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Training and motivation: The function of implementation intentions, goal orientation and errorsfor performance

Heimbeck, D.

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Download date: 16 Mar 2021

The Intention to Continue One's Education in the Course of

Time: The Model of Action Phases

Tested in an Applied Setting1

Introduction

The theoretical framework for this study is based on the model of action phases

by Gollwitzer (1990; Heckhausen, 1989, 1991). This longitudinal study analyzes the

effects of expected value, goal intentions and implementation intentions on successful

goal realization. The intention to participate in a training program in order to continue

one's education represents a complex goal which was studied here in an applied setting.

After the fall of communism in the former Eastern bloc, people in East Germany

were confronted with far-reaching economic changes as innumerable companies closed

down and hundreds of thousands lost their jobs. The structural change was accompanied

by a host of technological innovations rendering vocational qualifications obsolete.

Under these circumstances, further education seemed to be one of the most promising

means to acquire the knowledge necessary to adapt to the demands of the market and

prevent unemployment.

In a survey conducted in East Germany shortly after the reunification of West

and East Germany, the majority of people expressed their interest in continuing their

education. However, only 26 % of those persons interviewed who had wished to receive

further education actually participated in a training course within the next six months

This chapter is based on Heimbeck, Brandstätter, Malzacher and Frese (1999).

Chapter 2

(Frese & Immler, 1994). If one agrees that continuing education is an appropriate

reaction to this situation - especially since at that time training programs cost very little

and were readily available - one should want all people considering a vocational

program to realize their goals. Therefore, one would want to know what facilitates the

realization of these goals. The model of action phases and especially the concept of

implementation intentions offer a theoretical perspective towards the process of goal

pursuit beyond the process of goal setting. From an applied point of view, it seems

worthwhile to analyze these assumptions in an applied setting with relevant goals such

as continuing one's education.

Numerous motivational and social psychological theories deal with the

determinants of successful goal striving. One group of theories (e.g., theory of planned

behavior, Ajzen, 1985; theory of reasoned action, Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; value-

instrumentality-expectancy theory, Vroom, 1964) focuses on the process of forming an

intention (goal setting). It is postulated that the intention to execute a certain behavior is

the best predictor of future behavior. A second group of theories (e.g., self-regulation

model of motivation, Bandura, 1991; action control theory, Kuhl, 1992; Kuhl &

Beckmann, 1994; goal setting theory, Locke & Latham, 1990) is concerned with the

regulation of goal-directed behavior (goal striving). These theorists posit that forming

an intention is just one prerequisite for making progress toward a goal since often one is

confronted with a host of implementational problems.

The model of action phases (Gollwitzer, 1990; Heckhausen, 1989, 1991)

encompasses both theoretical views by analyzing goal setting and goal striving within a

single theoretical framework. It provides a temporal perspective that begins with the

awakening of a person's wishes prior to goal setting and continues through to the

evaluative thoughts people have once goal striving has led to some outcome. The course

of goal striving is construed as consisting of four action phases: pre-decisional, pre-

actional, actional, and post-actional (in chronological order). Furthermore, each phase

of this model is associated with a typical task: setting preferences between competing

Action Phases Model

wishes and desires in the pre-decisional phase; promoting the initiation of goal-directed

actions in the pre-actional phase; bringing goal-directed actions to a successful end in

the actional phase, and evaluating what has been achieved in the post-actional phase.

Pre-decisional phase. Establishing preferences between competing wishes in the

pre-decisional phase is thought to result in the forming of a so called goal intention.

Such intentions take the format of „I intend to achieve x." The x specifies an outcome a

person feels committed to get via his/her own behavior. As in other theories on goal

setting (e.g., Ajzen, 1985; Atkinson, 1964; Feather, 1982; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975;

Vroom, 1964), an expectancy-value framework is employed to explain the forming of a

goal intention. People are thought to deliberate on the feasibility and desirability of

relevant action outcomes and finally, commit themselves to a valued outcome, when the

subjective probability to achieve it is sufficiently high (i.e., high expected value of the

goal).

