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Community Environmental Monitoring
During the Mining Life Cycle
A presentation prepared for IPCM 2015, Quezon City, Philippines
30 July, 2015
by
Mark Muller [email protected]
Scope of presentation – Community monitoring during the mining cycle
Stage in Mining Life-cycle
Environmental Impact
Exploration
Construction
Operation and Production
Closure and Rehabilitation
Water Pollution
Soil Pollution
Air Pollution
Biodiversity Degradation
Early-stage exploration: what does it look like?
STREAM SEDIMENT SAMPLING
AIRBORNE GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS
GEOLOGICAL MAPPING ROCK SAMPLING
LOW IMPACT
Early- to mid-stage exploration: trenching
Impacts:
• Scarring of landscape
• Loss of vegetation
• Potential for initiating erosion if trenching on steep topography
• Properly rehabilitated?
International Gold Exploration AB, IGE in Burundi.
There is quite a lot that communities can do at this stage to understand what the future might hold….
What non-specialists can do – during early exploration (Years 1 – 2)
Evidence of early exploration (Year 1) activity may take the form of: • Geologists doing field mapping • Teams collecting soil samples in fields and on river banks • Teams with instruments collecting geophysical data on the ground • Light airplanes/helicopters flying in patterns over the area collecting geophysical data. Evidence of more advanced exploration activity (Year 2): • One or two exploration boreholes being drilled in fields • Digging of exploration trenches, e.g., 2 to 3 m deep, 1 m wide, 50 to 100 m long. What you (as a non-specialist) can do: • Speak to the geologists/geophysicists on the ground and with pilots and operators if you know which airport they’re using. Speak to the drillers. Often contracted drillers/geologists/geophysicists who may be less reticent in their discussions. • Local people are often employed to help with sample/data collection – speak to them too. • Questions to ask: which company are you working for, which areas are you covering with the surveys, what geophysical instruments are you using, how deep are you drilling (or how many drill rods are you using), are you drilling for core or chip samples? • Take photographs or video records of e.g., drilling rigs and the immediate environs, exploration trenches, geophysical survey equipment and operations.
Extracts from presentation to CAFOD Workshop on Mining Impacts and Community Responses, 11 July, 2013, London.
What non-specialists and specialists can do – early exploration (Years 1 – 2)
If there is community concern about what is going on at this stage, you can (as a non-specialist): (Note: it may or may not be obvious what mineral commodity is being targeted) • Access exploration licence records from government agencies à will indicate which company is involved (and sometimes the commodity being explored for). • Take all information to a specialist for advice if needed. • Is it the right time to start considering the community’s response to the prospect of mining? Is it the right time to express community dissatisfaction and concerns about the project and/or take actions against further work? What a specialist can do: Exploration geologist or geophysicist, mining geologist or mining “generalist”: • Based on knowledge of the geological setting, age of rocks, previous exploration or mining activities in the area, the nature of the exploration activity à identify the most likely orebody type or mineral commodity being targeted. • Based on a reasonable assumption of the type of orebody à anticipate the most likely mining depths, mining method and processing approaches that will be used à early indication of potential risks and impacts.
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Mud_Pitt_with_Fly_Ash.JPG
Mid- to late-stage exploration: drilling
Mud tank or mud pit: • Contains drilling “mud” – a combination of fine rock
material and (often toxic) chemical additives required to give the drilling fluid the right density and viscosity properties.
• Drilling mud poses an environmental risk: Rivers and soils will be become contaminated if the mud-pit overflows in heavy rains or if the pit-lining fails.
Mid- to late-stage exploration: drilling
• Significant modification to landscape: terraces cut into hill-sides to establish drilling pads
→ potential for erosion.
Isolated well pad with access road.
Late exploration: very high drilling density
300 m
2.3 km
1.5 km
Project area and drill-holes overlaid on geological map
Source of image: AngloGold Ashanti Site Visit Guide, November 2011.
La Colosa project (AngloGold Ashanti), Tolima Province, Colombia: • Very high drilling density: 100 x 100 m
spacing. 50 x 50 m planned in anticipation of feasibility study.
The project is being fiercely resisted. • Permanent modification of landscape
through development of support infrastructure: access roads, exploration camp.
• AngloGold Ashanti have in this project, in
fact, placed many of their rigs on stilt platforms.
• Drilling on elevated ridge: high risk of river
water contamination if drilling mud is released though mud-pit overflow or leakage.
This has not happened yet.
Exploration drilling and drilling fluids
• Drilling mud is, in varying degrees, toxic, depending on the chemicals added. • Three types: Oil based mud (OBM) (petroleum products, often diesel or derivatives),
Synthetic (oil) Based Mud (SBM) and Water Based Mud (WBM) (often rock or mineral powders or gum and sugar polymers).
