AS6230: Introduction to

Research

1.Whakawhangatanga

We are in this together: The ID Crisis

2.Why are we here?

More Knowledge = More Confidence

3.

Understanding Sampling

Sampling in Quantitative Research✘ Sampling to generalize about a population✘ Only a census asks everyone✘ Random vs Non-Random Sampling … bias✘ Why Sample Size and Response Rate is Important

Sampling in Qualitative (and some Mixed) Research✘ Sampling in qualitative research never seeks to generalize

to an entire population; it wants to tell a story from that population

✘ There is recognition of bias as the sample is non-random and often small

✘ The sample MUST represent some aspect of the phenomena being studied in the research question

Sampling in Quantitative Research: Types✘ Simple random, ✘ Systematic (using interval counting), ✘ Stratified (looking at groups) which can be proportional, or

disproportional✘ Cluster (selecting groups)

Sampling in Qualitative/Mixed Research: Types✘ Convenience/opportunistic✘ Quota (choosing groups and numbers)✘ Purposive/criterion-based✘ Snowball✘ Comprehensive

Sampling in Qualitative Research: Types✘ Maximum variation✘ Homogenous sample selection✘ Extreme case sampling✘ Typical case sampling✘ Critical case sampling✘ Negative case sampling

Your Turn✘Positivist/Post-

Positivist✘Constructivist✘Feminist✘Ethnic✘Marxist✘Culture✘Mixed

✘ Select five sampling techniques

✘ Describe what questions they could answer for each paradigm

✘ Describe how they could be used particularly, ie what would the researcher do

4.Time for a Break

It All Comes Down to a Question

5.

Quantitative analysis

The Setting✘ Experimental research vs Quasi-

Experimental Research✘ The need for empirical data✘ Sampling is key (stratified random or

purposive)✘ Key words are reliability and validity

(internal and external)✘ Significance is important✘ Eliminate bias✘ Remember variables – dependent,

independent (changing) and extraneous

Testing

Why Test?✘ Established tests tend to have measures of reliability and

validity✘ Testing before and after an intervention can show evidence

of change (and the direction of change)✘ Tests for significance can occur (ANOVA, Chi Square)

What to test✘ Psychometric variables✘ Biological/Physiological

changes✘ Educational Changes (IQ etc)

How?✘ Don’t create your own

test instead find established tests whichhave measures of reliability and validity

Survey Research

Survey Research

✘ TypesCross-sectional surveys (inc. Census, Youth 2000)Longitudinal surveys (trend, cohort, panel)✘ How/What

Text/Document Surveys (primary and secondary sources)Questionnaires inc open/closed items, branching and clear layout

Traps in Questionnaire Design✘ Ambiguity – unclear questions✘ Assumptions

Multiple responses when really only one is wantedMemory stretching Knowledge demands✘ Double questions✘ Leading questions✘ Presuming questions✘ Hypothetical questions✘ Overlapping categories

Getting it right✘ Remember most people don’t want to

write or type✘ So quick ticks and clicks work✘ Follow the KISS principle✘ Use likerts for measuring variability in

responses✘ Connect the question to the response✘ NEVER ask two questions in one!!!✘ Keep the survey to under seven

minutes✘ PILOT, PILOT, PILOT

Observation and Interviewing

Observation and Interviewing✘ Observation can have an important function in quantitative

designs but tends to focus on descriptive elements – ie the mixed element

✘ Interviewing needs to be structured✘ Both observation and interviewing should only be used for

triangulation of data and results

The role of statistics

✘ Nominal=/ ≠ (yes/no)Dichotomous (Gender)/Non-dichotomous (nationality)Mode (number of responses)Bargraphs

✘ Ordinal (order without a measure of REAL difference, only opinion)

=/ ≠, </>Dichotomous (truth, beauty, health)Non-dichotomous (opinion)Median (psychological tests do tend to break this rule) (the middle number)Bargraphs, Pie Graphs with caution

✘ Interval (degrees of difference but without a clear starting point)

=/ ≠, </>, +/-Date, Latitude, TemperatureArithmetic mean (average using sum – what usually happens) (the average number)Line Graphs

✘ Ratio – FYI ONLY=/ ≠, </>, +/-, ×/÷Age, mass, length, duration, energy etc.Geometric mean (average using product and the nth root) (the average number)

Questions and Reflections

6.Lunch

7.

The Qualitative Process

The Reseacher’s Role“Being There”, “Getting Nosy” and “Looking Over Others’

Shoulders” (Wolcott, 1995)

The Reseacher’s Role Being a learner

‘Sucking in’ the atmosphere of the fieldReflecting on your own experiences

Fieldnotes

Fieldnotes✘ Sit alongside other techniques✘ Detailed notes and reflections of the field✘ Three types

DescriptiveMethodologicalReflexive✘ Occur after/before – rather than during

Descriptive Fieldnotes

✘ Include observations

✘ Describes the field – including maps, setting descriptions, and individuals

Methodological Fieldnotes

✘ Reflections on methodological approaches being used

✘ Notes on any changes to any approach being used

Reflexive Fieldnotes

✘ Journaling of own learning/experiences/thoughts throughout the process

✘ May sit within or alongside descriptive and methodological notes

✘ Technically seen as journaling of experience

Dilemmas✘ What dilemmas and issues to research does the practice of

observation bring?✘ How can fieldnotes counter these issues and dilemmas?✘ What else can the researcher do to ensure that the story

makes sense intrinsically (on an emic level) and extrinsically (on an etic level)?