Forming a goal intention represents a crucial transition point as it causes a

thorough change in the cognitive functioning (mind-set) of a person (for an overview,

Gollwitzer, 1990). Cognitive orientation in the pre-decisional phase, the so called

deliberative mind-set, is characterized by an open-mindedness toward all kinds of

incoming information as well as an impartial analysis of a goal's feasibility and

desirability. In contrast, the so-called implemental mind-set, the predominant cognitive

orientation in the pre-actional and actional phases, is characterized by a closed-minded

focus on information relevant for implementing the goal as well as a biased perception

of the goal's desirability and feasibility. The cognitive characteristics of the different

mind-sets are thought to be adaptable to the solution of the specific task at hand (i.e.,

goal setting vs. goal striving). There is ample evidence for the postulated characteristics

of the deliberative and implemental mind-set (Gollwitzer, Heckhausen, & Steller, 1990;

Gollwitzer & Kinney, 1989; Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). For example, in a study

by Taylor and Gollwitzer (1995, Study 3), participants were asked to report their

thoughts after having deliberated on either an unresolved decision or a goal they already

felt committed to. While pre-decisional participants listed an equal number of

10 Chapter 2

advantages and disadvantages with respect to the goal in question, post-decisional

participants listed significantly more advantages than disadvantages (see also

Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987).

Our first hypothesis centers on the change in mind-set after having formed a

goal intention. We predict that participants in the pre-decisional phase are more

balanced with regard to the advantages and disadvantages of continuing their education.

In contrast, participant in the post-decisional, or pre-actional, phase are positively biased

with regard to the advantages and disadvantages of continuing their education.

Hi: Individuals who have not yet formed a binding goal intention report an equal

number of advantages and disadvantages (deliberative mind-set). Individuals

who have already formed a binding goal intention report more advantages than

disadvantages with respect to continuing their education (implemental mind­

set).

Pre-actional phase. The initiation of goal-directed actions is the focus in the

pre-actional phase is, representing another hurdle on the way to goal achievement. Often

goal intentions cannot be realized immediately and people procrastinate. There are

several reasons for this. First, relevant opportunities to act may not yet be available

(e.g., no courses for the desired training are currently offered) or may sometimes escape

our attention (e.g., being wrapped up in demanding ruminations or emotional

experiences). Moreover, we may fail to seize opportunities because we did not respond

in time (e.g., when the opportunity to enroll in a course is available only for a short

period of time). Second, there may be conflicts between various ways of acting on the

goal intention (e.g., one cannot make up one's mind on which kind of training one

would want to participate in). Finally, implementing one's goal intention is only simple

when the necessary behaviors are well practiced or routine. More often than not,

however, this is not the case, and initiating one's goal pursuit requires a complex

sequence of action steps.

It is assumed that these implementational problems may be alleviated by the

self-regulatory tool of forming implementation intentions. They represent a specific type

Action Phases Model 11

of intention and take the form of „I intend to do y when situation z is encountered." In

an implementation intention, an anticipated future situation (opportunity) is linked to a

certain goal-directed behavior. Thus, harboring an implementation intention commits an

individual to execute specific goal-directed behaviors when the critical opportunity is

encountered. Gollwitzer (1993) suggested that by forming implementation intentions,

the control of one's goal-striving is delegated to the critical situation that instigates

goal-directed behavior in a way that is similar to situational elicitation of habitual

behavior.

Actional phase. Action initiation represents the crucial transition point when a

person enters the actional phase. The focus of the actional phase is now to bring goal-

directed actions to a successful end. As research conducted by Lewin (1926) and

colleagues (e.g., Mahler, 1933; Ovsiankina, 1928) shows, once an intended goal pursuit

has been initiated, interruptions do not lead to withdrawal but to resumption of the

respective behavior. Thus, forming implementation intentions may not only promote the

initiation of goal-directed behaviors but also further successful goal achievement.

