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Interaction Design: Beyond Human Computer Interactionby Jennifer Preece
Preece, J., Rogers, Y., & Sharp, H.. (2002).Interaction Design: Beyond Human-Computer
Interaction.
A typical undergraduate level textbook to introduce you to the field, including both scientific
background and usability design methods !ne of the fe" that ade#uately addresses affective
measures $D% & D'(
Jump To: ) * + - . / 0 1 )2 )) )* )+ ) )-
Table of Contents:
Ch ): Intro to Interaction Design
Ch *: Conceptual 3odels and Interface 3etaphors
Ch +: Cognition and 3ental 3odels
Ch : Conversational, Coordination, A"areness 3echanisms and Collaboration
Ch -: Affective Aspects of Interfaces and 4ser 5rustration
Ch .: 6he 7rocess of Interaction Design and 8ife9Cycle 3odelsCh /: 'eeds and e#uirements ;%cenarios, 4se Cases, uestionnaires, Inspections and ?alkthroughs
Ch ): 4ser 6esting, @!3%, 83, 5itts 8a"
Ch )-:
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Chapter ): ?hat is Interaction DesignE
Main Goals of this Chapter:
Explain the difference between good and poor interaction design
Describe what interaction design is and how it relates to HCI and other fields
Explain what usability is
Describe what is inoled in the process of interaction design
!utline the different for"s of guidance used in interaction design
Enable you to ealuate an interactie product and explain what is good and bad
about it in ter"s of the goals and principles of interaction design
$oo% a#% Poor esig#
Central concern of interaction design: products that are 'S*+
+as to use
+ecti-e
+#oable
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Building interactive versions of the designs so that they can be
communicated and assessed
+
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%isibility of System Status
(atch bet!een system and real !orld
,ser control and freedom
Consistency and standards
Help users recognie. diagnose and recoer from errors
/rror preention
0ecognition rather than recall
&le1ibility and efficiency of use
)esthetic and minimalist design
Help and documentation
There are alas tra%eos ith usabilit ! ca#6t o-er co#strai# thi#gs, because it
limits ho much i#o is %isplae%
(top)
Chapter *: 4nderstanding and ConceptualiGing Interaction
have a clear understanding of hat, h a#% ho you are going to design something
before "riting any code
@oals of the chapter:
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6o Develop a Conceptual 3odel:
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9 ne" paradigms: ubi#uitous computing, pervasive computing, "earable computing,
augmented reality, attentive environments
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extendhuman capabilities and
co"pensatefor their "eaknesses
3ain aims of chapter:
?hat cognition is and "hy it is important for I9D
3ain "ays cognition has been applied to I9D
'umber of examples from cognitive research
?4S =< PR=8+SS+S:
)ttention9 selecting things to concentrate on)
$erception 2 0ecognition9 ho" information is ac#uired from the environment viasense organs and translated into experiences ;vision is the most dominant=
*
(emory9 recalling various kno"ledge ?e filter "hat kno"ledge to process
memoriGe ;most researched area=
+
3earning 9 ho" to do something ;like learning to use a program=
0eading 2 Spea'ing 2 4riting9 using language-
$roblem Soling 2 $lanning 2 0easoning 2 Decision (a'ing9 involves reflective
cognition
.
