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Whohasrightstodevelopment?Theimpactofthedominantdevelopmentmodelonlocalcommunities:

thecaseofformerseanomadsinThailand

NarumonArunotaiResearchUnitonIndigenousPeoplesandAlternativeDevelopment,

SocialResearchInstituteChulalongkornUniversityThereexistseveraldiscourseson“development”andsomeareconflictingwithoneanother.Seriousquestionsneedtoberaisedaboutthekindofdevelopmentthatneglectshumanrightsandpeopleasdignifiedbeings.Byplacingtheemphasisoneconomicgrowthandprosperity,“development”oftenwidensgapsbetweennationalwealthandcollectivewell-beingofindigenousgroupsandothermarginalizedgroups.Sombath’sworkhasshedlightontheintegrativewholeofhumanandnature,thusculturalrespectandlocalcontextiskeytohisworkpursuit.Heputsthestrongemphasisonpeople’sparticipationasitwouldalsoprovidewell-roundedinformationfromvariousperspectives,contributestotransparency,andreallyleadstosustainableandhealthydevelopment.ThecaseofChaoLayorseapeople/seanomadsinThailandtrulyreflectstheissueofrightstodevelopment,andhowthedominantdevelopmentmodelexertsmuchnegativeeffectonlocalcommunities.

DevelopmentandmarginalizationoftheChaoLayChaoLayisthetermreferringtothreeethnicgroupsofseanomads—Moken,Moklen,andUrakLawoi—whowereamongthefirstpeoplesinthecoastalareasandislandsoftheAndamanSea.Theseareashavebeentheirhome,foraginggrounds,sacredplacesanddyingbedsevenbeforetheestablishmentofThailandnation-state.Practically,theentireAndamanSeacoastandislandsusedtobethehomeofnomadicandsemi-nomadicChaoLaypopulations.Intheearlierperiod,theirlivelihoodswerebasedonsubsistence,andlaterwhenoutsidersgraduallymovedinortappedintotheircommunities,tradingbecameasupplementaryoccupation.

Left:NomadicMokenontheirkabangboat,andright:Mokentemporarysheltersonan

islandduringtherainyseason.

Aftertheperiodofsubsistenceandtrade,largerscaleextractionofresourcesbegan,frommanualandlocalsmall-scaleextractionoftintowardmoretechnology-basedand

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large-scalemethods.Thelandscapeandseascapehasbeenchangedandhugesandpilestogetherwithlargepondsserveasavividtraceofthesetin-miningactivitiesfromthatera.Moreimportantly,someChaoLaycommunitieswererelocatedtomakewayforthistin-miningandotherformsofresourceextraction.Whentin-miningactivitiesdeclinedduetodecreasingnaturalstock,andthereplacementoftincansbyothersubstanceandsynthetics,newkindof“development”comesintheformofcoconut,thenpara-rubberandlateroilpalmplantations.Thiskindof“industrialized”agriculturealsoopenedupmoreopportunitiesforlandgrabbing.WhilemostChaoLayremainedfishersandgatherers,somewerepulledintowagelaborandworkedforcertainentrepreneurs.Later,withthebeautifulcoastalsceneryandsandybeachesonmanyislandsalongtheAndamancoasthavebecomepopulartourismspots.Domestictourismstartedtodevelopwithlocalhotelsandamenities,theninternationaltourismcameinlaterwithevenmoreelaborateluxuries.Beachandseasidelandwassoughtafter.Whilesuchlandwasearliereithercommonproperty,orprivateoneusuallygiventone’er-do-wellsonswhowereagriculturallyunproductive.ChaoLaycommunitieswereslowlyandgraduallyrelocated,removedanddrivenawayforhotels,resortsandcommercialdistricts.Severalinternationalcoastal“world-class”destinationsfigurativelyhavenotraceandfaceofChaoLay.Today,whiletheseareasretaintheChaoLaywordslike“PhiPhiIslands”(orBee-breeinUrakLawoilanguage),theUrakLawoicommunityonPhiPhiDonIslandhasbeensqueezedintoasmallghetto,strippedoffanydignityastheveryfirstinhabitants.Withtheeconomicpropelledbytourismdevelopment,realestateforvacationersandtourism,andrelatedbusinessesoperatorsflourishes.Swhenonesearchesforcertainlocalnamesintheinternet,onlymapsandinformationonpropertiesforsalecomeup.ThereisalmostnoinformationofChaoLayhistoryandcommunity.Soeveninthisinformationsociety,thereisobviouslyanimbalanceofinformationavailability.Aftersuchdevelopmentincoastalandislandareas,neweconomicopportunitiesbroughtaninfluxofin-migration,new-comerswithmarket-orientedwaysofthinkinggraspedopportunitiesinnaturalresourceextractionandinvestment.AndamanSeacoastalprovinceslikePhukethasquicklydevelopedalargenumberofinfrastructureandservicesformainstreamtourismandbusiness.In2017withpopulationofaround400,000,Phuketreceivedover13milliontourists,whobroughtmorethan377millionbahtinrevenuestoThailand.Phuket’sGrossProvincialProduct(GPP)isusuallythehighestinsouthernregionofThailandandamongtop10provincesofthewholenation.Thisisanillusorysuccessreflectedincertainnumericalindicators,butitisfarremovedfromtherealityofpeople’scollectivewell-being,especiallytheearlierinhabitantsoftheisland.Phuketisnowfacingtheproblemsofresourcedegradation,trafficjams,lackoffreshwaterduringthedryseason,accidentsandcrimes,etc.Whiletophotelsandresortsprovideexpensive,exclusiveandlavishservices,certainareasbecomeghettosof

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squatters’shackswithdenseanddegradedconditions.Theseconditionsdonotfitinthedefinitionofsustainabledevelopment.

