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N The Perceived Threat of Affirmative Action Policy

" John L. Condon, Jr., CPT, USA \D U.S. Army Command and General Staff College i*"^ Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 66027

.:

Oh

Final report 6 June 1975

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Distribution limited to U.S. Government agencies only; proprietary ^°™atlon- OtTer requests for this document must be referred ^ US Army Command and General Staff College, ATTN: ATSW-DD, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 66027.

A thesis presented to the faculty of the U.S. Army Command and General Staff

College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 66027

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REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE 1 Rf. POH1 NUMBER

2 GOV1 ACCESSION Nf)

4 TITLF (itnrl Sublllll) The Perceived Threat of Affirmative Action t'oiicy

m-.AI) INSTHUC IIONS BKFOHK ' OMIM.ITIN'. KORM

) RECIPIENT'S C Al AtOO NUMÖE R

S TYPF OF RFPORT 4 PERIOD COVERED

Final report 6 Jun 75

6 PERFORMING ORG. REPOHl NUMBER

7. AUTHORf»)

Condon, John L., Jr., CPT, USA

9. COWTHACT OR GRANT NUMBERr«)

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

Student at the U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 66C27

lt. CON1 ROLLING 1FFICE NAME AND ADDRESS

US Army Command and General Staff College

ATTN: ATSW-DD Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 66027

10. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASK AREA 4 WORK UNIT NUMBERS

"*. MONITORING AGENCY NAME 8 ADDRESSf//<"»»">>■> tram Controlling Oltlcr,)

12. REPORT DATE

6 Jun 75 13. NUMBER OF PAGES

100 15. SECURITY CLASS, (ol Ihlm report)

Unclassified 15« DECLASSIFICATIDN/DOWN GRADING

SCHEDULE

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Distribution limited to U.S. Government agencies only: Proprietary Information Other requests for this document must be referred to U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 66027

17. DISTRIB UTION STATEMENT (ol the .t.lr.ct entered In Plock 20. It dlllerent Iron, Report)

18. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Master of Military Art and Science (MMAS) Thesis prepared at CGSC in partial fulfillment of the Masters Program requirements, U.S. Army Command and General

Staff College, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 66027

19. KEY WORDS fCondnu» on revere, eld» II nece.ty -nd Identity by block number)

20. ABSTRACT rCoofto. «. >.v.rM ,{* H n^«.«y m* IdenJIfj by Moelr nun.1,.0

See reverse.

DD FORI, 1^73 EDITIOH OF » MOV 6S IS OBSOLETE Unclassified SECURITY CLA3SIFICATIOM OF THIS PAGE (Wher, Del» Entered)

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LmcloaaJ I n-ii- SECUMITY CLASSIFICAllON Of THIS PAOEfOTl«» "«'" ^"'"'"'0

This studv was an attempt to measure the degree of perceived affirmative action threat held by white Command and General Staff College officer tudents Simply stated, affirmative actions are positive steps or

^s'es whicVgo a step beyond "de jure" -^-7^«^ ^^1: by' to make allowances for social and economic deprivations experienced by

some soldiers.

Based on the findings of this study, it was ^^^'"^^^f^f^" race relations/equal opportunity education b^'Tff J eêrstanding Further, special emphasis should be given to insuring a better- understanding

of the Army's affirmative action policies.

Unclassified SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGECWien D«(« Er.lered)

■, .■■.■.- ■■ ■ ■:^

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. . ■

ABSTRACT

This study war, an attempt to measure the degree of

perceived affirmative action threat held by white Comms 3

and Jeneral Staff College officer students. Simply stated.

affirmative actions are positive steps or measures which

go a step beyond "de jure" equal opportunity, and attempt

to make allowances for social and economic deprivations

experienced by some soldiers.

The researcher hypothesized that a significant threat

feeling was perceived by these officers. An implicit as-

sumption was made that affirmative action threat was a

phenomenon which was separate and distinct from general

racial feelings.

The hypothesis Was not rejected, as measured by the

research instrument. In fact, a very high degree of affirm-

ative action threat feelings were expressed by the respond-

ents. However, affirmative action threat was found to be

differentially related to general racial feelings at the

.001 confidence level. Thus, affirmative action threat

feelings were not independent from general racial feelings.