!ften designers try to emulate the physical "orld "ith designs in the digital "orld
%ometimes this "orks "ell, other times it doesnt
Conceptual 5rame"orks for Cognition:
3ental 3odels
Information 7rocessing
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9 thinks of the mind as an information processor
9 mental representations can be images, mental models, rules, other kno"ledge forms
the huma# processor mo%el;Card, et al )10+= is the best kno"n approach ;see p 1.=
model predicts "hich cognitive processes are involved "hen a user interacts "ith a
computer, allo"ing for calculations to be made on ho" long it "ill take a user to
complete a taskthis is helpful for comparing different interfaces ;efficiency=
the approach is based on modeling mental acti-ities that happe# e"clusi-el i#
the hea%. 6here are al"ays external cues in the environment so ho" truly
representative are these modelsE
$ there has been an increase in people studying cognitie actiities %in the wild% $ in the
context in which they ta&e place;ho" can things in the environment aid human cognition
and lighten the cognitive loadE=
Alternative frame"orks have been suggested: +"ter#al cog#itio# a#% istribute%
8og#itio#
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humans are %!CIA8 beings
7urpose of the chapter: loo' at !ays interactie systems could be deeloped to
support and e1tend communication and collaboration bet!een peoples5
%ocial 3echanism in Communication and Collaboration:
ules, procedures and eti#uette have been established to help people kno" ho" to behave
in social groups, such as:
8o#-ersatio#al mecha#isms9 to help the flo" of talk and to help overcome
breakdo"ns
8oor%i#atio# mecha#isms9 to allo" people to "ork interact together
are#ess mecha#isms9 to find out "hat is happening, "hat others are doing and
to let others kno" "hat is happening
8o#-ersatio#al echa#isms:
turn9taking helps coordinate conversation
Implicit cues and
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3any ne" communication technologies combine the above, and try to provide ne" novel
"ays to communicate
Collaborative virtual environments, media spaces, shared dra"ing tools, tools for
collaborative document creation
7ros: support talking "hile doing a task at same time, can be efficient to have
multiple people "orking on the same thing at the same time, and greater a"areness
of "hat is going on
Cons: ?M%I?I%: "e cant al"ays see "hat people are referring to in a remote
location, and floor control ;file conflicts from multiple people "orking on the same
thing at the same time=
8oor%i#atio# echa#isms:
Collaborative activities re#uire us to coordinate "ith each other, so "e need to figure out
ho" to "ork "ith others to progress through the activities
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%ince %uchmans %eminal ?ork many companies have invested in ethnographic studies to
see ho" "ork actually gets done in a range of companies ;government too=
8o#ceptual
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It has been suggested that computers be designed to recogniGe and express
emotions in the same "ay that humans do
Ho" can interactive systems be designed ;both deliberately and inadvertently= to
make people respond in certain "aysE
+"pressi-e 4#teraces
Colors, icons, sounds, graphical elements and animations are used to make the look
and feel of an interface appealing
( benefit is that these e"bellish"ents proide reassuring feedbac& to the user that
can be both infor"atie and fun$ which can affect the usability of the interface
7eople are "illing to put up "ith certain aspects of an interface ;slo" do"nload rate,
etc= if the end result is very appealing and aesthetic
Aesthetics have been sho"n to have a positive effect on peoples perception of the
systems usability
%ome friendly interfaces: 3icrosofts at home "ith Bob interface, +D metaphors
;living rooms, etc=, agents in the guise of pets ;dog= that talk to the user 6hese
make users feel more at ease and comfortable4ser9created expressiveness: emotico#s9 these provide non9verbal type expression
in interfaces not originally intended to have this :9= Also, icons shorthand have
been used to add emotion to %3% texting ;I )* C4 *'I6
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soda cans, dogs, cars, etc=
9 used heavily in advertising
7eople debate ho" much of this to use in system design 6hey can add a human feel to the
system, but can also get annoying
,hich is "ore preferable-
9 Hello 3attN ?elcome back Its nice to see you again 'o", "hat "ere "e doing last
timeE Ah, yes, problem five 8ets get started again
9 4ser *, commence exercise -
!r, "hen doing something "rong: 'o" 3att, thats not right, you can do better than
that 6ry again vs Incorrect, try again
#he answer:
7ros: eeves and 'aas ;)11.= found it is helpful to use praise in educational settings "hen
people do something right It increased students "illingness to continue "orking
Cons: Ho"ever, others argue this can make you feel stupid, anxious, inferior 7eople hate
"hen a computer character shakes their finger at them and says you can do better than
that, 3att, try again In this case, many prefer the impersonal message Incorrect, try
again
Airtual 8haracters
