Jai shree ram

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WEL- COME

3

University of Horticultural Sciences, BagalkotKittur Rani Channamma College of

Horticulture, Arabhavi

Seminar-II

MYCOTOXINS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS

By: Archana A. Madalgi UHS12PGM223

04/12/2023

404/12/2023

Topic division

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Mycus = Fungus / Mold

Toxicum = Poision

Mycotoxins are toxic substances / secondary metabolites produced by fungi (molds)

growing on crops in the field and in storage.

(Phreusa, 2009)

What are Mycotoxins?

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.

Terminologies Mycotoxicosis is used to describe the action

characterized as:

Acute mycotoxicosis- high dose and rapid

Chronic mycotoxicosis- slow development of infection

(Harvey et al., 1991)

Mycosis - generalized invasion of living tissue

Toxicoses – injection of toxic secondary metabolites

Mycetism - poisoning of organisms

(Osborne et al., 1982)

(McKinney et al., 1973)

(Phillips et al., 2007)

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Turkey X Disease

Death of about 100,000 turkey poultry birds ---- United Kingdom in 1960 ----ingestion of a poultry feed containing Brazilian groundnut cake---- AFLATOXIN

Chemical and microbiological investigations ---- toxic effects produced by the Brazilian groundnut cake ---- presence of quantities of four secondary metabolites ---- Aspergillus flavus in the diet

7

(Agrios, 2000)

History

8

1093 in France - holy fire – - St. Anthony’s fire - Ergot of rye - Claviceps purpurea - Ergot alkaloids -

Russia in 1926, Ireland in 1929, France in 1953, India in 1958, and Ethiopia in 1973

ERGOTISM

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• Alimentary Toxic Aleukia in Russia during World War 2 (T-2) death of > 50000 soldiers

• 1930 ---- Moldy rice in Japan - > 15000 people suffered

• 1972 in China – 800 persons affected due to consumption of moldy sugar cane

• Gibberella ear rot – contaminated beer– vomitoxin and zearalenone – cattle's, swine, chickens, horses, dog , fishes and humans in Canada

• Fusarium toxins - in Virginia – Crazy horse disease- swelling of respiratory system in - human cancers

• Dog Food- burning and death - Aflatoxin Poisoning 2006 in Kenya

Cont…

(Agrios, 2000)

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Why are they important?

• Destroy crops and causes economic loss• Ingested through contaminated food• Cancer, birth defects, liver damage, and nervous

tissue damage, etc.• Not destroyed in normal cooking procedures.• Played an important role in some historical events• Annual losses - $5 billion

(Paterson et al., 2011)

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Where do they come from ?

Moisture in crops Contamination during

Handling Storage Processing of foods

Fungi present in air, water, food and dust

(Lima et al., 2009)

12

Extreme precipitation, storms and floods

Cause moist conditions

Drought Weakens seed kernels of plants,

allowing greater fungal contamination

Increased temperatures Promote fungal growth

(WHO, 2009)

Mycotoxin and climate change

Determination of mycotoxins

Presumptive tests

Biological assays

Chemical analysis

(Miraglia et al., 2009)

HPLC- MS Test

15

Fig 1:- ELISA kit for the determination of mycotoxins. Hexagon-triangles enzyme- mycotoxin conjugate, triangles free mycotoxin, Y- anti mycotoxin antibody.

ELISA Test Kit

(Varma et al., 2010)

Examination of Fungal Colonies under UV Light

Fig 2 :- Two non-aflatoxigenic (top colonies) and one aflatoxigenic (bottom colony) strainsof parasiticus visualized (a) under visible light; (b) 365 nm UV light. The ring around the aflatoxigenic strain displays blue fluorescence; (c) room temperature phosphorescence was photographed with a digital camera with a 2.5mp exposure after switching-off the UV lamp. (Rojas et al., 2007)

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Lateral Flow Immunochromatography

(Vishay et al., 2009)

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Groups of mycotoxins

Aflatoxins

Ergot alkoloids

Ochratoxins

Patulin

Fusarium toxins

Zearalenone (Abid et al., 2003)

