Understanding Public Participation

Understanding Participation S.Rengasamy

Madurai Institute of Social Sciences

Participation

S.Rengasamy - Understanding Participation

2

People are like numerals “1”[one] and the government is like “0”[zero]. The value of zeroes placed after “1” [one] increases but

zeroes without numerical “1” have no value -Vinobaji

Understanding Citizen Participation / Community Participation

People’s Participation / Public Participation Popular Participation / Citizen’s Involvement

Co intelligence / Co creation Stakeholder’s Participation

Whatever is the form of government[monarchy, oligarchy], they want to continue as rulers

by attending citizen‟s needs; but in democracy, citizen administrators relationship are

significant because the support and consent of the governed is a pre-requisite for the

sustenance of a representative government.

An emphasis on participation has links with the interest in democracy in community

organization and in self-help and political incorporation in the community development tradition.

But what is community participation?

Influenced by the political debates of the late 1960s more radical approaches to community

work became influential. 'Instead of

seeking to help deprived communities to

improve their social and environmental

circumstances, the new community work

activists urged that people take direct

political action to demand changes and improvements'. Saul Alinsky was especially influential.

He had a history of mobilizing and organizing grass roots campaigns and he caught many

people's imaginations through his evident commitment and experience, and his ability to

articulate his thoughts in catchy phrases

As an organizer I start from where the world is, as it is, not as I would like it to be The real action is in the enemy's reaction. The enemy properly goaded and guided in his reaction will be your major strength

- Saul Alinsky

Citizen Participation – Concept, Meaning & Definition -Participatory Behavior / Forms of Participation -Types of Participation – Classification Principle –Jules Pretty - Arnstein, Sherry R -Elements of Participation -Reasons in favor of Community Participation -Community Outcomes -Conditions of Citizen Participation -Benefits and Cost of Participation National Leaders – Planners & Administrators – Local Elites & Individual Citizens – -Why participation Fails? -Measuring Participation A. Participation in local community B. Proactivity in a social context C. Feelings of Trust and Safety D. Neighborhood Connections E. Family and Friends Connections F. Tolerance of Diversity G. Value of Life H. Work Connections

Participation


3

In the late 1960s there was a series of

debates around 'participation'. While

'participation' may be a vague term its

advocates often rely on two key

arguments about its value. It makes for

justice in decision-making - people have

some say in, and influence on, collective

decisions. has an educative value.

Through participation people learn.

These interests became formalized in a

number of United Nations reports

including Popular Participation in

Development (1971) and Popular

Participation in Decision Making for

Development (1975).

According to Midgley, the notion of

popular participation and that of

community participation are interlinked.

The former is concerned with broad issues

of social development and the creation of

opportunities for the involvement of

people in the political, economic and

social life of a nation, 'the latter connotes

the direct involvement of ordinary people

in local affairs'.

One United Nations document defined community participation as: The creation of

opportunities to enable all members of a community to actively contribute to and influence the

development process and to share equitably in the fruits of development.

This is a very general definition of participation and raises as many questions as it answers.

Participation is a rich concept that varies with its

application and definition. The way participation is defi ned also depends on the context in which it

occurs. For some, it is a matter of principle; for others, practice; for still others, an end in itself

(World Bank, 1995). Indeed, there is merit in all these interpretations.

Participation is a stereotype word like children use

Lego pieces. Like Lego pieces the words fi t arbitrarily together and support the most fanciful

constructions. They have no content, but do serve a function. As these words are separate from any

context, they are ideal for manipulative purposes.

„Participation‟ belongs to this category of word. Often the term participation is modified with

adjectives, resulting in terms such as community participation, citizen participation, people‟s participation, public participation, and popular participation. The Oxford English Dictionary defines

participation as “to have a share in” or “to take part

in,” thereby emphasizing the rights of individuals and the choices that they make in order to

participate. Arnstein (1969) states that the idea of citizen participation is a little like eating spinach: no

one is against it in principle because it is good for

you. But there has been little analysis of the content of citizen participation, its definition, and its

relationship to social imperatives such as social structure, social interaction, and the social context

where it takes place.