virtual characters are becoming more common 6hey can be used on the "eb, in video
games, as learning companions, "iGards, ne"sreaders, etc Ho"ever, they can be
misleading ;people confide in them=, they can be very annoying and frustrating ;Clippy
from 3% !ffice 1/, etc=
9 categoriGed by degree of anthropomorphism: synthetic characters, animated agents,
emotional agents, embodied conversational agents
Design I"plications: which one to use-
! belie-abilit: the extent to "hich users come to believe an agents intentions andpersonality
! appeara#ce: better to use cartoon9like characters, or those resembling humansE it
depends on the situation9 often the cartoon character is more believable acceptable
! beha-ior: ho" does the agent move, gesture, refer to thingsE facial expressions can
sho" emotion ;remember "e "ant constructive feedback rather than conveying inferiority
stupidity patroniGing effect on users=
Summar:
affective aspects are concerned "ith ho" interactive systems make people respond in
emotional "ays"ell designed interfaces can elicit good feelings in users
expressive interfaces can provide reassuring feedback
badly designed interfaces make people angry and frustrated
anthropomorphism is increasingly used at the interface, through the use of agents
and virtual screen characters
(top)
Chapter .: 6he 7rocess of Interaction Design
6he ultimate goal of design is to develop a product that helps its users achieve their goals
Developing a product must begin "ith gaining understanding of "hat is re#uired of it
6he goals of this chapter are to:
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Consider "hat doing interaction design involves
Ask and provide ans"ers for some important #uestions about the interaction design
process
Introduce the idea of a lifecycle model to represent a set of activities and ho" they
are related
Describe some lifecycle models from soft"are engineering and HCI and discuss ho"
they relate to the process of interaction design
7resent a lifecycle model of interaction design
?hat is Interaction DesignE
dictionary: design is a plan or scheme conceived in the mind and intended for subse#uent
execution
6he plan or scheme must be informed "ith kno"ledge about its use and the target domain,
together "ith practical constraints such as materials, cost and feasibility
In Interaction Design, "e investigate the artifacts use and target domain by taking a
user9centered approach to development 6he users concerns direct the development
rather than technical concerns
Design is also about trade9offs and about balancing conflicting re#uirements @enerating
alternatives is a key principle and one that should be encouraged in interaction 6o get a
good idea, get lots of ideas ;3ark ettig=
6ypically there is a group of designers 6herefore, plans should be captured and expressed
in a "ay that allo"s for revie", such as sketches, descriptions in natural language, a series
of diagrams, and building prototypes
5our Basic Activities:
./ Identify needs and establish re0uire"ents9 ?ho is the target userE
9 ?hat kind of support "ill the interactive product provideE
1/ Deelop alternatie designs that "eet those re0uire"ents
9 suggest ideas to meet the re#uirements
9 Conceptual design: produce the conceptual model for the product
9 7hysical design: consider the details of the product ;colors, sounds, images, menu
design, icons, etc= Alternatives are considered at every point
2/ 3uild interactie ersions 4so that they can be co""unicated and assessed5
9 a soft"are version is not re#uired9 paper based prototypes are #uick and cheap to build
9 through role9playing, users can get a real sense of "hat it is like to interact "ith theproduct
6/ Ealuate the designs 4"easure their acceptability5
9 determine the usability of the product or design Criteria are: ho" appealing is itE ho"
"ell does it match the re#uirementsE Is the product fit for the purposeE
9
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to choose bet"een different alternative designs
9. 4teratio#
9 allo"s for designs to be refined It is al"ays necessary to revise ideas in light of
feedback, several times Innovation rarely emerges "hole and ready to go Iteration is
inevitable because designers never get the solution right the first time
7ractical Issues in Interaction Design:
*5 4ho are the users6
9 those "ho directly interact "ith the system Ho"ever, can be any stakeholder:
purchaser, testers, people receiving products from the system
9 primary user: directly use it
9 secondary user: occasionally use it or use through intermediary
9 tertiary user: affected by the system, or "ill influence its purchase
9 stakeholders: people or organiGations affected by the system "ho influence the system
re#uirements
2. /hat %o e mea# b 1#ee%s1B
9 "e need to understand the characteristics capabilities of users, "hat they are trying to
achieve, ho" they currently achieve it, and "hether they "ould achieve their goals more
effectively if they "ere supported differently
9 characteristics that impact a products design: users physical characteristics
;ergonomics: siGe of hands, height, etc=, strength of product ;so a child cant break it=,
cultural diversity of intended users
9 representative users 34%6 be consultedN
