Quantitative Research
Experimental Research
Laboratory Experiments Artificial – low realism Few extraneous variables High control Low cost Short Duration Subjects aware of
participation
Field Experiments Natural – high realism Many extraneous variables Low control High cost Long Duration Subjects unaware of
participation
Quantitative Research
Emotional Intelligence Survey
http://quiz.ivillage.co.uk/uk_work/tests/eqtest.htm
Validity
Extent to which a measurement instrument actually measures the attribute it was intended to measure.
Validity can be examined from a number of different perspectives, including:Face, content, criterion-related, and construct
validity
Assessing Validity
Face validity Researchers judge the degree to which a measurementinstrument seems to measure what it is supposed to.
Content validity The degree to which the instrument items represent the universe of the concept under study.
Criterion-related The degree to which a measurement instrument canvalidity predict a variable that is designated a criterion.
(a) Predictive ability; (b) Concurrent validity
Construct validity The degree to which a measure confirm a hypothesiscreated from a theory based upon the concepts understudy.(a) Convergent validity; (b) Discriminate validity
Reliability
ReliabilityDegree to which measures are free from
random error and, therefore, provide consistent data.
There are three ways to assess reliabilityTest-retest, equivalent forms, and internal
consistency
Assessing the Reliability of a Measurement Instrument
Test-retest reliability: Use the same instrument a second time under
as nearly the same conditions as possible.
Equivalent form reliability: Use two instruments that are as similar as
possible to measure the same object during the
same time period.
Internal consistency reliability: Compare different samples of items being
used to measure a phenomenon during the
same time period.
Reliability and Validity Situations in Measurement
.... .....
.
...
. .
.
..
.
.
.
.. ..
..
.
Situation 1 Situation 3Situation 2
Neither reliable nor Valid
Highly reliable but not valid
Highly reliable and valid
.
..
Error
Types of Error in Survey Research Random Sampling Error (Random error)
Error that results from chance variation Impact can be decreased by increasing
sample size and through statistical estimation (confidence interval) or “rule of thumb”
Systematic Error (non sampling error)Error that results for the research design or
execution.
R an d om E rro r
N on resp on s e e rro r
D e lib e ra te F a ls ific a tion U n c on sc iou s m is rep resen ta tion
A cq u iesc en ce E xtrem ity b ias In te rview er b ias A u sp ices b ias soc ia l d es irab ility
R esp on s e b ias
R esp on d en t e rro r
D a ta P roc es s in g S am p le se lec tion
In te rview er ch ea tin g In te rview er e rro r
A d m in is tra t ive e rro r
S ys tem atic E rro r
Tota l E rror
Types of Systematic Error
1. Administrative ErrorError that results from improper execution.
Data Processing ErrorQuality of data depends on quality of data
entry.Use of verification procedures can
minimize
Sample Selection ErrorSystematic error resulting from improper
sampling techniques either in design or execution.
Interviewer ErrorData recorded incorrectly (error or selective
perception). Interviewer Cheating
Mitigate by random checks
2. Respondent ErrorHumans interviewing humans...
Non-response errorStatistical difference between a survey that
includes only those who responded and a survey that also includes those who failed to respond.
Non-respondent: person not contacted or who refuses to participate
Self selection bias: extreme positions represented
Response biasErrors that result from tendency to answer in
“a certain direction”.Conscious or unconscious misrepresentation
Types:1. Deliberate falsification (why?)
Why would people deliberately falsify dataAppear to be what they are notDon’t trust confidentialityProtectTo end the interviewer quicker“Average man effects”
Types of response bias continued:1. Deliberate falsification2. Unconscious misrepresentation
Reasons for unconscious misrepresentation:Question formatQuestion contentMisunderstanding of question leading to
biased answerLack of time to consider answer fullyCommunication or semantic confusionother
Types of response bias Acquiescence bias: individuals have a
tendency to agree or disagree with all questions or to indicate a positive/negative connotation
Extremity bias: results for response styles varying from person to person; some people tend to use extremes when responding to questions
Types of response bias continued... Interviewer bias: Bias in the responses of the
subject due to the influence of the interviewer Auspices bias: respondents being influenced
by the organization conducting the study Social desirability bias: caused by
respondents’ desire, either consciously or unconsciously to gain prestige or to appear in a different social role
Measurement
The Concept of Measurement and Measurement Scales
• Measurement• Process of assigning numbers or labels to
things in accordance with specific rules to represent quantities or qualities of attributes.
• Rule: A guide, method, or command that tells a researcher what to do.