Based on the findings of this study, it was

recommended that better race relations/equal opportunity

education be intensified within the Army. Further.

special emphasis should be given to insuring a better

understanding of the Army's affirmative action policies.

ili

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TABLE OF CONTENT:

Pa.";e

THESIG APPROVAL PA;1*

ABSTRACT

Chapter

I.

13

ill

IN'TRODUCTION

Back-round of the Problem

Statement of the Problem

Importance of the Study •

Organization of Remainder of Thesis'...

II. A CAPSULE HISTORY OF RACE RELATIONS

Revolutionary .'Jar to Civil War

Civil War to World War I

World War I to World War II

World War II to Korean War

Korean War to Vietnam

Vietnam to Present

Til. AFFIRMATIVE ACTION POLICIES OF THE ARMY,

Some Basic Definitions

Reverse Descrimination

Summary

IV. f-IETHODOLOSY

Introduc tion

The Sample " '"

Survey Construction

iv

11

13

1 5

18

19

20

23

?h

?A

2 5

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Page Chapter

Jurve.v Administretion z'

PR Survey Questionn j

on Other Consideration; '-'

v. ANALYSE:; AND FINDINGS 3^

Procer.ning the Data ^

Level of Significance 3J

Findings and Conclusions Related to Sub Hypotheses 3J

VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS -^

59 Summary ■ ^

60 Conclusions. .'

.... 61 Recommendation:' •

63 "■SDNOTES

... 69 Bl BLIOGRAPHY

7k APPENDICES

75 Appendix A ' "

,. v 80 Append ix B

A. „ 88 Appendix C

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM

President Truman officially abolished discrimination

in the military in 1948 by executive order. Since that time

the Army has made truly impressive progress toward the goal

of equal opportunity for all. Some authorities believe the

Army to have made more progress than any other institution

in the country toward equal treatment of minorities in

general, and Negroes in particular.1

Twenty-six years is a relatively short time when

compared to the more than 300 years that whites and Blacks

have lived together in America. Since President Truman

issued his momentous directive in 1948 the winds of change

have blown strongly across the Army and the nation.

From 1948 to 1963 slow but steady progress was made

in the removal of statutory barriers to equality. In 1963

Secretary of Defense McNamara issued orders to withhold

federal recognition from any National Guard unit which con-

tinued to exclude Negroes from equal participation. Since

the National Guard units in 10 southern states were the last

vestige of overt segregation left in the military, this

order had the effect of culminating the long effort to

eliminate segregation.

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In the mid-sixties, during the riots which swept

urban areas across the United States, a new solution was put

forth. The U.S. Riot Commission recommended sweeping posi-

tive actions to help Black Americans. This commission pro-

posed that the mere removal of statutory obstacles and

barriers, the elimination of overt discrimination, was not

enough. They pointed to the fact that most of these barriers

had already been eliminated and still de-facto equality was

a distant goal. The commission based its recommendations

on the theory that the average Negro was so far behind the

white majority that he (or she) would have to be helped out

of the abyss by positive, forceful action.

Favorable response came quickly to this recommenda-

tion. Soon institutions of all kinds had established goals

for a desired level of minority participation. However,

all did not view this trend favorably. Some felt that terms

such as goals, positive action, or affirmative action were

in reality merely euphemisms.

A feeling of resentment began to develop among the

white majority. Perceiving affirmative action as special

treatment for Blackss the white middle-class began to feel

2 threatened.

The measurement of affirmative action threat feel-

ings in such a large and poorly defined a population as the

white middle-class is beyond the scope of this study. A

smaller group, and one of more immediate and professional

interest, is professional white Army officers. Although

I

.

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white Army officer;-, come from all classes of American

fociety, a very larre proportion Is drawn from the middle-

clasG. Could not. then, threat feeling aricinp from thi;;

lusue be precent in the Army Officer Corps? This reasoning

led to formulation of the basic problem statement.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The intent of this Investigation wan to determine

the percentage of white officer students in the 1974-75

Command and General Staff College Regular Course who felt

threatened by the "affirmative action" policies of the Army.

Interest in the investigation of this problem was

aroused early in the 197^-75 course by hearing reactionary

comments from other students in the class. Here are some

examples of comments heard.

