EarlyEarlyChristianChristian

Art & Art & ArchitectureArchitecture

The Early Spread of Christianity

The Spread of ChristianityBetween 300 and 800 CE

• Although Jesus was born during the reign of Augustus in Rome, it was not until 300 years later (in 313 CE) that Christianity was recognized by the Roman Empire (Constantine I, Edict of Milan).• Early Christian Art does not refer to art made by Christians in the time of Jesus, as no such artworks exist. Instead, it refers to the earliest surviving artworks depicting Christian themes, which are typically Roman works from the third and fourth centuries.• Although Augustus and later Tiberius ruled Rome during Jesus’ lifetime, there were also local administrators of Judaea (the region where Jesus primarily lived) who were under Roman control, namely King Herod and Pontius Pilate.

Basics of ChristianityChristians believe that:• Jesus is the son of God, born of a human woman known as the Virgin Mary (immaculate conception). The Holy Trinity is made up of the Father, the Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit• The Christian Bible is made up of the Old Testament (which is shared with Judaism) and the New Testament.• During Jesus’ lifetime, he performed a number of miracles, and preached his religious philosophies of love, charity, a personal relationship with God, the forgiveness of sins, and the promise of life after death to people throughout Judaea. • Jesus’ twelve closest followers were his disciples (apostles).• Four of Jesus’ disciples, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, are known as the evangelists because they wrote accounts of Jesus’ life that are now part of the New Testament (known as the Gospels).• At age 33, Jesus was betrayed by one of his disciples (Judas) and crucified (put to death on a cross). • After three days in limbo, Jesus was resurrected, and after forty more days, he ascended to heaven. Jesus’ death and resurrection enabled the forgiveness of human sins.

Christian Symbols• Dove - The Old Testament dove is a symbol of purity, representing peace when it is shown bearing an olive branch. In Christian art, a white dove is the symbolic embodiment of the Holy Spirit and is often shown descending from heaven, sometimes haloed and radiating celestial light.

• Lamb or Sheep -The lamb, an ancient sacrificial animal, symbolizes Jesus’ sacrifice on the cross as the Lamb of God, its pouring blood redeeming the sins of the world. -The Lamb of God (Agnes Dei in Latin) may appear holding a cross-shaped scepter and/or a victory banner with a cross signifying Christ’s Resurrection. -The lamb sometimes stands on a cosmic rainbow or mountaintop. -A flock of sheep represents the apostles – or all Christians – cared for by their Good Shepherd, Jesus Christ.

Christian Symbols• Four Evangelists - The evangelists who wrote the New Testament Gospels are traditionally associated with the following creatures: - Saint Matthew = man or angel - Saint Mark = a lion- Saint Luke = an ox - Saint John = an eagle

• Monograms - Alpha (the first letter of the Greek alphabet) and omega (the last) signify God as the beginning and end of all things. This symbolic device was popular from Early Christian times through the Middle Ages. - Alpha and omega often flank the abbreviation IX or XP. The initials I and X are the first letters of Jesus and Christ in Greek. The initials XP, known as the chi rho, were the first two letters of the word Christos. - These emblems are sometimes enclosed by a halo or wreath of victory.

Christian Symbols• Cross - The primary Christian emblem, the cross, symbolizes the suffering and triumph of Jesus’ crucifixion and resurrection as Christ. - It also stands for Jesus Christ himself, as well as the Christian religion as a whole. - Crosses have taken various forms at different times and places, the two most common in Christian art being the Latin and Greek.• Fish - The fish was one of the earliest symbols for Jesus Christ. Because of its association with baptism in water, it came to stand for all Christians. Fish are sometimes depicted with bread and wine to represent the Eucharist. The simplified Ichthys symbol was used amongst early Christians as a means of secret identification.