9 users rarely kno" "hat is possible 6herefore, users cannot tell us "hat they need to
do achieve their goals
- 4e need to e1amine e1isting tas' 7)ctiity Theory68 and !hat the tas's#
conte1t. re9uirements. collaboratie nature. and procedure is5 Then !e can
enision the tas' being done in a ne! !ay 7scenarios. etc58
9. Ho %o ou ge#erate alter#ati-e %esig#sB
9 it is easy to stick "ith something that is good enough Humans stick to "hat they kno"
"orks
9 innovations arise from cross9fertiliGation from different applications9 allo"s us to break
out of the box
9 often bro"sing a collection of designs "ill inspire designers to consider alternative
perspectives and solutions Designers are trained to consider alternatives, soft"are people
are not
9 design is a process of balancing constraints and constantly trading off one set of
re#uirements "ith another, and the constraints may be such that there are fe" viable
alternatives available
9 alternatives come from looking at other, similar designs, and the process of inspiration
and creativity can be enhanced by prompting a designers o"n experience and by looking at
others ideas and solutions ;5lair and creativity : research and synthesis=
;. Ho %o ou choose amo#g alter#ati-e %esig#sB
9 there are factors that are externally visible and measurable and those that are hidden
from the users vie" +ocus on the external ) isible
9 prototypes can be used to evaluate "ith peers and users
9 fundamental user9centered design: choose bet"een alternative designs by letting users
and stakeholders interact "ith them and by discussing their experiences, preferences and
suggestions for improvement
9 technical feasibility: some are ust not possible
9 #uality thresholds: usability goals lead to criteria 6his 4%ABI8I6M CI6
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#hese are per"eated with three principles:
) Involve users early in the design process and evaluation of the artifact
* Define #uantifiable & measurable usability criteria
+ Iteration is inevitable
ey characteristics of the interaction design process are explicit incorporation of user
involvement, iteration and specific usability criteria
Before you can begin to establish re#uirements, you must understand "ho the users are
and "hat their goals are in using the device
8ooking at others designs provides useful inspiration and encourages designers to consider
alternative design solutions, "hich is key to effective design
4sability criteria, technical feasibility, and users feedback on prototypes can all be used to
choose among alternatives
7rototyping is a useful techni#ue for facilitating user feedback on designs at all stages
8ifecycle models sho" ho" development activities relate to one another
6he interaction design process is complementary to lifecycle models from other fields
(top)
Chapter /: Identifying 'eeds and
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proect to 5AI8
A user9centered approach to development is the "ay to solve this problem ;?hat do
users "antE ?hat do users needE=
e#uirements need clarification, refinement, completion and re9scoping
Input: re#uirements document ;maybe=
!utput: stable re#uirements
?hy establish re#uirementsE
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flexibility
attitude
Data athering Techni9ues: 7see p5*< 2 Table =5* for e1cellent graph8
Duestio##aires
elicit specific information
can be M
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7roblems "ith data9gathering:
identifying and involving stakeholders: users, managers, developers, customer
repsE, union repsE, shareholdersE
involving stakeholders: "orkshops, intervie"s, "orkplace studies, co9opt
stakeholders onto the development team
eal users, not managers: traditionally a problem in soft"are engineering, not so
bad no"re#uirements management: version control, o"nership
communication bet"een parties: "ithin development team, "ith customer user,
bet"een users
domain kno"ledge distributed implicit: difficult to dig up and understand
availability of key people
political problems
dominance of certain stakeholders
economic business environment changes
balancing functional and usability demands
$ui%eli#es:
focus on identifying the stakeholders needs
involve all the stakeholder groups
involve more than one stakeholder from each group
use a combination of data gathering techni#ues
start data interpretation soon after the data gathering session
do an initial interpretation before deeper analysis
use different approaches to different problems, such as class diagra"sfor obect9
oriented systems, and entity$relationship 4E$5 diagra"sfor data intensive systems
Tas' Descriptions: 7more on p5 >-?*8
Sce#arios9 an infor"al narratie story, simple, natural, personal, not generaliGable
'se 8ases9 assume interaction "ith a system, assume detailed understanding of
the interaction
+sse#tial 'se 8ases9 abstract a"ay from the details, does not have the same
assumptions as use cases
8cenariofor a shared calendar:
P6he user types in all the names of the meeting participants together "ith
some constraints such as the length of the meeting, roughly "hen the meeting
needs to take place, and possibly "here it needs to take place 6he system
then checks against the individualsJ calendars and the central departmental