• Scale: A set of symbols or numbers constructed to be assigned by a rule to the individuals (or their behaviors or attitudes) to whom the scale is applied.
Types of Measurement Scales
• Nominal Scales• Scales that partition data into mutually
exclusive and collectively exhaustive categories.
• Ordinal Scales• Nominal scales that can order data.
• Interval Scales• Ordinal scales with equal intervals between
points to show relative amounts; may include an arbitrary zero point.
• Ratio Scales• Interval scales with a meaningful zero point so
that magnitudes can be compared arithmetically.
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Win Place Show
1 length 2 lengths
40 to 1 long-shot pays $40
Type of Scale Numerical Operation
Descriptive Statistics
Nominal Counting Frequency;
Percentage; mode
Ordinal Rank ordering (plus…)Median
Range; Percentile
Interval Arithmetic operations on intervals bet numbers
(plus…) Mean;
Standard deviation;
variance
Ratio Arithmetic operations on actual quantities
(plus…) Geometric mean; Co-efficent of variation
Selecting appropriate univariate statistical method
Scale Business Problem
Statistical question to be asked
Possible test of statistical significance
Nominal Scale
Identify sex of key executives
Is the number of female executives equal to the number of males executives?
Chi-square test
Scale Business Problem
Statistical question to be asked
Possible test of statistical significance
Nominal Scale
Indicate percentage of key executives who are male
Is the proportion of male executives the same as the hypothesized proportion?
T-test
Scale Business Problem
Statistical question to be asked
Possible test of statistical significance
Ordinal scale
Compare actual and expected evaluations
Does the distribution of scores for a scale with categories of poor,good, excellent differ from an expected distribution?
Chi-square test
Scale Business Problem
Statistical question to be asked
Possible test of statistical significance
Interval or Ratio scale
Compare actual and hypothetical values of average salary
Is the sample mean significantly different from the hypothesized population mean?
Z-test (sample is large)
T-test (sample is small)
Surveys
Survey data
Survey data are obtained when individuals respond to questions asked by interviewers or when the individual responds to questions that he has read
Quantitative and qualitative information Census or sample?
Survey Sampling
Sample SurveySample of the population
(e.g., sample of Alberta CEOs) Census Survey
Complete population(e.g., all CEOs in Lethbridge)
Functions
Descriptive Causal (limited function) Exploratory (limited function)
Information Provided by Surveys
respondent’s knowledge of facts how many times a month do you buy cookies?
respondent’s attitudes “chocolate chip is my favorite variety of cookie.”
May describe processes undertaken by respondent Stages in the purchase decision, for example
usually self-report data
The type of information gathered depends on a survey’s objectives.
Surveys typically have multiple objectives
Classifications Method of Communication
TelephoneMailPersonal interview
Degree of StructureUnstructuredstructured
Degree of Disguise
Limitations:
Structure and disguise
are not clear categories;
most surveys are hybrids
Temporal classificationsCross sectional studiesLongitudinal studies
Trend Studies Samples general population at each point; complete turnover in
who is actually sampled
Cohort studies (tracking studies) Samples from one group over time; e.g., sample of a graduating
class
Panel studies sample cohort, same specific respondents each sample
Method of Communication
Media Personal Interviews Telephone Interviews Self administered Questionnaires
Questionnaire design
A survey is only as good as the questions it asks
What should you ask?
The questions asked are a function of previous decisions
The questions asked are a function of future decisions (such as statistical analysis)
Key criteria
Questionnaire relevancyNo unnecessary information is collected and
only information needed to solve the problem is obtained. Be specific about your data needs; tie each question to an objective
Questionnaire accuracy Information is both reliable and valid
Phrasing Questions
Open ended response versus fixed alternative questions
“?” Decision criteria: type of research; time;
method of delivery; budget; concerns regarding researcher bias
Avoid
Leading questions Overly complex questions Use of jargon Loaded questions (can use a counterbiasing
statement) Ambiguity Double barreled questions Making assumptions
Order?
Order bias results from an alternative answer’s position in a set of answers or from the sequencing of questionsFunneling technique: general to specific helps
understand the frame of reference first Anchoring effect: the first concept
measured tends to become a comparison point from which subsequent evaluations are made
Types of questions
• Single dichotomy or dichotomous-alternative questions“Are you currently registered in a course at the
University of Lethbridge?Yes____ No____”
• Respondent chooses one of two alternatives (yes/no; male/female)
• What scale would this data create?
Types of fixed alternative questions…
Multi-choice alternativeRespondent chooses from several
alternativesMany types…
Types of fixed alternative questions…
Determinant choice Choose only one from several possible responses
“Which faculty are you currently registered in at the University of Lethbridge?