• It is difficult and expensive to dispose of in an environmentally friendly manner. • It should be noted that no type of oil/synthetic based mud (or drilled cuttings
contaminated with OBM/SBM) may be dumped in the North Sea. Contaminated mud must either be shipped back to shore in skips or processed on the rigs.
• It is clear – OBM/SBM and mud cannot be disposed into the environment – it must be
removed from site entirely.
Exploration drilling and drilling fluids
• Drilling mud is, in varying degrees, toxic, depending on the chemicals added. • Three types: Oil based mud (OBM) (petroleum products, often diesel or derivatives),
Synthetic (oil) Based Mud (SBM) and Water Based Mud (WBM) (often rock or mineral powders or gum and sugar polymers).
• It is difficult and expensive to dispose of in an environmentally friendly manner. • It should be noted that no type of oil/synthetic based mud (or drilled cuttings
contaminated with OBM/SBM) may be dumped in the North Sea. Contaminated mud must either be shipped back to shore in skips or processed on the rigs.
• It is clear – OBM/SBM and mud cannot be disposed into the environment – it must be
removed from site entirely.
• There is clearly some risk of pollution of river systems once drilling starts, and
the risk increases as the drilling effort and density increases. • When is the right time for communities to start thinking about water
monitoring? • Should monitoring effort be expended when a large number of exploration
projects never become mines, even after a very significant amount of late stage drilling?
Mineral extraction: from mining to metal
Figure from Spitz and Trudinger, 2009.
MINING
MINERAL CONCENTRATE
METALLURGICAL EXTRACTION E.g., smelting
MINE WASTES
MINERAL PROCESSING
ROCK DUMP ORE WASTE ROCK
TAILINGS TAILINGS DAM Tailings storage facility (TSF)
METAL E.g., gold
processing with cyanide
METAL
Toquepala copper mine from Google Maps.
Open-pit mine: Toquepala copper mine, southern Peru
MINE Open-pit Rock dumps Processing plant
TAILINGS DAM
10 km
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/3000/3869/ ISS007-E-15222_lrg.jpg
Astronaut photograph taken from the International Space Station on September 22, 2003 of the Toquepala copper mine, showing the steep-sided, terraced open-pit mine within the arid slopes of the central Andes mountains. At the surface the open pit is 2.5 kilometers across, and it descends more than 700 meters into the earth. Image source and permission: NASA.
Open-pit mine: Toquepala copper mine, southern Peru
Rock dumps
Rock dumps
Processing plant
Image source and permission: NASA. http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/3000/3869/ ISS007-E-15222_lrg.jpg
A very large spatial area (huge in extent with respect to the size of the orebody) is appropriated for: - the open pit itself - rock dumps and tailings dams - processing plants. Physical disruption to the landscape includes - Loss of vegetation and flora and fauna biodiversity. - Large quantities of dust due to removal of vegetation and milling of rock into fine particles easily transported by wind. Physical disruption of surface water drainage systems - Diversion of rivers around the mine. - Potential for reduced delivery of water into rivers. - Potential for increased sediment-load in rivers downstream of the mine due to water runoff from un-vegetated slopes, with impact on riverine biota.
Large open-pit mine footprint and physical disruption of landscape
Toquepala copper mine 2.5 km
Orebody
Open-pit
Direct mine footprint
Toquepala copper mine “False colour” satellite image from Google Maps.
2.5 km
The dispersion of dust, metallic sulphides and other aerosols away from the immediate vicinity of the mine impacts badly on soil quality and on agricultural plants and crops.
Clearly visible is the wide dispersal of material (pale blue and white colours) away from the mine by wind, rivers and vehicle transport along roads.
“Waste-rock” is rock emerging from the mine that will not be
processed further. It is either “ore” that is below the cut-off grade, or is simply the barren host-rock to the mineral deposit.
Rock dumps contain an wide variety of different rocks and minerals that
is site specific, depending on the nature of the ore deposit and the host-rock. If sulphide minerals are present in any of the rocks, there is the potential for acid mine drainage.
Image from: http://technology.infomine.com/WasteRockDumps/
Generally rock dumps are not sealed at their base, and the risk of acid water incursion into the surface drainage system or subsurface aquifers is very high.
Rock dumps are also highly porous to water and oxygen flow, and therefore increases significantly the risk of AMD production.
Waste-rock disposal – rock dumps
Acid Mine Drainage
FeS2 + 15/4 O2 + 7/2 H2O Fe(OH)3 + 2 H2SO4 + energy
Water
Atmospheric oxygen
Pyrite + other sulphides + bacteria
Sulphuric acid + iron and other metals dissolved in water
Mine dump, St. Kevin Gulch, Colorado, USA
http://toxics.usgs.gov/photo_gallery/photos/upper_ark/mine_dump_lg.jpg
Pyrite + Oxygen + Water Iron-hydroxide + Sulphuric acid + heat (solid) (dissolved) (liquid) (dissolved) (dissolved)
Iron plus many other dissolved metals end up in waters
Typically a “plume” of contaminated acidic water and precipitated
waste products is developed below and around a rock dump.