calendar and presents the user "ith a series of dates on "hich everyone is free
all at the same time 6hen the meeting could be confirmed and "ritten into
peopleJs calendars %ome people, though, "ill "ant to be asked before the
calendar entry is made 7erhaps the system could email them automatically
and ask that it be confirmed before it is "ritten inQ
*se casefor a shared calendar:
) 6he user chooses the option to arrange a meeting
* 6he system prompts user for the names of attendees
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+ 6he user types in a list of names
6he system checks that the list is valid
- 6he system prompts the user for meeting constraints
. 6he user types in meeting constraints
/ 6he system searches the calendars for a date that satisfies the constraints
0 6he system displays a list of potential dates
1 6he user chooses one of the dates
)2 6he system "rites the meeting into the calendar
)) 6he system emails all the meeting participants informing them of them
appointment
Alternative courses for a shared calendar:
%ome alternative courses:
- If the list of people is invalid,
-) 6he system displays an error message
-* 6he system returns to step *
0 If no potential dates are found,
0) 6he system displays a suitable message
0* 6he system returns to step -
Exa"ple *se Case Diagra"for a shared calendar:
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Hierarchical Tas' )nalysis - involves breaking do"n a task into subtasks,
then sub9sub9tasks and so on 6hese are grouped as plans "hich specify ho"
the tasks might be performed in practice
H6A focuses on physical and observable actions, and includes looking at
actions not related to soft"are or an interaction device
H6A starts "ith a user goal "hich is examined and the main tasks for
achieving it are identified
6hese tasks are then divided into sub9tasks
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%cenarios, use cases and essential use cases can be used to articulate existing and
envisioned "ork practices
6ask analysis techni#ues such as H6A help to investigate existing systems and
practices
(top)
Chapter 0: Design, 7rototyping and Construction
6his chapter "ill cover: prototyping and construction ;lo" and high fidelity prototyping,
vertical and horiGontal compromises=O conceptual design ;conceptual model, using
scenarios and prototypes in conceptual design=O and physical design ;guidelines and
"idgets=
5lo" of Interaction Design:
Identify 'eeds e#uirements ;Ch /= 99R 7rototype cycles Design ;Ch 0= 99R
Construction
?hat is a 7rototypeE
in other fields, its a small scale model ;miniature car, building, etc=
in Interaction Design it can be a series of screen sketches, a storyboard, a
7o"er7oint, a video simulating use of the system, a lump of "ood ;eg 7alm7ilot=, a
cardboard mock9up, or a piece of soft"are "ith limited functionality
?hy 7rototypeE
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fidelity prototypes are time consuming expensive to make, and are not effective in
re#uirements gathering
Compromises associated "ith 7rototyping:
every prototype has a compromise 9 for soft"are this may be slo" response time,
sketchy icons, limited functionality, etc
6"o types of compromise: horiGontal and vertical
horiGontal compromise: provide a "ide range of functions, but "ith
little detail
vertical compromise: provide a lot of detail for only a fe" functions
Compromises must not be ignored: products need to be engineered
Construction: taking a prototype and making it "hole by engineering a complete product
;focus on #uality: usability, reliability, robustness, maintainability, integrity, portability,
efficiency, etc=
8o#ceptual esig#:
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accommodatedE
ico# %esig#: can be difficult, as icons can be cultural context sensitive 9 so
dra" on traditions standard, use concrete obects
scree# %esig#: %plit screenE Ho" much "hite spaceE Ho" to group things
;boxes lines colors=E Dra" attention to the focus point, using color, motion,
possibly animation, and use good organiGation Balance the tradeoff bet"een
overcro"ded sparse displays
4#ormatio# %ispla: sho" only relevant information, make differentmediums ;computer paper= consistent
#here is no rigid border between conceptual and physical design/// they are all iteratie
processes/ !ften in conceptual design so"e detailed issues co"e up in the iterations/ #he
i"portant part is that in the conceptual design that we don%t get tied to physical constraints
early as they will inhibit creatiity and li"it our options/
%ummary:
Different kinds of prototyping are used for different purposes and at different stages
7rototypes ans"er #uestions, so prototype appropriately
Construction: the final product must be engineered appropriately
Conceptual design ;the first step of design=
7hysical design: eg menus, icons, screen design, information display
7rototypes and scenarios are used throughout design
(top)
Chapter 1: 4ser9Centered Approaches to Interaction Design
The main aims of this chapter are to:
Explain so"e adantages of inoling users in deelop"ent/
Explain the "ain principles of a usercentered approach/
Describe so"e ethnographicbased "ethods ai"ed at understanding users% wor&/