A West Point major, promoted to that rank ahead of

his contemporaries was heard sayings

... If I could just keep my same intelligence, abilities, social grace, etc and somehow turn black, I would be a two star general in less than ten years. As it is, with the competition, I'll be lucky to make colonel.3

Another officer, frustrated because his younger

brother had been denied entry to the medical school of his

choice said:

My kid brother had damn near straight A's.^ He did well on his aptitude test, but, he didn't get in because there were 100 other guys better qualified. What really burns me up is that the school saves about 15-20 slots for black kids above the 100 competitive admissions. All the black kids have to do is meet the minimum requirements and hell, they'll get 'em a tutor or anything to get 'em through. And you know what?

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The iôd-damned Army is getting to be the same way!

Another officer, of Oriental ancestry, was asked if

he thought the Army practiced reverse discrimination. He

said only half jokingly«

Thev do and I think it is philosophically and morally wrong. And, I hope they stop it f soon as I make general officer because of my slanted eyes I^

These comments, and others, plus a general negative

reaction by many white officers in the class whenever race

relations were discussed initially caused the writer to

hypothesize that the middle managers of the Army might feel

threatened by the Army's affirmative action policies.

Once developed, this hypothesis raised other related

questions;

1. What role do general racial feelings play in

causing officers to feel threatened?

2. Could officers who feel secure with general

racial feelings be threatened by affirmative action in a

racial sense?

3. Are some officers secure in relation to general

racial feelings and/or racial affirmative action threat

feelings, yet, threatened by affirmative action because it

threatens their work ethic sense?

4. What relation, if any, do personal characteris-

tics such as age, etc, have to these feelings?

Therefore, the purpose of this study became to test

the hypothesis and investigate correlations between it and

questions, which might become sub-hypotheses,, such as those

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above.

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

The middle management it: of particular importance

to any organization. It is the leader or manager in the

middle of an organizational heirarchy who implements the

policies of the organization.

United States Army Command and General Staff College

graduates are believed to represent the upper 50 percent of

Army middle management."^7 It would follow that if a

significant feeling of threat or backlash concerning race

relations policy were detected in thir. key group, it would

cast grave doubt upon the Army's ability to successfully

implement an affirmative action program.

ORGANIZATION OF REMAINDER OF THESIS

A capsule history of race relations in the U.S. Army

will be presented in Chapter II. Chapter III contains a

discussion of the meaning of affirmative action as defined

by the Army. Chapter IV contains an explanation of the

methodology used in this study. Chapter V discusses analy-

sis of data and findings. Finally. Chapter VI contains the

summary, conclusions, and recommendations of this study.

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CHAPTER II

A CAPSULE HISTORY OF RACE RELATIONS

Ui THE U.S. ARMY

The officers surveyed in this study stand at the

end of a continuum which began in 1775 with the founding of

the Army. Thus, to better place the racial attitudes of

the 197/+-75 white students in perspective, they must be

viewed in historical context. The following pages briefly

review race relations within the Army since its inception.

REVOLUTIONARY WAR TO CIVIL WAR

It was the general policy in the early days of the

American colonies to exclude Negroes from military service.

However, manpower shortages often outweighed the reluctance

to allow Blacks to bear arms.8 Thus, colonies in both the

North and South yielded to expediency. By the time of The

Revolutionary War the use of Negroes in the colonial militia

had become the established norm.9

During the opening months of the war with England,

Blacks fought alongside whites. Negroes were killed and

wounded during these early battles and several distinguished

themselves. Perhaps most noteworthy of them all was Salem

Poor, a soldier in a Massachusetts company. After Bunker

Hill he was cited by 14 officers for his outstanding per-

formance. 10 6

■

■.^~: * ' " ^

Despite the fine showing of Negroes during the first

month;; of the war, their service was ended in 1775 when

General Washington issued orders forbidding Negro enliat-

11 ment in the newly formed Continental Army.-1

This policy of exclusion was short-lived. By 1777

it was becoming very difficult to raise volunteers and

opposition to Negro enlistment waned. Blacks served again

during the later years of the war.12

After the war was over and independence won, the

Negro was no longer desperately needed in the Army. Congress

passed legislation barring Negroes from service. This act

brought the Army's treatment of Negroes full circle. A

pattern was established which would be repeated again and

again in our country's history. When needed during the

crises of war Negroes would bo utilized. Once the danger

13 was past they would be eliminated from service. -'