Schematic cross-section of a sulphide waste dump showing a plume of acid water seeping into the ground. Also shown is how various subsurface minerals (at this particular site) help to buffer, or neutralise, the acid. The initial highly acidic pH value of 1, directly below the dump, is buffered back to a neutral pH value of 7 at some depth below the dump.
Figure from Lottermoser, 2007, reproduced from Jurjovec et al., 2002.
Potential for lateral migration of contaminated or acidic water within subsurface aquifers
SURFACE DUMP
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) beneath rock dumps
Monitoring of sulphidic rock dumps for oxidation and acid generation
Water analysis to monitor acid and metallic ion buildup in drainage channels and surface water.
Monitoring of water quality in aquifers using boreholes.
Temperature profiles using electrical probes. Increasing temperatures indicate heat generation by oxidation reactions.
Pore gas sampling to determine oxygen concentration. Decreasing concentrations indicate consumption of oxygen by oxidation reactions.
ACQUIFER
DUMP
Sulphidic waste rock dumps and tailings dams need monitoring during operation to detect at the earliest time whether waste material is “turning acid”.
Rehabilitated waste repositories also need monitoring for decades after mine closure to establish the effectiveness of the control measures used to curtail oxidation.
DRY COVER
But there is no guarantee, even with best-practice monitoring, that Acid Mine Drainage will not occur or that remediation measures will be successful if monitoring does indicate acid generation.
Tailings dams – construction
Mature, but active, tailings dams located south of Johannesburg, South Africa. These dams are receiving the final tailings products of the reprocessing of numerous old mine- dumps spread around Johannesburg. The mines were closed in the 1960s.
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/2399572
Antamina copper-zinc Mine, Peru. Currently, the dam wall is undergoing its 4th dam heightening to 215 m height. Final height expected to reach 240 m, with 1.3 km length. Seismic resistance is 0.48g, equivalent to Magnitude 8 earthquake on the Richter scale with its epicentre beneath the dam at 65 km depth. Designed to withstand the maximum probable flood even when all dam bypass-channels fail.
Mine will recover 575 million tones of copper-zinc ore over 24 years – producing 570 million tones of tailings.
Tailings dams – construction – valley fill
Figures from: Eldridge et al., 2003. Operation at the Antamina Copper-Zinc Mine in Central Peru.
1.3 km
Tailings dams – construction
Tailings dam at Chatree Gold Mine (Thailand) shortly after commissioning, showing under-drains installed in a herring-bone pattern. Under-drains significantly improve water drainage from the tailings dam, thereby reducing water saturation of tailings sediments and improving geotechnical strength and safety of the dam.
Figure from Spitz and Trudinger, 2009.
(i) drains beneath the dam walls, (ii) double liners under the dam, with a leak detection system between layers, (iii) under-drains at the base of the tailings and a liquid recovery system.
Best practice tailings dam construction will consist of:
Tailings dams – water balance and acid development
Figure modified from Spitz and Trudinger, 2009.
Drainage ditch
Liner
Hill-side
SATURATED ZONE
UNSATURATED ZONE
High potential for sulphide oxidation and acid development in area immediately above saturated zone
Dam-wall may be saturated at its base, particularly if the decant pond is too close to it – saturation weakens the strength of the wall
Water extracted for re-use from decant pond
Water exchange below the tailings dam depends on permeability of the liner
Tailings dams remain wet during their entire operational life, and only start drying out after decommissioning.
Contamination-plumes below tailings dams are normally much reduced compared to
rock-dumps, due to the low porosity of tailings materials and the low permeability of the liner at the base of the tailings dams. Not all tailings dams have linings (e.g., Didipio Mine, Philippines).
Precipitation of salts at edge of decant pool
Beach
Impacts on surface drainage and subsurface aquifers
OPEN-PIT ROCK DUMP
TAILINGS DAM WATER-TABLE
10’s of kilometres
Low pH (acidic) waters with high dissolved metal content
Dry borehole
(1)
(3)
(4) (5)
(1) Depression of water-table through de-watering of the mine (these waters may subsequently be used for mineral processing) and/or through the extraction of groundwater for mineral processing – reduced flow from springs and reduced recharge of rivers by springs. Dry boreholes.
(2) Accumulation of acidic waters in open-pit – will need to be purified before pumping away from the mine.
(3) River waters may also be extracted for processing purposes – reduction in the availability of water for domestic and agricultural use.
(4) Erosion and acidic water run-off from rock dumps into rivers and subsequent entry into the groundwater system – water contamination.
(5) Percolation of acidic waters into the groundwater system directly below rock dumps. (Note: rock dumps are seldom lined with impermeable barriers at their base) – water contamination.
