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Fishing for space: Socio-spatial relations of Indian trawl fishers in the Palk Bay, South Asia, inthe context of trans-boundary fishing

Stephen, J.

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Citation for published version (APA):Stephen, J. (2015). Fishing for space: Socio-spatial relations of Indian trawl fishers in the Palk Bay, South Asia,in the context of trans-boundary fishing.

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Download date: 02 Oct 2020

INTRODUCTIONCHAPTER 1

2

Fishing for Space

In one of the versions of the Hindu mythological scripture, The Ramayan1, Lakshman, the younger brother of Lord Ram, is said to have drawn a line outside their exiled residence in the forest which guaranteed protection to Sita, the wife of Lord Ram, as long as she stayed behind it. Lakshman then went in search of Lord Ram, who he believed was lost in the forest. The story then proceeds to explain how Sita inadvertently crossed this line only to be kidnapped by the antagonist in the story, Ravanan. Notwithstanding the highly patriarchal overtones of this story, my interest is with regard to the line drawn by Lakshman, often referred to as the Lakshman Rekha��7KLV�OLQH��ZKLOH�GHÀQLQJ�D�WHUULWRULDO� OLPLW�WKDW�JXDUDQWHHG�Sita’s protection, also signaled helplessness (by the powers that be) when crossed.

This thesis is uncannily related to this story. According to the scriptures Sita was kidnapped across the Palk Bay to Sri Lanka and a war ensued across this bay to rescue Sita from the clutches of Ravanan. Thousands of pilgrims from all over India visit the island of Rameswaram situated in Palk Bay in reverence to Lord Ram and pray at a shrine on the island believed to be built by the Lord Ram himself. While WKH�VLWH�RI �P\�UHVHDUFK� LV�DOVR� WKH�3DON�%D\��P\�IRFXV� LV� �RQ�D�VHFWLRQ�RI �ÀVKHUV�WKDW� LQKDELW�DQG�PDNH�D� OLYHOLKRRG�RXW�RI �WKH�3DON�%D\��QDPHO\�WKH�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�2

For them, the Lakshman Rekha here is the International Maritime Boundary Line �,0%/��ZLWK�6UL�/DQND�WKDW�WKH\�FURVV�HYHU\�GD\�WR�ÀVK��7KH�VWRU\�RI �WKH�ÀVKHUV�LV�however much more complex, and will form the basis of this thesis.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The Palk Bay, a relatively shallow stretch of the sea between India and Sri Lanka, is a FRQWHVWHG�ÀVKLQJ�WHUULWRU\��:LWK�D�GHFLVLYH�HQG�WR�WKH�FLYLO�ZDU�LQ�6UL�/DQND�LQ�������WKH�VPDOO�VFDOH�ÀVKHUV�RI �6UL�/DQND�KDYH�UHVXPHG�QRUPDO�ÀVKLQJ��7KLV�ZDV�UHVWULFWHG�GXULQJ�ZDU� WLPH�GXH� WR� VHFXULW\� UHVWULFWLRQV��7KHLU�ÀVKLQJ� LV�KRZHYHU� LQWHUUXSWHG�E\� WKH� ,QGLDQ� ÀVKHUV�� 7KH� WUDQVJUHVVLRQ� RI � ,QGLDQ� WUDZO� ÀVKHUV� LQWR� 6UL� /DQNDQ�ZDWHUV� LV� FRQVLGHUHG� WR�EH� WKH�PDLQ�FDXVH� IRU� WKLV� FRQÁLFW�ZLWK� WKH�QRUWKHUQ�6UL�/DQNDQ�ÀVKHUV��,Q�DGGLWLRQ�WR��WKH�HFRQRPLF�ORVVHV�GXH�WR�FRQÀVFDWLRQ�RI �FDWFKHV��ERDWV�DQG�JHDUV��PRUH�WKDQ�D�KXQGUHG�,QGLDQ�ÀVKHUPHQ�DUH�EHOLHYHG�WR�KDYH�EHHQ�killed by the Sri Lankan Navy since the beginning of the civil war in 1983, due to this transgression into Sri Lankan waters (Vivekanandan, 2010). The transgression LV�DOVR�DIIHFWLQJ�UHODWLRQV�EHWZHHQ�WKH�ÀVKHUV�RI �ERWK�WKH�FRXQWULHV��ZKR�VKDUH�WKH�VDPH�HWKQLF�EDFNJURXQG��7KH�ERWWRP�WUDZO�QHWV�XVHG�E\�WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�YHU\�

3

RIWHQ�FXW�DQG�GHVWUR\�WKH�JLOO�QHWV�RI �WKH�QRUWKHUQ�6UL�/DQNDQ�ÀVKHUPHQ��FUHDWLQJ�HFRQRPLF�ORVVHV��GLVWUXVW�DQG�HYHQWXDOO\�OHDGLQJ�WR�FRQÁLFW��6FKROWHQV�HW�DO����������The territorial division of the sea, different state laws and their applicability and the geo-politics between the two countries complicate matters in the Palk Bay.

(IIHFWLYH�ÀVKHULHV�PDQDJHPHQW�DQG�JRYHUQDQFH�RI �WKH�3DON�%D\�LV�RI �SULPDU\�importance both environmentally and socially for the livelihood of thousands of ÀVKHUV�ZKR�GHSHQG�RQ�LW�

Fisheries resource use and access in Palk Bay is however intrinsically tied to a complex web of ethnic politics both in Sri Lankan and India, geo-political relations, popular politics and the political economy of trawling in India (Scholtens et al., 2012; Bavinck et al., 2014). In this thesis I unravel these complex set of social-UHODWLRQV�WKDW�DIIHFW�ÀVKHULHV�UHVRXUFH�XVH�LQ�3DON�%D\�

1.1.1 Marine Fisheries in India

Before zooming in on the research, it is important to contextualize the marine FDSWXUH�ÀVKHULHV�VHFWRU3 in India and more particularly in Tamil Nadu. According to WKH�)�$�2����������,QGLD�UDQNHG�VHYHQWK�LQ�WKH�\HDU������LQ�PDULQH�FDSWXUH�ÀVKHULHV�with a production estimated to be about 3,402,405 tonnes. However, in terms of ÀVK�FRQVXPSWLRQ�,QGLD�UDQNHG�YHU\�ORZ��LQ������LW�ZDV�HVWLPDWHG�WKDW�WKH�QDWLRQDO�DYHUDJH�FRQVXPSWLRQ�RI �ÀVK�DQG�ÀVK�SURGXFWV�ZDV�RQO\�DERXW������NJ�SHU�FDSLWD��This accounted for only about 2.2 percent of total protein consumption (ibid.). 7KH�PDULQH�ÀVKHULHV�VHFWRU�LV�WKHUHIRUH�H[SRUW�GULYHQ��7KH�ÀVKHULHV�VHFWRU�LQ�WRWDO�contributed to about INR 6.791 million to the Indian GDP during 2009-2010, which is 0.96 percent of the total GDP at factor cost (Planning Commission, 2012). With an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of about 2.02 million sq. km, comprising 0.86 million sq. km (42.6 % of the total) on the west coast, 0.56 million sq. km (27.7%) on the east coast and 0.60 million sq. km (29.7%) around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (see Figure 1), India has a substantial number of people dependent RQ�PDULQH�FDSWXUH�ÀVKHULHV��$FFRUGLQJ�WR�UHFHQW�HVWLPDWHV�LW�HPSOR\V�������PLOOLRQ�people directly in the sector on a full-time basis, and about 1.01 million on a part-time basis another 1.39 million are engaged in other ancillary activities (ibid., p. 27).

Chapter 1: Introduction

4

Fishing for Space

Figure 1: Exclusive Economic Zone of India4

Most of the catch comes from boats (crafts) that broadly fall under two categories: Mechanized and Non-Mechanized.

In non–mechanized boats the operation of the gears (nets) are generally done PDQXDOO\��*HDUV�FDQ�UDQJH�IURP�D�VLPSOH�ÀVK�WDFNOH�WR�FRPSOLFDWHG�V\VWHPV�RI �ORQJ�lines, gill nets and trawl nets. Non-mechanized boats can be further divided into motorized and non-motorized based on the presence of an engine to aid them in their sailing. Non-motorized boats do not have engines and are manually operated with the aid of a sail or oar. Motorized boats have engines in them, which can be ÀWWHG�H[WHUQDOO\��RXW�ERDUG��RU�FDQ�EH�DQ�LQWHJUDO�SDUW�RI �WKH�ERDW�GHVLJQ�LWVHOI ��LQ�board).

0HFKDQL]HG�ERDWV�JHQHUDOO\�DUH�WKH�ERDWV�ÀWWHG�ZLWK�HQJLQHV�DQG�RU�K\GUDXOLFV�that are used to operate the nets or lines (gears). Most of the mechanized boats have in-board engines. Mechanized boats can be trawlers, gillnetters, log liners etc. 7KHVH�DUH�EURDG�FODVVLÀFDWLRQV�ZLWKLQ�ZKLFK�DUH�LQQXPHUDEOH�GLIIHUHQFHV��&UDIWV�FDQ�range from simple traditional crafts5 to highly sophisticated mechanized trawlers and JLOOQHWWHUV��,Q�WKH�PDULQH�ÀVKHULHV�VHFWRU��DFFRUGLQJ�WR�&0)5,�FHQVXV�������RXW�RI �nearly 194,490 crafts 37% were mechanized, 37% were motorized and 26% were non-motorized (ICSF, undated).

5

1.1.2 Marine Fisheries in Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadut, one of the coastal states in India, has a coastal length of 1076 km, or 13% of the country’s coast line. It has a continental shelf of about 41,412 sq.km. 7DPLO�1DGX�LV�RQH�RI �WKH�OHDGLQJ�VWDWHV�LQ�PDULQH�ÀVK�SURGXFWLRQ��FRQWULEXWLQJ��������RI �WKH�WRWDO�PDULQH�ÀVK�SURGXFWLRQ�LQ�,QGLD��7DPLO�1DGX�)LVKHULHV�'HSDUWPHQW�ZHEVLWH��XQGDWHG���7KH�6WDWH�KDV������PLOOLRQ�ÀVKHUPHQ�DFWLYHO\�HQJDJHG�LQ�ÀVKLQJ�IURP�����PDULQH�ÀVKLQJ�YLOODJHV�VFDWWHUHG�DORQJ�WKH����FRDVWDO�GLVWULFWV��LELG����7DPLO�Nadu’s coast is divided into four zones or four ‘coasts’. 1) The Coromandal Coast, 2) Palk Bay, 3) Gulf of Mannar 4) West coast in the Arabian Sea. The demarcations and the length of each of these coasts can be summarized in the table below.

Table 1.1: The four regions of the Tamil Nadu coast6

Name of the coast Region Length

Coromandel Coast Chennai to Point Calimere 357.2 Km.Palk Bay Point Calimere to Pamban 293.9 Km.Gulf of Mannar Pamban to Kanniyakumari 364.9 Km.West Coast in Arabian Sea Kanniyakumari to Neerodi 60.0 Km.

(DFK�RI �WKHVH�IRXU�FRDVWV�KDYH�WKHLU�XQLTXH�W\SH�RI �ÀVKHULHV��DOVR�YHU\�PXFK�linked to the unique environmental and social characteristics of the regions. This UHVHDUFK�ZDV� GRQH� LQ� WKH� 3DON�%D\� UHJLRQ�� DQG� WKH� ÀVKHULHV� RI � 3DON�%D\�ZLOO� EH�detailed in the next chapter.