Church Organization• As Christianity spread, the hierarchy of the Church became more organized. Christian communities were organized by geographical units, along the lines of Roman provincial governments.• Parish – a smaller Church unit, run by a priest• Diocese – a larger unit made up of several parishes, run by a bishop (who was a senior Church official)• The bishop’s headquarters were known as sees or seats, and where usually located in large cities or capitals. A bishops church is a cathedral, from the Latin word for “chair.”• Several sees were overseen by an arch-bishop.• The arch-bishop of Rome eventually became the Pope, who was the head of the Western Church. • The arch-bishop of Constantinople became the head, or patriarch, of the Eastern Church.• In 1054, the Eastern and Western Churches split to become the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.Pope Benedict XVI in his

awesome Popemobile

Religious Beliefs Affect Art• As it was forbidden in the ten commandments to carve or worship false idols, Jewish and, later, early Christian artists made few religious sculptures.• Christian rites prompted the development of special buildings, such as churches (because Christians worshipped together in large groups) and baptistries. • The Christian Church began to use the visual arts to instruct its followers as well as to glorify god.• Because Christianity claimed to have arisen out of Judaism, its art incorporated many symbols and narrative representations from the Hebrew Scriptures and other Jewish sources. This process of artists assimilating images from other traditions (whether intentionally or not) and giving them new meanings is known as syncretism. • One example of a syncretic image is the use of orant figures (people with outstretched arms) on the right, which were depicted in pagan, Jewish, and Christian art. Good Shepherd, Orants, and

Story of JonahPainted ceiling of the Catacomb of Saints Pietro and Marcellino, Rome. 4th Century.

Christian Funerary Traditions• Because of the emphasis on resurrection, the Christians

sought to preserve the body after death. Instead of cremation, they preferred to be buried in a catacomb.• In the catacombs, long rectangular niches called loculi hold 2-3 bodies. Wealthier families created small rooms called cubicula off of the main passages to house their sarcophagi.• The catacombs were carved out of the tufa bedrock, then plastered and painted with religious imagery.• This cubicula features a central medallion, featuring a depiction of a Good Shepherd, whose pose has roots in Greek sculpture. In its new context, the image was a reminder of Jesus’ promise: “I am the good shepherd. A good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep” (John 10:11).• The medallion is surrounded by four lunettes, or semi-circular areas framed by an arch, depicting the story of Jonah who was swallowed then spit up by whale, a metaphor for resurrection.

medallion lunette

Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus

• Junius Bassus was a mid-fourth century prefect of Rome who was baptized just before his death. • Reliefs decorate only one long side and both short sides.• Long side consists of a total of ten scenes, divided into two registers of five scenes, each separated by a column.• The depictions are of biblical stories. Jesus appears in the central scene of both registers.• Of what previous Roman artwork is the upper depiction of Jesus reminiscent? How so?• Of what Roman artwork(s) is the lower depiction of Jesus reminiscent? How is it different?• What biblical story is depicted in the niche on the bottom row, second from left? How does that story relate to Jesus?• The upper left image depicts Abraham offering his son Isaac as a sacrifice, a fore-telling of Jesus being offered as sacrifice for the sins of humanity.

Sarcophagus of Junius BassusRome, Italy.

C. 360. Marble. 3’ 10” x 8’

Christ as the Good Shepherd• Although Christians mostly avoided sculpture in the round that depicted religious themes, there are a few examples, but they are smaller in scale than traditional Greco-Roman sculptures.• The depiction of Jesus as a shepherd is an example of a syncretic image. In Pagan art, he was Hermes the shepherd or Orpheus among the animals, but Jews and Christians saw him as the Good Shepherd of the twenty-third Psalm, which stated “The Lord is my shepherd, there is nothing I lack.”• Pose is contrapposto.• Christ is depicted as youthful. Emphasis in early Christian art was on the life, teachings, and miracles of Jesus, rather than on his suffering and death.