(6) Acidic seepage from tailings dams into rivers and groundwater system – water contamination. (7) Acidic seepage from heap-leach pads into rivers and groundwater system – water contamination. (Note: tailings dams and heap leach pads should be lined with impermeable barriers and equipped with
drainage systems at their base to prevent leakage. However seepage and failure of the lining can and does occur)
(6) HEAP-LEACH PADS
(7) (2) LINING
Water testing and monitoring – how should it be done?
Upstream river water sampling point
Upstream borehole groundwater sampling
Downstream river water sampling point
Downstream borehole groundwater sampling
Mining company’s duties: • Monitor water quality in
accordance with their Environmental Impact Management Plan (EIMP)
• Regularly take water
samples for laboratory chemical analysis from both “upstream” and “downstream” sample localities.
• Report results to state/provincial regulatory authorities.
• These same localities should have been sampled for at least one year before mine construction started – to provide a water quality baseline.
Uncontaminated baseline
Potentially contaminated
Community testing and monitoring for water contamination
What can We do? • Use the same strategy! • Identify and use “people’s” technology for water testing and
monitoring (to replace laboratory analysis). • Accuracy and ease-of-use of available technology is very
variable and tests are not available for all contaminants. But tools and instruments do currently exist – there is hope!
• Monitor long-term to identify when changes occur in water quality and to support burden of proof.
• Simple tools can provide early warning of problems – that can be followed up with sampling
and laboratory analysis in order to define and understand the nature of the contamination. • Laboratory analysis might be necessary if companies and authorities don’t accept the
reliability of communities’ information and to carry greater legal weight. • Peoples’ scientists can design a sampling strategy, train community users and can provide
backup and support (data can easily be shared by email/internet). But scientists need to mobilise more coherently to provide reliable, long-term support to a broad community of people.
Camlab Limited. Camlab House, Norman Way Industrial Estate, Over, Cambridge CB24 5WE. h@p://www.camlab.co.uk/
Disadvantages • Low accuracy • Some are “qualitative” tests only – yes/no above
a threshold. (Although, can use “dilution-by-half” for semi-quantitative estimates)
• Some tests have high detection limit (concentrations need to be high for detection)
• Not ideal for long term monitoring
Water testing and monitoring – available technology – testing strips and kits
Test for a wide range of water constituents • pH (acidity) • Many different dissolved metal ions • Hardness Advantages • Easy to use • Relatively cheap £15 – £50
for 100 tests
Water testing and monitoring – available technology – portable digital meters
Hanna Primo5 Conduc/vity Tester -‐ Range 0-‐1999 µS/cm (0 to 60°C ) -‐ Resolu:on 1 µS/cm -‐ Calibra:on using standard solu:on. -‐ £40.56 incl. VAT (Camlab Ltd.)
Hanna pH Checker 1 -‐ Range 0-‐14 pH -‐ Resolu:on 0.01 pH, Accuracy ±0.2 pH -‐ 2-‐Point calibra:on using buffer solu:ons -‐ BaKery: 2 x 1.5V 3,000 hours baKery life -‐ £42.60 incl. VAT (Camlab Ltd.)
pH – Water acidity
• No WHO standard. pH>10 and pH<4 produces adverse affects on human health. Clean water 6.5<pH<8.5.
• Easy to use, objective, accurate (±0.1to ±0.2 pH), cost effective, long battery life.
• Costs: £7 to £199.
Total Dissolved Solids e.g., Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, Fe2+/3+, Mn2+, HCO3
-, SO42-, NO3
-, Cl-
• No WHO standard. “TDS concentration below 1000 mg/litre is usually acceptable to consumers”.
• Electrical conductivity measured as proxy for TDS concentration.
• Easy to use, objective, accurate, cost effective, long battery life.
• Costs: £4 to £220.