4

People, the most valuable resource Three types of communities the Community Organizer has to deal with

Need or Benefit Community Action Community

Target or response Community

Taken together they are called as citizens. There are times these three looks like three different communities and at times when they are one in the same.

Types of Participants. Change efforts require different type of requirements

People, their commitment

Particular talents and assets Positive personality characters

People and their commitment

Particular talents and assets The right stuff

(Positive personality equirements)

Leaders:(Core group participants) The core group who worry more, plan more, provide more direction for the project than others Workers: (Active participants) These group support organization and it‟s aims,but choose not to take part in all deliberations. Assisters: (Occasionally active participants) these group do things when the mood strikes them or when they are specifically asked. Moderately interested One shot participants: This category includes those who do something only once or are involved for only a short period of time and then dissappear from the scene altogether. Advisers: Advisers give little sustained attention to the project; they can provide particular insight; They are objective. Inactive general supporters: Their assistance come in the form of an endorsement for the project

Numbers: Numbers give credibility and a sense of confidence to participants and outside observers Doers: Those who share the work Opinion leaders: People, especially unsure, frequently, look to select a few to help inform and shape their perception. These people may motivate others who are uncertain about the agency work Potential organization leaders: Leaders aren‟t necessarily those people who are always in the spotlight. There are many different leadership functions. Some of the valuable roles include strategies, coordinators, public speakers, problem solvers and those who help to improve communication Motivators: Over a period of members may get tired, motivators may fan the spark of energy Influence connections: Influential people explain the project goal to others, resist opponents and make people to go along. Specialized Skills or Talents: Any organized effort requires skills in certain areas such as writing, planning, negotiating and running meetings Access to other resources: In addition to people, project may require variety of other resources (meeting rooms, typing etc.) to get the job done Each person has some thing to contribute.

The organization cannot be divorced from the personal characteristics of its more influential members. Following are some of the attributes of people like to have in a team Roll with the punches:

Optimistic people, who stand during testing circumstances Good sense of humor:

Humor energizes, releases tension Tenacity: An anti-toad

to disease of ‘give up it is’ Risk taking ability:

Ability to try some thing new, unconventional ideas. Regard for others: Self-reliance: Ability to

work with out blue prints; who trust their own ability. Desire to learn: Responsibility Decision making ability.

How to get the people’s involvement? 1. Contact People 2. Give people a reason to join 3. Ask them to join 4. Maintain their involvement


5

Changes in policy-making mechanisms and administrative practice

Bureaucracy New public

management

New governance

Peak of popularity 1920s–1970s 1980s–1990s Mid 1990s–today

Overall approach „Bureaucratism‟ „Managerialism‟ „Governance‟

Guiding principle Accountability Efficiency Effectiveness

Governance mode Hierarchy Market Network

Governance mechanism Command & control Competition Co-operation/ collaboration

Compliance/ ownership Control/enforcement Incentives Involvement, negotiation

mechanism and persuasion


6

The purpose of administration is to promote citizen’s participation and thereby satisfaction Meaning of Participation

In theory, mental participation is possible by identifying oneself with groups and institutions

without coming to any overt action. In the context of community organization, participation

will be looked upon as an overt act or set of acts that can be observed and that can be of

relevance in the process of planned development.

In this sense “Participation is a special form of interaction and communication which

implies the sharing of power, responsibilities and benefits”.

In this context attention will be given to participatory behavior that consists of one or all the

following activities:

Joining gatherings of a group or groups.

Involving oneself in discussions of a group

Involving oneself in the organizational aspects of the participation process such as:

Organizing group meetings

Inducing non – members to join

Leading discussions

Campaigning etc.

Making available labour, capital facilities and mental capabilities.

Taking part in the decision process by expressing opinions and /by voting on subjects

such as

Objectives and targets to be achieved by

the groups.

