Schmall crim today8e_ppt_ch2

Criminology TodayAn Integrated Introduction

CHAPTER

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8eFrank Schmalleger

Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved

Where Do Theories Come From?

2



Evidence-Based Criminology

• Emphasis on theories, policies, practices that are evidence-based

• Founded upon the experimental method• Emphasizes randomized controlled

experiments• "Evidence" refers to scientific findings.



The Evolving Science of Criminology

• John Laub's eras of criminological thought Golden Age of Research (1900–1930) Golden Age of Theory (1930–1960) Testing of dominant theories (1960–

2000) Current era/21st century criminology

contains "all possible offspring" of what came before.

continued on next slide




• Modern criminology more scientific than "armchair criminology" of the past

• Scientific criminology involves: Systematic collection of related facts Emphasis on the scientific method





• Scientific criminology involves: General laws, field for experimentation

or observation, control of academic discourse

Acceptance into the scientific tradition Emphasis on a worthwhile subject



Theory Building

• Goal of criminological research Construct theories or models that

improve our understanding of criminal behavior and help us create effective strategies to deal with the crime problem




Theory Building

• Theory A series of interrelated propositions that

attempt to describe, explain, predict, and ultimately control some class of events



Figure 2-1 The Theory Building ProcessSource: Pearson Education, Inc.



Uses of Theory

• Provide patterns for interpreting data• Link studies together• Supply frameworks within which

concepts and variables have special significance

• Allow us to interpret the larger meaning of findings



The Role of Research and Experimentation

• Research The use of standardized, systematic

procedures in the search for knowledge• Types of research

Applied vs. pure Primary vs. secondary



Stages of Scientific Research

1. Problem identification2. Development of a research design3. Choice of data collection techniques4. Review of findings



Problem Identification

• First step in any research• Choosing the problem/issue to be

studied• Most research in criminology explores

issues of causality.• Frequently involves testing hypotheses





• Hypothesis A tentative explanation for an

observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation

Something that is taken to be true for the purpose of argument or investigation; an assumption





• Variable A concept that can undergo measurable

changes• Operationalization

Turning a simple hypothesis into one that is testable

Making concepts in hypothesis measurable turns them into variables.



Development of a Research Design

• Research design The logic and structure inherent in any

particular approach to data gathering• One-group pretest-posttest

O1 × O2 Simple research design Does not eliminate confounding effects

or competing hypotheses



Validity in Research Designs

• Internal validity The certainty that experimental

interventions did indeed cause the changes observed in the study group

• External validity The ability to generalize research

findings to other settings



Figure 2-2 Threats to the Internal Validity of a Research DesignSource: Pearson Education, Inc.



Figure 2-3 Threats to the External Validity of a Research DesignSource: Pearson Education, Inc.



Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research Designs• Controlled experiments

Attempt to hold conditions other than the experimental intervention constant

• Quasi-experimental designs Give the researcher control over the

"when and to whom" of measurement (but not exposure to intervention)

Less powerful than controlled experiments



Experimental Design

• Pretest-posttest control group design Experimental group:O1 × O2

Control group: O3 × O4 Control group is not exposed to

experimental intervention. Using a control group increases power of

design.




Experimental Design

• Randomization is critical to success of experimental design. Process by which subjects are assigned

to study groups without biases or differences resulting from selection

No self-selection allowed, no personal judgment used in subject assignment

Controls threats to internal validity



Choice of Data-Collection Techniques

• Data gathering strategies provide approaches to the accumulation of information needed for analysis.

• Strategy must produce information in usable form.

• Kind of information needed depends on questions to be answered.



Main Types of Data-Gathering Strategies

• Surveys• Case studies• Participant observation• Self-reporting• Secondary analysis



Surveys

• Use questionnaires or surveys to gather "survey data"

• May interview respondents in person, over the telephone, by e-mail, by fax, or by mail

• National Crime Victimization Survey



Case Studies

• In-depth investigations into individual cases Life history• Case study focusing on one individual (a

single subject) • Suffer from high levels of subjectivity

but provide opportunity to examine individual cases in depth



Participant Observations

• Involves various strategies in which the researcher observes a group by participating, to varying degrees, in the activities of the group

• Researchers may operate undercover or make their purpose and identity known from the start.




Participant Observations

• Main types Participant as observer Observer as complete participant

• Important for observer to avoid influencing group, identifying too closely with group, or aversion to group



Self-Reporting

• Subjects are asked to report rates of certain behaviors, such as crime. May provide information when official

records are lacking May be a form of survey research

• Some techniques, such as introspection and personal reflection, are purely subjective.



Secondary Analysis

• New analysis or evaluation of existing data that was gathered by other researchers

• Analysis of information originally collected for a different purpose



Problems in Data Collection

• Scientific observation must meet two criteria. Intersubjectivity: Independent observers

report seeing the same thing under the same circumstances

Replicability: When the same conditions exist, the same results can be expected to follow

• Observations meeting these criteria may still lead to unwarranted conclusions.



Review of Findings

• Most data subjected to some form of statistical analysis Descriptive statistics: describe,

summarize, highlight relationships within data

Inferential statistics: attempt to generalize findings by specifying how likely they are to be true for other populations or locations




Review of Findings

• Measures of central tendency Mode, median, mean

• Standard deviation Measure of dispersion

• Correlation Interdependence between variables




Review of Findings

• Tests of significance Provide researchers with confidence that

results are true, not result of sampling error



Quantitative versus Qualitative Methods

• Quantitative methods Techniques that produce measurable

results that can be analyzed statistically "Mystique of quantity"

• Qualitative methods Techniques that produce subjective

results, or results that are difficult to quantify

Verstehen



Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research

• Values affect all stages of the research process. Research is never free from

preconceptions and biases. Control their effect by being aware of

them at the onset of the research Biases may threaten validity of research

results.





• Ethical issues do not affect validity but may impact the lives of researchers and subjects. Protection of human subjects Privacy Need for disclosure of research methods Data confidentiality





• Informed consent Strategy used to overcome ethical

issues inherent in criminological research

Inform subjects as to nature of research, their anticipated role, the uses made of the data





• Institutional review boards Established by universities, research

organizations, government agencies Examine research proposals to

determine whether expectations of ethical conduct have been met before the proposals are submitted to funding organizations





• Participant observation may entail difficult ethical issue. Should researchers violate the law if

research participation appears to require it?

• Researcher's primary role is that of a scientist.



Social Policy and Criminological Research

• Ideally, research should significantly impact public crime control policy.

• Realistically Public officials may be ignorant of

current research. Public officials may ignore research

findings, create politically expedient policies.



Writing the Research Report

• Title page• Acknowledgements• Table of contents• Preface• Abstract• Introduction• Review of existing literature





• Description of existing situation• Statement of hypothesis• Description of research plan• Disclaimers/limitations• Findings/results• Analysis/discussion• Summary/conclusions





• Endnotes/footnotes• Appendices• List of references



Writing for Publication

• Refereed journals Primary outlet for research results Journals that use peer reviewers to

gauge the quality of manuscripts submitted to them




Writing for Publication

• Refereed journals Believed to result in publication of

research making a worthwhile contribution and rejection of lesser quality research

Manuscript submission requirements vary by journal.