Management ___Education ____Arts/Science____Health sciences____Combined degree____
What type of scale would these data create?
Multi-choice alternative questions…
Frequency determinationAsks for an answer about frequency
of occurrence
In a typical week, how often do you purchase chocolate chip cookies?
__never
__ once
__ 2 or more timesWhat type of scale would these data create?
Check listProvide multiple answers to a single questionShould be mutually exclusive and exhaustive“What brands of chocolate chip cookies have
you, to the best of your memory, purchased in the past month (check all that apply?)”
__ Dare__ Chips A’hoy__ Presidents Choice Decadent etc. etc.
What type of scale would these data create?
Unidimensional Scaling
Multidimensional Scaling
Procedures designed to
measure only one attribute of a respondent or
object
Procedures designed to measure several dimensions of a respondent or
object
Attitude rating scalesAttitude:
An enduring disposition to consistently respond to various aspect of the world, including persons, events and objects
Typically seen as having three components:
CognitiveAffectiveBehavioural
Affective
The feelings or emotions toward an object
Cognitive
Knowledge and beliefs
Behavioral
Predisposition to action Intentions Behavioral expectations
Attitude measuring process
Ranking Rating Sorting Choice
Types of attitude scales
Simple attitude scales Most basic form – respondent responds to a
single question Do not allow for fine distinctions or placement on
continua You are at a company party and are feeling nervous,
but you are obligated to be there. Do you:__ find someone you know to buddy up with__ take it as an opportunity to meet new people
What type of scale would these data create?
Category scales More sensitive; provides more information Overall, how satisfied are you with the high speed
performance of your Mercedes:
__ very satisfied
__ somewhat satisfied
__ neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
__ somewhat dissatisfied
__ very dissatisfied
If you could choose, how long would each term be?
___26 weeks __ 13 weeks __ 6 weeks ___4 weeks
What type of scale would these data create?
Summated rating scales – the Likert scaleRespondents indicate their attitudes by
checking how strongly they agree or disagree with statements
Chocolate chip cookies are my preferred variety of cookie
Strongly disagree Disagree Uncertain Agree Strongly Agree
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
What type of scale would these data create?
Semantic Differential Rating scaleAn attitude measure consisting of a series
of seven-point bipolar rating scales allowing response to a “concept”
Think of your favorite type of cookie. Rate it on each of the following continua:
Hard------------------------------------------------------Soft
Lots of chips---------------------------------------Fewer chips
Crispy---------------------------------------------------chewy
What type of scale would these data create?
Numerical Rating scale Similar to a semantic differential except that it
uses numbers as response options to identify response positions instead of verbal descriptions
Think of your favorite type of cookie. Rate it on each of the following continua:
Hard------------------------------------------------------------------------Soft
8 7 6 5 4 3 21
This scale is called an 8 point numerical scale, why?
What type of scale would these data create?
Constant Sum Scales Attributes based on their importance to the person.
Respondents are asked to divide a constant sum to indicate the relative importance of attributes
Example: Suppose the photocopy budget per professor was $100 per month. How much should be allocated to the following. Divide the $100 according to your preference:
____ photocopying for student needs; ____ photocopying for research needs; ____ photocopying for committee needs.====$100 TOTAL
Stapel Scales An attitude measure that places a single adjective
in the center of an even-number range of numerical values
Example:Research Methodology
+3+2+1
Exciting-1-2-3
Graphic Rating ScalesAn attitude measure consisting of a graphic
continuum that allows respondents to rate an object by choosing any point on the continuum
Rank-Order ScalesScales in which the respondent compares
one item with another or a group of items against each other and ranks them.
Example: handout
Most important skills Adaptability to change Problem identification Listening skills Written communication Leadership Informal Oral communication Analytical thinking/problem solving Time management Coping with stress/job pressures Interpersonal relations Formal oral presentations
Most important skillsAdaptability to changeProblem identificationListening skillsWritten communicationLeadershipInformal Oral communicationAnalytical thinking/problem solvingTime managementCoping with stress/job pressuresInterpersonal relationsFormal oral presentations
8 96 61 12 44 23 35 57 1011 79 810 11
Managers
Business
grads
Paired Comparison ScalesRespondent is presented with two objects
and is asked to pick the preferred.
Example: Which type of cookie do you prefer
__ chocolate chip
__ oatmeal
__ I do not have a preference between these two
SortingRespondent indicates their attitudes or
beliefs by arranging items.
Example: Please sort the following cards with pictures of cookies into the following categories
Like
Dislike
Neither like nor dislike