The way to achieve them (Programs)

The allocating of scarce resources

available to the group over the various

programs.

(Priority ranking and acceptance of

programs and projects)

Policies to be followed by higher echelons

of the societal organization.

Election of persons to represent the group

in institutions and activities that can affect

the group.

Assessment of effectiveness, efficiency

and relevance of implemented projects or

programs.

Sharing of benefits resulting from projects

or programs eg. Irrigation projects (Pani

panchayat).

Other Definitions

Participation is considered as a voluntary contribution by the people to one or another of the

public programs supposed to contribute to national development, but the people are not expected

to take part in shaping the program or criticizing its content - ECLA.

Paul’s five objectives to which community participation might contribute are: 1. Sharing project costs: participants are asked to contribute money or labor (and occasionally goods) during the project’s implementation or operational stages. 2. Increasing project efficiency: beneficiary consultation during project planning or benefi ciary involvement in the management of project implementation or operation. 3. Increasing project effectiveness: greater beneficiary involvement to help ensure that the project achieves its objectives and that benefits go to the intended groups. 4. Building beneficiary capacity: either through ensuring that participants are actively involved in project planning and implementation or through formal or informal training & consciousness - raising activities. 5. Increasing empowerment: defined as seeking to increase the control of the underprivileged sectors of society over the resources and decisions affecting their lives and their participation in the benefits produced by the society in which they live.


7

Participation fatigue Participation or consultation „fatigue‟ is caused by lack of action resulting from discussions rather than the discussions themselves. Why should people spend precious time describing their experience and explaining their ideas if nothing actually changes as a result?

Participation means… in its broadest sense, to sensitize people and thus, to increase the

receptivity and ability of the rural people to respond to development programs, as well as to

encourage local initiatives -- Uma Lele.

With regard to rural development … participation

includes people‟s involvement in decision making

process, implementing programs… their sharing in the

benefits of development programs, and their involvement

in efforts to evaluate such programs – FAN. Lisk

Popular participation in development should be broadly understood as the active involvement of

people in the decision making process in so far as it affects them – Upholf and Lohen

Community involvement means that people, who have both the right and the duty to participate

in solving their own problems, have greater responsibilities in assessing their needs, mobilizing

local resources and suggesting new solutions, as well as creating and maintaining local

organizations – W.H.O.

Participation is considered to be an active

process, meaning that the person or group in

question takes initiatives and asserts his / her or

its autonomy to do so. -- Md. A. Rahman.

Participation…means the organized efforts to

increase control over resources and regulative

institutions in given social situations, on the part of groups and movements of those hither to

excluded form such control – Pearse and Stiefel.

“Public participation is any process that involves the

public in problem solving, planning, policy setting, or

decision-making and uses public input to make

decisions.

It is a process through which people who will be

affected by or interested in a decision – those with a

stake in the outcome – get a chance to influence its

content before it is made . . .”

“Citizen participation is a purposeful activity of

citizens taking part in governmental decision-making

outside the electoral process. Through citizen

participation, citizens can advise elected officials and

in turn, elected officials can advise citizens.”

Participation is a way of viewing the world and acting

in it. It is about a commitment to help create the conditions which lead to significant

empowerment of those who at present have little control over the forces that condition their lives.

People Resist Change When . . .

It is not understood

• It is imposed • It is perceived as threatening

• It has risks greater than its potential benefits, or it interferes with other

priorities There is more than one way to

involve citizens . . .

Direct Mail, New Releases, Website, Displays/Exhibits

Public Education Meetings Opinion Surveys, Public Hearings,

Focus Groups, Open House

Citizen Advisory Committee, Visioning

Referenda, Citizen Planning Committee or Commission

People aimed in the participatory process Particular professional association (Dr, Ers, etc.) Pressure groups (Chamber of Commerce, Trade

Union, etc.) Clientele groups (Farmers, etc.) [“Except on the Election Day general public does not exist‟] Each agency must identify the ‘Public’ relevant to it and address them accordingly.