Water testing and monitoring – technology survey
Testing paper/kits or metersLong-‐term monitoring
instrumentsPRODUCTS OF ACID MINE DRAINAGEHigh acidity (Low pH) waters YES -‐ testing kits and pH meters YES -‐ probes DirectHigh concentration of dissolved elements YES -‐ TDS/EC meters YES -‐ TDS/EC probes (Proxy)High dissolved metals
Aluminium (Al3+) (and Zirconium, Zr4+) YES -‐ test stick (Direct)Antimony (Sb3+) YES -‐ test stick (Direct)
Arsenic (As3+/5+ and Arsine AsH3) YES -‐ test stick (Direct)
Bismuth (Bi3+) YES -‐ test stick (Direct)Calcium (Ca2+) YES -‐ test stick (Direct)
Chromium (Chromate CrO43-‐) YES -‐ test stick (Direct)
Cobalt (Co2+) YES -‐ test stick (Direct)Copper (Cu+/2+) YES -‐ test stick (Direct)
Iron (Fe2+ + Fe3+) YES -‐ test stick (Direct)Iron (Ferrous Fe2+) YES -‐ test stick (Direct)
Molybdenum (Molybdate MoO4) YES -‐ test stick (Direct)Nickel YES -‐ test stick (Direct)
Lead (on surfaces) YES -‐ test stick (Direct)Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium and Thallium YES -‐ test stick (Direct)
Silver (Ag+) YES -‐ test stick (Direct)Tin (Sn) YES -‐ test stick (Direct)Zinc (Zn) YES -‐ test stick (Direct)
High sulfate concentration (Sulphate SO4) YES -‐ test stick (Proxy)Low dissolved Oxygen (LDO technology) Yes -‐ probes (Proxy)High Hardness (for Ca2+ + Mg2+ and Ca2+) YES -‐ testing kits (Proxy)
What to test forAre "peoples'" technologies available Direct or
"proxy" indicator
Water testing and monitoring – technology survey
Testing paper/kits or metersLong-‐term monitoring
instrumentsWATER CLARITY (TURBIDITY)High turbidity YES -‐ perspex tubes, Secchi Disks YES -‐ probes Direct
PRODUCTS OF MINERALS PROCESSINGCyanide and metal-‐cyanide complexes
"Cyanide" YES -‐ test stick DirectHydrogen Cyanide (HCN) YES -‐ test stick Direct
PETROLEUM POLLUTANTSPetroleum ether YES -‐ test stick DirectGasoline YES -‐ test stick DirectFuel oil YES -‐ test stick DirectLubricating oil YES -‐ test stick Direct
What to test forAre "peoples'" technologies available Direct or
"proxy" indicator
http://www.camlab.co.uk/hach-hq30d-single-channel-meter-for-ph-conductivity-and-do-p16474.aspx
Product Specifications pH range 0 to14pH EC range 0.01µS/cm-200mS/cm DO range 0.00 to 20.0mg/l Dissolved Oxygen Size 9.5x19.7x3.6 cm (HxWxD) Weight 323g Cables 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 30 m lengths
Water testing and monitoring – available technology – digital monitoring probes
Hach HQ30d Single Channel multiparameter meter. “Lighten your load with a single meter to measure either pH, Conductivity, or LDO interchangeably”. Plug and Play Easy swapping of parameter/probe without re-calibration Password-protected data for tamper proof reporting 500-point event log
• Digital probes are available to record: pH, electrical conductivity (EC for TDS concentration), dissolved oxygen (DO), hardness • Battery powered, rechargeable • Continuous data recording on memory inside the probe. • Retrieve probe every 1 – 3 months and download data onto digital meter or computer (or
smartphone?)
One measurement every 2 hours → 40 days of continuous recording
Cost: Meter and 3 probes Approx. £1,760
Water testing and monitoring – digital monitoring probes – possible application
(1.) COMMUNITY DEPLOYS PROBES IN WATER BODY
(2.) COMMUNITY RETRIEVES PROBES AFTER 1 – 3 MONTHS DOWNLOADS DATA ONTO METER RECHARGES PROBE BATTERIES, REDEPLOYS PROBES
(3a.) COMMUNITY DOWNLOADS DATA TO COMPUTER
TIME
MEA
SUR
EMEN
T VA
LUE
LAST MONTH’S DATA THIS MONTH’S DATA
pH
EC (TDS)
DO
Low pH
Low DO
High TDS (4.) COMMUNITY PLOTS UP DATA USING EASY- TO-USE PROGRAM
(3b. or 5.) COMMUNITY EMAILS DATA OR RESULTS TO SUPPORTING HYDROGEOLOGISTS
Biodiversity monitoring
• Full biodiversity surveys require much knowledge and experience of different species of flora and fauna.
• But often enough there is one particular “marker” species that can be used as an indicator of ecological health, that communities could be (easily enough) trained to identify and trained to count in a statistically meaningful way.
• Long-term monitoring probably
most useful.
Biodiversity survey in 1 m square grid
Thank you
What non-specialists can do when facing mining projects
Vigilant observation and documentation throughout the mining life-cycle • Photographic evidence • Video evidence • Records of discussions with exploration and mining staff/contractors employed by mining companies – talk to them – a potential wealth of information • Written/recorded personal testimony of affected peoples Such observation and documentation: • is invaluable to “specialists” – if/when specialist involvement is helpful/required. • provides strong evidence of “baseline” conditions if recorded before mining, if mining does proceed either with consent or against communities’ wishes. If “technical” issues (that impact on environment, health, safety, livelihoods) might or are likely to form a significant component of resistance to the mining project, then initiating this observation as early as possible (e.g., during the mining company’s exploration phase) would be very advantageous.* * But note, if “technical” issues are the only objection to a project, the strength of the case against mining may be weakened if mining companies can respond with “solutions” to these technical objections.