Indeed, the completion rate of such diverse goal intentions as a personal project (e.g.,

getting to know someone) or the experimentally induced goal intention of writing a

report about Christmas Eve could be markedly increased with the use of implementation

intentions (Gollwitzer & Brandstätter, 1997, Studies 1 and 2; see also Gollwitzer, 1996;

Gollwitzer & Schaal, 1998).

The following hypotheses concentrate on the successful application of this

model into the field with regard to a complex goal such as continuing one's education.

Following the line of reasoning of the action phase model, one can assume that

individuals will more likely realize their goal to continue their education if they a)

evaluate the goal as highly desirable and feasible (high expected value), b) commit

themselves to the goal by forming a goal intention and c) furnish their goal intention

with an implementation intention. We expect the goal intention to mediate the influence

of positive desirability and feasibility (high expected value) on the formation of an

12 Chapter 2

implementation intention. Furthermore, we hypothesize that an implementation

intention mediates the influence of goal intention on goal realization.

H2: Goal intentions mediate the influence of high expected value on

implementation intentions and implementation intentions mediate the influence

of goal intentions on goal realization.

We also expect that goal intentions and implementation intentions develop their

positive effects on goal realization only if the goal's desirability and feasibility is

evaluated as highly positive (high expected value). In other words, goal intentions and

implementation intentions must be based on a high expected value to become effective.

Without a solid motivational basis, forming a goal intention and an implementation

intention should have no effect on goal achievement. Thus, we predicted an interaction

between expected value on the one hand and goal intention and implementation

intention on the other hand.

H3: Goal intentions and implementation intentions interact with expected value

with regard to goal realization. Goal intentions and implementation intentions

affect goal realization positively only if expected value is high.

Method

Sample

The sample of this study consists of a sub-sample of 136 individuals who

participated in a larger longitudinal study (with 478 as the total number of

participants)2.

All 478 participants of the longitudinal study were asked about their job-related plans.

Those 136 participants who declared they had considered continuing their education

2 Project AHUS, Aktives Handeln in einer Umbruchsituation ['Active Actions in a Radical Change Situation'], principal investigator Prof. Frese. Other publications are: Fay and Frese (in press); Frese, Erbe, Heinbokel, Grefe, Rybowiak, and Weike (1994); Frese, Fay, Hillburger, Leng, and Tag (1997 Frese and Pliiddemann, (1993); Speier and Frese (1997). The topic of continuing one's education was not published yet.

Action Phases Model 13

were then interviewed in more detail. Two years later, in the sixth wave of the study, it

was ascertained whether they had actually participated in some training program.

The longitudinal study was carried out in the capitol of Saxonia, in former East

Germany. The data we present in this study are based on interviews conducted during

the fifth (1993) and the sixth (1995) wave of the longitudinal study, which begun in

1990 directly after the monetary unification of East and West Germany. The main

objective of the longitudinal study was to document the work-related changes that

would take place in the transition from tight bureaucratic socialism to a social market

economy. Sample selection for the general longitudinal study was done by randomly

selecting streets, then selecting every third house and in each house, every fourth

apartment. Native Germans between the ages of 18 and 65 were invited to participate.

Further details on the random sampling procedures and general sample characteristics

have been reported by Frese, Kring, Soose, and Zempel (1996).

The decision to include individuals from the 478 participants in the fifth wave of

the longitudinal study in our sub-sample (investigating intention to continue one's

education) was based on participants' answers to the following two questions: first,

'What are your plans for the near future with respect to your professional career?' and

second, 'Have you ever thought of continuing your education?'. We included those

participants in our sub-sample who either spontaneously mentioned further education

when asked the first question, or gave an affirmative answer to the second question.

This led to inclusion of 136 individuals in the sub-sample.