8

Basis is to maintain proper Public Relations

1. Learning about public wishes and aspirations

2. Advising the public about what it should think desire and do in specific spheres of activity.

3. Cultivating satisfactory contact between the officials & the public

4. Keeping the public informed about what an administrative agency is doing.

Why participation fails?

The bulk of the citizens come into contact with civil servants at the bottom; both civil servants

and citizens at this level are inarticulate and uninfluential. The problem of citizen

dissatisfaction as well as civil servants point of view at the lower levels goes unrepresented and

unattended to.

Administrators Citizens Callousness, aloofness, haughtiness, suspicion and resentment of administrators towards the

citizens requests of demands, Administrators

properly respond to the needs & demands of the public, Extraneous influences affecting the day to

day administration, Delays in the formulation of policies, universality of low standard of conduct

in public life

Ignorance, indifference, Reluctance Fear & Recrimination, Sympathetic understanding of the

limitations, low percentage of enlightened

citizens, High degree of parasitic dependence, Low propensity to respect public property &

public authority, Citizens non interest in acquiring knowledge about government

To achieve proper citizen participation, four requisites are:

1. Adequate knowledge about the operation of the administration - inadequate knowledge

facilitate despotic administration- too much knowledge will interfere in administration

autonomy and pride sub–survient behavior.

2. Self-interest: Public must consider that it‟s self interest is being served by the public

bureaucracy.

3. Principle Mindedness: Administration is

done by certain principles. This should be

understood.

4. Prestige: Giving adequate value &

prestige toward public employment as

compared with other types of carriers. Very

low & very high prestige values interfere in

the administrative ability - low prestige brings

about subservient administration, high

prestige value – result in despotic

administration.

Importance of the role of citizens:

Conflict between democratic process and

development requirements.

Democracy means majority rule & wishes

that do not always coincide with national

goals.

It is a slow process to get consensus – to compromise – sometimes it may look like

incompetence – but it is better to have faith in democracy or otherwise requirements of

speedy development may destroy the democracy.

People‟s participation means politicization- this in the form of organised groups helps in

policy making & implementation


9

Nature of People’s Participation.

CD Program – economic &

social regeneration

PR – democratic

decentralization

Promotion of co- operatives

Promotion of NGO‟s

Program of worker‟s education

Creation of a large number of

advisory bodies

Participation depends upon 1. Size of the country

2. Extent of social awareness

Citizen-Administrators

Relationships.

Development process distributes

patronage & favors–enlightened

approach of Co-operation between

politician & administrators is

needed

Non interference in day to day

administration

Complex task of resolving conflicts

Perspectives of development

administrators Enlarging his wage income through

higher wage per work day &

increase the number of work days –---Lower price for food grains The ‘ word ’ participation should not be accepted without appropriate clarification A typology of participation: how people participate in development programmes and projects (from Pretty, 1993)

Typology Components of Each Type

1. Passive Participation

People Participates by being told what is going to happen or has already happened. It is a unilateral announcement by an administration or project management without any listening to people’s responses. The information being shared belongs only to external professionals.

2.Participation in Information Giving

People participate by answering questions posed by extractive researchers using questionnaire surveys or similar approaches. People do not have the opportunity to influence proceedings, as the findings of the research are neither shared nor checked for accuracy.

3. Participation by Consultation

People participate by being consulted, and external agents listen to views. These external agents define both problems and solutions, and may modify these in the light of people’s responses. Such a consultative process does not concede any share in decision making and professionals are under no obligation to take on board people’s views.

4. Participation for Material Incentives

People participate by providing resources, for example labour, in return for food, cash or other material incentives. Much on farm research falls in this category, as farmers provide the fields but are not involved in the experimentation or the process of learning. It is very common to see this called participation, yet people have no stake in prolonging activities when the incentives end.