Chapter 1: Introduction

6

Fishing for Space

Map 1: Map showing the four “coasts”. The number represents the various coastal districts of Tamil Nadu7

1.1.3 The History of the Modern Marine Fishery Management in Tamil Nadu

7KH�HDUOLHVW�UHFRUG�RI �ÀVKHU\�LQ�7DPLO�1DGX�GDWHV�EDFN�WR�WKH�6DQJDP�DJH�8 The 6DQJDP� OLWHUDWXUH� GHVFULEHV� UHYHQXHV� IURP� SHDUO� DQG� FKDQN� ÀVKHU\� LQ� WKH� WKLUG�century BC (Athiyaman, 2004). Taxes, revenues and marketing of pearls and chanks ZHUH�FRPPRQ��LELG����7KH�SUHFXUVRU�WR�PRGHUQ�GD\�ÀVKHULHV�PDQDJHPHQW�FDQ�EH�traced to the colonial history of India. Dr Francis Day’s book on The Fishes of India LQ������ZDV�WKH�ÀUVW�RI �LWV�HIIRUW�E\�FRORQLDO�VFLHQWLVWV�WR�FODVVLI\�,QGLDQ�ÀVKHULHV��5HHYHV�HW�DO����������)UDQFLV�'D\�DV�WKH�ÀUVW�,QVSHFWRU�JHQHUDO�RI �ÀVKHULHV�LQ�,QGLD�LGHQWLÀHG�WZR�PDLQ�SUREOHPV�IDFLQJ�,QGLDQ�ÀVKHULHV�����WKH�QHHG�IRU�FRQVHUYDWLRQ�DQG� ��� WKH� QHHG� WR� DGGUHVV� WKH� GLIÀFXOWLHV� IDFHG� E\� WKH� ,QGLDQ� ÀVKHUV� UHJDUGLQJ�

7

accessing salt, because of the colonial tax imposed on salt extraction (ibid., p. 44). 7KH�GHYHORSPHQW� RI � WKH�PRGHUQ� GD\�ÀVKLQJ� RSHUDWLRQV� WUDFHV� LWV� RULJLQV� WR� WKH�surge in industrial development post Indian independence in 1945. The central state was also actively involved in the process of increasing productivity in all sectors, as it was seen as a requirement for the growth of the nation. Increasing productivity IURP�WKH�VHD�ZDV�VHHQ�DV�D�ZD\�WR�PRGHUQL]H�ÀVKLQJ��%DYLQFN���������7R�LQFUHDVH�SURGXFWLYLW\��LW�ZDV�LGHQWLÀHG�WKDW�EHWWHU�WHFKQRORJ\�ZDV�UHTXLUHG�WR�KDUYHVW�PRUH�from the sea. With the help of the Indo- Norwegian project in the early 1950’s �.ODXVHQ�������� ,QGLD� WRRN�XS�PHFKDQL]DWLRQ� LQ�ÀVKLQJ�ZLWK� WKH� LQWURGXFWLRQ�RI �ERWWRP� WUDZOHUV�� 7KH� SURFHVVHV� RI � LQGXVWULDOL]DWLRQ� �PHFKDQL]DWLRQ� RI � ÀVKHU\��LQ� ÀVKHULHV� LV� RIWHQ� UHIHUUHG� WR� DV� WKH� ¶EOXH� UHYROXWLRQ·�� 7KLV� FRLQFLGHG�ZLWK� WKH�LGHQWLÀFDWLRQ�RI �HQRUPRXV�VKULPS�UHVRXUFHV�DORQJ�WKH�,QGLDQ�FRDVW��.XULHQ���������Though there was little or no demand for shrimp locally, the lucrative markets of USA/Japan provided the much needed market and the scope to earn valuable IRUHLJQ�H[FKDQJH��.XULHQ���������$�ZKROH�QHZ�FODVV�RI �ÀVKHUV�WKXV�HPHUJHG�FDVKLQJ�in on this lucrative business now termed as the ‘pink gold rush’ (Bavinck, 2001). :KLOH�VRPH�RI �WKH�WUDGLWLRQDO�ÀVKHUV�ZHUH�DEOH�WR�MRLQ�WKLV�QHZ�FODVV��PRVW�RI �WKHP�could not due to the high initial capital that was required for investment. This also VDZ� D� ÁRRG� RI � DFWRUV� IURP� WKH� QRQ�ÀVKLQJ� FRPPXQLW\� HQWHU� LQWR� WKH� OXFUDWLYH�mechanized sector (Kurien, 1978). The Indian state was happy to boost this impetus and provided subsidies in all forms for the newly formed sector, including subsidies IRU�WKH�SXUFKDVH�RI �ERDWV��HQJLQHV�DQG�IXHO�IRU�ÀVKLQJ�RSHUDWLRQV��.XULHQ��$FKDUL���������.HUDOD�ZDV�WKH�ÀUVW�VWDWH�WR�WDNH�XS�WKLV�SURFHVV�RI �PHFKDQL]DWLRQ�DQG�7DPLO�Nadu soon followed suit (Bavinck, 2001).

,Q�WKH�ZDNH�RI �PRGHUQL]DWLRQ�RI � WKH�PDULQH�ÀVKHU\� LQ�WKH�HDUO\�����V�DQG�����V�� FRQÁLFWV�EHWZHHQ� WKH� VPDOO�VFDOH� WUDGLWLRQDO�ÀVKHUV� DQG� WKH�QHZO\� FUHDWHG�PHFKDQL]HG�ÁHHW�LQFUHDVHG�LQ�YDULRXV�SDUWV�RI �,QGLD��.XULHQ���������7KLV�ZDV�PDLQO\�due to the fact that tropical waters offered most of their resources in the continental shelf area which is relatively narrow in most parts of the Indian coast. Responding WR�WKH�GHPDQGV�RI �WKH�WUDGLWLRQDO�ÀVKHUV�WR�EH�SURWHFWHG�DJDLQVW�WKH�QHZ�PHFKDQL]HG�sector, the central government circulated a model legislation to all coastal states titled WKH�0DULQH� )LVKHULHV� 5HJXODWLRQ�$FWV�� ����� �0)5$��� 6LQFH�PXFK� RI � WKH� ÀVKLQJ�happened in the territorial waters (12 nautical miles from the shore) and managing these waters came under the jurisdiction of the respective states, it was up to the respective coastal states to enact the state laws. One of the important management measures suggested under the MFRA was to spatially separate the traditional small-

Chapter 1: Introduction

8

Fishing for Space

VFDOH�ÀVKHUV�DQG�WKH�PHFKDQL]HG�VHFWRU�E\�GHPDUFDWLQJ�DQ�H[FOXVLYH�ÀVKLQJ�]RQH�IRU�WKH�WUDGLWLRQDO�ÀVKHUV��,Q�7DPLO�1DGX�WKLV�ZDV�GRQH�ZLWK�WKH�HQDFWPHQW�RI �WKH�7DPLO�Nadu Marine Fisheries Regulation Act, 1983 (TNMFRA). The act has prescribed standards for engine capacity, mesh size, craft size and among the various other rules in this act, three nautical miles from the coast line was demarked as exclusive ]RQHV�IRU�VPDOO�VFDOH�ÀVKHUV��710)5$�LV�WKH�RQO\�SLHFH�RI �VWDWH�OHJLVODWLRQ�GLUHFWO\�UHJXODWLQJ�WKH�ÀVKHU\�LQ�7DPLO�1DGX�

1.2 THE RESEARCH AGENDA

This research was carried out under a larger research project titled Re-incorporating WKH�H[FOXGHG��3URYLGLQJ�VSDFH�IRU�VPDOO�VFDOH�ÀVKHUV�LQ�WKH�VXVWDLQDEOH�GHYHORSPHQW�RI �ÀVKHULHV�RI �6RXWK�$IULFD�DQG�6RXWK�$VLD��5(,1&253),6+���7KLV�SURMHFW�IXQGHG�E\�WKH�1HWKHUODQGV�2UJDQLVDWLRQ�IRU�6FLHQWLÀF�5HVHDUFK��1:2��DLPV�WR�́ FRQWULEXWH�WR�� UHYLHZ� DQG� DVVHVV� WKH� GHYHORSPHQW� RI � ÀVKHULHV� JRYHUQDQFH� IUDPHZRUNV� DQG�institutional arrangements in South Africa and South Asia for the resolution of core ÀVKHU\�FRQÁLFWVµ��www.REINCORPFISH.info���7KH�FRQÁLFW� LQ�3DON�%D\�ZDV�WKH�focus of the research in South Asia. The project had both a research part and civil society part. My role in the project was that of a researcher on the Indian side of Palk Bay.9

The choice of the area for research was thus determined from the perspective of the project, the agenda for research for this thesis was also partially derived from WKH�SURMHFW·V�DLP�WR�EHWWHU�XQGHUVWDQG�ÀVKHULHV�JRYHUQDQFH�LQ�3DON�%D\��,W�LV�ZLWKLQ�WKLV�IUDPHZRUN�WKDW�,�KDG�VWDUWHG�WR�ORRN�DW�WKH�ÀVKHULHV�V\VWHP�LQ�3DON�%D\��7KH�ÀUVW� WKUHH�PRQWKV�ZDV�GHGLFDWHG�WR�XQGHUVWDQGLQJ�3DON�%D\�DQG� LWV�ÀVKHULHV�DV� LW�included a vast area (about 250 kilometers of coast line) and different varieties of ÀVKHU\�V\VWHPV�UDQJLQJ�IURP�VPDOO�VFDOH�JLOO�QHWWHUV�WR� ODUJH�VFDOH�WUDZOHUV��,W�ZDV�GXULQJ�WKLV�WLPH�WKDW�,�ZDV�LQFUHDVLQJO\�FRQYLQFHG�WKDW�WR�DGGUHVV�WKH�FRQÁLFW�LW�ZDV�very important to engage with its main drivers; from this perspective it was clear WKDW�,�KDG�WR�IRFXV�RQ�WKH�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV��ZKRVH�LQFUHDVLQJ�LQWUXVLRQ�LQWR�6UL�/DQNDQ�waters is the main concern.

$V� D� ÀVKHULHV� PDQDJHPHQW� JUDGXDWH�� P\� ÀUVW� LQVWLQFW� ZDV� WR� ORRN� DW� WKH�VLWXDWLRQ�LQ�3DON�%D\�DV�D�JHDU�FRQÁLFW��D�FRPSHWLWLRQ�EHWZHHQ�WZR�JURXSV�RI �ÀVKHUV�RYHU�VFDUFH�UHVRXUFHV��D�FRQÁLFW�EHWZHHQ�WKH�SDVVLYH�JLOOQHWWHUV�DQG�WKDW�RI �WKH�DFWLYH�trawlers. These types of confrontations were not uncommon in India (Mathew,

9

2003) and other parts of the subcontinent, where the project of modernization in ÀVKLQJ�FUHDWHG� LQFUHDVLQJ�FRQÁLFWV�EHWZHHQ� WKH�GLIIHUHQW� W\SHV�RI �ÀVKHUV��$�JHDU�FRQÁLFW�� FRPSOLFDWHG� E\�PXOWLSOH� OHJDO� V\VWHPV� IURP� GLIIHUHQW� QDWLRQ� VWDWHV�� ZDV�therefore the obvious choice for research. However being a resident of Tamil Nadu, ,�ZDV�DOVR�FRQVWDQWO\�H[SRVHG�WR�WKH�SROLWLFV�DURXQG�WKH�ÀVKLQJ�LVVXH�LQ�3DON�%D\�mainly through the popular media. The more I thought along the lines of gear FRQÁLFW�WKH�PRUH�,�UHDOL]HG�WKDW�LW�ZDV�GLIÀFXOW�WR�DGGUHVV�FHUWDLQ�FRUH�LVVXHV�LQ�3DON�%D\�ZLWK�UHJDUG�WR�WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ��,�ZDV�FRQYLQFHG�WKDW�LW�ZDV�LPSRUWDQW�WR�understand how the physical intrusion of the Indian trawlers into Sri Lankan waters was sustained socially and politically.