Of the 136 participants who were included in our sub-sample, 56.3 % were

female and 43.7 % were male. Their mean age was 38 years, ranging from 20 to 64

years. Of the participants, 73.9 % had ajob, 11.2% were unemployed, 2.9 % were early

retired, 0.7 % worked less than 10 hours a week, 2.2% studied at the university, 5.2 %

were participating in a (vocational) retraining course, 1.5 % were on parental leave, and

2.4 % of the participants were in unclassified situations. An indication of the radical

change people in East Germany went through can be drawn from the following facts:

14 Chapter 2

58.7 % of the participants had already experienced unemployment during the last four

years, and 65 % of those, who had a job, expected to lose it sometime in the future.

Procedure

Participants were interviewed in their homes by undergraduate and graduate

students who were thoroughly trained in giving structured interviews. The standardized

interview covered all aspects of participants' intentions to continue their education. The

interview also included a variety of questions on participants' occupational situation.

Additionally, participants filled out a questionnaire tapping a number of personality

dimensions and demographic information. Participants received money for their

participation. We report here only that part of the interview that is relevant for the

present study.

Participants' answers were recorded as detailed as possible though no verbatim

records were taken. Written records were then rated according to a detailed rating

guideline, including rating anchors to every item.

Measures

In order to tap the different theoretical constructs of the action phase model, a

number of questions was asked. The order in which these questions are described here

differs somewhat from the order in which they were addressed in the interview. Unless

otherwise noted, interviewees' answers were coded on a five-point scale (1 = not at all,

2 = somewhat, 3 = medium, 4 = much, 5 = very much).

Advantages and disadvantages of continuing one's education. Participants were

asked to spontaneously name the advantages and disadvantages of receiving further

education. Their open answers were rated as absolute numbers of pros and cons.

Expected value. This index included perceived feasibility and desirability of

participants' goals to continue their education. Four items addressed the feasibility

aspect of the goal: (a) How certain is it that you will successfully finish the training

Action Phases Model 15

program once you have started it?, (b) How likely is it that you will have to face

difficulties?, (c) How successfully do you think you will cope with these difficulties?

and (d) How many opportunities for further education are there in your neighborhood?

These items were averaged to form an index of the goal's feasibility (since we

calculated an index and not a scale we do not report Cronbach's alpha). Similarly, we

measured the perceived desirability of the goal with three items: (a) How important is it

for you to continue your education?, (b) How important is further education for your

professional development? and (c) How likely is it that further education will lead to an

improvement of your professional situation? These items were averaged to form a

desirability index. Finally, we formed a composite score called expected value of the

goal by multiplying the indices of feasibility and desirability.

Goal intention. In order to ascertain whether subjects had already formed a goal

intention to continue their education, they were asked to mark an 80-millimeter

horizontal line with "I have the idea to do so" at the beginning of the line, "I am

determined to do so" at 45 mm, and "I already started to do so" at the end of the line.

The variable was then dichotomized at the decision point differentiating between people

who had not made up their minds yet and those who had already formed a goal

intention.

Implementation intention. All participants were asked the following two

questions: (a) Have you already committed yourself to when you will start to act on your

intention to continue your education? and (b) Have you already committed yourself to

where you will act on your intention to continue your education? (answers coded on 3-

point scales ranging from 1 = not at all, 2 = only very little commitment, 3 = strong

commitment). The answers to these two items were averaged and formed an index

(therefore no alphas are reported). A value equal or smaller than 2 was interpreted as a

lack of implementation intention, the value of 3 was interpreted as the existence of

implementation intentions. All participants were asked about having an implementation

intention although not all had already formed a goal intention.

16 Chapter 2

Degree of goal realization. The degree of realizing the goal to continue one's

education was ascertained two years later, in the sixth wave of the longitudinal study.

Again, an interview approach was used. We asked the participants of our sub-sample,

whether they had realized their goals in one form or another. Answers were coded on a

5-point scale (1 = not realized at all, 2 = only very partially realized, 3 = realized to

some extent, 4 = almost completely realized, 5 = completely realized).