10

5.Functional Participation

People participate by forming groups to meet predetermined objectives related to the project, which can involve the development or promotion of externally initiated social organization. Such involvement does not tend to be at early stages of project cycles or planning, but rather after major decisions have been made. These institutions tend to be dependent on external initiators and facilitators, but may become self – dependent.

6.Interactive Participation

People participate joint analysis, which leads to action plans and the formation of new local institutions or the strengthening of existing ones. It tends to involve interdisciplinary methodologies that seek multiple perspective and make use of systematic and structured learning processes. These groups take control over local decisions, and so people have a stake in maintaining structures or practices.

7.Self – Mobilization

People participate by taking initiatives independent of external institutions to change systems. Such self – initiated mobilization and collective action may or may not challenge existing inequitable distributions of wealth and power.

Manipulative participation - Pretending– representatives only 1 – 4 – achievements are likely to have no positive lasting effect on people’s lives.


11

Types of Participation

Models of Participation - the wheel Davidson, 1998

Figure 1


12

Classification of Participation

Classification Principle Types

1. Degree of voluntariness

Free Participation Spontaneous

included

Forced Participation

Legislative Force Socio economic condition

Customary participation

2. Way of Involvement

Direct Participation Indirect Participation

3.Involvement in the planned

development process

Complete Participation

Partial Participation

4.Level of organization

Organized Participation

Unorganized Participation

5.Intensity of Participatory Activities

Intensive Participation Extensive Participation

6.Range of activities than can

be influenced

Unlimited Participation

Limited Participation

7.Degree of effectiveness

Effective Participation

Complete

Partial

Ineffective Participation

8.Who is participating?

Members of the local community

Local residents organized on

the basis of territory Local residents organized on

the basis of common interest Local leaders

Government Personnel Outsiders

9.Objective and style of

Participation

Participation in Locality

development. Participation in Social Planning.

Participation in Social Action

Reasons in favor of Community Participation

More will be accomplished

Services can be provided at lower cost

Participation has an intrinsic value for participants

Participants are catalysts for further development efforts

Participation leads to a sense of responsibility for the project

Participation guarantees that a felt need is involved

Participation ensures things are done in right way

Participation ensures use of indigenous knowledge of expertise

Freedom from dependence on professionals

People are conscientized.

(Long-term) Objectives of

participation Stronger legitimacy of the

decisions

Decrease in the alienation of the

public from the process of governing

Rise in the activeness of the

society Decisions with better quality

Generally better awareness about

decisions

There are many different ways to think of and explain

public participation processes. Participation as a part of a political process. There is no one universal public

participation strategy and no one universal public participation handbook could be developed for the

great diversity of cases of public participation in the

world. In countries with different legal frameworks strategies for involvement of stakeholders and public

at large into decision-making processes need to be different.


13

Classification of Participatory Involvement Techniques and Examples

Information

gathering

Information the

public

Listening to

the public

Involving the public

in decisions

- PRA techniques

- surveys

- questionnaires

- site visits

- polls

- stakeholder analysis

- radio and TV

- newspapers

- displays, exhibits

- conferences

- public seminars

- focus groups

- surveys

- site visits

- PRA

techniques

- workshops

- Brainstorming

- Village committees

- Planning cells

- round table

- simulation games

- consensus building


14

Benefits and Cost of Participation

Benefits Costs

A. National Leaders

Participation can eliminate popular resistance to decisions.

Participation can increase the legitimacy of

authority. Participation can increase the speed of

implementation. Via participation benefits of projects can be more

directed to wards the ‟felt needs‟ of the population.

Via participation it is possible to mobilize more

resources. Via participation it is possible to decrease the

level of conflict.

A. National Leaders

Participation can lead to curtailment of power of leaders.

As a result of participation the level of conflict

in a society may increase. As a result participation decisions are forced

less on the basis of technical criteria than on basis of misinformation and prejudices of the

messes Participation can delay (due to internal

conflicts) the decision process concerning

projects and office programs of importance for staying in office for political leaders.

B. Planners and Administrators Participation can facilitate collecting of

information for planning purposes. Participation can result in more information about

present behavioral patterns and likely information.