7R�PH�� WKH� FRQÁLFW� ERLOHG� GRZQ� WR� D� ÀJKW� RYHU� ÀVKLQJ� VSDFH�� RQH� JURXS�RI �ÀVKHUPHQ� UHJXODUO\�ÀVKLQJ� LQ�ZKDW� LV� WKH� ULJKWIXO� ÀVKLQJ� VSDFH�RI � DQRWKHU�� ,�thus saw ‘space’ as the central analytical theme that required better understanding and analysis, however the physical intrusion was possible only with certain social- relations among the Indian trawlers. This meant that I looked less at the physicality of space and looked more are the social relations that aid in the production of ÀVKLQJ�VSDFH�DPRQJ�WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV��+HQFH��,�GHFLGHG�WR�FRQFHQWUDWH�RQ�WKH�VRFLR�VSDWLDO�UHODWLRQV�RI �WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�LQ�3DON�%D\�

The separation between physical space and socially-produced space is an essential part of this thesis. To do this I turn to the human and political geographers. Soja (1980) attempts to make a distinction between these two, referring to physical space as contextual space.

�´7KLV�FRQWH[WXDO��SK\VLFDOLVW�YLHZ�RI �VSDFH�KDV�GHHSO\�LQÁXHQFHG�DOO�IRUPV�RI �VSDWLDO�analysis, whether philosophical and theoretical or practical and empirical, whether applied to the movement of heavenly bodies or to the history and landscape of human society. It has imbued all things spatial with a lingering sense of primordiality and physical composition, objectivity, and inevitability” (ibid., p. 209).

Socially produced space or as Soja calls it created space “….is a created structure comparable to other social constructions resulting from the transformation of given conditions inherent in life-on-earth, in much the same way that human history represents a social transformation of time and temporality” (ibid. p. 210).

He connects these two understandings of space as “the spatial organization of human society is an evolving product of human action, a form of social construction arising within the physical frame of ubiquitous, contextual space but clearly distinguishable from it.” (ibid. p. 210).

In this research I intend to analyze the socially produced space that aids the

Chapter 1: Introduction

10

Fishing for Space

WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ�RI �WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV��7KLV�SURGXFWLRQ�RI �VSDFH�LV�FOHDUO\�centered around the physical demarcation of the International Maritime Boundary /LQH��,0%/��ZLWK�6UL�/DQND��EXW�WKH�VRFLDO�SURGXFWLRQ�RI �WKH�ÀVKLQJ�VSDFH�LV�WKURXJK�WKH�QXPHURXV�VRFLDO�UHODWLRQV�RI �WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV��(GZDUG�6RMD·V��������ZRUN�is a good starting point in the understanding the dialectics between space and social relations. However it is also equally important to also account for the variations in socio-spatial relations within what appears to be a ‘fairly coherent system’ (Massey, 1992, p. 81). The different uses of Palk Bay is a case in this regard. The different uses RI �3DON�%D\�E\�WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�DQG�WKH�6UL�/DQNDQ�ÀVKHUV�VXJJHVWV�WKDW�WKH�WZR�groups have different socio-spatial relations between them. This in turn is strongly connected to questions of ethnicity, identity and citizenship in the sub-continent (Krishna, 1999). To further unravel the socio-spatial relations, it is important to relate WKHVH�WR�WKH�ÀVKLQJ�SUDFWLFHV�LQ�3DON�%D\��7R�GR�WKLV��,�XVH�WKH�UHODWLRQDO�DSSURDFK�IRU�XQGHUVWDQGLQJ�WLPH�DQG�VSDFH�WUDMHFWRULHV�RI �WKH�,QGLDQ�ÀVKHUV�DV�VXJJHVWHG�E\�Massey (2005). Thus by relationally understanding the socio-spatial relations of the Indian trawlers, I hope to better understand the current impasse in Palk Bay regarding WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ�

7KH�REMHFWLYH�RI �WKLV�WKHVLV�LV�WR�XQGHUVWDQG�KRZ�WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�XVH�WKHLU�VRFLR�VSDWLDO�UHODWLRQV�WR�VXVWDLQ�WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ�LQWR�6UL�/DQNDQ�waters.

Through this framework, this research tries to achieve the following:6FLHQWLÀFDOO\:�� Understand and explain the social, economic and political processes that help

WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�WR�FRQWLQXH�WR�ÀVK�LQ�6UL�/DQNDQ�ZDWHUV��� +RZ�WR�LQFRUSRUDWH�VSDWLDO�VWXGLHV�LQWR�WKH�VWXG\�RI �ÀVKHULHV�PDQDJHPHQW�DQG�

governance.Practically:�� Identify problems and opportunities for effective resource governance in Palk

Bay.�� Help and contribute in terms of research inputs in the current process of trying

WR�ÀQG�DQ�DPLFDEOH�VROXWLRQ�WR�WKH�H[LVWLQJ�FRQÁLFW�

11

1.3 THEORY

This research was inductive in nature, as the choice of theory was based on my REVHUYDWLRQV� LQ� WKH� ÀHOG�� *HRJUDSK\� ZDV� DQ� REYLRXV� FKRLFH� EHFDXVH� LW� ZDV� WKH�discipline that studied space studies and political geography offered the much needed theoretical embeddedness for engaging with the spatialities of social relations (Lefebvre, 1991). While this was clear, what was unclear was how to incorporate this LQWR�ÀVKHULHV�UHVRXUFH�PDQDJHPHQW��+RZ�FDQ�WKH�XQGHUVWDQGLQJ�RI �WKH�VSDWLDOLWLHV�RI �VRFLDO�UHODWLRQV�EHWWHU�LQIRUP�ÀVKHULHV�PDQDJHPHQW�DQG�JRYHUQDQFH�DQG�PRUH�LPSRUWDQWO\�KHOS�XV�EHWWHU�XQGHUVWDQG�WKH�FRQÁLFW�LQ�3DON�%D\"�,�EHOLHYH�WKH�DQVZHU�OLHV� LQ�XQUDYHOOLQJ� WKH�YDULRXV� VRFLDO� UHODWLRQV�RI � WKH� ,QGLDQ� WUDZO�ÀVKHUV� WKDW� DLG�WKHLU�WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ��JLYHQ�WKDW�JHRJUDSK\��HVSHFLDOO\�WKH�SROLWLFDO�JHRJUDSK\��offers a wide array of theories and concepts to engage with social relations and the production of space, I rely on its theoretical base. This thesis thus intertwines both DVSHFWV�RI �SROLWLFDO�JHRJUDSK\�DQG�ÀVKHULHV�PDQDJHPHQW�DQG�JRYHUQDQFH�

1.3.1 Socio-spatial Relations

“(Social) space is a (social) product… the space thus produced also serves as a tool of thought and of action; that in addition to being a means of production it is also a means of control, and hence of domination, of power; yet that, as such, it escapes in part from those who would make use of it.” (Lefebvre, 1991, p. 26).

The ‘social’ turn in geography has now been quite well recognized (Hagerstrand, 1970; Lefebvre, 1974 [1991 translation]; Soja, 1980; Giddens, 1984), and numerous works have appeared theorizing the social production of space (Soja, 1989; Unwin, 2000; Jeyasingham, 2013).

An important part in this theorization of space and society is the understanding of the dialectic between space and social relations (Soja, 1980; Giddens, 1984; Massey, 1985). Massey (2005) argues that space, in addition to being a product of social relations, is also a key constituent in the construction of these social relations. Social relations not only take place in space, but are also determined by space; the two mutually constituted (Massey, 1985). ‘Thinking space relationally’ (Massey, 2004; Jones, 2010) was a key turn in understanding and accounting for multiple uses of space. Space thus was seen as a sphere wherein multiple social relations are created and co- exist. According to Massey (2005), studying space is about studying the

Chapter 1: Introduction

12

Fishing for Space

multiplicity of human relations meeting at a particular time, arguing that time and space should not be separated but should be seen as co-constitutive of each other. Space at any given point is a snapshot of the interactions of different time-space trajectories of different actors at any given place (Massey 2005, p. 200). The time- space trajectory of each actor is the aggregate of the set of individual or collective relations of the actors to various social, economic and political process that they are part of. This means that different actors sharing space and time experience it differently. This re-imagination of space as a meeting point of different time and VSDFH� WUDMHFWRULHV�ÀQGV�UHVRQDQFH� LQ�P\�UHVHDUFK�DQG� LQ�P\�HIIRUW� WR�XQGHUVWDQG�WKH�VRFLR�VSDWLDO�UHODWLRQV�RI �WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV��,�ORRN�DW�WKH�UHODWLRQDO�XVH�RI �ÀVKLQJ�VSDFH�E\�WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�LQ�3DON�%D\��

However studying space and social relations is a challenging task. The most dominant among spatial studies has been the understanding of scale and its relation to social relations (MacKinnon, 2011; Cotula, 2012). Place, territory and networks are other spatialities in which socio-spatial relations have been studied (Cresswell, 2013; Holloway & Hubbard, 2014; Storey, 2012; Castells, 1996; 2013). Studying social relations using different spatialities highlighted the different dimensions in VRFLR�VSDWLDO�UHODWLRQV�DQG�DOVR�UHÁHFWHG�WKH�YDULRXV�¶WXUQV·�LQ�JHRJUDSK\��-HVVRS�HW�al., 2008).

2QH�RI �WKH�NH\�WKLQNHUV�LQ�UHFHQW�WLPHV�LQ�WKH�ÀHOG�RI �XQGHUVWDQGLQJ�VRFLR�spatial relations has been Bob Jessop (2010; 2012; 2013). Jessop et al. (2008) proposed an encompassing theoretical frame work to understand socio-spatial relations. This theory is based on earlier works of the authors on spatiality and the strategic relation approach (Jessop, 2001; 2009; 2007). This theory is of interest because it not only details the various dimensions of socio-spatial relation that could possibly be used in understanding the Palk Bay, but it also stresses the fact that the inter-connectedness between the various spatial dimensions is a very important feature in the holistic understanding of socio-spatial relations (Ref Table 1.2). Using a heuristic framework that involves Territory (T), Scale (S), Place (P) and Network (N), the theoretical framework (TSPN) provides a tool to analyze socio-spatial relations in a polymorphous way. This theoretical framework addresses the shortcomings of using uni-dimensional analyses of space, which very often tends to prioritize one SDUWLFXODU� DVSHFW�RI � VSDWLDOLW\�ZLWKRXW� WDONLQJ� LQWR� FRQVLGHUDWLRQ� WKH� LQÁXHQFH�RI �other spatialities in the production of space. A revised version of this framework had been detailed by Jones and Jessop (2010). The revised version addresses some of the concerns raised regarding methodology and epistemology but keeps the basics

13

of the TSPN framework intact (ibid.). Since I use this framework only for heuristic purposes, I use the earlier version. In the evolution of spatial studies, TSPN can be seen as the next phase to the relational approach (Jones, 2010).

Table 1.2: Jessop et al. (2008) “Beyond one-dimensionalism: conceptual orientations”(p. 395)

6WUXFWXULQJ�principles

Fields of operation

Territory Place 6FDOH 1HWZRUNV

Territory Past, present, and emergent frontiers borders, boundaries

Distinct places in a given territory

Multilevel government

Interstate system, state alliances, multi-area government

Place Core - periphery, borderlands, empires, neomedievalism

Locales, milieux, cities, sites, regions, localities, globalities

Division of labor linked to differently scaled places

Local/urban governance, partnerships

Scale Scalar division of political power (unitary state, federal state, etc)

Scale as area rather than level (local through to global), spatial division of labor (Russian doll)

Vertical ontology based on nested or tangled Hierarchies

Parallel power networks, non-governmental international Regimes

Networks Origin - edge, ripple effects (radiation), stretching andfolding, crossborder region, interstate system

Global city networks, polynucleated cities, intermeshed sites

Flat ontology with multiple, ascalar entry points

Networks of networks, VSDFHV�RI �ÁRZV��rhizome

Chapter 1: Introduction

14

Fishing for Space

Jessop et al.’s framework forms the backbone for this research. In Table 1.2 the sixteen cells show the various inter linkages between different spatial dimensions and the social relations that are associated with it. This rather comprehensive explanation of each of the possible interactions between the different spatial dimensions highlights the complexity that goes along with studying the socio-spatial relations. However while this polymorphous nature is useful in explaining interactions of the different spatial forms and the social relations in them, methodologically it is a challenge to use this theory to understand social relations for a concrete scenario of research such as for the one we use here (Mayer, 2008). While I discuss some of these challenges in detail in the conclusion, I make use of Jessop et al.’s suggestion that the focus of socio-spatial study can be initiated with a single dimension of spatiality as long as it serves as an entry point for a complex inquiry that is sensitive to interactions of other socio-spatial relations. I therefore use each of the four spatialties as four different entry points to analyse what is in essence a single case thereby hoping to bring out the numerous interrelated socio-spatial relations.