Results

Characteristics of the Sub-Sample

In the sixth wave of the longitudinal study we were able to contact 128

individuals out of the 136 individuals who had been interviewed on their goals to

continue their education two years earlier. These 128 individuals represent 94% of the

sub-sample in the fifth wave. Thus, the attrition rate in our sub-sample was 6%.

We compared the 136 participants who indicated an interest in continuing their

education with the remaining 342 individuals who did not with respect to several

demographic and job-related variables. Our sub-sample included more women (56.6%

in the sub-sample compared to 43.4% in the total sample; %2 = 4.91(1), /x.05) and

younger people (Mslib= 39 years versus Mmai = 44 years; t = 5.11, p<.001). Participants

in our sub-sample had more complex jobs (Mmb= 3.62 versus M,otai = 3.43; t = 2.20,

p<.05 ) and jobs with a higher degree of control (Mmb= 3.75 versus Mmai = 3.56; t =

2.14, p<.05). Participants with the goal to continue their education expressed a stronger

desire for a better job (Msub= 2.38 versus M,otai = 2.14; t = 2.83, p<.0\) and had more

frequently participated in some further education in the past (57.8% in the sub-sample

versus 39.1% in the total sample; ^2 = 9.99(1), p<.00l). However, there were no

differences with respect to their level of education (college years, university degree) and

Action Phases Model 17

to their prior occupational training. Both samples had equal experiences with

unemployment and job changes during the last year. Participants from both samples

reported the same level of expectancy in becoming unemployed in the near future.

Cognitive Characteristics of Pre- and Post-decisional Phases (Hypothesis 1)

Our first hypothesis focused on a specific cognitive orientation (mind-set;

Gollwitzer, 1990; Gollwitzer, Heckhausen, & Steller, 1990; Gollwitzer & Kinney,

1989) of participants in the pre- and post-decisional phases. We expected that

participants who had already formed a goal intention should spontaneously list more

advantages (pros) of further education than disadvantages (cons) compared to those

participants who had not yet formed a goal intention. This pattern should result in a

more positively-tuned ratio of advantages to disadvantages. There was an overall

tendency in participants to name more advantages than disadvantages. Therefore, we

calculated the natural logarithm of the ratio advantages/disadvantages for each person.

An ANOVA was run with this ratio measure as the dependent variable and the

dichotomic measure of having formed a goal intention or not as the independent

variable. An equal number of advantages and disadvantages was represented by

ln(advantages/disadvantages) = 0. Pre-decisional ratios were closer to zero (M = 0.92)

than post-decisional ratios (M = 1.46); F(l,134) = 4.91, p = .03. This result speaks for a

more positively biased cognitive orientation in participants during the post-decisional

phase - implemental mind-set.

Goal Intention and Implementation Intention as Mediators (Hypothesis 2)

Hypothesis 2 predicted that goal intentions mediate the impact of the expected

value on implementation intention. Similarly, implementation intentions were supposed

to mediate the impact of goal intentions on goal realization. Means, medians, standard

deviations, and intercorrelations of the relevant variables are given in Table 1.

Chapter 2

Table 1

Median, Means, Standard Deviations and Intercorrelations of the Action Phase

Variables

Variables ~MD M SD 1 2 3 4

1 Expected value a 14.67 15.12 4.46 — 2 Goal intention b 45 39.99 28.08 .25** — 3 Implementation intention 2 2.04 .65 .31*** 59*** — 4 Degree of goal realization 3 2.82 1.42 .17+ .23* .29** —

Note.a The index ranged from 1 to 25. The scale was ranging from 0 to 80 with 45 representing the decision point of forming a goal intention. N= 128-136. +p < .10; *p < .05; **/>< .01 ;***/?< .001.

Expected value, goal intention, and implementation intention are positively

correlated with each other. Correlation coefficients range from r = .25 (p<.0l) for

expected value with goal intention and r = .31 (p<.00l) with implementation intention.