Extracts from presentation to CAFOD Workshop on Mining Impacts and Community Responses, 11 July, 2013, London.
What non-specialists can do – during early exploration (Years 1 – 2)
Evidence of early exploration (Year 1) activity may take the form of: • Geologists doing field mapping • Teams collecting soil samples in fields and on river banks • Teams with instruments collecting geophysical data on the ground • Light airplanes/helicopters flying in patterns over the area collecting geophysical data. Evidence of more advanced exploration activity (Year 2): • One or two exploration boreholes being drilled in fields • Digging of exploration trenches, e.g., 2 to 3 m deep, 1 m wide, 50 to 100 m long. What you (as a non-specialist) can do: • Speak to the geologists/geophysicists on the ground and with pilots and operators if you know which airport they’re using. Speak to the drillers. Often contracted drillers/geologists/geophysicists who may be less reticent in their discussions. • Local people are often employed to help with sample/data collection – speak to them too. • Questions to ask: which company are you working for, which areas are you covering with the surveys, what geophysical instruments are you using, how deep are you drilling (or how many drill rods are you using), are you drilling for core or chip samples? • Take photographs or video records of e.g., drilling rigs and the immediate environs, exploration trenches, geophysical survey equipment and operations.
What non-specialists and specialists can do – early exploration (Years 1 – 2)
If there is community concern about what is going on at this stage, you can (as a non-specialist): (Note: it may or may not be obvious what mineral commodity is being targeted) • Access exploration licence records from government agencies à will indicate which company is involved (and sometimes the commodity being explored for). • Take all information to a specialist for advice if needed. • Is it the right time to start considering the community’s response to the prospect of mining? Is it the right time to express community dissatisfaction and concerns about the project and/or take actions against further work? What a specialist can do: Exploration geologist or geophysicist, mining geologist or mining “generalist”: • Based on knowledge of the geological setting, age of rocks, previous exploration or mining activities in the area, the nature of the exploration activity à identify the most likely orebody type or mineral commodity being targeted. • Based on a reasonable assumption of the type of orebody à anticipate the most likely mining depths, mining method and processing approaches that will be used à early indication of potential risks and impacts.
What non-specialists can do – during late exploration (Years 3 – 4)
Company activities that characterise late exploration (Years 3 - 4): • Mining company may announce a “discovery” (in the general press, mining press, financial press, on their website, in their annual report). • Significant increase in drilling activity. Boreholes may be drilled at 100 m (or closer) intervals, hundreds of boreholes my be drilled (the impact of drilling activities on the environment may now start to become a concern – often poorly legislated/regulated) • Company may initiate “community engagement” activities (sponsorships of local events and amenities, tree plantings, early discussions and selective information releases, etc.). • Often many local people employed to assist with exploration drilling activities.
What you (as a non-specialist) can do: • Identify important/critical natural resources for food and livelihoods – river and lakes (water provision, fishing), agricultural lands, pastoral land, forests (and cultural sites). • (Selectively) photograph/video/document these critical resources (as well as other sensitive ecosystems present) – to provide a baseline, for information for specialists, for possible publication in reports written for or on behalf of communities. • Do not rely on the mining company as the sole source of information about the technical/environmental impacts of any potential mine. Company information will be selectively released, more often characterised by what is not said than what is said or revealed.
What non-specialists can do – during late or mature exploration (Years 3 – 4)
What you (as a non-specialist) can do (continued): • If strategically appropriate, ask the mining company the difficult questions. • Questions to ask the company: how will the orebody be mined (surface or underground), how will the ore be processed and what chemicals will be used, where are wastes to be dumped (both rock dumps and tailings), where is water to be sourced for mining and processing, how much water will be used, where will electrical power for the mine be sourced? • Dig for more company information that might cast light on the company’s intentions – company annual reports, company quarterly reports, company releases of information to investors. • Speak to drillers or local people that are employed to assist with drilling. • Questions to ask drillers: are there any groundwater indications (particularly water released from boreholes under pressure), what drilling fluids/chemicals are used, what is water source for drilling, depth of drilling (or number of drill-rods used). • Establish community position on mining and take actions accordingly (community position may be contingent on better information and understanding of the impacts/risks). • Take all information to a specialist for advice if needed.