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Mycotoxin Fruits, vegetables

Cereals Milk and milk

products

Coffee, wine

Nuts, spices

Baby food

AflatoxinsB1B2G1G2

Aflatoxin M1

Trichothecenes (DON, T2 toxins)

Zearalenone

OTA Patulin

Mycotoxin distribution

(Kofi, 2009)

20Fig 3:- MODE OF ACTIONS OF MYCOTOXINS

(Miraglia et al., 2009)

Producing: Aspergillus flavus and A parasiticus

Important metabolite is Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, M1

Warm temperature conditions favours the development

Potential sources tomato, chilli, cocoa, coffee, groundnut, soybean, corn, milk and milk products, meat etc....

Effects: Inhibit protein synthesisTumour cell development cancer cause mutation cell toxicity liver damage

AFLATOXINS

(Williams et al., 2004)

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Aspergillus Growth on Corn

Aspergillus parasiticus

Conditions favorable for Aspergillus— High moisture — Drought stress — Insect damage

Aflatoxin B1 (Williams et al., 2004)

A. fumigatus A. nidulus A. niger

A. oryzae A. clavatus A. flavus

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R1

R2

R3

R4

AB

D C

R1

R1

R1

(A) The B-type aflatoxins are characterized by a cyclopentane E-ring. These compounds have a blue fluorescence under long-wavelength ultraviolet light.

(B) The G-type aflatoxins, with a green fluorescence, have a xanthone ring in place of the cyclopentane.

(C) Aflatoxins of the B2 and G2 type have a saturated bis-furanyl ring. Only the bis-furan is shown.

(D) Aflatoxin of the B1a and G1a type have a hydrated bis-furanyl structure.

Chemical structure of aflatoxins

(Abid et al., 2003)

AF binds to DNA

25

Aflatoxin B1 binds to DNA at the guanine base in liver cells, corrupting the genetic code that regulates cell growth. Out- of- control cells grow into tumors that eventually become cancerous.

(Hsieh, 2009, Lowa)

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Table 1:-Acceptable levels of Aflatoxins in Food & Feeds (Source: www.fda.gov)

Action Level Commodity

Species

0.5 ppb Afla M1 Milk Humans

20 ppb Any food Humans

20 ppb Feed All species of animals

Exceptions:

300 ppb Cotton seed Meal used in Feed All species of animals

300 ppb Corn Beef Cattles

200 ppb Corn Swine

100 ppb Corn Breeding Cattle, breeding swine, and mature poultry

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Aflatoxins contamination in chilli samples from Pakistan

R. Russell and M. Paterson

April 2006, Pakistan

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Table 2: Description of the chilli samples used in this study

Samplenumber

Sample Location Aspergillusflavus (cfu)

Total aflatoxin(µg/kg)

1 G Karachi 0 96.2

2 G Islamabad 0 66.1

3 G Islamabad 103 61.3

4 G Islamabad 103 48.9

5 G Faislabad 102 46.8

6 G Islamabad 104 40.1

7 G Lahore 103 34.3

8 G Lahore 2×102 25.5

9 G Faislabad 9×102 6.8

10 P Peshwar 2×102 6.6

11 P Karachi 6×102 1.7

12 P Lahore 2×101 0.2

13 P Lahore 2×100 0.1

(Russell and Paterson, 2007, Pakistan)

G- Ground chilli P- chilli pods

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Aflatoxin Contamination of Red Chili Pepper From Bolivia and Peru, Countries with High Gallbladder Cancer Incidence Rates

Takao Asai, Yasuo Tsuchiya, Kiyoshi Okan, Alejandro Piscoya, Carlos Yoshito Nishi, Toshikazu Ikoma, Tomizo Oyama, Kikuo Ikegami, Masaharu Yamamoto

Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, Vol.13, Peru, 2012

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Table 3: Concentrations and Recovery Rates of Aflaoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2

Red chili peppers Aflatoxins (μg/Kg)

B1 B2 G1 G2

Bolivia (1) N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D.