It must be noted that in both the works (Jessop et al., 2008; Jones & Jessop, 2010) the intent of theorizing the nature of socio-spatial relations has been different than it is in mine - they were primarily designed to understand the polymorphous nature of states’ strategic relations regarding the functioning of capitalism (ibid.). I however integrate this framework for a heuristic purpose to analyse the socio-spatial UHODWLRQV�RI �WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�ZLWK�UHJDUG�WR�WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ��,�WKHUHE\�DSSURSULDWH� WKLV�IUDPHZRUN�IRU�D�YHU\�VSHFLÀF�FDVH�RI �UHVHDUFK�WKDW� LQYROYHV� WZR�QDWLRQ�VWDWHV�ZLWK�LWV�RZQ�VRFLDO�DQG�SROLWLFDO�KLVWRU\�DQG�UHVRXUFH�FRQÁLFW��

,�DQDO\]H� WKH�3DON�%D\�FRQÁLFW�DQG� WKH�VRFLR�VSDWLDO� UHODWLRQV� WKDW�VXUURXQG�LW�ZLWK�HDFK�RI �WKH�GLIIHUHQW�GLPHQVLRQV�RI �VSDWLDOLW\��,�XVH�WKH�3DON�%D\�FRQÁLFW�DV�the common empirical platform to understand different social relations in these different spatialities. In this thesis, I will dwell in detail on the spatial dimensions of Territory, Scale Place and Network separately, before concluding with a holistic picture of the polymorphous and interconnected nature of these socio-spatial GLPHQVLRQV�LQ�UHODWLRQ�WR�WKH�WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKHULHV�LQ�3DON�%D\��:KLOH�WKH�7631�framework helps to structure the socio-spatial relations, the theoretical contribution WKDW�WKLV�WKHVLV�KRSHV�WR�PDNH�LV�WKH�DSSOLFDWLRQ�RI �WKH�7631�IUDPHZRUN�LQ�ÀVKHU\�resource management and governance.

15

1.3.2 Fisheries Management and Governance

)LVKHULHV�0DQDJHPHQW�LV�DQ�LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\�ÀHOG�DQG�KHQFH�LW�LV�QRW�VXUSULVLQJ�WKDW�WKH�JRDOV�DQG�PHWKRGV� LQ�FRQYHQWLRQDO�ÀVKHULHV�PDQDJHPHQW�YDULHG�DFFRUGLQJ�WR�WKH�GLVFLSOLQHV�WKDW�GRPLQDWHG�LW��0RGHUQ�ÀVKHULHV�SROLFLHV�DQG�PDQDJHPHQW10 over the past century have been dominated by biologists and economists (Urquhart et al., 2014). Biologists are very often interested in understanding and estimating the life in the sea as their primary goal is conserving the environment. Economists largely advise on the optimum economic yield that can be extracted from the sea ZLWK� WKH�JRDO�RI �JHWWLQJ� WKH�PD[LPXP�HFRQRPLF�EHQHÀW� IURP�WKH�ÀVK�UHVRXUFHV��LELG����&RQVLGHULQJ�WKH�FXUUHQW�SRRU�VWDWH�RI �ÀVKHULHV�ZRUOGZLGH��WKHUH�KDV�EHHQ�DQ�increasing awareness to understand, study and incorporate the human component LQ�ÀVKHULHV�PDQDJHPHQW��)XOWRQ�HW�DO����������:LWK�)�$�2���������HVWLPDWLQJ�DERXW�����RI �WKH�FRPPHUFLDO�ÀVK�VWRFNV�LQ�WKH�ZRUOG�HLWKHU�EHLQJ�IXOO\�H[SORLWHG�RU�RYHU�exploited, it is now clear that conventional management methods that are based RQ�VFLHQWLÀF�HVWLPDWHV�GR�QRW�DGHTXDWHO\�DGGUHVV�LVVXHV�UHODWHG�WR�RYHUÀVKLQJ�DQG�resource depletion. On the other side of the spectrum, there is ample evidence WR� SURYH� WKDW�PDQDJHPHQW� RI � ÀVKHULHV� FDQ� EH� VXFFHVVIXO� LI � LW� LQFRUSRUDWHV� DQG�LQFOXGHV� ÀVKLQJ� FRPPXQLWLHV� LQ� WKH� GHFLVLRQ�PDNLQJ� SURFHVV� UHJDUGLQJ� ÀVKHULHV�management (Berkes, 2010 b). In this regard, there is an urgent need to understand DQG�LQFRUSRUDWH�YDULRXV�VRFLHWDO�IDFWRUV�WKDW�LQÁXHQFH�ÀVKHU\�UHVRXUFHV�H[WUDFWLRQ�and use in management practices (Urquhart et al., 2014).

Though there is a broad consensus among scientists from different disciplinary EDFNJURXQGV�WKDW�WKH�FXUUHQW�VWDWH�RI �ZRUOG�ÀVKHU\�LV�LQ�EDG�VKDSH��WKHUH�LV�KRZHYHU�a lack of consensus on the best way to address the issue (Fulton et al., 2011). While increasing resource rent through means such as Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQ) seems to be the best way forward for economists, social scientists are keen to KDYH�ÀVKHU�FRPPXQLWLHV�LQYROYHG�LQ�PDQDJHPHQW�E\�PHDVXUHV�VXFK�DV�FRPPXQLW\�based management (CBM), and biologists are more concerned with conserving and preserving nature as they see it with Ecosystem-based Management measures (EBM) (Dengbol et al., 2006). Among these management approaches, I shall FRQFHQWUDWH�RQ�WKH�GRPLQDQW�WKHRULHV�RI �ÀVKHULHV�PDQDJHPHQW�DQG�JRYHUQDQFH�LQ�WKH�VRFLDO�VFLHQFHV�DQG�WU\�WR�VLWXDWH�WKH�WKHRU\�RQ�VRFLR�VSDWLDO�UHODWLRQ�LQWR�ÀVKHULHV�management and governance.

Chapter 1: Introduction

16

Fishing for Space

Even among the social sciences there are divergent views on governance and PDQDJHPHQW�RI �ÀVKHULHV��7KHUH�KDV�KRZHYHU�EHHQ�D�EURDG�FRQVHQVXV�WKDW�WKHUH�LV�an important difference between management and governance. This in many ways LV�DOVR�D�UHÁHFWLRQ�RI �KRZ�VRFLDO�VFLHQWLVWV�FRQFHLYH�ÀVKHULHV�PDQDJHPHQW�DV�PXFK�PRUH�WKDQ�MXVW�OLQHDU�WHFKQLFDO�À[HV��)LVKHULHV�PDQDJHPHQW�KHUH�UHIHUV�WR�́ D�WHFKQLFDO�issue, something that involves a set of tools that can be applied to solve a concrete task, where the goal is clear and the outcome measurable’ (Jentoft & Chuenpagdee, ������ S�� ������ )LVKHULHV� JRYHUQDQFH�RQ� WKH� RWKHU� KDQG� LV� VHHQ� DV� ´WKH�ZKROH� RI �interactions taken to solve societal problems and to create societal opportunities; including the formulation and application of principles guiding those interactions DQG�FDUH�IRU�LQVWLWXWLRQV�WKDW�HQDEOH�DQG�FRQWURO�WKHPµ��.RRLPDQ��%DYLQFN��������p. 17). Management is thus a part of the larger governance framework. Thus the WKHRU\� RQ� ÀVKHULHV� JRYHUQDQFH� LQFOXGHV� D� ZLGH� UDQJH� RI � DFWRUV� DQG� LQVWLWXWLRQV�and it actively tries to reconcile goals of environmental conservation, social justice, OLYHOLKRRGV��HFRQRPLF�HIÀFLHQF\�DQG�IRRG�VHFXULW\��.RRLPDQ�HW�DO���������%DYLQFN�& Kooiman, 2013).

*RYHUQDQFH�KDV�LWV�RULJLQV�LQ�SROLWLFDO�VFLHQFH�DQG�JRYHUQDQFH�LQ�ÀVKHULHV�ZDV�conceptualized in the 1990s (Kooiman et al., 2005). The interactive governance framework emanated directly from this conceptualization (Kooiman et al., 2005). The thrust in interactive governance was to broaden the policy making community and have a much more interactive decision making process wherein all stakeholders have equal say in the process (Symes, 2014). This was in response to the current state RI �DIIDLUV�LQ�ZRUOG�ÀVKHU\�ZKHUHLQ�GHFLVLRQV�RQ�SROLF\�DQG�PDQDJHPHQW�DUH�ODUJHO\�centered with one group of scientists or institutions, with little or no participation from the community and other stakeholders.

&R�PDQDJHPHQW�� DQRWKHU� VWUHDP� RI � SRSXODU� WKRXJKW� LQ� ÀVKHULHV�� HYROYHG�on a similar set of principles wherein the thrust was on power sharing among all VWDNHKROGHUV�LQYROYHG�LQ�WKH�ÀVKHULHV��&R�PDQDJHPHQW�KRZHYHU�LV�D�GLIIHUHQW�OHYHO�of analysis and is treated as one of the modes of governance (co-governance) as distinguished in interactive governance (Jentoft & Chuenpagdee, 2009; Wilson et al., 2006).

The conceptual framework of interactive governance is made up of three components: elements, modes and orders. Elements included images, instruments and actions, and modes distinguishes three different modes of governance namely hierarchical governance, self-governance and co- governance (Kooiman & Jentoft, ������� 7KHUH� DUH� WKUHH� GLVWLQFW� RUGHUV� RI � JRYHUQDQFH� LGHQWLÀHG� LQ� LQWHUDFWLYH�

17

JRYHUQDQFH� WKHRU\� �.RRLPDQ� HW� DO��� ������� 7KH� ÀUVW� RUGHU� LV� WKH� HYHU\GD\� WDVNV�QHFHVVDU\� WR� EH� GRQH� WR� RSHUDWLRQDOL]H� VXVWDLQDEOH� ÀVKHU\� DQG� LV� UHFRJQL]HG� DV�akin to management, the second order is largely concerned with the institutional and organizational arrangements and the third order is concerned with elaborating values, principles and criteria for policy making. According to interactive governance theory, much attention has been paid to the end stages of decision whereas little or no attention has been paid to the values and principles on which these decisions are made (Symes, 2014). The principles of interactive governance are conceptually based on the various components (elements, modes and orders) of interactive governance and there are nine such derived principles (Kooiman & Jentoft, 2009). These broadly included that of inclusiveness, rationality, social justice and equity and environmental ethics and moral responsibility (Kooiman et al., 2005; Kooiman & Jentoft, 2009).

$QRWKHU� VHW� RI � ÀVKHULHV�PDQDJHPHQW� WKHRU\� WKDW� KDG� GLIIHUHQW� RULJLQV� EXW�later developed into similar ideas was the resilience theory (Nayak et al., 2014). This theory stemmed from that of the ecological resilience theory wherein the resilience of an ecosystem to overcome disturbances and maintain a healthy order was recognized and incorporated when studying and implementing ecosystem-based management measures. Resilience theory in social sciences looks at the ability of the human system to adapt to disturbances especially in regard to changes in WKH�HFRV\VWHPV��$GJHU���������7KH�DSSURDFK�LQFOXGHV�´�«DWWHQWLRQ�WR�GULYHUV�DQG�change processes, treating social-ecological systems as complex adaptive systems characterized by cycles and uncertainty, and social systems and ecosystems as FRXSOHG�DQG�FR�HYROYLQJ��,W� LV�D�JRRG�ÀW�IRU�FRQWHPSRUDU\�UHVRXUFH�PDQDJHPHQW�highlighting property rights, participation, interaction of institutions at multiple OHYHOV��DQG�H[SHULPHQWDWLRQ�DV�LQ�DGDSWLYH�PDQDJHPHQW�DQG�LQWHUDFWLYH�JRYHUQDQFHµ�(Berkes, 2010, p. 13). The resilience of both the socio-ecological systems are in turn linked to the interactions between the various actors in the system and between them.