Christ as the Good Shepherd

c. 350 Marble. 3’ high

Early Christian Architecture• Before the Edict of Milan, Christians worshipped together in private homes. After the Edict of Milan, they quickly began to build sizeable churches that met the demands of the Christian liturgy (the official ritual of public worship). • The churches needed to be large for two reasons. 1. To accommodate the rapidly growing number of Christians. 2. To create a monumental setting for worship & glorification.• Because Constantine believed the Christian god helped him defeat Maxentius, he became a prolific builder of Christian churches in both Rome and Constantinople.• The Constantinian churches in Rome were built on the presumed graves of early Christian martyrs, which, due to Roman burial practice, were all on the outskirts of the city.• Building Christian churches on the outskirts of the city also helped avoid confrontations between traditional Roman worshippers and Christians.

Old Saint Peter’s• Constantine’s greatest Roman church was Old Saint Peter’s (so-called because it was replaced with a new building, now known as Saint Peter’s Basilica, in 1506). • Built on the graveyard in which it was believed that Saint Peter, the “rock” and founder of the Church, and first Bishop of Rome (thusly, the first Pope) had been buried.• Large enough to accommodate 3,000 to 4,000 worshippers.• The church enshrined Peter’s tomb, which is considered to be the second most hallowed sites in Christendom, second only to the Holy Sepulcher (site of Christ’s resurrection).• Resembled Roman basilicas more than temples • Early Christian basilica-plans all had a longitudinal axis.• Worshippers entered through the narthex (vestibule, lobby).• The end containing the apse included a transept, or cross-aisle perpendicular to the nave, between the nave and apse.• Austere exteriors, but lavish interiors. 300’ long nave.

Old Saint Peter’sVatican Hill,Rome, ItalyBegun c. 320

transept narthex atrium

Santa Sabina• Built 100 years after Old St. Peter’s, Santa Sabina is similar in style, but much smaller. • Brick exterior is similar to Aula Palatina in Trier, Germany.• Corinthian columns support an arcade down each side of the nave, drawing attention to the chancel arch (the archway separating the nave from the apse) at the end.• As with Old St. Peter’s a clerestory lets in light beneath the timber (wood) roof.• Interior decorated with frescoes and mosaics.• This church still has its original wooden doors.

Santa SabinaRome, Italy

c. 430

chancelarch

Santa Maria Maggiore• The first major church in the west dedicated to the Virgin Mary (name translates to Saint Mary Major). • The year prior to its construction, the Council of Ephesus convened to debate whether Mary had given birth to the man Jesus or to God as man. The council ruled that the divine and human coexisted in Christ and that Mary was the bearer of God (Theotokos).• Nave: Ionic colonnade. Clerestory. Geometric circular mosaic floor. Coffers in the ceiling.• Mosaics depicting Old Testament stories decorate the upper walls of the nave (near the clerestory). • Mosaics in early Christian churches 1. instructed worshippers about biblical stories (didactic), and 2. glorified God and Heaven through their beauty and splendor.

Santa Maria MaggioreRome, Italy

c. 430

Parting of Lot and Abraham• Tesserae were made from glass deliberately set unevenly in the panel to glitter and gleam in the clerestory light.• Larger tesserae were used (than in Roman floor mosaics) so that worshippers could easily see the scene from below.• This scene depicts the biblical story of Lot and Abraham. Because both men have large herds, conflicts were arising amongst their herders, so they decided to part ways. Abraham gave his nephew Lot first choice of directions, and then went the opposite way. Lot chose poorly, going towards Sodom, a city that was eventually destroyed by angels for its sinfulness.• Abraham is shown being lead by his son, Isaac, and Lot is being lead by his two daughters.• The artist shows the divide between groups clearly, and creates a sense of depth by using a “head cluster.”• The artist attempted some modeling and shading.• Abraham turns towards a church; Lot turns towards a city.

The Parting of Lot and AbrahamMosaic in the nave of Santa Maria Maggiore

Rome, Italy. C. 430.

Santa Costanza• Central-plan design (circular, under a dome)• Originally a mausoleum for Constantina (who was Constantine’s daughter), it was converted into a church.• Brick exterior• In the center of the dome was an altar. Surrounding the dome was the ambulatory, a ring-shaped barrel-vaulted corridor, separated from the center by 12 double columns.• Interior was once decorated with many mosaics, but most are lost. The mosaics included Old and New Testament images, as well as some that borrowed imagery from Roman funerary art (but re-interpreted in a Christian way).

