LANGUAGEAND

THINKING

Prepared by: Rolyn Jean Acol

Language consists of a system of symbols

and rules for combining these symbols in ways that can generate an infinite number of possible messages and meanings

Psycholinguistics the scientific study of the psychological

aspects of language, such as how people understand, produce, and acquire language

Adaptive Functions of Language Over the course of evolution, humans

adopted a more socially oriented lifestyle Emergence of new SURVIVAL problems:

The need to create divisions of labor and cooperative social systems

To develop social customs To communicate thoughts To pass on knowledge and wisdom

Properties of LanguageSymbols

The use of sounds, written characters, or some other system of symbols (e.g., hand signs) to represent objects, events, ideas, feelings, and actions

Properties of LanguageStructure

Grammar – set of rules that dictate how symbols can be combined to create meaningful units of communication

Syntax – rules that govern the order of words

Properties of LanguageMeaning

Semantics - the meaning of words and sentences

Properties of LanguageGenerativity

the symbols of language can be combined to generate an infinite number of messages that have meaning

Displacement refers to the fact that language allows us to

communicate about events and objects that are not physically present

Structure of Language

Surface structure consists of the symbols that are used and their order

Deep structure refers to the underlying meaning of the combined

symbols

Consider these sentences: Sam ate the cake. The cake was eaten by Sam. Eaten by Sam the cake was.

Hierarchical Structure of Language

Understanding and Producing LanguageBottom-Up Processing

Individual elements of a stimulus are analyzed and then combined to form a unified perception

Top-Down Processing Sensory information is interpreted

in light of existing knowledge, concepts, ideas, and expectations

Social Context of LanguagePragmatics

knowledge of the practical aspects of using language

Language Functions, the Brain, and Sex Differences

Brain-imaging research by Susan Rossell and coworkers (2002)

Acquiring a First Language It represents the joint influences of

biology (nature) and environment (nurture).

Many language experts believe that humans are born linguists, inheriting a biological readiness to recognize and eventually produce the sounds and structure of whatever language they are exposed to (Chomsky, 1965; Pinker, 2000).

Acquiring a First Language

Biological Foundation Human children begin to master

language early in life without any formal instruction

Languages throughout the world that developed independently seem to have common underlying structural characteristics

Recognition and distinction of phonemes

Acquiring a First LanguageLanguage acquisition device

(LAD) an innate biological mechanism that

contains the general grammatical rules common to all languages (Chomsky , 1987)

Universal grammar becomes calibrated to the grammar and syntax of one’s native tongue

Acquiring a First Language

Social Learning Processes Child-directed speech, parentese or baby

talk Parents are more concerned with deep

structure

Language Acquisition Support System (LASS) represent factors in the social

environment that facilitate the learning of a language (Jerome Bruner ;1983)

Development and Sensitive Periods

Reflexive Crying at Birth

Cooing(1-4 months)

Babbling(4-11 months)

One-Word Utterances (12-24 months)

Telegraphic Speech (2-3 year old)

Complex Speech (5 year old)

Nature vs Nurture Genie (the Feral Child)

Subjected to a near-total isolation by her parents for the first 13 years of her life (1970)

Genie's case presented researchers with a unique opportunity. If given an enriched learning environment, could she overcome her deprived childhood and learn language even though she had missed the sensitive period? 

Development and Sensitive Periods

NATURE NURTURENoam Chomsky Eric Lenneberg

the acquisition of language could not be fully explained by learning alone.

the ability to acquire language is subject to what are known as sensitive periods

Language Acquisition Device (LAD) - an innate ability to understand the principles of language

Sensitive Period - limited span of time during which an organism is sensitive to external stimuli and capable of acquiring certain skills

Once exposed to language, the LAD allows children to learn the language at a remarkable pace.

The sensitive period for language acquisition lasts until around age 12. After the onset of puberty, he argued, the organization of the brain becomes set and no longer able to learn and utilize language in a fully functional manner.

Development and Sensitive Periods

Animals and Language

Nonhuman species communicate in diverse ways.

Animals and Language Some scientists attempted to challenge

the assumption that only humans have the capacity to use full-fledged language by teaching apes to use human language

Sign Language Washoe (Allen and Beatrice Gardner;

1969)▪ Loulis - learned by observing adoptive mother

Nim Chimspky (Herbert Terrace ;1979)

Animals and LanguageKanzi (Savage-Rumbaugh;1993)

Bilingualism the use of two

languages in daily life

It is said that a second language would be learned best and spoken most fluently when acquired early in life

Bilingualism and Cognitive Abilities

The Journal of Neuroscience (Jan. 09,2013)

A study of Brian T. Gold, PhD, and colleagues at the University of Kentucky College of Medicine utilizing fMRI

Seniors who have spoken two languages since childhood are faster than single-language speakers at switching from one task to another

Cognitive flexibility – the ability to adapt to unfamiliar or unexpected circumstances

The Bilingual Brain  A UCSD study tried to find out how the brain

works in the learning of a second language. In general, they found that in the less proficient language, the brain recruits many more areas than in processing the dominant language

Thinking

The internal language of the mind

 refers to any mental or intellectual activity involving an individual's subjective consciousness

Modes of Thinking Propositional Thought

it expresses a statement, such as “I’m hungry” , “ I didn’t eat breakfast” or “It’s almost time for lunch.”