There is a high positive correlation of r = .59 (p<.001) for goal intention with

implementation intention. Correlations between degree of goal realization and expected

value, goal intention and implementation intention are smaller and range from r = .17

(p<.10) with expected value, r = .23 (p<.05) with goal intentions and r = .29 (jx.01)

with implementation intention.

Following the procedure recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986), three

regression equations were calculated for the mediation test: first, regressing the

mediator on the independent variable; second, regressing the dependent variable on the

independent variable, and third, regressing the dependent variable on both the

independent variable and on the mediator. Table 2 displays the results of the three

regression analyses testing goal intentions as mediators.

Action Phases Model 19

Table 2

Regression Analyses Testing Goal Intention as Mediator

Equation Dependent Variable Independent Variable ßa R2 AR2

1. Goal intention Expected value .25** .06**

2. Implementation intention Expected value 31*** 10***

3. Implementation intention Expected value .18*

Goal intention 55*** Q Q * * * 2g*#*

Note. a standardized beta coefficients; *p<.05\ **p<.01; *** /x.001

Table 3

Regression Analyses Testing Implementation Intentions as Mediator

Equation Dependent Variable Independent Variable ßa R2 AR2

1. Implementation intention Goal intention 59*** 35***

2. Goal realization Goal intention .23* .05*

3. Goal realization Goal intention .08 n.s.

Implementation intention .25* .09* .04*

Note. a standardized beta coefficients; */x.05; ** p<.Q\; ***/?<.001.

The results support the hypothesis that goal intention mediates the effect of

expected value on implementation intentions. Table 2 shows that all conditions

necessary for a mediation hold the predicted direction: expected value affects the

mediator (goal intention) in the first equation; expected value affects the dependent

variable (implementation intention) in the second equation, and the effect of expected

value (as the independent variable) on implementation intention (as the dependent

variable) decreases when goal intention as the mediator is controlled (from ß = .31,

/?<.001 in the second equation to ß = .18,/?<.05 in the third equation ).

The same analyses were conducted testing the second mediation model with

goal intention as independent variable, implementation intention as the mediator and

goal realization as the dependent variable. Table 3 presents the results of three

regression analyses testing the mediating function of implementation intentions.

20 Chapter 2

The results support the second part of Hypothesis 2 that states that

implementation intention is a mediator for the effect of goal intention on goal

realization. All equations show the predicted direction: first, goal intentions affect the

mediator - implementation intention; second, goal intention affects the degree of goal

realization, and third, goal intention as independent variable has no significant effect on

degree of goal realization anymore when the mediator (implementation intention) is

controlled (from ß = .23, p<.05 in the second equation to ß = .08, n.s. in the third

equation).

Realization of Training Goals as a Function of Expected Value, Goal Intention and

Implementation Intention (Hypothesis 3)

Hypothesis 3 predicted that goal intentions and implementation intentions

develop their positive effects on goal realization only if the goal's desirability and

feasibility is evaluated as highly positive (high expected value). Since this hypothesis

implies an interaction of expected value with goal intention and implementation

intention, respectively, we used a 2 (low vs. high expected value; median split) x 2 (goal

intention; no/yes, i.e., below and above the decision point) x 2 (implementation

intentions; no/yes) ANOVA design with degree of goal realization as dependent

variable. We used residualized variables of goal intention and implementation intention

in the ANOVA to be on the conservative side. This is in line with our hypothesis, which

centers on the effect of goal intention on goal realization over and above the effect of

expected value and on the effect implementation intention has on goal realization over

and above the effects of expected value and goal intention. Tables 4 and 5 display the

results of the ANOVA.