When conflict again ensued during the War of 1812,

Negroes were used again in the Army and Navy. They fought

well in both services and received acclaim. However, by

1823 the U.S. Attorney General stated that "it was not the

intention of Congress to incorporate Negroes and people

of color with the Army . . ."lk This sentiment was reflect-

ed in Army Regulations which forbade Negro enlistment up

until the Civil War.15

CIVIL WAR TO WORLD WAR I

With the outbreak of war in l86l, Negroes hurried

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to offer their services. Denied enlistment in the Union

Army they waited and tried to assist the government in any

way open to them. But, Blacks continued to press for the

right to enlist in the Army.16 At a meeting in Boston,

they passed a resolution urging their enlistment:

Our feelings urge us to say to our countrymen that we are ready to stand and defend our government ... to do so with 'our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor,' ... we ask you to modify your laws that we may enlist, . . . that full scope may be given to the patriotic feelings burning in the colored man's breast.

No heed was paid to the blackman's plea to bear arms

until 1862. President Lincoln refused to allow Negro en-

listment during the first year of the war for fear of

causing resentment in the border states. By the second

year of the war, manpower needs again dictated a more real-

istic approach to Negro enlistment, and the recruitment of

Blacks for a limited number of specific separate units was

authorized. The Emancipation Proclamation, 1 January 1863,

was followed five months later by an Army General Order

which allowed general Negro enlistment in the Union Army.

Once enlistment was authorized Blacks again flocked

to the colors. By the war's end at least 186,000 had

served in the Union Army.19 They fought in nearly every

battle for the remainder of the war and more than 38,000

were killed in action. The Negro soldiers fought well and

there is little doubt that they contributed materially to

the restoration of the Union.2

After the Civil War Negro units were drastically

reduced. Within a short time only four units remained from

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a previous high of 150. Tho remaining units were the iMh

and 15th Infantry and the 9th and 10th Cavalry Regiments.

The latter two units were very active in the Indian Wars

from 1870-1896.21

During the Spanish American War Negroes fought with

Teddy Roosevelt's Rough Riders. They fought well and

Roosevelt was prompted to say. "I want no better troops than

these."

The years from 1862 until the end of reconstruction

were years of small but steady progress. The first Black

was enrolled at West Point in 1870 and three graduated by

1889. However, nearly a half century was to pass before the

?2 next Black would graduate.

With the end of reconstruction, feelings of white

backlash swept the country. Much that had been gained by

Blacks was lost quickly. These feelings of white backlash

gained respectability when they were articulated by the

rising Populist movement which was based partially upon

white supremacy. In 1896, the Plessy vs Ferguson decision

of the U.S. Supreme Court gave birth to the "separate but

equal" doctrine which would be the cornerstone of race

relations in America until 195^23

WORLD WAR I TO WORLD WAR II

The downward trend of the Negro in the Army, and

society in general, continued into World War I. Of the

nearly 300.000 Negroes who were mobilized and sent to France

only two divisions were used in a combat role, the remainder

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being utilized as support troops.^^

It is difficult to assess the performance of Negro

combat soldiers in World War I. For the first time many

did poorly. The two Black combat divisions have opposite

records. One unit, the 93rd Division, covered itself with

honors and was the first United States unit to cross the

? ci Rhine. Its men earned hundreds of "Croix de Guerre."'^

The other Black combat division, the 92nd, has a history

filled with reports of cowardice and lack of discipline.

The former unit was mostly made up of volunteers, was led

by French officers, and v/as divided up by regiments with

each regiment being integrated into a French division. The

later unit was composed primarily of draftees,, led by

white American officers, and was kept together as an all

Black unit.