(2) N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D.

(3) 11.3 0.6 N.D. N.D.

Peru (1) 0.9 N.D. N.D. N.D.

(2) N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D.

(3) N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D.

China (1) 0.7 N.D. N.D. N.D.

(2) N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D.

(3) 2.3 N.D. N.D. N.D.

Japan (1) N.D. N.D. N.D. N.D.

Recovery rate (%) 102.1 101.6 103.6 109.1

(Takao et al., 2012 , Peru)

N.D.:- Not detected

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Fig 4 : HPLC Chromatograms of Each 10 μg/Kg Portion of Aflatoxin Standard (A) Bolivian Red Chili Pepper (B).Aflatoxins B1 and B2 were detected at concentrations of 11.3 and 0.6 μg/Kg, respectively.

(Takao et al., 2012 , Peru)

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Control AFB1

Effects of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on Liver of chickens

(Severe periportal cytoplasmic vacuolation of hepatocytes)

(Hsieh, 2009, Lowa)

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Liver damage in chickens

Aflatoxin Control

(Hsieh, 2009, Lowa)

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Tumor induction in fishes

(Santis, 2008)

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Effects of aflatoxin on pigmentation

(Aflatoxin +) (Aflatoxin -)

(Doerr et al., 1993)

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Ochratoxin AProduced by –Penicillium and Aspergillus

Growing in different climates and on different plants - contamination of food crops

Outbreaks of Balkan nephropathy, a fatal chronic renal disease

(Petkova and Castegnarom, 1985)

Found in a wide range of human foods such as cereals, beer, wine, cocoa, coffee, dried vine fruit, spices and in meat products.

(Abdel et al., 1999)

Mode of action :- deformation of cells by producing phenyl - alanine

In food is widespread and shown nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, and carcinogenic

(Aish et al., 2000, U.K.)

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Structure of ochratoxin

(Aish et al., 2000, U.K.)

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Effects of OA on Pigmentation

OA +

OA -

(Turner et al., 2007)

04/12/2023 39(Phillips et al., 2007, U.S.A.)

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Fusarium toxins The fuminosins ---- due to outbreak of equine leukoencephalomalacia in South Africa in 1970

Produced by > 11 species of the fungus Fusarium ( F. roseum, F. oxysporum, F. ricinctum

F. graminearum etc..)

Divided into structurally distinct groups, four of which have been designated A, B, C and P fuminosins

Disrupt sphingo lipid metabolism

FB1 implicated in neural tube defects in Texas population consuming corn (1989 – 1991)

Moisture >23%; Temp – 28ºC

Water soluble

Esophageal cancer

(Marasas, 2001)

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SPHINGOLIPIDS Found in membranes, brain, nerves

Functions include:

• Internalization of lipids & proteins

• Cell-cell communication

• Regulation of cell surface receptors

• Regulation of ion pumps

(Rheeder et al., 2002)

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04/12/2023 42

Palmitoyl-CoA + Serine

Sphinganine

Ceramide

SphingolipidsSphingosineturnover

FB1 acyltransferase

acyltransferase

Mechanism of Toxic Action of FB1 - disruption of sphingolipid biosynthesis (Broomhead et al., 2002, USA)

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Effect of FB1 on ducklings

Control (3.5 kg wt.)

(Musser and Plattener, 1997)

400 µg/kg FB- 1 toxin injected (900mg wt.)