What specialists can do – during late or mature exploration (Years 3 – 4)
What specialists can do: Mining geologist/ mining “generalist”/ mining engineer: • Establish a better conceptual model of how the orebody might be mined, the scale of the potential mine and the scale of waste disposal dumps and dams, provide an assessment of the impacts/risks that are specific to the site/locale. • Might visit the site, might examine and assess the mining company’s geological and environmental data and reports (if made available) à identify shortcomings in company work (particularly in baseline studies). • Provide a broad educational/advisory function – perhaps through meetings with communities. • Estimate the financial value of the resource in the ground and out. • Advise on whether more focussed expertise is needed. Hydrologist/ hydrogeologist/ hydrochemist: • Advise on and assess likely mining impacts on all hydrological systems. • Advise on necessity for photographic/video documentation (and what and where to document). • Advise whether independent baseline water testing is necessary. • Involve these specialists if water is a critical community resource: if sources of drinking water and irrigation water are derived from rivers or lakes and boreholes or drop-wells into groundwater aquifers. • Might consult with minerals processing chemist/ geochemist to determine nature of water wastes from processing and mine effluent.
What specialists can do – during late or mature exploration (Years 3 – 4)
What specialists can do (continued): Aquatic biologist: • Involve these specialists if fishing/fisheries are critical to food supply and livelihoods. Soil scientist/ ecologist/ environmentalist/ botanist: • Involve these specialists if contamination of soils by airborne pollutants is anticipated and agricultural lands and productivity are a critical community resource – particularly problematic if the proposed mine is likely to be open-cast. • Involve these specialists if agriculture and livestock husbandry is critical to food supply and livelihoods or if there are sensitive/important/endangered ecosystems present in the area. Mining engineer: • Involve these specialists if there are concerns about the safety, stability and impacts of the physical elements of the mine design – e.g., placement of rock dumps and tailings dams in areas of steep topography, the mining depth of underground mines and associated surface subsidence.
• Mining companies seeking a mining license on a property are required to submit a full ESIA (Environmental and Social Impact Assessment) to national regulatory authorities/agencies: e.g., Departments of Mining, Minerals, Energy, Environment as appropriate.
• In principle, full consultation with communities and indigenous peoples
should have taken place prior to submission of the ESIA. In practice, the “community engagement” process prior to ESIA submission may
not have been full, open, fair and “complete”….. and dissenting voices may not have been heard and may not be represented in the ESIA.
It is often only after submission of the ESIA, that the full intentions of the mining
company and their mining plans are clearly stated and apparent to all parties. • Typically a two or three-month window only is open for communities to
fully digest the mining plans and potential impacts and to reach agreement on how to respond to the ESIA and to submit a written response/report.
(this is a document that will have taken mining companies and their consultants perhaps 6 to 12 months to prepare, will have involved the technical input of perhaps a dozen experts in various fields, at a cost of several million Dollars/Euros).
The ESIA process (End Year 4 – Year 5)
Regulatory processes in mining project approval: • In principle, it is the responsibility of the national regulatory authorities/
agencies (e.g., Departments of Mining, Minerals, Energy and Environment, etc.) to fully assess the technical issues/proposals presented in the ESIA and identify all aspects of (and flaws in) the mine design that present risks or impacts on peoples affected by the proposal.
• In practice, rigorous and impartial oversight by regulatory authorities in developing (and developed) countries cannot always be relied on: due to lack of manpower, lack of necessary expertise and lack of political will.
• Places a burden on communities to independently assess the ESIA.
While as much specialist information as early as possible is advantageous, it might make better sense strategically and financially not to engage (much) specialist advice during the late exploration phase – the exploration project may collapse and never get to an EISA if the project proves unfeasible.
Possibly better to do the necessary and appropriate specialist work only after
the ESIA process has started and live with or manage the greater time pressure.
What non-specialists can do – during the ESIA process (End Year 4 – Year 5)
Non-specialist community and civil society effort might at this critical stage focus less on mining technicalities and more on developing the community response to the proposal: resist, accept, accept under certain conditions, etc. Mining technicalities could at this stage effectively be considered by specialists. What you (as a non-specialist) can do: • (Continue to) photograph/video/document the environment, focusing on areas that host critical resources and other sensitive ecosystems present. • If advice from specialists has been taken earlier – use this advice to focus the photo/video documentation process. • Documentation gathered now may inform strongly the community’s written response to the ESIA. • ESIAs are long, complex documents – consider taking advice from specialists in assessing the validity of the material in the ESIA and in helping draft the community’s response/report.
What specialists can do – during the ESIA process (End Year 4 – Year 5)
• It should not be necessary for communities and specialists working on their behalf to conduct scientific baseline studies of:
- surface and subsurface water quality and characteristics - ecosystem fauna and flora biodiversity - soil quality and characteristics - air quality
In principle Scientific baselines are the responsibility of the mining company – and scientifically complete and robust baseline measurements must be presented in the ESIA.
In principle It is the responsibility of the regulatory authorities to scientifically and critically assess the baseline studies and proposed mining plan specified in the ESIA.
What specialists can do: • Assess the EISA for technical flaws in mine plan and advise community/help
communities develop response to flaws. Help draft technical aspects of report. • Specialist advice helpful if communities are in favour of the mining project but would
like aspects of the mine design modified or re-designed to reduce particular risks or impacts.