Describe so"e participatie design techni0ues that help users ta&e an actie part in
design decisions/ 4users as co$designers will raise acceptance of product5
4hy inole users at all6
6o manage their expectations: no surprises, communicate their expectations, get a
common set of realistic expectations
)
%o users feel ownership: by making users active stakeholders, they are more likely
to forgive accept problems, and are more likely to accept the final product
*
Degrees of user inolement:
member o the %esig# team ;part ti"e s/ full ti"e: degree of input time and
contactO short ter" s/ long ter": degree of consistency across proect life 8ong
term members might loose contact "ith users=
#esletters 5 e!mail 5 etc ;disseminate information to a large selection of users,
but re#uires *9"ay communication, not )9"ay=
Actual user involvement may be a combination of the above t"o "ays
3icrosoft involves users by activity based planning ;studying users doing tasks=,
usability tests, internal developer usage of products, and customer support lines
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4hat is a user-centered approach6 4ser9centered approach is based on:
Early focus on users and tas&s:directly studying cognitive, behavioral,
anthropomorphic & attitudinal characteristics
users tasks and goals are the driving force behind the development
users behavior and context of use are studied and the product is designed to
support them
users characteristics are captured and designed forusers are consulted throughout development, from earliest phases to the
latest, and their input is seriously taken into account
all design decisions are taken "ithin the context of the user, their "ork, and
their environment
E"pirical "easure"ent: usersJ reactions and performance to scenarios, manuals,
simulations & prototypes are observed, recorded and analyGed
Iteratie design:"hen problems are found in user testing, fix them and carry out
more tests
,nderstanding ,sers# 4or': /thnography
/thnographystems from anthropology, and literally means "riting the culture 9 a
form of participant observation Ho"ever, it is difficult to use the output of
ethnography in design Design is concerned "ith abstraction and rationaliGation,
"hile ethnography is concerned "ith minute details, so it is difficult to harness the
data gathered from ethnography so that it can be used in design
+ra"ewor& for using ethnography in design:
distributed coordination: distributed nature of the tasks activities and the
means mechanisms by "hich they are coordinatedplans and procedures: organiGational support for the "ork, such as "orkflo"
models and organiGational charts, and ho" these are used to support the "ork
awareness of wor&: ho" people keep themselves a"are of others "ork
Coherence: a method offering #uestions to address these dimensions ;above= by
presenting the ethnographic study data as a set of ;iewpoints;and ;concerns;
+"amples:
Distributed coordination: Ho" is the division of labor manifested through
the "ork of individuals and its coordination "ith othersE
Plans and procedures: Ho" do plans and procedures function in the"orkplaceE
(wareness of wor&: Ho" does the spatial organiGation of the "orkplace
facilitate interaction bet"een "orkers and "ith the obects they useE
Conte1tual Design: developed to handle data collection and analysis from field"ork for
developing a soft"are9based product ;used commercially #uite "idely= 6here are seven
parts to Contextual Design:
7. 8o#te"tual 4#Cuir
2. /or3 o%eli#g
9. 8o#soli%atio#
;. /or3 Re!%esig#E. 'ser +#-iro#me#t esig#
F. oc3!up a#% test ith customers
G. Putti#g it i#to Practice
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*5 Conte1tual In9uiry: an approach to ethnographic study "here the user is
an expert, and the designer is an apprentice It is a form of intervie"ing, but
takes place at the users "orkplace "orkstation, and is often *9+ hours long
5our main principles of contextual in#uiry are:
) Context: see "orkplace and "hat happens
* Partnership: user and developer collaborate
+ Interpretation: observations interpreted by user and developer
together
+ocus: proect focus to help understand "hat to look for
5 4or' (odeling: In interpretation sessions, models are dra"n from the
observations 5ive models are:
/or3 lo mo%el: the people, communication and coordination
SeCue#ce mo%el: detailed "ork steps to achieve a goal
rtiact mo%el: the physical things created to do the "ork
8ultural mo%el: constraints on the system from organiGational culture
Phsical mo%el: physical structure of the "ork, eg office layout
?5 Consolidation: each contextual in#uiry ;one for each user developer
pair= results in a set of models, "hich need to be consolidated into one vie" of
the "ork
i#it iagram: organiGes interpretation session notes into common
structures and themes
Categories arise from the data
Diagram is built through induction
?ork models consolidated into one of each type
$articipatory Design: ;%candinavian background= emphasiGes social and organiGational
aspects 9 based on study, model9building and analysis of ne" and potential future systems
Aspects to user involvement include:
?ho "ill represent the user communityE Interaction may need to be assisted by a