Imaginal Thought consists of images that we can see, hear, or feel in our

mind

Motoric Thought relates to mental representations of motor

movements, such as throwing an object

All three modes of thinking enter into our abilities to reason, solve problems, and engage in many forms of intelligent behavior.

Concepts and PropositionPropositions

statements that express ideasConcepts

basic units of semantic memory—mental categories into which we place objects, activities, abstractions and events that have essential features in common

Prototypes the most typical and familiar members of

a category or class

Reasoning

Reasoning

(1) You are the bus driver. At your first stop, you pick up 29 people. On your second stop, 18 of those 29 people get off, and at the same time 10 new passengers arrive. At your next stop, 3 of those 10 passengers get off, and 13 new passengers come on. On your fourth stop 4 of the remaining 10 passengers get off, 6 of those new 13 passengers get off as well, then 17 new passengers get on. What is the color of the bus driver's eyes?

Reasoning

(2) A murderer is condemned to death. He has to choose between three rooms. The first is full of raging fires, the second is full of assassins with loaded guns, and the third is full of lions that haven't eaten in 3 years. Which room is the safest for him?

Stumbling Blocks in ReasoningDistraction by Irrelevant

InformationBelief bias

tendency to abandon logical rules in favor of our own personal beliefs

EmotionsFraming

refers to the idea that the same information, problem, or options can be structured and presented in different ways

Problem Solving and Decision Making

Humans have an unmatched ability to solve problems and adapt to the challenges of their world

Mental set - the tendency to stick to solutions that have worked in the past

Problem Solving and Decision Making

Problem Solving and Decision Making

Algorithms and Heuristics Algorithms

formulas or procedures that automatically generate correct solutions

Algorithms and HeuristicsHeuristics

general problem-solving strategies that we apply to certain classes of situations

Means-ends analysis Identify differences between the

present situation and the desired state, or goal, and then make changes that will reduce these differences

Subgoal analysis formulating sub goals or

intermediate steps, toward a solution

Algorithms and Heuristics

Uncertainty, Heuristics & Decision Making

Few decisions in everyday life can be made with the absolute certainty that comes from applying some mathematical formula or other algorithm

Typically, the best we can hope for is a decision that has a high probability of a positive outcome

Representativeness Heuristic Infer how closely something or someone

fits our prototype for a particular concept, or class, and therefore how likely it is to be a member of that class

Priming Function - activating the elements in memory that are associated with a certain concept

Availability Heuristic causes us to base judgments and

decisions on the availability of information in memory

Uncertainty, Heuristics & Decision Making

Confirmation Bias and Overconfidence Confirmation Bias

tending to look for evidence that will confirm what they currently believe rather than look for evidence that could disconfirm their beliefs

Overconfidence the tendency to overestimate one’s correctness in

factual knowledge, beliefs, and decisions

Confirmation Bias and Overconfidence

Creativity the ability to produce something

that is both new and valuable

Knowledge, Expertise & WisdomKnowledge forms a foundation for

expertise and wisdom

Each culture passes down its knowledge and worldview from one generation to the next through language, instruction, and socialization

The Nature of Expertise

Expert Schema and MemoryExperts have developed many schemas to guide problem solving in their field, and just as critically, they are much better than novices at recognizing when each schema should be applied. Applying the correct mental blueprint provides a proven route to solving a problem quickly and effectively.

Wisdom represents a system of knowledge

about the meaning and conduct of life

Components of Wisdom

Rich factual knowledge about life

Rich procedural knowledge about life

An understanding of life-span contexts

An awareness of the relativism of values and priorities

The ability to recognize and manage uncertainty

Mental Imagery

Representation of a stimulus that originates inside your brain, rather than from external sensory input

Imagery Neurons Respond to a particular stimulus

regardless of whether it is visual (a photo of a baseball) or imagined (a mental image of a baseball)

Mental Rotation

Metacognition

awareness and understanding of your own cognitive abilities

Two components: Metamemory▪ How well one gauges his memory

capabilities Metacomprehension▪ How well one gauges her comprehension

capabilities

Language and ThinkingLinguistic Relativity and

Determinism language differences cause differences

in the mind of people who use that language

structure of human cognition is determined by the categories and structures that already exist in the language

Humans can think without using language but language skills facilitate learning and remembering, identify issues and draw conclusions

Language and Thinking

Language influences what people think and how effectively they think. Expansion of vocabulary allows people to encode and process information in more sophisticated ways.