The dissimilar experiences of the 92nd and 93rd

Divisions as to treatment by their officers can be expanded

to show the general difference in the manner in which the

French and white American officers treated the Negroes. The

French associated pleasantly with the colored troops and

welcomed their free movement about France. The American

whites did everything possible to keep the Blacks "in their

place," even so far as to instruct the French as to what

that proper place was. This concern v/as officially articu-

lated in a paper entitled. Secret Information Concerning

Black Troops, which advised the necessity of maintaining

complete separation of Negroes and whites. It further

i

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11

cautioned against having any contact with Ne^roen outside of

official duty.'--'

From the end of World War I until World War II p Q

Black participation in the Army declined to but a token.

The end of the war signalled the beginning of a period of

American history called by Benjamin Quarles. "the flood

tide of racism."29 This is a dark period and although the

beginning of •* Negro renaissance can be seen occurring

in the mid-1920's, it is not until the post World War II

period that the Army again moves toward equality for the

Black man,3°

WORLD WAR II TO KOREAN WAR

With the beginning of World War II. the federal

government took strong measures to end racial discrimination

in war industries. However, nothing effective was done to

end the policy of bias in the armed forces, and segregation

remained as the official policy throughout the war.31

At the beginning of the war there was a "wait and

see" attitude among many Negro leaders and journalists.

They generally took the stand that unless Blacks were to

receive better treatment than they had in our past wars,

wholehearted support for the war should not be expected.

Other blacks, of a more reflective frame of mind, supported

the war. They, and most other Blacks, seemed to sense that

if America lost the war the Negro could be the biggest

loser. Most believed if Blacks were to realize any good

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12

from the war they would have to contribute to winning it,

32 thus proving themselves.v

Although segregation was the official policy through-

out the war a significant amount of de-facto integration

occurred. The most notable example being the integration

of most officer candidate schools, even those located in the

South.53

As they had done in previous wars the Negroes in

combat units acquited themselves well. However, the vast

majority of Negroes were utilized in service forces as

support troops.34 For example, by 19^5 Negroes comprised

2.8 percent of combat forces and k5,6 percent of the

Quartermaster Corps. About 78 percent of the Negroes in

35 the Army were assigned to service jobs.

Despite progress made by Negroes, race relations

continued as a major problem throughout the war. Almost

monthly there was an incident at some service post and there

were major incidents at posts in Virginia. Hawaii, Louisiana

• 36 and Georgia.

In the last months of the war General Eisenhower,

Army Chief of Staff, directed a study be made into the

utilization of the Negro in the post-war Army. This study,

the Gillam Report, made 13 proposals. Although the report

did not recommend discontinuing segregation in the Army, it

struck at least two hopeful notes when it suggested broad-

ening opportunities for Negroes to become officers and

grouping Negro units together with white ones. The report

...... ,..._^...^ ..„.,.„ ... .. , . ........ -...,....' . ....•■:,, • ■ ., ....,.,.., >;'.,.. ■.::..::,.^.^■■:1,..,.C.-..',.'i-iv.

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13

wa.'i a trtep forward and represented a portent of things to

c orne. y

in 19^6 I'renident 'i'ruman appointod a nelect commit-

tee of Nogro and white American!! to inventipate and make

recommendations In the civil rights area. The committee's

report, To Secure These Rights, called for the elimination

of segregation and a positive program to insure the civil

^ • -u.. 3B rights of minorities.

President Truman issued a benchmark executive order

in July 19^8 which declared: "There shall be equal treat-

ment and opportunity for all persons in the Armed Forces

without regard to race, color, religion, or national

origin."^ However, the order did not specifically outlaw

segregation. It did go far toward ending injustice in the

Army.^0 This order also convened a committee to study race

problems in the Armed Forces and its report. Freedom to

Serve, was to become the blueprint of the steps by which

integration would later be achieved.

By 1949 aii the services had adopted policies which

were leading toward complete integration. Progress was

significant. There were few incidents, and by 1950 the

newly integrated Armed Forces would be further molded by the

stress of battle.

KOREAN WAR TO VIETNAM

As had happened in the past, the necessities of war,

this time in Korea, once again acted as a catalyst for change.

__. __^ ^.^. - ■■■— ■>—^—^-^»---■-.•■ -■- - ......■_ j...^..,^.^-^.... .■^. ...,- ..- ,., ■ ^ ...u^...«..^..^;^

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Ik

As recruita flooded into training camps, individual

commanders took the initiative and formed them into platoons

as they arrived without regard for race. y

AG Black units arrived in Korea they were broken up

and their members assigned to white units. Although this

was done because white officers believed that Negroes fought

well when mixed with whites and fought poorly in segregated

units, the action resulted in ending the widespread segre-

gation of Negroes in the Army. Negroes fought well in

Korea as they had in previous wars.