facilitator
%hared representations
Co9design using simple tools such as paper or video scenarios
Designers and users communicate about proposed designs
Cooperative evaluation such as assessment of prototypes
Benefits of 7articipatory Design: PComputer9based systems that are poorly suited to ho"
people actually "ork impose cost not only on the organiGation in terms of lo" productivity
but also on the people "ho "ork "ith them %tudies of "ork in computer9intensive
"orkplaces have pointed to a host of serious problems that can be caused by ob design
that is insensitive to the nature of the "ork being performed, or to the needs of human
beings in an automated "orkplaceQ $uhn, % in Bringing Design to %oft"are, )11.(
7IC6IF
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discuss ho" developers cope "ith real9"orld constraints
explain the concepts and terms used to discuss evaluation
examine ho" different techni#ues are used at different stages of development
?hat to evaluate:
iterative design and evaluation is a continuous process that examines: early ideas for a
conceptual modelO early prototypes of the ne" systemO later, more complete prototypes
Designers need to check that they understand users re#uirements
?hy evaluate:
9 because user experience can be extremely important for a products success
9 because the cycle of %esig#and testi#gis the only validated methodology in existence
that "ill consistently produce successful results
&ie good reasons for inesting in user testing 7Tognaini8:
9 fixed problems before the product is shipped
9 the team can concentrate on real problems9
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uestionnaires
Asking experts their opinions is inexpensive and #uick
6esting users performance ;ch )=
"ays to measure user performance to compare * or more designs
modeling users task performance to predict the efficacy and problems of a user
interface
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some of these techni#ues: @!3% and the keystroke model
D
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@uic' A Dirty obseration: can occur any"here, anytime @ood for immediate
feedback
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revie" data and identify key themes)
record themes in a coherent flexible form*
recode the data and time of data analysis session+
check your understanding "ith the people you observe
iterate process until your story represents "hat you observed-
report findings to development team ;oral or "ritten report=.
analyGing and reporting ethnographic data ;from participant observation, intervie"s,artifacts:
look for key events)
look for patterns of behavior ;in various situations and players=*
compare sources of data+
report findings
Cualitati-e a#alsis or categori@atio#
look for incident patterns)
analyGe data into categories ;content analysis=*
determine the content categories reliability and inter9research reliability ratings+
analyGe discourse ;conversation analysis=
*
Cua#titati-e %ata a#alsis
video data collected in usability labs)
annotated*
recording to calculate performance times+
analyGe statistically
+
uestionnaires are used in #uick and dirty evaluation, in usability testing,
and in field studies to ask about facts9 behaior9 beliefs and attitudes/
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Intervie"s
types: can be ope#!e#%e% (u#structure%), structure%, semi!structure%, or
group i#ter-ies
unstructured: no script, not replicable
structured: tightly scripted like a #uestionnaire
semi-structured: guided by script but open for deeper exploration if desired
group: often a focus group of +9)2 people, consensus reached on #uestionsdata analysis on structured interiews is li&e a 0uestionnaire9 while
unstructured li&e participant obseration
* types of #uestions: open and closed Closed re#uire intervie"ee to choose
bet"een options, open allo" for a free9range response
>uestionnaires
can use: yes noO 8ikert scaleO semantic scaleO open9ended responses on #uestions
to make a good #uestionnaire, provide a clear purpose statement, plan the #uestions,
decide if phrases have a positive or negative connotation, pilot test your #uestions,
and decide ho" the data "ill be analyGed
to reach a large amount of people: guarantee anonymity, offer online ;large base
instant results & often instant data analysis=
Be careful9 online #uestionnaires dont prevent people from ans"ering multiple times,
and can have a lo" response rate
data analysis includes identifying trends9 using si"ple statistics9 "a&ing use of
percentages < bar graphs
Heuristic
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Cons: can be hard to find experts, important problems can get missed, often trivial
problems get identified
'ote: different combinations and types of heuristics are needed to evaluate different
types of applications and products
?alkthroughs
"alkthroughs are an alternative to heuristic evaluation and involve "alking through
a task "ith the system an noting problematic usability features often these dont
involve users
6"o main types: 8og#iti-e /al3throughsand Pluralistic /al3throughs
8og#iti-e /al3throughssimulate a users problem solving process at each step in
the human9computer dialog, checking to see if the users goals and memory for