Participation enables planners to ascertain what

people desire. Participation can give more information on

available resources (such as willingness regarding self–help projects)

Participation can help planners to plan more

ambitiously and at the same more realistically. When plans prepared in a participatory way can

be implemented quickly, planner will obtain merit by their supervisors.

Participation can increase the power position of

planners and administrators versus politicians

B. Planners and administrators As a result of participation information

processing becomes more complex. Participation requires an effort on the part of

planners to present alternatives in such a way that compromise can be made.

As a result of participation decision time is

lengthened. Participation can make it more difficult to

ensure uniform quality and provide central services.

When participation lengthens the planning

process and creates conflict at various levels planners will lose influence by their superiors.

Participation can decrease power position based on experience.

Participation used by planners and

administrators can bring them in conflict with politicians

C. Local administrators and government agencies:

Participation can increase productivity

Participation can improve levels of information for management.

Participation can reduce negative conflicts. Participation can strengthen the legitimacy for

action.

Participation can increase confidence of superiors in local administrators.

C. Local administrators and government agencies:

Participation increases decision time.

Participation can lead to relative loss of personal power and status.

Participation can lead to conflicts in their area of competence.

Participation will result in loss of confidence

over the local administrators by their superiors.

D. Local Elites: Participation can channel existing conflicts at the

local level and therefore stabilize their position.

By obtaining position of leadership in participatory organizations they obtain another

means to safeguard their power basis.

D. Local Elites: Participation will diminish their power.

Participation costs time to attend meetings, to

vote and to inform one self about issues.


15

Participation & Bureaucrats - The Challenges

E. Individual citizens

Participation has educational effects such as A sense of effectiveness to action and solving

problems.

An increased sense of personal efficiency.

Participation can create an urge for self – reliance

that mobilizes social energy that can result in a better way of life in the community of the

individual citizens. Participation can lead to better distribution of

power among citizens. Participation can lead to a better distribution of

effects of development among citizens.

Participation can give the participating citizens more status and power.

E. Individual citizens

Participation costs time to attend meetings, to vote and to inform one self about issues.

Participation requires accepting a greater

responsibility; this is often psychologically costly in case of conflict.

Participation can lead to role conflicts in certain societies and can lead to diminishing of relative

levels of security due to loosening of certain types of relationships (client – patron).


16

Models of Civic Engagement

Basic models of individual civic engagement and be simplified into four general models: 1. Direct engagement: the individual acts alone to influence society and government. 2. Grassroots engagement: individuals act as a part of a loose coalition. 3. Organizational engagement: people work through nonprofit and advocacy organizations with governing boards and centralized leadership.

4. Network-centric engagement: an individual acts as part of a coordinated network. Direct Action With direct action, participants individually engage with the government. Lone actors seek to exert influence based on their own capacity to do so. Grassroots In a grassroots model, individuals work together with others to develop a strategy,

collect necessary resources and implement action in an informal alliance. Such

grassroots advocacy is characterized by a lack of an official top-down organizational structure to govern, manage resources and direct engagement. Pure grassroots advocacy is rare and usually localized. Typical examples include neighborhood zoning fights, school improvement, crime prevention efforts, small restoration or clean up efforts. Volunteers, leaders and supporters emerge to accomplish a specific task, then disband over time. All the resources, experience, knowledge, volunteer lists, leaders,

etc. are unofficial and undocumented. Any lessons learned are likely to be lost to the larger movement. Characteristics of Grassroots Engagement No official leadership* No control* Rapidly expandable* Lots of inefficient duplication of work and learning* Work travels along “chain” Organizational engagement:

Organizational Advocacy Organizational advocacy is characterized by the use of a particular organization that serves as a vehicle for engagement between the individual and government or other

policy-making entity. An organization’s membership and constituency engage via proxy, allowing the organization to advocate on their behalf. Organizations recruit and manage volunteers, leaders and supporters. Organizations develop governance structures to direct efforts and manage resources including staff time, reputation, political clout and

funds. Characteristics of Organizational Engagement Central leadership *Effective tools sharing within organization *Efficient and directed Controlled expansion *Support directed to central node *Communication, resources travels through central hub Network-Centric Advocacy Finally, network-centric advocacy is a hybrid of the individual determination and

participation typical of direct and grassroots models with the efficiencies and strengths of the organizational model. The hybrid is only possible because of the increased density of communications connections among potential participants and the ability to scale those connections to meet demand. The network-centric advocacy focuses on

supporting individual engagement by connected grid resources (that may reside with individuals or organizations). The network-centric approach relies on dense

communication ties to provide the synchronizing effects, prioritization and deployment roles of the organization. The potential for network-centric advocacy increases with each advancement in connectivity technology (web meetings, phone wi-fi, teleconference, voice mail, cell phones, voice over IP, etc.) and drop in transportation cost (flights, low cost shipping, etc.) Characteristics of Network-Centric Engagement Lots of leadership *Self-organizing teams *Rapidly expandable *Efficient

*Communication and resources travel in all directions Five Critical Steps to Support Network-Centric Advocacy 1. Foster Strong Social Ties 2.Support a Common Story 3Create Universal Technology and Communication Tools 4.Create Mechanisms for Legal, HR and Financial Needs 5.Unify Self Enforced Campaign Rules


17

Participatory democracy theoretical traditions Maximum Self-Development: Recognizes political participation as a value that, in itself, is necessary to the growth and development of its citizens Argues that the provision of political conditions which allow for “maximum self-development” and the “opportunity to enlarge their vision and sense of themselves” is compulsory Ordinary citizens are both capable, and obligated, to strive to develop an awareness of their self-interest and to cultivate an empathy with, and a commitment to, the well-being of others. Against an Elitist Orientation – Expanding Democracy: A common critique of participatory theory and an argument of liberal democratic theory, based on numerous surveys and empirical studies, suggest that large portions of the public are poorly informed and politically passive. Participation & Equality Participation and equality as mutually reinforcing Participation translates into power, generating greater equality between the classes, which functions

as a catalyst for subordinate classes to continue the struggle for equality. Community economic development & participatory democracy as mutually reinforcing Both address and aspire to reduce inequalities, i.e. political, social, and economic Both seek to strengthen democracy Both work to empower citizens Both emphasize community and seek to enhance the quality of life Both promote collaboration and partnership building Both value inclusive citizen participation and encourage all citizens to express their preferences Both encourage citizens to develop a an awareness of their self-interest as well as a commitment to the well-being of others


18

Principles of Public Participation Inclusivity

Diversity Building community participation Transparency Flexibility Accessibility Accountability Trust, Commitment and Respect Integration

Principles of Public Participation

Public participation in democratic society is both vital and problematic. Some public

meetings are so dysfunctional that observers end up wishing someone in charge would

bring an end to the chaos and misery. Sometimes extensive public input is sought in

numerous forums, only to have all that input ignored. In order to make participation as

a reality we must be guided by a series of principles:

The three lists given here provide very powerful criteria for evaluating or improving

the status of public participation in any community or project.

The International Association for Public

Participation's Core Values

1. Public participation is based on the belief that

those who are affected by a decision have a right to

be involved in the decision-making process.

2. Public participation includes the promise that the

public's contribution will influence the decision.

3. Public participation promotes sustainable

decisions by recognizing and communicating the

needs and interests of all participants, including decision makers.

4. Public participation seeks out and facilitates the involvement of those potentially

affected by or interested in a decision.

5. Public participation seeks input from participants in designing how they participate.

6. Public participation provides participants with the information they need to

participate in a meaningful way.

7. Public participation communicates to participants how their input affected the

decision.

The Community Development Society's Principles of Good Practice

1. Promote active and representative participation toward enabling all community

members to meaningfully influence the decisions that affect their lives.