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Fig 6:- Fuminosin Induced Equine Leucoencephalomalacia (Diaz et al., 2000)

TrichothecenesProduced by Trichothicium, Fusarium tricinctum (T-2 toxins), Fusarium graminearum (vomitoxin or DON)

Cellular level – Primary inhibition of protein synthesis

Disruption of DNA and RNA synthesis

Oral lesions, poor growth, abnormal feathering, decreased egg production, poor egg shell quality, regression of bursa of Fabricius

Vomitoxin (DON)

(Leeson et al., 1995)

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Fig 7 :- Effects of T-2 on Growth of the chickens

Control (5.6 kg ) T-2 toxin 550µg/kg affected (1.9kg)

(Leeson et al., 1995)

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Fig 8 :- Oral Lesions on chickens caused by T-2 toxin

(Leeson et al., 1995)

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ERGOT ALKALOIDS

The 40 ergot alkaloids -- Claviceps purpurea can be divided into three groups:

Lysergic acid (e.g. ergotamine and ergocristine)

Isolysergic acid (e.g. ergotaminine)

Dimethylergoline (clavines, e.g. agroclavine)

Medicinally important indole alkaloids

Derived from amino acid tryptophan

48(Swamy and Devegowda, 1998)

Indole

Tryptamine

Tryptophan

NH

NH

CH2 CH2

NH2

NH

CH2 CH

NH2

COOH

(Swamy and Devegowda, 1998)

Zearalenone• First described in US 1920s

• F-2 toxin

• Fusarium roseum,

F. tricinctum, F. gibbosum,

F. oxysporum, F. moniliforme

• Source - corn, wheat, barley, oats, sorghum, tomato, beans , cucurbits, okra, spinach etc...

(Huff and Ruff, 1982)

Zearalenone

Phenolic compound

Zearanol (zearalenol)

Moisture - > 23%

Temp – 12 - 25 C,

Affects on reproductory system – hormonal imbalance in mammals

(Huff and Ruff, 1982)

Effects of ZEN on humans

Dose Clinical Lesions

1 µg/day Vulva swelling

6 µg/day Smaller litter size

12.6 µg/day Prevention of early featal development

(Sundlof and Strickland, 1986)

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Co- occurrence of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone in Capsicum powder samples available in the Spanish market

L. Santos, S. Marin, V. Sanchis and A. J. Ramos

Spain 2010

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Fig 9 : Aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone distribution in Capsicum

powder samples (Santos et al., 2010, Spain)

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Patulin is produced by Penicillium clariform, P. expansum, P. patulum and by Aspergillus spp

Sources :- Bread, sausage, fruits (apricots, grapes, peaches, pears, and apples), and apple juice

Carcinogenic toxin and responsible for subcutaneous sarcoma

Affects on nervous system

The allowable daily intake limit is 0.4 g/kg body weight

Patulin

(Smith et al., 1994)

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Hippocampus Midbrain Hypothalamus Cortex Striatum Pons & Medulla Cerebellum

981 ± 7.1 557 ± 402 655 ± 3.7 216 ± 1.3 815 ± 4.7 508 ± 3.5 384 ± 1.5 Control

2 weeks

1107 ± 9.4 575 ± 6.3 961 ± 4.9 296 ± 2.5 1119 ± 6.3 630 ± 2.9 341 ± 2.9 Mean ±

S.E12.84% 3.23% 46.72% 37.04% 37.30% 24.02% -11.20% %change

* n.s *** *** *** ** * significant

838 ± 6.3 500 ± 3.1 612 ± 4.0 238 ± 2.0 824 ± 3.1 532 ± 3.1 433 ± 1.9 Control

4 weeks

987 ± 6.6 526 ± 4.7 834 ± 906 267 ± 1.9 924 ± 503 660 ± 5.0 412 ± 3.3 Mean ±

S.E17.78% 5.2 36.27% 12.18% 12.14 24.06% -4.95% %change

* n.s *** * * ** n.s significant

667 ± 4.5 403 ± 2.7 608 ± 5.1 187 ± 1.2 634 ± 2.7 565 ± 2.7 314 ± 3.2 Control

6 weeks

863 ± 5.6 397 ± 2.1 846 ± 7.0 237 ± 1.5 822 ± 3.5 664 ± 3.2 320 ± 5.6 Mean ± S.E

29.39% -1.49% 39.14% 26.74% 29.65 17.52 +1.88% %change

*** n.s *** *** *** * n.s significant

n.s. non-significant change according to Student,s T-test.* significant change ( P< 0.05 ) according to Student ,s T-test.** highly significant change ( p< 0.01 ) according to Student ,s T-test.*** more highly significant change ( p<0.001 ) according to Student ,s T-test.