actions can be assumed to lead to the next correct action
focus on ease of learning
designer presents an aspect of the design and usage scenarios
one of many experts "alk through the design prototype "ith the scenario
expert is told the assumptions about user population, context of use, task
details
uestionnaires are a cheap and easy "ay to reach large numbers of people
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9 typically - experts can find /-U of the usability problems
9 heuristic evaluation is cheaper and more flexible than user testing
9 4ser testing and heuristic evaluation often reveal different usability problems
9 pluralistic and cognitive "alkthroughs are focused and good for evaluating a small part of
the interface
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Chapter ): 6esting and 3odeling 4sers
A central part of Interaction design is user testing
4sability testing uses a combination of techni#ues, including user testing and user
satisfaction #uestionnaires 4ser testing is of central concern
6he end of this chapter talks about @!3% ;@oals, !perators, 3ethods, %election rules=,
83 ;eystroke 8evel 3odel= and 5itts 8a"
4ser 6esting
4ser testing is applied experimentation in "hich developers check that the system
being developed is usable by the intended user population for their tasks
4ser testing tests typical users, measuring their typical task time, and the number
and type of errors are recorded
Can consist of completion time, observational data, ans"ers to #uestionnaires,
ans"ers from Intervie"s, and keystroke logs
4ser testing is a systematic approach to evaluating user performance to inform or
improve usability design
4sually there are fe" participants ;-9)2=, but can be )9* in #uick and dirty for
#uick feedback
6ypically "e record: task completion timeO task completion after being a"ay from
the productO number types of errorsO errors per unit of timeO number of navigations
to help manualsO number of users making a particular errorO number of users
completing a task successfully
4sing the D
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Design %-a#tages isa%-a#tages
Different
Participants'o order effects
3any participants needed Individual
differences bet"een participants is a
problem Can be offset to some extent
by randomly assigning to groups
8a"e
participants
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relatively easily
outcome: counter9intuitive, help make decisions about the effectiveness of ne"
products
Cons: not often used for evaluation purposes because of its highl limite% scope
only good for predicting e"pert perorma#ce, and error is #ot mo%ele%;average
users not predicted=
many unpredictable factors come into play
A Con of 7redictive 3odels: they can make predictions about predictable behavior, but it is
difficult to use them as a "ay of evaluating ho" systems "ill be used in the real "orld
6hey are only useful for comparing the efficiency of different methods in completing a
short, simple task
9.
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"hich combination of methods to use "hen designing and evaluating your productE
"hat happens "hen the product being developed is confidential and there are no
users available to test itE
ho" many users should be involved in testsE
"hat should "e do "ith the evaluation findingsE
ho" much should "e expect from usersE
Case study: 'okias mobile communicator
9 used ethnographic research and did scenarios and task models to get re#uirements
9 ;method= follo"ed participatory design9 involved users throughout
9 ;method= used interface metaphors
9 ;method= follo"ed "ith fre#uent lo" fidelity prototypes based on alternative designs
immediate evaluation ;yielded invaluable insight to designers=
9 "rote usage scenarios ;high level descriptions of device in use=
9 user testing ;usability tests=: did summative testing before release ;at end, not
throughout $formative(= and #uestionnaires after release
Case study: redesign of a telephone response information system ;6I%=
9 current system "as very hard to use9 a deep menu system over the phone9 users cant
remember it "ithout cues
9 @!3% 83 used to sho" ho" interface supported users tasks
9 heuristic evaluation used as an alternative method for sho"ing usability problems ;expert
revie" of system=
9 methods complemented each other and sho"ed benefit of doing a re9design
ey points:
esig# i#-ol-es tra%e!os that ca# limit choices but ca# also result i#
e"citi#g %esig# challe#ges
7rototypes can be used for a variety of purposes throughout development, including
for marketing presentations and evaluations
6he design space for making upgrades to existing systems is limited by the design
decisions previous system 6he design space for ne" products is much greater
Cycles of rapid prototyping and evaluation allo" designers to examine alternatives in
a short time
%imulations are useful "hen evaluating systems used by large numbers of people
"hen it is not feasible for them to "ork on the system directly
Pieci#g together e-i%e#ce rom %ata rom a -ariet o sources ca# pro-i%e a
rich picture o usabilit problems, h the occur, a#% possible as o
i"i#g them.
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