6RPH�RI �WKHVH�LGHDV�RI �LQWHUDFWLRQV�DQG�FRQQHFWLYLW\�DOVR�ÀQG�UHVRQDQFH�LQ�WKH�interactive governance frameworks that have been described earlier (Chapin et al., 2009). All the social science based theories discussed here, in many ways challenge FRQYHQWLRQDO�JRDOV�LQ�ÀVKHULHV�PDQDJHPHQW�DQG�SROLF\�DQG�FRPSOHPHQW�HDFK�RWKHU�in terms of explaining the complexity and accounting for the ever dynamic social V\VWHPV��,Q�WKLV�WKHVLV��,�ZLOO�DOVR�DGGUHVV�FRPSOH[LW\�DQG�VRFLDO�G\QDPLFV�LQ�ÀVKHULHV�as with most of the theories that is mentioned above, but I do this using a relational

Chapter 1: Introduction

18

Fishing for Space

approach, and this will be the theoretical point of departure in this thesis. As I shall VKRZ�LQ�WKH�FRQFOXVLRQ��VRFLDO�V\VWHPV�DV�GHÀQHG�DQG�XQGHUVWRRG�KHUH�GR�QRW�UHVXOW�RQO\�LQ�WKH�XVH�RI �ÀVKHU\�UHVRXUFHV��6RFLDO�UHODWLRQV�FDQ�EH�IRUJHG�WR�DFKLHYH�RWKHU�political, social and economic ends and resource governance, extraction and use can be some of the many outcomes of these relations. It is therefore very essential that we understand the context in which the various social relations take place and the implication of these relations in natural resource extraction and use. The theoretical contribution of this thesis lies herein, explaining the spatial context of social relations especially with regard to resource extraction and use in Palk Bay.

1.3.3 Different Dimensions of Socio-spatial Relations in the Context of Fisheries Resource Management and Governance

Fishery and space$FFHVV� DQG� XVH� RI � QDWXUDO� UHVRXUFHV� LQFOXGLQJ� ÀVKHULHV� DOZD\V� LQYROYHV� VSDWLDO�HOHPHQWV��6W�0DUWLQ���������7KLV�LV�ERWK�WKH�SK\VLFDO�VSDFH�RI �ÀVKLQJ�DQG�WKH�VRFLDO�VSDFH�WKDW� LV�UHODWHG�WR� LW� �LELG����,Q�WKLV�VHFWLRQ��,�ZLOO�EULHÁ\�H[SODLQ�HDFK�RI � WKH�dimensions of spatiality that this research engages with and the relations they have LQ�WHUPV�RI �ÀVKHULHV�UHVRXUFH�PDQDJHPHQW�DQG�JRYHUQDQFH��7KHUH�KDYH�EHHQ�PDQ\�VSDWLDO�VWXGLHV�LQ�ÀVKHULHV��HYHQ�GLVFRXQWLQJ�WKH�QXPHURXV�VWXGLHV�ZKLFK�FRQFHQWUDWH�on physical geography, a substantial number of studies have also addressed issues around socio-spatial dimensions (Bear & Eden, 2011; Nightingale, 2013). The importance of networks (Bear & Eden, 2008), place (Urquhart & Acott, 2013), scale (White & Costello, 2011), assemblages (Bear, 2012) and territories (Kronen et al., ������KDYH�EHHQ�LQFUHDVLQJO\�UHFRJQL]HG�LQ�ÀVKHULHV�VFLHQFH��(DFK�RI �WKHVH�VWXGLHV�have engaged with various spatialities to understand certain dimensions of socio-VSDWLDO�UHODWLRQV�DQG�ÀVKHULHV��+RZHYHU�D�KROLVWLF�XQGHUVWDQGLQJ�RI �WKH�VRFLR�VSDWLDO�UHODWLRQV�WKDW�DIIHFW�ÀVKHULHV�DV�GHVFULEHG�E\�-HVVRS�HW�DO���������LV�DEVHQW��7KLV�LV�WKH�challenge that this thesis seeks to overcome.

The four spatialities, addressed here in this thesis are Territory, Scale, Place and Networks. Territory, normally associated with nation states and national boundaries, are useful in understanding the socio-spatial relations that play an important part LQ� WUDQVERXQGDU\� ÀVKLQJ�� $� FORVHO\� DVVRFLDWHG� VSDWLDOLW\� WR� WHUULWRU\� LQ� FDVH� RI �WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ�LV�VFDOH��7KH�QDWXUH�RI �WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ�LV�PXOWL�VFDODU�and understanding social relations between scales is essential in understanding resource use. Everyday use of space and its relation to resource use is best brought

19

out when one begins to understand the socio-spatial relations in place-based VWXGLHV�DQG�ÀQDOO\� WKH�GHWDLOHG� OLQNDJHV�EHWZHHQ�GLIIHUHQW�DFWRUV�DQG�WKHLU�UROH� LQ�WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ�IRUPV�WKH�EDVLV�IRU�XQGHUVWDQGLQJ�VRFLDO�DQG�SROLWLFDO�OLQNDJHV�as Networks.

TerritoryTerritory is an important dimension on which spaces are demarcated and the constitution of the inside/outside takes shape. Essentially associated with ‘state spaces’, territory is seen here as an effect of social practices (Painter, 2010). One RI �WKH�HDUOLHVW�ZRUNV�RQ�WHUULWRU\�WKDW�KDV� LQÁXHQFHG�PRGHUQ�JHRJUDSK\�KDV�EHHQ�WKDW� RI � 5REHUW� 6DFN� ������� ZKHUH� KH� GHÀQHV� WHUULWRULDOLW\� ´«DV� WKH� DWWHPSW� E\�DQ� LQGLYLGXDO� RU� JURXS� WR� DIIHFW�� LQÁXHQFH�� RU� FRQWURO� SHRSOH�� SKHQRPHQD�� DQG�relationships, by delimiting and asserting control over a geographic area. This area ZLOO�EH�FDOOHG�WKH�WHUULWRU\µ��LELG���S�������7KRXJK�KLV�ZRUN�KDV�EHHQ�YHU\�LQÁXHQWLDO�in understanding human territoriality and territories, more recent works have re-framed and re-conceptualized territory as a much more nuanced concept as opposed to just a space strategically appropriated by individuals or a community (Painter, 2010). In one such attempt, Murphy (2012) details the work of Claude Raffestin, a Swiss-French geographer little known in the Anglophone world, who highlights differences in understanding territoriality as a relational process as opposed to a strategic one. Raffestin’s approach sees the production of territory as a process and QRW�DV�D�ÀQDO�SURGXFW�WKHUHE\�DFFRXQWLQJ�IRU�WKH�G\QDPLVP�LQ�DGGUHVVLQJ�WHUULWRULDOLW\��Not discounting the importance of both the approaches, Murphy suggests that both approaches could be used to understand different aspects of the process of territoriality.

In this thesis, using these two understandings of territoriality, I engage with territorialisation, a concept developed primarily to understand processes of spatial allocation and access to natural resources. Territorialisation of natural resources has been a key spin-off from the theories of territoriality, the pioneers in this being Peter Vandegeest and Nancy Peluso (1995). Their theory was largely based on the Sackian approach to territoriality (ibid.). The case in Palk Bay gives us a unique opportunity to further nuance our understanding of territorialisation, using the relational approach as propagated by Raffestin (1984). We argue in this chapter that territorialisation of ÀVKHU\�UHVRXUFHV�LQ�3DON�%D\�LV�EHVW�XQGHUVWRRG�ZKHQ�ZH�XVH�ERWK�WKH�VWUDWHJLF�DQG�relational approach in territoriality. The strategic process helps us understand how the

Chapter 1: Introduction

20

Fishing for Space

state was trying to implement state-led territorialisation while the relational process KHOSV�XV�XQGHUVWDQG�KRZ�WKH�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�DUH�DEOH�WR�VWLOO�ÀVK�DFURVV�WKH�ERUGHU�

ScaleA critical dimension in the production of space has been the concept of scale. Scale has been central to political discourse, both lay and academic (Cox, 1998). It has been the central theme of study in Human Geography for many years now (Herod, �������7KH�VFDODU�WXUQ�LQ�JHRJUDSK\�KDV�KDG�VLJQLÀFDQW�LQÁXHQFH�LQ�WKH�ZD\�LW�KDV�been since appropriated in other disciplines including studies on natural resources �6Z\QJHGRXZ��������%HUNHV��������� ,Q� WKH� WKHRULHV�RQ�ÀVKHULHV�PDQDJHPHQW�DQG�governance, scalar analysis has occupied a very important role in understanding PXOWL�VFDODU�OLQNDJHV�DQG�LQWHUDFWLRQV�WKDW�DIIHFW�ÀVKHU\�UHVRXUFH�XVH��&KDUOHV��������:LOVRQ�HW�DO����������6FDOH�KHUH�LV�XQGHUVWRRG�DV�́ UHODWLRQDO��SRZHU�ODGHQ�DQG�FRQWHVWHG�construction that actors strategically engage with, in order to legitimize or challenge H[LVWLQJ�SRZHU�UHODWLRQVµ��/LHWQHU�HW�DO���������S��������7KH�3DON�%D\�FRQÁLFW�JLYHV�XV�D�XVHIXO�SODWIRUP�WR�HQJDJH�ZLWK�WKH�SROLWLFV�RI �VFDOH�DQG�VFDOH�MXPSLQJ��´3ROLWLFV�of scale (or ‘scale politics’) is the umbrella term for politics in which (a particular construction of) ‘scale’ is involved: scale strategies, scale frames, scale rhetoric’s, ¶PXOWL�VFDODU·�SUDFWLFHV�HWF�µ��'XNHV��������S�������¶6FDOH�MXPSLQJ·�RQ�WKH�RWKHU�KDQG�is the process that describes how political claims and power established in one scale is expanded to another (Cox, 1998). From a scalar dimension, the politics of scale and the processes of scale complicate the socio-spatial relations of the ,QGLDQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�HVSHFLDOO\�LQ�WKHLU�UHODWLRQ�WR�WKH�QRUWKHUQ�6UL�/DQNDQ�ÀVKHUPHQ��Here we make use of the distinction between spaces of dependence and spaces of engagement. According to Cox (ibid., p. 2), spaces of dependence are those ‘more or less localized social relations upon which people depend for the realization of HVVHQWLDO�LQWHUHVWV�DQG�IRU�ZKLFK�WKHUH�DUH�QR�VXEVWLWXWHV�HOVHZKHUH��WKH\�GHÀQH�SODFH�VSHFLÀF�FRQGLWLRQV�IRU�RXU�PDWHULDO�ZHOOEHLQJ�DQG�RXU�VHQVH�RI �VLJQLÀFDQFH·��6SDFHV�of engagement, on the other hand, are larger networks of social relationships over wider spatial scales that help secure the ‘conditions for continued existence’ (ibid., p. 2).

Place3ODFH� LV� D� FRPSOH[� LGHD� LQ� JHRJUDSK\� DQG� KDV� EHHQ� GHÀQHG� DQG� XQGHUVWRRG� LQ�PDQ\�ZD\V�GHSHQGLQJ�RQ�WKH�VXE�GLVFLSOLQH�WKDW�GHÀQHV� LW��,Q�KXPDQ�JHRJUDSK\�

21

it has been understood in three different ways: as a point on the Earth’s surface, as a locus of individual and group identity and as a scale of everyday life. These three meanings were framed in a ‘mosaic’ metaphor that implied that places were discrete and singular (Castree, 2003). However debates on globalization and ‘homogenization’ of places have now made scholars look at place both as an interdependent phenomenon i.e. the relation between different places at different scale and something which also has independent characteristics i.e. place having their own characteristics which does not necessarily come with its dependence on other places (ibid.).