2. Engage community members in learning about and understanding community

issues, and the economic, social, environmental, political, psychological, and other

impacts associated with alternative courses of action.

3. Incorporate the diverse interests and cultures of the community in the community

development process; and disengage from support of any effort that is likely to

adversely affect the disadvantaged members of a community.

4. Work actively to enhance the leadership capacity of community members, leaders,

and groups within the community.

5. Be open to using the full range of action strategies to work toward the long term

sustainability and well being of the community.

The Co-Intelligence Institute's Principles to Nurture Wise Democratic Process

and Collective Intelligence in Public Participation

1. Include all relevant perspectives

2. Empower the people's engagement

3. Invoke multiple forms of knowing.

4. Ensure high quality dialogue.

5. Establish ongoing participatory processes.

6. Use positions and proposals as grist.


19

7. Help people feel fully heard.

Participatory Practitioners for Change (PPfC) prescribed the following

principles.

1. People are experts in their lives, others learn from them.

2. Participatory work tries to include everyone relevant to the activity. Participants

try to find those who need to be involved and to include voices and ideas that may

not normally be heard.

3. In good participatory work people take ownership of the process (using their

analysis, their logic and their words) that is developed together with others from

many different backgrounds.

4. Participatory work follows cycles of learning- each step helping to form the next

step.

5. Participatory work requires people to be self-reflective. Practitioners continuously

examine and develop their practice.

6. Participatory work is rigorous and ethical. Participants continuously check their

work and design ways of testing the process and the findings.

7. Participatory work should lead to action.

8. Good participatory work should recognize the role of power in relationships and

seeks to lead to empowerment of those disadvantaged by the present situation.

Examples of the practical application of these principles Principle Examples of applying these principles

Inclusivity Identifying and recognizing existing social networks, structures, organizations, social clubs and institutions and use them as a vehicle for communication

Diversity Ensure that different interest groups including women, the disabled and youth groups are part of governance structures

Building community capacity

Solicit funding from external sources to train ward committees on their role in development Embarking on consumer education on all aspects of local governance including the functions and responsibilities of the municipality and different municipal structures

Transparency Engendering trust in the community by opening council meetings to the public and encouraging attendance

Flexibility Being flexible in terms of time, language and approaches to public meetings

Accessibility Conducting public meetings in the local language

Accountability Ensuring report backs to community forums or ward committees at least on a quarterly basis

Trust,Commitment & Respect

Ensuring that the purpose of the process is explained adequately, as well as how it will develop

Integration Integrating ward planning with the IDP process Including user committees into mainstream services, eg School Governing Bodies

Benefits of Participation (Adapted from Twigg, 2001)

Participatory initiatives are likely to be sustainable as they build on local capacity,

the participants have „ownership‟ of them and they are more likely to be

compatible with long term development plans.

Working closely with local people can help professionals gain a greater insight into

the communities that they serve, enabling them to work more effectively and

produce better results.

They enable people to express their real needs and priorities, allowing problems to

be defined correctly and responsive measures to be designed and implemented


20

The principle resource available for responding to climate change impacts is people

themselves and their local knowledge and expertise.

Participatory work takes a multi-track approach. It can combine information from

many different sources, qualitative and quantitative data and different phases of a

process. It is therefore perfect for dealing with complex issues where there are

diverse opinions.

The process of working and achieving things together can strengthen communities.

It can reinforce local organization, building up confidence, skills, capacity to co-

operate, consciousness, awareness and critical appraisal. In this way it increases

people‟s potential for reducing their vulnerability. It empowers people more

generally by enabling them to tackle other challenges, individually and collectively.

Participation in the planning and implementation of projects by stakeholders

accords with people‟s rights to participate in decisions that affect their lives. It is

therefore an important part of democratization in society and is increasingly

demanded by the public.

Participatory approaches may be more cost effective, in the long term, than

externally driven initiatives, partly because they are more likely to be sustainable

and because the process allows the ideas to be tried and tested and refined before

adoption.

Documents

Understanding Public Participation