Action Phases Model 21

Table 4

Goal Realization as Function of Expected Value, Residualized Goal Intention and

Residualized Implementation Intention

No goal intention formed Goal intention formed

No No

implementation Implementation implementation Implementation

intention formed intention formed intention formed intention formed

Low expected value 2.63 2.54 2.79 2.57

n = 12 n = 14 n =21 n = 15

High expected value 1.94 3.08 3.21 3.75

« = 1 8 n =18 n = 12 n =18

Table 5

ANOVA of Goal Realization with Expected Value, Residualized Goal Intention, and

Implementation Intention as Factors

Sum of squares df Mean square F P

Main effects (Combined) 19.86 3 6.62 3.59 .02

Expected value (EV) 4.38 1 4.38 2.37 .13

Goal Intentionres (GIres) 10.93 1 10.93 5.92 .02

Implementation Intentionres (IIres) 5.50 1 5.50 2.98 .09

2-way (Combined) 14.72 3 4.91 2.66 .05

interactions

EV x GIrcs 5.71 1 5.71 3.10 .08

EV x IIres 7.54 1 7.54 4.09 .05

o i r e s X l l r e s 1.07 1 1.07 .58 .45

3-way EV x GIres x IIres .42 1 .42 .23 .63

interaction

Model 34.99 7 5.00 2.71 .01

Residual 221.44 120 1.85

Total 256.44 127 2.02

Note. EV = Expected Value; GIres = residualized Goal Intention; IIres = residualized Implementation Intention.

22 Chapter 2

Table 5 shows a significant main effect for goal intention on goal realization and

a marginally significant main effect of implementation intention on goal realization.

Additionally, we find two interaction effects which support Hypothesis 3. Figures 1 and

2 illustrate the interaction between expected value and goal intention and

implementation intention.

Figure I. Degree of Goal Realization as a Function of Expected Value x Goal Intention

| 3.6

| 3A

S 3.2

% 3

S 2.8 o 2.6

I" a 2.2

-Goal Intention

- No Goal Intention

Low Expected Value High Expected Value

Figure 2. Degree of Goal Realization as a Function of Expected Value x Goal Intention

3.6 ! 3.4 3.2 -

3 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2

- Implementation Intention

No Implementation Intention

Low Expected Value High Expected Value

When expected value is low, goal intention has no effect on goal realization. In

combination with high expected value, however, goal intention's contribution is

marginally significant to goal realization (for the interaction between expected value

and goal intention, F(l, 120) = 3.10,/? = .081). The same interaction was found for

implementation intention: implementation intention does not affect goal realization

when expected value is low. In contrast, implementation intention increases goal

Action Phases Model 23

realization when expected value is high (for the interaction between expected value and

implementation intention, F(l, 120) = 4.09, p = .045). The lowest degree of goal

completion (M = 1.94) is found for participants who have not formed a binding goal

intention to continue their education and also lack an implementation intention (see

Table 4). In contrast, having formed a goal intention and additionally, having furnished

the goal intention with an implementation intention led to a drastic increase in the goal

realization (M = 3.75).

Discussion

In the present study we successfully applied the action phases model

(Gollwitzer, 1990; Heckhausen, 1989, 1991), which originated in basic research, to an

everyday and complex context such as the intention to continue one's education. The

crucial test of the action phase model was that people be more successful in

transforming their ideas into action when they adhered to the postulated sequence of

action phases. We also tested the mediating function of goal intentions and

implementation intentions. Goal intentions mediated the influence of expected value on

forming a goal intention. Similarly, implementation intentions mediated the influence of

goal intentions on goal realization. Furthermore, we analyzed the moderating function

of expected value, representing the motivational basis for the effects of goal intentions

and implementation intentions on goal realization. More specifically, we found that

participants interested in further education benefited from the effects of goal and

implementation intentions only if their endeavor had a solid motivational basis (i.e.,

high expected value). Additionally, we were able to replicate the findings with regard to

different cognitive orientations, or mind-sets, in an applied context.

Thus, the results confirmed our hypotheses. Goal intentions mediated the

influence of the motivational basis (expected value of a goal) on forming an

implementation intention. More importantly, we showed that implementation intentions

24 Chapter 2

mediated the impact goal intentions have on goal realization. This finding emphasizes

the importance of specifying the when and where on conducting goal-directed actions

(implementation intentions) as an effective self-regulatory tool to facilitate the

achievement of a goal the person is or feels committed to (goal intention).