In noncombat areas , integration of the Army pro-

ceeded at a slower pace. Integration increased gradually

in CONUS and in Europe during 1951 and 1952. It began to

accelerate in 1952 and by 195^ only 10,000 Blacks of the

250,000 in the Army remained in segregated units. By

October of 1954 no segregated units remained in the Army.

The same year the Supreme Court handed down its pivotal

45

Brown vs Board of Education of Topeka (Kansas) decision,

46 ending "separate but equal" as a legal tenet.

During the remaining years of the fifties attention

was focused on the school integration issue. Efforts con-

tinued to advance equality in the Army during this period

but were limited primarily to important but low profile

administrative issues such as minority representation in

officer procurement. In 1965 the Army signalled a change

in its approach by ordering that housing lists at its

installations would include only those housing units available

.^■^~ ■■ ■ ■^--^■.--■-^..^-..^-J^.. ^.-. ^.-^-^.■J, ,,-. ,........... ■■■.■.,■.. ....-y,.^^^..^.^..-^

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15

on a nondincriminatory basin. Thin wan not effective,

r,ince white rioldiers simply consulted civilian realtorn who

maintained their own lists. The effort wan important,

however, as it marked the first time the Army attempted to

influence communities adjacent to its posts concerning

racial discrimination. ' Later in 1963 the Department of

Dcfenne officially directed all commanders to oppose

discriminatory practices affecting their men, not only on

. . 48 their installations but also in the local communities.

VIETNAlVi TO PRESENT

In 1965, fighting in Vietnam escalated to the point

of large scale conflict. This resulted in a reversal of

complaints about Army discrimination. In earlier wars the

complaint had always been that Negroes were not allowed to

fight. In Vietnam the complaint became that Negroes were

being forced to bear the brunt of the fighting. While it

was true that Blacks were being killed and wounded out of

proportion to their numbers in the Army, this new phenomenon

could possibly be explainable on two counts. First, a large

percentage of Negroes were poorly educated upon entering

the Army and resultant low test scores relegated them to

the combat units. Secondly, Blac^« had volunteered in large

numbers for elite units such as the Airborne and Rangers.

These units were in the thick of the fighting and took

49 heavy casualties.

Despite the increasing pressures of the war, growth

■ . - ■.

■

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16

of other minority unrest, and widespread civil disturbances,

the Army had virtually no violent racial incidents until

1968. The murder of Martin Luther King in that year

triggered the most widespread rioting in the nation's

history and the Army was affected. Problems and incidents

began to increase despite Army efforts to enlarge equal

opportunity programs. Serious incidents involving racial

violence were recorded at eleven stateside Army posts during

1969.50

The Department of Defense and the Army sent inves-

tigators on factfinding trips to installations throughout

the world in 1969. They reported in September of that year

that the increase in racial tensions was primarily due to a

failure to keep open effective communications between the

races. Their report recommended that efforts be made at

all levels to increase understanding.51 In November I969.

a race relations program of instruction was developed to be

given to all junior officers, warrant officers, and NGOs.

Other courses were written for inclusion in basic training

and seminars on race relations were instituted at all major

Army installations.

Efforts were made in 1970 to increase black enroll-

ment in both West Point and ROTC. The first Army-wide race

relations conference was held in November 1970. It was

attended by representatives of all major commands as well

52 as personnel from other services.

In 1971 a giant step was taken in the fight to

ihi ..^g.,.^».-.-^.i-^....,J^......,,^, ■^■■^"^^■■^^liiMiiifiMtfeiitf — ■- — — -■ - — ■■^.^-^..^

!'w^;T-™*'"*j|||p(l^ ■ ^'~T?*!*w™rmm!^¥m*m^mvmi&'m ' - ■ ■ : '.v:'.