Studying place in this thesis involves understanding sites where people live and work, looking at various interactions in their day-to-day activities and seeing its VLJQLÀFDQFH�LQ�WKH�FXUUHQW�FRQÁLFW��7KH�LGHD�RI �ORRNLQJ�DW�SODFH�LQ�WKLV�WKHVLV�ZDV�also inspired by Lefebvre’s (2002) writing on the transformation of everyday life, ZKHUHLQ�KH�DQDO\VHV�WKH�LQÁXHQFH�RI �FDSLWDOLVP�LQ�UHVWUXFWXULQJ�VRFLDO�LQWHUDFWLRQ�with distinct materiality.

Places have distinct materiality to them (Pierce et al., 2011; Leitner et al., �������7KLV�PDWHULDOLW\�VXFK�DV�UHVLGHQFHV��KDUERUV��ODQGLQJ�VLWHV��ÀVKLQJ�VLWHV��URDGV��ERUGHUV�� IHQFHV� HWF�� ´UHJXODWHV� DQG� PHGLDWHV� VRFLDO� UHODWLRQV� DQG� GDLO\� URXWLQHV�ZLWKLQ�D�SODFH��DQG�LV�WKXV�LPEXHG�ZLWK�SRZHUµ��LELG���S��������,Q�WKLV�WKHVLV�,�IRFXV�RQ�¶UHODWLRQDO�SODFHPDNLQJ·��3LHUFH�HW�DO����������EHWZHHQ�WKH�SODFH�RI �ÀVKLQJ�DQG�SODFH�RI �OLYLQJ�LQ�WZR�WUDZO�FHQWUHV�LQ�3DON�%D\��7KH�DFFHVV�DQG�XVH�RI �ÀVK�UHVRXUFHV�as an outcome of the dialectical interaction between of social, political and material process between these places is analyzed.

NetworksNetworks and interconnectivity are essential to understand interdependency and relations among various actors. The theories on human networks have their academic origin in different disciplines (Castells, 1996; Knox et al., 2006). This has led to a certain degree of methodological ambiguity in the nature of enquiry in regard to social relations and networks (Knox et al., 2006). In geography, the QHWZRUN�DSSURDFK�KDV�KDG�LWV�RZQ�RQWRORJLFDO�SUREOHPV�DV�LW�VWUHVVHV�PRUH�RI �D�¶ÁDW�ontology’11 as opposed to a multilayered one (Legg, 2009). While these tensions are VWLOO�YHU\�PXFK�D�SDUW�RI �WKH�ODUJHU�DFDGHPLF�GHEDWHV��,�HQJDJH�ZLWK�RQH�VXFK�ÁDW�ontological theory namely Actor Network theory or ANT (Latour, 2005). In ANT the social relations are studied by analyzing the networks of these relations and

Chapter 1: Introduction

22

Fishing for Space

networks in turn are analyzed by observing the connection between actors. ANT incorporates both human and non-human actors that act in order to maintain and make a network functional (Latour, 1996).

7KH�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�GHULYH�WKHLU�DJHQF\�WR�GHIHQG�WKHLU�LQWUXVLRQ�LQWR�6UL�/DQNDQ�waters by a set of strong political relations. I use Actor Network Theory (ANT) to understand this network and explain their agency. An analysis of networks would help us understand how such networks are essential for sharing knowledge, developing common identities in addition to achieving common goals. Studying QHWZRUNV� DPRQJ� WKH� ÀVKHUV� DOVR� KHOS� XV� XQGHUVWDQG� WKH� VRFLDO� VSDFHV� WKDW� WKH\�create and negotiate for their livelihood.

The spatiality of Territory, Scale, Place and Networks, together comprehensively cover a wide array of social relations. By understanding each of the spatialities, I believe it is possible to sketch a very extensive picture of the dialectics between VSDFH�DQG�VRFLDO�UHODWLRQV�LQ�3DON�%D\�DQG�DOVR�GHWDLO�KRZ�WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�DUH�SODFHG�UHODWLRQDOO\�LQ�WKH�ZKROH�FRQÁLFW�

1.3.4 Research Question

The main research questions of this thesis collating the theory on socio-spatial relations and natural resource management will then be:

+RZ�GR�WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�XVH�WKHLU�VRFLR�VSDWLDO�UHODWLRQV�WR�VXVWDLQ�WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ�LQWR�6UL�/DQNDQ�ZDWHUV"

Sub questions:

1. +RZ�GR�WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�DSSURSULDWH�ÀVKHU\�UHVRXUFHV�E\�WKH�SURFHVV�RI �territorialisation in Palk Bay?

2. How do scale and the ‘politics of scale‘ complicate and affect the process of WUDQVERXQGDU\�GLDORJXH�EHWZHHQ�WKH�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�RI �,QGLD�DQG�WKH�QRUWKHUQ�6UL�Lankan gill netters in Palk Bay?

3. How does relation placemaking between the ‘place on land’ and the ‘place of ÀVKLQJ·� LQ� WZR�NH\� WUDZO�FHQWUHV�RI �3DON�%D\� �5DPHVZDUDP�DQG�0DQGDSDP��DIIHFW�ÀVKHU\�UHVRXUFH�DFFHVV�DQG�XVH"

4. +RZ�GR�WKH�QHWZRUNV�RI �WKH�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�RI �3DON�%D\�KHOS�WKHP�DFKLHYH�WKHLU�SROLWLFDO�DJHQF\�WR�VXVWDLQ�WKH�WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ�LQ�6UL�/DQNDQ�ZDWHUV"

23

1.4 METHODOLOGY

With these theoretical ideas, it was important to identify the group to target my research. One option was the study of the crew in the trawl boats and the other was to study the owners of the boats who may or may not be part of the crew. Given that I was keen to understand the motivation and dynamics behind running VXFK�D�ULVN\�ÀVKLQJ�RSHUDWLRQ��,�RSWHG�WR�FRQFHQWUDWH�RQ�WKH�RZQHUV�RI �WKH�WUDZOHUV��While the owners are seemingly the visible actors actively involved in building and VXVWDLQLQJ�VRFLDO�UHODWLRQV�ZLWK�UHJDUG�WR�WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ��WKH�LPSRUWDQFH�RI �the crew in decision making is also very crucial. However given the limitations I had with time and access, I chose to work with the owners. The owners were also observed to be active in building social and political networks that were important IRU�VXVWDLQLQJ�WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ�

Palk Bay is a wide area and its coastal length is about 250 km. With nine trawl centres,12 it was important to choose and focus on one or two centres. With this in mind, during the second leg of the pilot study I decided to visit and talk to the owners in all the trawl centres in Palk Bay. Of the nine trawl centres, it was clear the LVVXH�RI �WUDQVERXQGDU\�FRQÁLFW�ZDV�YHU\�DFXWH�LQ�5DPHVZDUDP��D�FHQWUH�WKDW�KDG�the largest number of trawlers and the centre that was closest to the International Maritime Boundary Line (IMBL) with Sri Lanka. I thus chose Rameswaram and the nearby trawl centre of Mandapam as the main sites for my empirical research. Mandapam had many similarities to Rameswaram in terms of its social composition, EXW�ZDV�VLJQLÀFDQWO\�GLIIHUHQW�LQ�WKH�ZD\�LQ�ZKLFK�LW�PDQDJHG�LWV�ÀVKHULHV��:KLOH�,�did occasionally visit other trawl centres, these two centres formed the base of my empirical research.

0\�ÀUVW�IRUPDO�H[SRVXUH�WR�VRFLDO�VFLHQFHV�ZDV�WKURXJK�WKH�VXEDOWHUQ13 school RI �WKRXJKW�DQG�WKLV� LQ�PDQ\�ZD\V� LQÁXHQFHG�WKH�HSLVWHPRORJLFDO�SRVLWLRQ�,� WRRN�in this research. The epistemological grounding of this research largely falls under WKH� DPELW� RI � WKH� ´,QWHUSUHWLYLVPµ�� ZKHUHLQ� WKH� HPSKDVLV� LV� RQ� XQGHUVWDQGLQJ�human behavior as opposed to explaining it (Bryman, 2012). As mentioned above this thesis has taken an inductive approach, wherein the empirical observations generate knowledge which in turn informs theory or concepts (ibid.). Theoretically this research falls under the larger umbrella of post structuralism, and ontologically under ‘constructionism’ (Bryman, 2012), giving a relatively large scope engaging ZLWK�WKH�KLJKO\�FRPSOH[�QDWXUH�RI �WKH�ÀVKLQJ�FRQÁLFW�

The research mainly depends on ethnography. Ethnographic studies have

Chapter 1: Introduction

24

Fishing for Space

been used widely in understanding complex socio-ecological situations (Miller & 9DQ�0DDQHQ��������)DELQ\L�HW�DO���������-DFRE�HW�DO����������(WKQRJUDSK\�LV�GHÀQHG�DQG�SUDFWLFHG�GLIIHUHQWO\�LQ�GLIIHUHQW�GLVFLSOLQHV��,�XVH�LW�DV�H[SODLQHG�ERWK�LQ�ÀVKHULHV�research and in geography. In geography, ethnography is an underused methodology (Herbert, 2000). There are however signs of increased usage of ethnography both in human and political geography (Megoran, 2006; Anderson, 2012). Ethnography in general is a qualitative method which studies people in their own environment using participant observation and direct interviewing. Ethnographic accounts are both descriptive and interpretive; descriptive, because they detail crucial aspects of the lives of the people, and interpretive because the ethnographer interprets these crucial aspects solely based on his or her own observations (Fabinyi et al., 2013) in an attempt to get a comprehensive understanding the lives of people being studied. +RZHYHU�LQ�WKH�FDVH�RI �WKH�WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ�RI �WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZOHUV��WKHUH�LV�D� VLJQLÀFDQW�VKLIW� LQ� WKH�VSDWLDO�RUJDQL]DWLRQ�RI �VRFLDO� UHODWLRQV�ZKLFK�VLWXDWH�DQG�relate the people into extra-local and multi-scalar processes (Anderson, 2012). It was therefore important to have equal focus both on the people and on the processes WKDW�LQÁXHQFHG�WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ�ZKLOH�GRLQJ�HWKQRJUDSK\�

Though this research used mixed methods in understanding the socio-spatial UHODWLRQV�RI �WKH�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV��,�ODUJHO\�UHOLHG�RQ�WKH�TXDOLWDWLYH�PHWKRGV��

1.4.1 Qualitative Methods

I had used a variety of qualitative methods during my research period among the trawl owners.

1. Open ended semi-structured interviewsOpen-ended semi-structured interviews were used as part of the preliminary data collection work. In an open-ended semi structured interviews, the interview was guided partially by a set of questions (Appendix 1) but did not restrict the discussion on these questions. Since these were a preliminary set of interviews, it was important that various issues that were affecting various actors were discussed. Each interview ODVWHG�DQ�DYHUDJH�RI �DERXW�IRUW\�ÀYH�PLQXWHV��'XULQJ�WKH�SLORW�VWXGLHV�LQ�WKH�PRQWKV�RI �January and February 2011, a total of 32 interviews were done. These interviews were ZLWK�YDULRXV�DFWRUV�LQFOXGLQJ�WUDZO�RZQHUV��ÀVKHULHV�GHSDUWPHQW�RIÀFLDOV��ÀVK�WUDGHUV�DQG�ÀVKHU�RUJDQL]DWLRQ�OHDGHUV��,�ZDV�DFFRPSDQLHG�E\�P\�FROOHDJXH��$QED]KDJDQ��from the REINCORPFISH project during this stage of the interviewing. These

25

LQWHUYLHZV�DUH�XVHG�WR�ZULWH�WKH�QH[W�FKDSWHU�ZKLFK�GHWDLOV�WKH�FRQWH[W�RI �ÀVKHULHV�VHFWRU� LQ�3DON�%D\��:H�DOVR�FROOHFWHG� UHOLDEOH�FRXQW�RI � WKH�QXPEHU�RI �ÀVKHUV�DQG�RWKHU�DFWRUV�FRQQHFWHG�ZLWK�ÀVKLQJ�LQ�HDFK�RI �WKH�FHQWUHV�GXULQJ�WKLV�SHULRG�

The second leg of the pilot study was done in the months of September and October 2011. During this phase, twenty six open-ended semi-structured were done. These were the preliminary interviews done mainly among the trawl owners of Rameswaram and Mandapam, as these were the centres I had decided to focus in depth. The interviews were mainly aimed to assess the diversity among of the trawl owners in terms of caste and religion. The same set of questions were also used in these interviews.