• Assess quality and completeness of baseline studies and argue for additional baseline measurements to bring work to acceptable scientific standard if necessary.
What specialists can do – during the ESIA process (End Year 4 – Year 5)
What specialists can do (continued): • Suggest alternative mine designs to minimise or remove potential impacts: e.g., underground mine rather than open-pit, in-mine tailings storage rather than surface disposal. • Identify key risks associated with mine plans and forcefully argue for appropriate monitoring of these risks during and after mining in the community ESIA response. • Examples of mine monitoring (during and after mining) include: - surface and subsurface water monitoring away from the mine - atmospheric dust/aerosol levels monitoring if open-pit - soil quality monitoring - installation of strain meters in buildings/dwellings that will be undermined by underground mining – to monitor structural stresses induced on buildings - high resolution topographic elevation measurements and monitoring – to detect/monitor surface subsidence from underground mining - monitoring of rock dumps for acid generation - monitoring of tailings dam walls for stability (the above monitoring is or should be the responsibility of the mining company)
What non-specialists can do – during mine operation
• It is the responsibility of the mining company to carry out all monitoring activities.
• It is the responsibility of the mining company to report monitoring results to regulatory authorities – for assessment of conformity with regulations.
• Mines will (in principle) be instructed by regulators to undertake remedial work if monitoring data show results not conforming with regulations.
• Monitoring data should be made available to communities (depending on legislation and terms of mine licensing agreement).
Nevertheless – highly advisable for communities to keep a close watch for signs
indicating that problems may be arising during mining: What you (as a non-specialist) can do: • Vigilant observation and documentation on camera, video, recording of testimony.
This is very important at this stage • Request information from the mine (or regulatory authorities) about the results of their
monitoring activities. Pass information on to specialists if needed.
What non-specialists can do – during mine operation
What signs to look for (as a non-specialist): Compare with pre-mining “baseline” data and evidence Surface hydrological systems (respond relatively fast to mining) • Iron-staining on rocks close to water discharge points from the mine into rivers or lakes • Changes in erosion and deposition patterns along the river, changes in river volumes or changes in normal seasonal variation of river flow, obvious changes in sediment load carried in rivers (water becomes muddy) • Changes in vegetation patterns along rivers • Changes/reductions in quantity/diversity of fish species and fish catches • It may be possible to measure water pH with simple water testing kits – results would be “indicative” only. Subsurface (groundwater) hydrological systems (respond relatively fast to mining) • Drying up of water-wells and boreholes or reduction in water production from wells/boreholes • Reduction in drinking water quality producing health problems.
What non-specialists can do – during mine operation
What signs to look for (as a non-specialist) (continued): Soil quality and agricultural productivity (slower response time to mining, may be imperceptible at first, becoming noticeable/worse with time) • Reduction in crop yields, • Reduction/changes in vegetation cover and biodiversity in non-agricultural ecosystems • Slower than normal recovery of grazing lands after grazing or changes in normal seasonal variation of vegetation growth. Surface subsidence (relatively fast response to mining) • Cracks in houses, tilting of houses and foundations • Loss of groundwater, drying up of rivers, change in river run-off patterns (particularly in flat areas where small changes in topographic gradient can affect water flow direction strongly. Air quality (fast and long, slow cumulative effect from mining) • Regular occurrence of high visible dust levels around open-pit operations, or blown off tailings dams. • Obvious accumulation of fine dust within a several kilometre radius of the mine. • Increased incidence of respiratory and other health problems (change in incidence rates may be imperceptible at first and it may take some time for the statistics to become apparent/obvious).
What specialists can do – during mine operation
What specialists can do: • Assess significance of the evidence of mining impacts presented/compiled by communities/civil society and recommend and/or facilitate action • It may be necessary to conduct independent tests and monitoring if mine’s own monitoring results are unconvincing or unavailable for scrutiny, and to convince regulators/authorities to take action. • Examples of monitoring and tests at this stage: - measurement of heavy metal concentrations in fish - water sampling and analysis - soil sampling and analysis - air quality sampling • Assess significance of mine’s monitoring data (or community’s/specialist’s own independent monitoring measurements) against pre-mining baseline measurements.
Availability of specialists to affected communities and civil society: Quote from Center for Science in Public Participation (CSP2), USA, about provision of technical support to “grassroots” groups: http://www.csp2.org/what-we-do “Because experts are not readily available, groups must often use whatever volunteer technical assistance is available locally; or rely on technical consultants that, if available, are expensive. In addition, because of the very close relationship between the mining industry, its technical consultants, and the academic community, it is very difficult for non-profit groups to gain access to technical and financial expertise on mining.”
General water cons3tuents
Source: Lecture notes, Dr. Andre Banning, Ins:tute of Hydrogeology, Ruhr University Bochum
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Electrical conductivity (EC) often used to measure TDS