(Hazmi et al., 2009, Cairo)

Table 6: Effect of chronic oral administration of apple juice contaminated with patulin (152.5 µg/kg) on dopamine (DA) content in the different brain areas of albino mice. (Hazmi et al., 2009, Cairo)

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SCREENING OF MYCOTOXINS IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES GROWN IN SINDH, PAKISTAN

Najmus Sahar, Mubarik Ahmed, Zahida Parveen, Amber Ilyas and Abbas Bhutto

Pak. J. Bot., 41(1): 337-341, 2009, Karachi

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Table 7: Qualitative analysis of Aflatoxin in fruits and vegetables samples by TLC method

S. No. Name of sample No. of samplesanalyzed

Observation Type of aflatoxins

1 Tomato 3 Aflatoxin B1

2 Potato 2 ND ND

3 Peas 4 ND ND

4 Beet Root 3 ND ND

5 Pumpkin 4 Aflatoxin G1

6 Garlic 3 ND ND

7 Ginger 3 ND ND

8 Onion 3 ND ND

9 Chillies (powder) 4 Aflatoxin B1

10 Carrot 2 ND ND

11 Coriander(dry) 3 Aflatoxin B1

12 Cucumber 3 Aflatoxin B1

13 Grapes 3 ND ND

14 Pomegranate 3 ND ND

15 Persimmon 3 Aflatoxin G1

16 Peanuts(dry) 4 Aflatoxin B1

17 Dates 3 ND ND

18 Peach(dry) 3 Aflatoxin B1

(Najmus 2009, karachi)

ND:Not Detected

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Table 8:- Aflatoxin contamination in medicinally important dried rhizomes samples

(Anju and Geeta, 2008, Jammu)

Plants Samples analyzed

Positive sample(%)

Range of contamination (µg/g)

AF B1 AF B2 AF B1 AF B2

Acorus calamus 26 26.9 34.6 15.55-5.11 0.14-2.01

Bergenia ciliata 24 8.3 ---- 0.10-0.61 --------

Curcuma longa 27 37 22.2 0.30-8.31 0.13-0.70

Zinziber officinale 27 11.1 14.8 0.23-0.38 0.07-0.19

AFB- Aflatoxin B

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Ecological aspects of distribution of potentialtoxin-producing micromycetes on stored apple fruit

• Objective :- To investigate the ecological aspects of contamination of stored apples and to elucidate the potential toxin producing micromycetes

• Materials and methods

• There were inspected 300 fruits (100 from each of three replicate trees) of the same maturity, size and free of physical damage and fungal infection in each control plot.

• The yield was kept in a storehouse with controlled storage conditions: the temperature was adjusted to 0–2 °C and relative air humidity to 90%

• The orchard management activities and fungicide spray program were carried out according to recommendations accepted at the Lithuanian Institute of Horticulture

• Microbial contamination was tested immediately after apple harvesting and after three months of storage in a storehouse

• To isolate micromycetes, 1 cm2 pieces of apples were plated onto Malt, Czapek Dox and Potatoes Dextrose agars. Plates were incubated at 26 ± 2 °C for seven days in the dark.

• Grown fungi were isolated . • The identification was performed according to particular manuals . • The distribution frequency (%) was calculated

(Alma and Elena, 2006, Lithuania)

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Table 9: Distribution of fungi on healthy and rotten apple fruits

Fungal species Distribution frequency, %

Healthy fruits Rotten fruits

Acremonium roseum 4 0

Alternaria alternata 0 22

Aspergillus niger 3 17

Cladosporium cladosporioides 0 5

Cladosporium herbarum 2 10

Fusarium lateritium 0 13

Fusarium oxysporum 0 10

Penicillium biforme 4 20

Penicillium brevicompactum 10 17

Penicillium cyclopium 0 28

(Alma and Elena, 2006, Lithuania)

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Penicillium corylophilum 0 25

Penicillium clavigerum 0 8

Penicillium corymbiferum 0 10

Penicillium expansum 50 83

Penicillium italicum 17 67

Penicillium janthinellum 0 9

Penicillium lanosum 0 5

Penicillium roqueforti 13 28

Rhizopus oryzae 0 33

Trichoderma viride 0 38

Cont…

(Alma and Elena, 2006, Lithuania)

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Table 10: Potentially toxin-producing micromycete species isolated from store house environment.