Santa CostanzaRome, Italy

c. 350

Harvesting of Grapes• This mosaic, located in the arch above the ambulatory, depicts putti harvesting grapes and making wine, with a central portrait bust. Another portrait bust image was on the opposite side, and the pair may have represented Constantina and her husband.• Syncretic imagery: In Greco-Roman mythology, wine is associated with Bacchus, but in Christian imagery it is associated with the Eucharist.• Putti are similar looking to cherubs, the second order of angels. The difference is that cherubs are sacred (as angels), whereas a putti are profane. They represent Eros, and are usually depicted as trying to lure humans into profane love, rather than spiritual love between worshipper and God.

Harvesting of GrapesMosaic in the ambulatory vaultof Santa CostanzaRome, Italyc. 340

Ravenna• Theodosius I: -issued an edict establishing Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire (380)-Banned worship of the old Roman gods (391)-Abolished the Olympic Games (394)• After Theodosius’ death in 395, power passed to his two sons: Arcadius ruled the East; Honorius ruled the West.• In 404 Honorius moved the capital from Milan to Ravenna, to escape the Visigoths who threatened to attack from the northwest.• In 410, the Visigoths (lead by Alaric) captured Rome.• In 476, the Visigoths (lead by Odoacer) captured Ravenna to become the first Germanic king of Italy.• Odoacer was overthrown by Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, who established his capital at Ravenna in 493.• Ravenna fell to the Byzantine emperor Justinian in 539.

The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia• The so-called Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Honorius’ half-sister, is a small cruciform (cross-shaped) structure, with barrel-vaulted arms and a tower at the crossing. • Although it was long believed to be the tomb of Galla Placidia, we know now that it was built about 25 years before her death. It was probably originally a chapel to the martyred Saint Laurence.• The chapel adjoined the narthex of the now greatly altered palace-church of Santa Croce, which was also cruciform in plan.• The chapel’s cross-arms are of unequal length, giving it a slightly longitudinal axis. However, since both cross-arms are short, the emphasis is really on the vertical axis of the crossing tower (which appears domed from the inside). • As such, this building is a fusion of both the central-plan and basilica-plan styles, a design that would become very popular in the years to come.• The interior was decorated extensively with mosaics

The Mausoleum of Galla PlacidiaRavenna, Italyc. 420

Mausoleum Mosaics• The mosaics in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia depict saints and apostles.• The upper image is of Jesus as the good shepherd. Instead of holding a sheep, Jesus sits amongst the flock. The sheep look up at him lovingly. A halo rings his head.• The lower image depicts Saint Laurence, who was put to death on a fiery grill (and was subsequently made the patron saint of bakers). He holds a cross on his shoulders to represent his salvation in Christ, and a halo encircles his head to indicate his sainthood.

The Martyrdom of St. Laurence & The Good ShepherdMosaics from lunettes in the Mausuleum of Galla PlacidiaRavenna, Italy, c. 420

Sant’Apollinare Nuovo• Built by Theodoric in 504 as a baptistry, the building was rededicated in the ninth century as Sant’Apollinare Nuovo, when it acquired the relics of Saint Apollinaris.• The upper portion of the nave walls are richly decorated with three levels of mosaics (only the upper two of which are from Theodoric’s time).• Hebrew patriarchs and prophets stand between the clerestory window.• Scene’s from Christ’s life alternate with decorative panels in the top row.• The mosaic to the right depicts the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes.• The halo behind Jesus’ head now includes a cross, and is thus known as a nimbus.• Jesus’ pose is direct and frontal. He is clothed in imperial gold and purple, and is shown without a beard.•The artist has depicted the sky with a heavenly golden glow, rather than regular blue.• There is some shading, but the figures are much flatter than previous mosaics.

Sant’Apollinare NuovoRavenna, Italy, c. 526