TouristsandspeedboatinfrontofanUrakLawoicommunityinPhuket

CulturalrightsmovementforandoftheChaoLay TheChaoLaybecamebetterknowntotheThaisocietyafterthe2004tsunami.Staffofreliefanddevelopmentorganizationsgottoknowthesepeople,andmanywereimpressedbytheireverydaycontentmentandsufficiency.Ratherthanseekingfortuneandgraspingformoreeconomicopportunities,theChaoLayprefertocontinuelivinginthecommunity,and,iftheyhaveafreechoice,wouldremainfishersandgatherers.Yetmarineresourcedegradationandthelackofaccesstolandresourcespushthemintobecominglow-skilledlaborers.AlthoughtheChaoLaychildrenaresenttolocalschools,mostdonotcontinuetohighereducationandsomeevenfailingalongtheway.YoungChaoLaylikeoutdoorlivesandareveryenergeticandobservantinthenaturalenvironment.Whenputinsidesquareclassroomswithwalls,theyfinditdifficulttofocusandarelessattentivewhentheyarefrequentlycomparedwiththeirnon-ChaoLaypeersinmixedethnicschools.Withthis“educationalmodernization”andeagernesstoward“education4.0”,traditionalmarineandmaritimeknowledgehasbeenslowlyforgottenasthesebecomelessrelevantinthepresentdaycompetitiveeconomy.Itisthusalmosthopelesstolookattheyoungtohelprevitalizetheirculturesandtraditions. Since2010,ChaoLayleadersinthecommunitiesaffectedby“developmentprojects”,alongwithuniversityresearchersandstaffofnon-governmentorganizationsbecamemoreorganized.WithpoliticalwillfromthethenMinisterofCulture,thecabinetresolutionon“RevitalizationofChaoLayCulture”waspassedinJune2010;andtwomonthslateranothercabinetresolutionontheKarengroupswaspassed.ThisfacilitatestheeffortChaoLayself-organizationandnetworkingwithindigenousandethnicgroupsinThailand.

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AFacebookpagerunbyChaoLayleaderstoreflectsituationsintheircommunities

Thesetwocabinetresolutionsstatedthat“specialculturalzones”shouldbesetuptoprotectmarginalizedpopulationwithvulnerableculturesliketheChaoLayandtheKaren.Thisalsoaimstomakesurethatdevelopmentintheareasdoesnotjeopardizecommunityandculturalrights.Nevertheless,thisconceptandrealizationofculturalzonereceivedonlyminorattentionfromcentralandlocalgovernmentoffices.FiveChaoLaycommunitiesandfourKarencommunitiesdeclaredthemselvesaspartofthespecialculturalzone,butwithlittlerecognitionandsupportfromoutside,theycouldnotdomuchindefenseoftheirvulnerableculturesandsufficiencylifeways.ChaoLaythuscreatedtheirownnetworkandjoinedforceswithotherrelevantmovements:inKrabiProvince,thepeoplewhoquestionedsustainabilityofcoal-poweredenergyproposedapathofdevelopmentcalled“KrabiGoGreen”;andinPhang-ngaprovince,communitiesseeingthevalueinbeinginratherquietandlushareas,proposedadevelopmentschemebasedon“Phang-ngaHappyPlace”.Inaddition,leadersofChaoLayNetworkstartedtoworkwithmoremarginalizedgroupsliketheMani’qnegritocommunitiesinsouthernThailand.Thiskindofdevelopmentfrombelowincubatedasenseofcommunityandbasedonpeople’sparticipation,trust,andcare.Returningtotheideasanddiscoursesondevelopment,“SustainableDevelopmentGoals”orSDGshasbecomeanotherglobalbuzzwordfordevelopmenttargets,yettheissueofincompatibilityamonggoalshasposedabigchallengefortheactualimplementation,asagenciesandactorsseethattheirschemeandactionsfallintooneormoreaspectsofsustainabledevelopment.Itisthuscrucialtorecognizethatbuzzwordsofdevelopmentcomeandgo,butSombath’sworkhasshowntheimportanceofhowitshouldbebuiltongenuinedevelopment.Wemaycallit“integrativedevelopment”or“consideratedevelopment”—itisonethatplacetheemphasisonnature,humanityandcommunity,withhumanrightsalsobeingthecoreofallthese.InhonorofSombath,thisvisionofintegrativedevelopmentorconsideratedevelopmentlivesonanditwillstandthetestoftime.

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ReferencesArunotai,Narumon.(2012).“HopelessatSeas,LandlessonShore”:ContextuallyTheSea

Nomads’DilemmainThailand.AASWORKINGPAPERSINSOCIALANTHROPOLOGY2012,Volume31:1–27.AndreGingrichandGuntramHazod(Editors/Herausgeber),Eva-MariaKnoll(Specialissueeditor).

Spaiser,Viktoria;Ranganathan,Shram;Swain,RanjulaBaliandSumpter,DavidJ.T.

(2017).TheSustainableDevelopmentOxymoron:QuantifyingandModellingtheIncompatibilityofSustainableDevelopmentGoals.InternationalJournalofSustainableDevelopmentandWorldEcology,24:6,457-470.