Micromycetes Air Dust

Acremonium roseum - +

Alternaria alternata - +

Aspergillus amstelodam + -

Aspergillus clavatus + -

Aspergillus repens - +

Aspergillus ustus + +

Cladosporium cladosporioides + -

Cladosporium herbarum + -

Penicillium cyclopium + +

Penicillium corylophilum - +

Penicillium clavigerum + -

Penicillium corymbiferum + -

Penicillium expansum _ +

Penicillium janthinellum - +

Penicillium lanosum - +

Penicillium oxalicum - -

Penicillium roqueforti + -

Total species 10 9

(Alma and Elena, 2006, Lithuania)

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Mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in fast food of Bihar

H. K. Chourasia, Sanjay Kumar Suman and Pramila Prasad Journal of mycology and plant pathology

38:3 2008

04/12/2023 65

Raw materials of fast foods

Aspergillus spp

Mucor Pencillium Rhizopus Fusarium spp Trichoderma Others

Noodles 45.565 ±10.0 (5/7)

4.5±1.5(4/7)

- 6.5±1.2(3/7)

- - 8.5±3.5(5/7)

Cabbage 31.3 ± 7.3(7/10)

2.5±0.6(3/10)

15.5±4.7(6/10)

10.4±3.0(4/10)

4.0±0.7(4/10)

7.5±1.5(5/10)

4.7±1.2(3/10)

Carrot 27.4 ± 6.5(13/20)

11.5±3.5(10/2)

10.0±2.5(14/10)

8.9±2.5(8/20)

- 5.5±1.0(3/20)

6.5±2.0(6/20)

Pizza bread 20.5 ± 4.0(4/8)

2.7±0.3(3/8)

7.1±2.0 (5/8) - 10.4±2.0 4/8

Chilli sauce 15.0 ± 3.3(12/20)

- - - 7.7±2.5(10/20)

- 14.0±4.5(8/20)

Tomato sauce 23.3 ± 5.7(9/15)

3.0±0.5(6/15)

- - - 6.5±1.5(5/15)

15.5±5.7(8/15)

Maida bread 12.2 ± 2.5(4/7)

5.7±1.2(3/7)

- 4.5±2.1(4/7)

12.4±2.5(5/7)

- -

Burger bread 10.6 ± 3.2(3/7)

4.4±1.5(4/7)

- - - - 7.5±2.6(5/7)

Shimla mirch 10.0 ± 2.7(7/10)

4.5±1.5(3/10)

- 7.5±2.0(6/10)

- - 5.7±1.2(2/10)

Beet 5.9 ± 1.2(6/10)

7.8±2.5(5/10)

- 8.0±2.7(6/10)

5.5±1.2(4/10)

11.5±3.2(5/10)

-

Egg 6.5 ± 1.5(4/8)

- 20±5.5(5/8)

6.5±1.2(3/8)

- - 7.5±2.5(4/8)

Table 11:-Incidence of fungi (%) in raw materials of fast foods of Bihar

(Chourasia et al., 2008, Bhagalpur)

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Fig 11 : Associaion of microbes with raw materials of fast foods a: Cabbage, b: carrot, c: Beet, d: egg, e: noodles, f:pizza bread,g: chilli sauce, h: tomato sauce, i: maida bread, j: burger bread, k: Capsicum ( Shimla mirch)

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Less than 1% of mushroom species are poisonous to humans, but these can be extremely dangerous.