While I had concentrated on Rameswaram and Mandapam, my colleagues from the REINCORPFISH project were actively involved in conducting interviews in all WKH�WUDZO�FHQWUH�RI �3DON�%D\�WR�EXLOG�D�SURÀOH�RI �WKH�YDULRXV�DFWRUV�LQYROYHG�LQ�WUDZO�ÀVKHULHV��0XFK�RI �WKLV�LQIRUPDWLRQ�LV�XVHG�LQ�WKH�QH[W�FKDSWHU��2XU�WHDP��PRVWO\�0U�Anbazhagan and Mr Lordon, spent a minimum of seven days in each of the trawl FHQWUHV�� ,Q� HDFK�RI � WKH� FHQWUHV� WKH� WHDP�ÀUVW� LQWHUYLHZHG� ¶NQRZOHGJHDEOH·� SHRSOH�who helped provide overall information of the centre. Following this the team then WULHG�WR�WDON�WR�D�YDULHW\�RI �DFWRUV�LQYROYHG�LQ�ÀVKLQJ��7KHVH�GLVFXVVLRQV�RU�LQWHUYLHZV�were guided by the semi-structured questionnaire (Appendix 3) we had prepared. The team also tried its best to triangulate this data as much as possible to get a UHDOLVWLF�SURÀOH�RI �WKH�FHQWUH��,W�PXVW�EH�QRWHG�WKDW�ORQJ�LQ�GHSWK�LQWHUYLHZV�ZHUH�PDQ\�D� WLPHV�ZHOFRPHG�E\� WKH�ÀVKHUV�ZKR�VDLG� WKDW�PRUH�VWUXFWXUHG�DSSURDFKHV�often prevented them from addressing issues that were important to them.

Table 1.3: In depth interviews

Landing centre No of people interviewed Mallipattinam 16 Sethubavachatiram 14 Kottaipattinam 18 Jegathapattinam 19 Soliyakudi 12 Lanjiadi 13 Thondi 5 Mandapam 20Rameswaram 17TOTAL 134

Chapter 1: Introduction

26

Fishing for Space

2. Open ended in-depth interviewsI followed up the preliminary interviews with about 56 (36 respondents) in-depth interviews that normally lasted an average of about 45 minutes to an hour, among the trawl owners. These interviews were done between November 2011 to March 2013. The respondents were chosen based on ‘dockside intercept method‘ wherein ZH�JR�WR� WKH�ÀVKLQJ�KDUERU�DQG�PHHW�DQG�WDON�ZLWK�ÀVKHUV�ZKR�ZHUH�ZLOOLQJ� WR�speak (Gatewood & Mc Cay, 1990). Some of the respondents were interviewed a couple of times over the research period to follow up on many issues that had cropped up during the interviews.

Open interviews did not have any structured questions, rather the interview ZDV�EDVHG�RQ� WKH� WUDQVERXQGDU\� LVVXHV�RI �ÀVKLQJ��:KLOH� ,� WULHG� WR� VWLFN� WR� WKLV�theme, many a times it was unavoidable that some of these interviews would eventually drift to other related themes. It was important that I noted these as well and also keenly followed upon some of these themes, as it was crucial in my UHVHDUFK� WR�XQGHUVWDQG�UHODWHG�IDFWRUV� WKDW�FRQWULEXWH� WR�FURVV�ERUGHU�ÀVKLQJ� LQ�3DON�%D\��6RPH�RI �WKH�UHFXUUHQW�WKHPHV�ZHUH�WKH�UHJLRQDO�SROLWLFV��SULFHV�RI �ÀVK�and the lack of infrastructure. It was important that I kept these interviews as open as possible because some of the most interesting facets about the trawl owners DQG�WKHLU�PRWLYDWLRQV�WR�FURVV�WKH�ERUGHU�IRU�ÀVKLQJ�FDPH�IURP�WKHVH�LQWHUYLHZV��The fact that this method did not fall into conventional question–answer sessions also allowed greater trust-building between some of the respondents and me as they seemed to be eager to speak on topics that they deemed more important than the transboundary issue. This helped to also assess the relative importance of this WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ�DPRQJ�WKH�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�RI �5DPHVZDUDP�DQG�0DQGDSDP�

3. Regular respondentsIn total I had spent about 180 days in Rameswaram and Mandapam. I usually stayed for a period between 10 to 15 days a month in Rameswaram to conduct P\�ÀHOG�UHVHDUFK��6LQFH�WKHUH�ZHUH�EUHDNV�EHWZHHQ�P\�VWD\V��LW�ZDV�LPSRUWDQW�WKDW�I kept in regular touch with some of the respondents. I had chosen seven trawl owners as my regular respondents. I had tried to choose diverse trawl owners so that I could get the different views, so the seven respondents represented, small, medium and large sized boat owners and owners belonging to different castes and religions. I had informed and taken their oral consent that I would like WR�PHHW�WKHP�HDFK�PRQWK�DQG�GLVFXVV�ZLWK�WKHP�WKH�LVVXHV�DURXQG�ÀVKLQJ��2XW�

27

of these seven regular respondents, three were from Mandapam and four were from Rameswaram; they were interviewed on a monthly basis on the updates in UHJDUG�WR�ÀVKLQJ�DFWLYLWLHV��'XULQJ�HDFK�RI �P\�YLVLWV�WR�5DPHVZDUDP�DOO�WKH�VHYHQ�respondents were contacted and interviewed. These interviews were in addition to the other open-ended interviews. When not in Rameswaram, I would also FRQWDFW�WKHP�RYHU�SKRQH�UHJXODUO\�WR�NHHS�DEUHDVW�ZKLFK�WKH�ODWHVW�RQ�ÀVKLQJ�LQ�Rameswaram.

4. Oral histories7KH�KLVWRULFDO�FRQWH[W�RI �WKH�ZKROH�WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ�LV�DQ�LPSRUWDQW�HOHPHQW�of this research. In order to know more on this, I had recorded the oral life history (tracing both their personal and professional life) of three trawl owners. Two from Rameswaram and one from Mandapam were recorded. This was recorded over a series of sittings with the trawl owners. I had to choose owners who were willing to spend considerable amount of time and also who were willing to share their past history with me. So the three owners whose oral history I recorded were chosen on convenience basis.

5. Diary writingApart from the interviews and follow ups with regular respondents (which includes some of the leaders), I had asked three boat owner association leaders to write a diary in regard to their association work for a period of one year. I monitored the progress of this diary writing for a year. Every month I visited the leaders, looked at the entries and very often took photocopies of the entries. This method gives a good idea on the type of formal meetings that had taken place in the boat owner associations. It also gave a good idea of decisions taken. The three leaders were DOVR�FRPSHQVDWHG�ÀQDQFLDOO\�WR�PDNH�WKHVH�GLDU\�HQWULHV��,W�ZDV�LQIRUPHG�WR�WKHP�in advance that the details of their entry would be used for research purposes.

6. Participant observationEvery day during my visits to Rameswaram and Mandapam, I visited the landing centres and observed activities. The observations were divided between the centres. The time of the visit was mainly when the boats were landed so as to get to see WKH�PRVW�QXPEHU�RI �ÀVKHUV��7KLV�ZDV�PDLQO\�IURP���LQ�WKH�PRUQLQJ�XQWLO�DERXW���in the afternoon. It was between these times that the harbor was most busy and

Chapter 1: Introduction

28

Fishing for Space

WKH�RZQHUV�ZHUH�VHHQ�DW�WKH�KDUERU��$Q�LQWHUYLHZ�DW�WKLV�WLPH�ZDV�GLIÀFXOW�DV�DOO�RI �WKHP�ZHUH�EXV\�LQ�XQORDGLQJ�DQG�VHOOLQJ�WKH�ÀVKHV��7KLV�ZDV�KRZHYHU�D�JRRG�WLPH�WR�REVHUYH�WKH�ÀVKHUV� LQ�DFWLRQ�RQ�WKH�VKRUH��0RVW�RI �WKH� LQWHUYLHZV�ZHUH�GRQH�GXULQJ�WKH�GD\V�ZKHQ�WKH�ERDWV�ZHQW�RXW�WR�ÀVK��ZKHQ�WKH�RZQHUV�ZHUH�PRUH�available to speak. Very often they would be on the shore after the boat had set sail at about 8 in the morning till about 11 am.

7. Participation in the festival of KatchatheevuAnother important event I took part was the Katchatheevu St Antony’s festival. The two day function at the Island of Katchatheevu and the run up to it was in LWVHOI � D� YHU\� JRRG� H[SHULHQFH� WR� XQGHUVWDQG� ÀVKHU� UHODWLRQV� ZLWK� WKDW� RI � WKHLU�counterparts in Sri Lanka.

8. Focus group discussionsTwo focus group discussions with the owners, one in each of the centres (Rameswaram and Mandapam) were also organised. The topic of the group GLVFXVVLRQV�FHQWHUHG�RQ�WKH�LPSDFW�RI �WKH�,0%/�RQ�ÀVKLQJ�SUDFWLFH��,�KDG�FKRVHQ�the participants of the focus group based on my interviews. The focus group at Mandapam had 6 trawl owners participating and lasted for about two hours. The focus group in Rameswaram had 7 participants and lasted for little more than an hour. The discussions in the focus group were aimed more to engage with the FROOHFWLYH�H[SHULHQFHV�RI �WKH�RZQHUV�ZLWK�WKH�UHJDUGV�WR�WKH�WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ��These focus group discussions were done during the middle of my research period, August 2012. By this time most of the owners were familiar with me and they were aware of the research I was carrying out so it was easy to start off the discussion straight away without much ado.

9. Media surveyThe REINCORPFISH project collectively maintained a survey of the media FRYHUDJH� RQ� WKH� 3DON� %D\� ÀVKHULHV� IRU� WKH� \HDU� ������ 7KLV� DOVR� LQFOXGHG� QHZV�coverage on this topic from the Sri Lankan side.

29

10. Participation and documentation in the August 2010 meeting between the Indian and Sri Lankan fishermen.,�ZDV�DOVR�DEOH�WR�EH�D�SDUW�RI �WKH�6UL�/DQNDQ�GHOHJDWLRQ�RI �ÀVKHUPHQ�ZKHQ�WKH\�ZHUH�LQ�&KHQQDL��,QGLD�LQ�$XJXVW������WR�KROG�WDONV�ZLWK�WKH�,QGLDQ�ÀVKHUV��7KRXJK�this happened outside the PhD time frame, I could follow up on the subsequent developments of the meeting and its agreement during the course of my PhD WKURXJK����LQ�GHSWK�LQWHUYLHZV�ZLWK�YDULRXV�ÀVKLQJ�OHDGHUV�,Q�,QGLD��,�DOVR�YLVLWHG�northern Sri Lanka in January 2011 where I could discuss some of the issues on WKLV�PHHWLQJ�ZLWK�WKH�6UL�/DQNDQ�ÀVKHUPHQ��7KLV�SDUWLFLSDWLRQ�DQG�GRFXPHQWDWLRQ�is used in Chapter 3 to understand the ‘politics of scale’ and in trying to explain WKH�FRPSOLFDWLRQV�DVVRFLDWHG�ZLWK�WKH�VFDODU�QDWXUH�RI �WKH�FRQÁLFW�

1.4.2 Quantitative Methods

In order to strengthen the existing qualitative methods my research also included collecting some quantitative data.