Observation

Why Observe?✘ To develop a theory✘ To prove/disprove a theory✘ Making use of an “opportunity” (Wolcott, 1995)✘ Provide a thick description to analyse✘ Provide an instrument of triangulation (alongside

interviewing and fieldnotes)

What to observe✘ Interactions

Between peopleBetween people and settingsBetween people and yourself✘ Behaviours

ReactionsRoutinesInteractions✘ The Context/Setting✘ The overt and the covert

How?✘ Traditional

Eyes, pen, and paper✘ Technological

Cameras/Video/ICT✘ Combination

Trad+PostEven the post involves a level of the traditional

To what degree/level✘ Four phases of observation

1. Scoping2. Descriptive3. Focused4. Selective

✘ Each involves a differentfocus/depth

Phase One: Scoping✘ Familisation with the setting

Setting mappingApparent rules/structuresGeneral impressionsYour own reactionsAny thoughts/hypotheses✘ A reflexive tool✘ Jottings and diagrams

Phase Two: Descriptive✘ Detailed descriptions of settings, interactions, and

behaviours✘ Focuses on questions that can be addressed through

observation - the inquisitive eye

✘ Uses delimiters and descriptors for current details and future reference

Phase Three: Focused Observation✘ Descriptive observation focusing on specific descriptive

questions:SpaceObjectsTimeBehavioursIndividuals

Descriptive Questions Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling

Space

Object

Act

Activity

Event

Time

Actor

Goal

FeelingFrom Spradley (1980)

Descriptive Questions Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling

Space

Object

Act

Activity

Event

Time

Actor

Goal

Feeling

Phase Four: Selective Observation✘ The focusing down of ‘focus observations’✘ Looks at filling in the gaps✘ Providing other dimensions to focused observations and

the phenomenon in question✘ Focuses on the specifics

IndividualEventBehaviourContext

Observation and Technology✘ What are the strengths of involving technology as an

observation tool?✘ What ‘new’ dilemmas arise from using technology as an

observation tool?✘ Do paper and pen still have a role to play alongside

technology?✘ What is this role?

Interviews

Research Interviewing✘ Unstructured

ConversationCentral to ethnography✘ Semi-structured

Broad open questions with promptingFits within most qualitative paradigms✘ Structured

Tight questions with limited or already given responsesQuantitative/positivist researchMixed paradigm researchTechnology-based methodologies (phone interviewing, ICT research)

Unstructured Interviewing✘ Conversations in the field✘ Ideally recorded on tape or after the research✘ Requires the researcher to be skilled:

In holding conversationsIn listeningIn focusing/re-focusing conversations✘ Requires time

Semi-Structured Interviewing✘ Guided conversations✘ Uses broad opening questions which can be redirected by

interviewee or interviewer ✘ Uses verbal prompting✘ Allows for the development of conversation/research skills✘ Generally piloted beforehand✘ Recorded on tape and on paper

Structured Interviewing✘ Focused conversations✘ Uses tight questions which require set responses

(sometimes given)✘ Reflects survey research✘ Allows for collection of theme-driven data✘ Requires piloting with similar sample✘ Recorded on Paper

What leads to a good interview✘ Rapport

Before the interviewThe first question/opening comments✘ Reciprocity

You shouldn’t be the only one gaining from the interview✘ Acceptance of the unexpected

Unanswered questions✘ Self-Confidence

Practice and faith in oneself

Ann Oakley (1981): The Central Dilemma✘ Who holds power in the interview process?✘ Who gains from research?✘ What is false about ‘rapport’

in qualitative research interviewing?

✘ When does the relationship finish?

Interviewing a Group: Focus Group Interviews✘ Works at providing further information and context to a

researched phenomenon✘ Tends to not stand as a single methodological approach

but sits alongside other data-gathering strategies✘ A form of triangulation ✘ Requires a particular type of questioning and facilitation

skills

Focus Groups

Initial Data Gathering

(surveys/ interviews/

text documents

Group Discussion involving

key informants

and/or affected

individuals

Scoping

Focus Groups

Data Gathering

(surveys/ interviews/

text documents

Group Discussion involving

key informants

and/or affected

individuals

Scoping

Focus Groups: Fitting them in✘ Sitting within a multi-method approach

Providing more depthEnabling future discussion✘ Typical research designs include

Evaluation researchMixed design researchCase study research

Recording Focus Groups✘ Pen/Paper✘ Two researchers✘ Technology

AudioVideo✘ Each has its own dilemmas

and issues

Asking the Questions✘ Questions

Importance of ice-breakingOpen questions that create a communicative atmosphereRapport buildingSemi-structured and provocative✘ The role of the researcher

Facilitator and guideGuides discussion by using directive questioning and prompting

Guiding the Discussion✘ Group discussion has particular dilemmas

Dominant speakersSilent groups✘ Effectively using prompts✘ The little things

NamesRelationships

Text Analysis✘ Used across the paradigms differently

To gather analysable statisticspositivistTo provide a historical analysisFeminist and ethnic researchTo provide a history of the present – a deconstruction of knowledgeCultural studies

Peach-skinned Bailey Junior Kurariki killed at 12, Kararaina Makere Te Rauna at 14.Their faces are too young to be giveaways for the violence that festered and flared and struck out.They look disturbingly like the kids next door, like kids who skateboard and learn their maths and play on computers.Are our children worse than they used to be? Is this the onset of a wave of hideous child crime, payback for some creeping national deficiency? Who will be the next person going happily about their business to be belted over the head and murdered for nothing? Kurariki and Te Rauna were not alone. Other kids were there at the kill. Are we becoming a society rotten at birth where doors need to be locked not just against ingrained criminals but children of trick-or-treat age? (Dekker, 2002, p.F1)

Assignments

Hit the Target

Where are you at now?

thanks!Any questions?

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