, SEMAKIN MAJUDAN MODERN.


DALAM KONDISI SEPERTI INI, MASYARAKAT TIDAKAKAN PUAS DENGAN HANYA MENDEGAR DANMELAKSANAKAN PETUNJUK, TETAPI JUGA INGIN IKUTBERPARTISIPASI DALAM PEMBANGUNAN DANMENENTUKAN NASIB MEREKA SENDIRI.

PEMBANGUNAN YANG MEMBERI KESEMPATAN DANBERTUMPU PADA MASYARAKAT TELAH MENJADIPARADIGMA PEMBANGUNAN YANG SEKARANGBERKEMBANG DAN DIANUT SECARA LUAS(KARTASASMITA, 1996B).

96

DALAM KONDISI SEPERTI INI, MASYARAKAT TIDAKAKAN PUAS DENGAN HANYA MENDEGAR DANMELAKSANAKAN PETUNJUK, TETAPI JUGA INGIN IKUTBERPARTISIPASI DALAM PEMBANGUNAN DANMENENTUKAN NASIB MEREKA SENDIRI.

PEMBANGUNAN YANG MEMBERI KESEMPATAN DANBERTUMPU PADA MASYARAKAT TELAH MENJADIPARADIGMA PEMBANGUNAN YANG SEKARANGBERKEMBANG DAN DIANUT SECARA LUAS(KARTASASMITA, 1996B).


SEBAGAI IMPLIKASI DARI DIMENSI ADMINISTRASI DALAMPEMBANGUNAN DAERAH YANG DIKAITKAN DENGANKEMAJEMUKAN ADALAH DIMUNGKINKANNYAKERAGAMAN DALAM KEBIJAKSANAAN (POLICY DIVERSITY).DARI SEGI PERENCANAAN PEMBANGUNAN HARUSDIPAHAMI BAHWA SATU DAERAH BERBEDA DENGANDAERAH LAINNYA.

TAK ADA SATU PUN DAERAH YANG MEMILIKIKARAKTERISTIK YANG SAMA, BAIK DARI POTENSI EKONOMI,SUMBER DAYA MANUSIA, MAUPUN KELEMBAGAANMASYARAKATNYA. DISAMPING ITU, PREMIS BAHWAPEMERINTAHAN DI DAERAH LEBIH MENGETAHUIPERMASALAHAN DAERAHNYA SEMAKIN MENGUAT.

98

SEBAGAI IMPLIKASI DARI DIMENSI ADMINISTRASI DALAMPEMBANGUNAN DAERAH YANG DIKAITKAN DENGANKEMAJEMUKAN ADALAH DIMUNGKINKANNYAKERAGAMAN DALAM KEBIJAKSANAAN (POLICY DIVERSITY).DARI SEGI PERENCANAAN PEMBANGUNAN HARUSDIPAHAMI BAHWA SATU DAERAH BERBEDA DENGANDAERAH LAINNYA.

TAK ADA SATU PUN DAERAH YANG MEMILIKIKARAKTERISTIK YANG SAMA, BAIK DARI POTENSI EKONOMI,SUMBER DAYA MANUSIA, MAUPUN KELEMBAGAANMASYARAKATNYA. DISAMPING ITU, PREMIS BAHWAPEMERINTAHAN DI DAERAH LEBIH MENGETAHUIPERMASALAHAN DAERAHNYA SEMAKIN MENGUAT.


DALAM KERANGKA INI, KEBIJAKSANAAN YANG BERSIFATNASIONAL HARUS LUWES (FLEXIBLE), AGAR APARATPEMERINTAH DIBAWAHNYA DAPAT MENGEMBANGKANDAN MEMODIFIKASI KEBIJAKSANAAN TERSEBUT SESUAIDENGAN KONDISI MASING – MASING WILAYAH (HEAPHY,1971).

UNTUK ITU, KEBIJAKSANAAN NASIONAL HARUSMEMAHAMI KARAKTERISTIK DAERAH DALAMMEMPERTIMBANGKAN POTENSI PEMBANGUNAN DIDAERAH TERUTAMA DALAM KEBIJAKSANAAN INVESTASISARANA DAN PRASARANA GUNA MERANGSANGBERKEMBANGNYA KEGIATAN EKONOMI DAERAH.

99

DALAM KERANGKA INI, KEBIJAKSANAAN YANG BERSIFATNASIONAL HARUS LUWES (FLEXIBLE), AGAR APARATPEMERINTAH DIBAWAHNYA DAPAT MENGEMBANGKANDAN MEMODIFIKASI KEBIJAKSANAAN TERSEBUT SESUAIDENGAN KONDISI MASING – MASING WILAYAH (HEAPHY,1971).

UNTUK ITU, KEBIJAKSANAAN NASIONAL HARUSMEMAHAMI KARAKTERISTIK DAERAH DALAMMEMPERTIMBANGKAN POTENSI PEMBANGUNAN DIDAERAH TERUTAMA DALAM KEBIJAKSANAAN INVESTASISARANA DAN PRASARANA GUNA MERANGSANGBERKEMBANGNYA KEGIATAN EKONOMI DAERAH.


Technology

Development Administration chapter 6 (UNPAS 2012)