1. Collection of catch diaries of ownersAll trawler owners maintain diaries. These diaries are an essential part of their business. These diaries give catch and price data for a period of two years 2010 and 2011. The diaries are used by owners to enter the quantity of each of the species RI �ÀVK�FDXJKW��SULFHV�IRU�WKDW�GD\�DQG�DOO�H[SHQVHV�LQFXUUHG�IRU�WKH�WULS��'LDULHV�from three owners were obtained with their permission - one belonging to an owner of a big boat, one belonging to an owner of a small boat and two diaries of a medium size boat. These diaries have exhaustive details of the boats and are very personalized diaries of the owners. It was only after a lot of trust building that I was able to acquire these diaries. Most of the owners who handed me the diaries said that they would not give these diaries even to their close friends as it contains GHWDLOV�RI �DOO�WKHLU�LQFRPH�DQG�WKHLU�H[SHQVHV�UHJDUGLQJ�ÀVKLQJ��:KLOH�WKHVH�GLDULHV�were valuable sources of information, it was an ethical dilemma I faced on how to use this information. Any calculations based on these diaries, though very accurate, could also potentially be harmful to them considering that it gave the much need LQSXWV�WR�FDOFXODWH�WKH�DFWXDO�DPRXQW�RI �ÀVK�FDXJKW�DFURVV�WKH�ERUGHU�DQG�FRXOG�EH�extrapolated. After considerable deliberation on this, I decided that I would rather XVH� WKH�GLDULHV� LQGLFDWRUV�RI � WUHQGV� LQ�ÀVKLQJ� IRU�P\�RZQ�XQGHUVWDQGLQJ� UDWKHU�than use it directly for any sort of calculation or research. I had also discussed this

Chapter 1: Introduction

30

Fishing for Space

with the owners, who consented to use their diaries in such a fashion. I have kept WKH�GLDULHV�FRQÀGHQWLDO�DQG�KDYH�XVHG�WKHP�WR�XQGHUVWDQG�WUHQGV�LQ�ÀVKLQJ�RYHU�WKH�\HDUV�DQG�WR�XQGHUVWDQG�KRZ�WKH�PLFUR�HFRQRP\�RI �ÀVKLQJ�IXQFWLRQV��,�KDYH�avoided using any of this information directly for the thesis.

2. Trawl-owner survey 7RZDUGV� WKH� HQG� RI �P\� ÀHOGZRUN� EHWZHHQ�'HFHPEHU� ����� DQG� )HEUXDU\� ������,� KDG� D� IDLUO\� JRRG� LGHD�RI � WKH� WUDZO�ÀVKLQJ� VFHQDULR�RI �ERWK�5DPHVZDUDP� DQG�Mandapam. However, since my interviews had been rather random without a pattern, it was essential that I was sure that I had covered all of the stake holders. To this end I decided to conduct a small survey of the trawl owners of Mandapam and Rameswaram. It was a survey mainly to check if I had been able to cover the diversity among trawlers of Rameswaram and Mandapam. The survey collected basic information on the trawl owners of Rameswaram and Mandapam (Appendix 2). After collecting the list of boat owners from the various boat owner associations, a survey using random sampling of 10 % (120 samples out of a population of approximately 1200 trawlers) was undertaken both in Mandapam and Rameswaram WR�HVWLPDWH�WKH�QXPEHU�DQG�GHWDLOV�RI �WKH�WUDZOHU�XQLWV�ZKLFK�DFWXDOO\�ZHQW�ÀVKLQJ�on a regular basis. It included twenty-one questions collecting demographic details on owners and crew along with technical information on the boats themselves. After compiling this data it was clear that I was able to cover the diverse range of trawl ÀVKHUV�LQ�ERWK�0DQGDSDP�DQG�5DPHVZDUDP�IRU�P\�UHVHDUFK�

31

Table 1.4: Timeline for the various stages of data collection

Nature of research Month/Year Area of research

Participation and documentation of the meeting between the Indian and Sri Lankan ÀVKHUPHQVisit Northern Sri Lanka- January 2011

August 2010 All centres in Palk Bay

First pilot study and open ended semi structured interviews

January, February 2011

All centres of Palk Bay

Second pilot study and open ended semi structured interviews, parallel in-depth interviews done by the REINCORPFISH team in all centres till December 2011

September, October 2011

Rameswaram and Mandapam

Open in-depth interviews, participant observation, interviews with regular respondents, oral history, diary writing

November 2011 toMarch 2013

Rameswaram and Mandapam

Focus group discussion August 2012 Rameswaram and Mandapam

Participation in Katchateevu festival March 2012 Katchatheevu

6XUYH\�RI �WKH�WUDZO�ÀVKHUV�RI �5DPHVZDUDP�and Mandapam

November 2012 to March 2013

Rameswaram and Mandapam

1.5 LIMITATIONS

7UDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKLQJ�LQ�7DPLO�1DGX�LV�D�YHU\�VHQVLWLYH�WRSLF�DV�LW�LV�DOVR�WLHG�WR�WKH�complex ethnic struggle in Sri Lanka. For the trawlers in Palk Bay, the narrative that WKH\�DUH�WKH�YLFWLPV�RI �WKLV�FRQÁLFW�LV�YHU\�LPSRUWDQW�WR�VXVWDLQ�WKHLU�SUHVHQW�VWDWH�RI �livelihood. As a researcher this was a major limitation for me, and it took a lot of time and effort before I could get past this facade and talk about the actual issues of the ÀVKHUV��7KLV�DOVR�PHDQW�WKDW�,�KDG�WR�EH�FRPSOHWHO\�WUDQVSDUHQW�DERXW�P\�ZRUN�DQG�be very clear on my job as a researcher. While over time I did achieve considerable DPRXQW�RI �VXFFHVV�WR�DFWXDOO\�VSHDN�WR�WKH�ÀVKHUV�DERXW�WKLV��RWKHU�DFWRUV�HVSHFLDOO\�WKRVH�ZKR�ZHUH�DVVRFLDWHG�ZLWK� WKH� VWDWH��QDPHO\� IURP� WKH�ÀVKHULHV�GHSDUWPHQW��

Chapter 1: Introduction

32

Fishing for Space

were hesitant to talk anything about this on record. Most of the conversations with WKH�ÀVKHULHV�GHSDUWPHQW�RIÀFLDOV�KDG�WR�EH�RII �WKH�UHFRUG��7KH�VHFRQG�OLPLWDWLRQ�ZDV�much more personal, though I was a native speaker of Tamil, I am not a Tamilian myself. This sometimes was an advantage, as an ‘outsider’, people were more eager to share their stories which were too sensitive to share among the ‘insiders’. The disadvantage was that my identity was constantly scrutinized, which often became the main topic of discussion.

1.6 ETHICS

The sensitivity of this issue meant that I had to follow a strict ethical protocol in this research. As explained earlier, the aim of the research, the nature of research and the possible outcomes of the research were clearly explained to all the people who had EHHQ�LQWHUYLHZHG��7KH�QDPHV�RI �DOO�WKH�UHVSRQGHQWV�ZHUH�NHSW�FRQÀGHQWLDO�DQG�IRU�those whose names have been mentioned, oral consent was obtained.

One of the main ethical dilemmas was the constant speculation on the spinoff of any output from my research. This is mainly because popular media in both countries were eager to pick on something that had their point of view. As someone ZKR� KDG� HDUQHG� WKH� WUXVW� DQG� FRQÀGHQFH� RI � WKH� WUDZOHU� RZQHUV�� LW� ZDV� HWKLFDOO\�important that my outputs in no way harmed their present state of livelihood. It was in this regard that I decided that I will limit my work to the qualitative side. Any quantitative data or estimates I felt had the potential of being misquoted or misused DV�¶VFLHQWLÀF¶�HYLGHQFH�DJDLQVW�WKH�,QGLDQ�WUDZOHUV��

1.7 READING GUIDE

The next chapter introduces Palk Bay and the context of the research site. In the schema of this thesis, I use the different spatial dimensions of Territory (Chapter 3), Scale (Chapter 4), Place (Chapter 5) and Network (Chapter 6) as different chapters. While I treat each of the spatial dimensions separately, in the conclusion I hope to bring out the interconnectedness between the different spatialities. I am aware that treating the spatialities differently contradicts the principles of the TSPN framework which appeals for a multidimensional approach. I would however argue that by using different spatial dimensions to analyze what in essence is the same empirical case

33

(Palk Bay), the thesis still sticks to the essential principles of multidimensionality of the TSPN network. The thesis as a whole serves to highlight the principles of the TSPN networks though in each of the chapters deal with it separately. As this was an article based PhD, each of the chapters are written in an article format. This means that each chapter should be read as stand-alone articles that address social relations of the Indian trawlers in each of the spatial dimensions with respect to the WUDQVERXQGDU\�ÀVKHU\�LQ�3DON�%D\�

End notes

1. There are multiple versions of Ramayana (Richman, 1991). The narratives in each of them also vary.

2. ‘Fishers’ is an inclusive term that is gender neutral and used to signify anybody LQYROYHG�LQ�WKH�RSHUDWLRQ�RI �ÀVKLQJ��,W�DOVR�LQFOXGHV�D�YDULHW\�RI �SHRSOH�LQYROYHG�LQ�ÀVKLQJ�UDQJLQJ�IURP�ODERUHUV�WR�RZQHUV�

3. )LVKHULHV� OLWHUDWXUH� FODVVLÀHV� WZR� W\SHV� RI � ÀVKHULHV�� EDVHG� RQ� LWV� RULJLQ�� )LVKHU\�which are dependent of FDSWXULQJ�ÀVKHV�IURP�WKH�ZLOG�LV�WHUPHG�DV�FDSWXUH�ÀVKHULHV�DQG�WKH�ÀVKHU\�ZKLFK�DUH�GHSHQGHQW�RQ�FXOWXULQJ�RI �ÀVKHV�LV�FDOOHG�FXOWXUH�ÀVKHULHV�

4. Source: http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/committee/wrkgrp12/agri/ZJUHSBÀVK�SGI.

5. Traditional boats are called by different names in different parts of India. The ones mentioned are only a few.

6. 6RXUFH��KWWS���ZZZ�ÀVKHULHV�WQ�JRY�LQ�PDULQH�PDLQ�KWPO�7. Source:�KWWS���VHDWXUWOHVRÀQGLD�RUJ�"SDJHBLG ���8. Sangam age is the period in the history of ancient southern India, spanning from

circa 3rd century BC to c. 4th century AD.9. See Scholtens et al., 2012 for the details regarding the Sri Lankan side of the project.10. This refers to the formal management measures mostly that have been under taken

E\�WKH�JRYHUQPHQW�RU�D�JRYHUQPHQW�UHODWHG�LQVWLWXWH�WR�UHJXODWH�ÀVKLQJ�11. ,� PDNH� XVH� RI � WKH� GHÀQLWLRQ� RI � 0DUVWRQ� ������� WR� XQGHUVWDQG� ÁDW� RQWRORJ\��

$FFRUGLQJO\� ÁDW� RQWRORJ\� GRHV� DZD\� ZLWK� DQ\� QRWLRQV� RI � VFDOH� DQG� ´UHVLVWV�FRQFHSWXDOL]LQJ� SURFHVVHV� DV� RSHUDWLQJ� DW� VFDOHV� WKDW� KRYHU� DERYH� WKHVH� VLWHV�µ�(p.665)

12. 3DPEDQ�� WKH� WHQWK� WUDZO� FHQWUH�� ZDV� QRW� LQFOXGHG� DV�PRVW� RI � WKH� 3DPEDQ� ÁHHW�JHQHUDOO\�ÀVK�LQ�WKH�*XOI �RI �0DQQDU�

13. My introduction to social sciences was through a one year course in the Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta (CSSSC). I was constantly exposed to the works of the subaltern studies group here, which was then headed by Prof Partha Chaterjee. For more on Subaltern Studies Refer Chakrabarty (2008).

Chapter 1: Introduction

34

Fishing for Space

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