Amanita phalloides- Amatoxins, Phallotoxins.Amanita muscaria - Entoloma spMycena sp

Toxic Mushroom

04/12/2023 68

Impact of mycotoxins on Dairy cattles

04/12/2023 69

DON - DeoxynivalenolZON – ZearalenoneAFB1 – Aflatoxin B1T2-Toxin

ZON• Irregular heats• Low conception rates • Ovarian cysts• Embryonic Loss

T2-Toxin, DON, AFB1

• Gastroenteritis• Intestinal hemorrhages• Impaired rumen function• Diarrhea• Ketosis

DON• Laminitis

T2-Toxin, DON• Decreased feed intake• Lower milk production• Decreased feed efficiency

AFB1, T2-Toxin, DON• Milk contamination • Decreased milk

production• Mastitis

Effects of Mycotoxins

04/12/2023 70

Mycotoxicoses in dairy

Trichothecenes: KetosisTrichothecenes: Ketosis

Deoxynivalenol: inhomogeneous growth

Deoxynivalenol: inhomogeneous growth

T2-Toxin: dermal lesionsT2-Toxin: dermal lesions

Swollen vulva, Uterus prolapseSwollen vulva, Uterus prolapse

affected ovariesaffected ovaries

Hypertrophy of the uterusHypertrophy of the uterus

Deoxynivalenol: MetritisDeoxynivalenol: Metritis

Trichothecenes: Diarrhea Trichothecenes: Diarrhea

ZearalenoneZearalenone

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Review of genetic studies of susceptibility to facial eczema in sheep and dairy cattle

C. A. Morrisa, S. H. Phuab, N. G. Cullena and N. R. Towersc

AgResearch, Ruakura Research Centre, Hamilton, New Zealand; AgResearch, Invermay Agricultural Centre, Mosgiel, New Zealand Towers Consulting, Hamilton.

New Zealand, 2013

04/12/2023 72

Fig12 :- Mean loge[GGT] of sheep groups, after dosing with the FE toxin sporidesmin and classified By the progeny-test status for FE susceptibility of their five ‘High’ (susceptible) Jersey sires or five ‘Low’ GGT (resistant) Jersey sires: results are summarized for the calves in loge i.u./l units (with bars shown for the standard error of the difference) against days since the toxin challenge (NB: Factor of 1.75 between the mean loge[GGT] values of High vs Low sire groups (74 calves)).

(Morrisa et al., 2013, New Zealand)

73

Fig 13 :- Mean loge[GGT] of calf groups, sired by Holstein Friesian bulls that had been scored (performance tested) as weaned calves for response to FE susceptibility, or response to sporidesmin. Five such ‘High’ GGT and five ‘Low’ GGT bulls were selected for progeny testing for response to sporidesmin, alongside the progeny of eight untested/‘unselected’ Holstein Friesian bulls. Results for progeny a re shown in loge i.u./l units (with bars for standard errors of means, shown in one direction) against days since the toxin challenge)

(Morrisa et al., 2013, New Zealand)

04/12/2023 74

Poor

perfo

rman

ce

Uterine infections

Cystic ovaries

Reproductive Failure

Decre

ased

Fert

ilit

y

Impact Milk

Carry

-over

meta

bolite

s

Impaired Rumen Function

↓ R

um

en

M

oti

lity

↓ D

igesti

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Displaced Abomasum,

Ketosis, Retained Placenta, Metrites,

Mastites, Fatty Liver,

Lameness

Economic Impact

Non-response veterinary treatments

Hig

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Incid

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Dis

eases

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Impact of mycotoxins in milk quality

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Aflatoxin B1 is carried over into the milk as Aflatoxin M1

From cow…

…to milk!

Human health concern• AfM1 is considered as “possible carcinogen” by

International Agency For Research On Cancer (IARC);

• Legislation limits amount of this metabolite in milk:

EU: 50 ppt = 0.05 μg/kgUSA: 500ppt = 0.5 μg/kg

Economic concern• Milk is discarded or downgraded.