Second, goal intentions and implementation intentions affected goal

achievement and furthermore, we saw the moderating function of expected value as was

hypothesized. When continuing one's education was feasible and desirable for the

person (i.e., high expected value), the degree of goal completion depended on forming a

goal intention and on forming an implementation intention. Those participants who had

a goal intention with respect to continuing their education, or who had committed

themselves to when and where to act on their goal (implementation intention), realized

their goal to a greater extent than participants without a binding goal intention or an

implementation intention. However, when continuing education was not really feasible

and desirable for the person (i.e., low expected value), it made no difference with

respect to the degree of goal realization whether a goal intention or an implementation

intention was formed. Surprisingly, there were 18 participants who did not form a goal

intention or an implementation intention even though they evaluated further education

as highly desirable and feasible. These participants showed the lowest degree of goal

realization, even lower than those participants who reported only low expected value

with regard to further education.

The results are remarkable with regard to the timeframe in which they were

collected: information on goal realization were measured two years after the interviews

on the anteceding conditions (i.e., expected value, goal intention, implementation

intention). Thus, the idea that participants just tried to be consistent with previously

expressed intentions when reporting on their educational activities, can be excluded.

Action Phases Model 25

In addition, we demonstrated that forming a goal intention is accompanied by a

change in the cognitive representation of relevant incentives. As predicted, pre-

decisional participants were more balanced with respect to pros and cons of further

education than post-decisional participants who showed a stronger bias toward positive

aspects of continuing their education. This is in line with earlier findings in the area of

mind-set research (Gollwitzer, Heckhausen, & Steller, 1990; Gollwitzer & Kinney,

1989; Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987).

Strengths and limitations. The longitudinal design in a natural environment

represents a strong point of this study. Within a timeframe of two years, the

theoretically-derived aspects of intentions were measured in an everyday context and

focused on a complex task such as continuing one's education. The extensive timeframe

of two years made it possible to include actual behavior as the dependent variable in this

study, even though all measures were self-reported. A limitation of this study was the

fact that there were no data collected that could provide information on the nature of

barriers and hurdles participants where confronted with when thinking about continuing

their education. This information might have explained why intentions were not put into

action in spite of having a goal intention, an implementation intention and high

expected value. This information could also be helpful in: (a) further plan interventions

in order to facilitate successful goal achievement, and (b) to plan and design education

programs, that take these potential barriers into account.

Implications f or theory and practice. Our study stresses again the importance of

goals in self-regulation (Frese & Zapf, 1994; Frese & Sabini, 1985). As is already

documented in the literature, goals change cognitive functioning in a way that is

functional for successful goal achievement (e.g., Gollwitzer & Bargh, 1996; Gollwitzer

& Moskowitz, 1996; Higgins & Sorrentino, 1990; Klinger, Barta, & Maxeiner, 1980;

Sorrentino & Higgins, 1986). Moreover, formation of a goal intention sets the stage for

a variety of self-regulatory mechanisms (e.g., discrepancy reduction, Bandura, 1991;

action control strategies; Kuhl, 1984, 1992; Kühl & Beckmann, 1994; Locke & Latham,

26 . Chapter 2

1990). Implementation intentions are one kind of willful strategy people may employ to

ensure successful goal achievement. Implementation intentions define concrete aspects

of goal-directed behavior, and thus lead to a specification of the respective goal.

Nevertheless, this way of specifying a goal must not be confused with the concept of

goal specification that Locke and Latham (1990) discuss in their goal setting theory.

With respect to potential interventions, our study has interesting implications.

Most importantly, one must get people who already have positive attitudes toward

further education to form a binding goal intention and to commit themselves to the

concrete aspects of goal-directed behavior. Thus, people need not only be informed

about potential courses but also be provided with training that exemplifies the benefits

of forming goal intentions and implementation intentions.