Carry-over of aflatoxins in dairyCarry-over of aflatoxins in dairy

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Fig 14:- Effect of mycotoxin binder on Daily Milk production at the Jersey Farm in Bhopal. (Whitlow, 1986, Bhopal)

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IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH

Neural tube birth defects

Esophageal cancer

Hepatocellular carcinoma

Carcinogenesis

(Amer, 2009)

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US

General U.S. population : <3Guatemala : 106

Indigenous population that consumes high amounts of maize as their staple food

Incidence of neural tube defects (NTD per 10,000 live births)

(Marasas et al., 2004, Guatemala)

Fig 15 :- Survey conducted for neural tube defects in Guatemala, South Africa and U.S.A.

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Maternal dietary habits and mycotoxin occurrence in human milk

Fabio Galvano, Amedeo Pietri, Terenzio Bertuzzi, Luigi Gagliardi, Sabina Ciotti, Stefano Luisi, Matteo Bognanno, Luca La Fauci, Anna

Maria Iacopino, Francesco Nigro, Giovanni Li Volti, Luca Vanella, Giuseppe Giammanco, Gabriella Lucia Tina and Diego Gazzolo

2008, Italy

Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 52, 496 – 501

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Fig 16 : Chromatogram (HPLC; fluorescence detection) of: a) an OTA standard solution (479 ng/L), equivalent to 47.9 pg of OTA injected; b) a naturally-contaminated human milk sample containing 280 ng/L (equivalent to 56 pg of OTA injected).

(Fabio et al.,2008, Italy)

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Fig 17 : Chromatogram (HPLC; fluorescence detection) of: a) an AFM1 standard solution (62 ng/L), equivalent to 6.2 pg of AFM1 injected; b) a naturally-contaminated human milk sample containing 72 ng/L (equivalent to 7.2 pg of AFM1 injected).

(Fabio et al.,2008, Italy)

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Fig 18 :- Examples of suspected fumonisin-associated birth defects: anencephaly, spina bifida and encephalocele. All are from one summer in one hospital in Guatemala. Photos courtesy of Dr. Julio Cabrera (from Parrott, 2010).

Parrott W (2010) Genetically modified myths and realities.

New Biotechnol. 27:545-51.

Anencephaly Spina Bifida Encephalocele

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Spina bifida (a common form of NTD)

Spina bifida (Latin: "split spine") is a developmental birth defect caused by the incomplete closure of the embryonic neural tube. Some vertebrae overlying the spinal cord are not fully formed and remain unfused and open. If the opening is large enough, this allows a portion of the spinal cord to protrude through the opening in the bones. There may or may not be a fluid-filled sac surrounding the spinal cord.

Spina bifida

(Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spina_bifida)

04/12/2023 85(Source: http://neuropathology.neoucom.edu/chapter11/images11/11-2al.jpg)

Anencephaly : a condition in which the portion of the neural tube which will become the cerebrum does not close,

Encephalocele: which results when other parts of the brain remain unfused.

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LUNG TUMORS

Mesothelioma Ochratoxin found in

chest wall, diaphragm.

No ochratoxin found in pleura

Adenocarcinoma Large CellAflatoxin Positive

Bronchial Alveolar CA (BAC)Aflatoxin Positive Ochratoxin Positive

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• Pre harvest control • Resistant varieties• Crop rotation• Adequate irrigation • Control of insect pests.

• Postharvest Control • 10–13% moisture • Avoid insect and rodent infestation• Methods of harvesting and storage

Management of Mycotoxin Contamination

Removal or Elimination of Mycotoxins

Inactivation of Mycotoxins

Removal of Mycotoxins During Food Processing.

Avoiding Human Exposure

Detection and Screening of Mycotoxins

Dietary Modifications

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Conclusion............!!!!!• Mycotoxins are highly stable compounds and ubiquitous

• Causes severe crop loss because contamination can occur both before and after harvest

• Severe health hazards to Animals and humans

• Good farm management practices and storage

• Regulatory commissions should develop

• The development of sophisticated kits for the detection of minute amounts of mycotoxins is the most important

• Create awareness and education

LIFE IS PRECIOUS

Eat healthy and live healthy

Thank you…