1111 1 1 fmmmf"^ "î

..,«*« w i "•"

H.suro nondincriminatory hcminr; practices adjacent to Army

•nvtallationn. Commanders were authorized to impose restric-

tive sanctions against owners or managers of housing who

were found to be discriminating on the basis of race. Other

important changes were new safeguards in the Uniform Code

of Military Justice and in the requiring of minority

participation en all promotion boards.53 Finally, in May of

1971 all major commands were required to appoint an Equal

Opportunity Officer to advise commanders.

Continued progress has been made from 1971 to the

present. Most, if not all. of the overt discriminatory

practices and barriers have been removed. The primary

thrust of equal opportunity now seems to be in the area of^

affirmative action, going a step beyond nondiscrimination.

.^^...„w.. .■.- - ...-v ..: . jai ^ , - _..._ i âaJMimM

„TW, "«■.■-, -"T—,- -- ■"-•",, -.■ " ■' " - '-- ^ " ,-,,,- r^ .-T , :■ -«J

V

CHAPTER III

AFFIRMATIVE ACTION POLICIES OF THE ARMY

You do not take a person who, for years, has been hobbled by chairs and liberate him, bring him up to the starting line of a race, and then say 'you are free to compete with all the others' and justly believe that you have been completely fair. Thus, it is not_enough to open the Rates of opportunity. All of our citizens must have the ability to walk through those pates.^

These words, spoken by President Lyndon B. Johnson

at Howard University in 1965, illustrate the necessity of

affirmative action policies. His analogy, compelling as it

is, sounds even more compelling when paraphrased by a younr

Black soldier.

During a race relations seminar at Redstone Arsenal,

Alabama in 1973. a seminar monitor expressed a similar

analogy by indicating that one cannot just walk up to a

group of Blacks and tell-them that all their problems are

over because "all this discrimination jive" has been

eliminated. Now all th^lacks will be allowed an "equal

chance" to race down a football field with the white

soldiers for the "goodies." He added, that about this time

one of the Blacks would likely inaicate that in reality the

Blacks were starting the race on the goal line while the

whites were starting up on the fifty yard line.57

The seminar leader's remarks illustrated well why

some believe affirmative actions are needed to correct past

injustices and cultural deprivations and. thus insure that 18

. : ■ -■ ■: ■ . _: • : .' . ■- .-■ =■ ■ ■ .•■■ : ^ ■ iL^_ mtijn**.,^ ■„ ,.- — . .■..,..., -. ^ .■- —^ - ■ - -^

wqmms ...,...."....«MI 11 " < imuiiimuwwp.wJiiiiw«! IM ».«wini« mini i .»»y.. • iimW|.Ui..ml,.Uiinn,,.jiiIVji|Mi,i„ ,, „,,,

19

white and black :;oldiers be given a chance to run their

competitive race on equal terms.

SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS

When discussing affirmative action many people tend

to use words and terms rather loosely. Thus, it is impera-

tive to know how the Army officially defines these words

and terms if understanding of the Army's affirmative action

program is to be achieved. In discussing affirmative action

the terms quota., goals, and affirmative action itself are

pivotal. They are defined as follows.

auota. A ^finite fixed number a fixed Proportion.^

of a quo?a is the requirement for mandatory attain- ment.58

Goal. An objective or planning target Jhe Army

striyeiTto attain ^^^^^f^rnumerica?^ It fr^S^^^^d^^^ta^n t/at mandatory attain- ment is not required.59

Amr^tiveJVction. An ff^mative Race ^lations/ Equaf^^F^nâction is designed t^^P beyon

^SnUfrôr^ct'eScL^cierin'eSîng systems ^nd noIicK to insure that each individual is given ?ne Sp^rtunit? for personal and profess onalggowth based on his or her potential and capabilities.

The above definitions are rather specific and rigid.

They were, no doubt, designed to be so. However, it is

functional to keep them as a reference as this discussion

progresses.

i^îM,::'- *^JJl_i_.J^^._J_^„J ... ,., ..^J,-. ^ . ^M:.--r,;.^,..:.::^;.- . .. . ...___ ^...^^_,._..^.^J„.^.„._.^^1^^fc^^^1LLj:îLd^tLlL^l^

pippp||j«miiiip«w^^«w^^

20

REVERSE DISCRIMINATION

Affirmative action policies of the Army are design-

ed to help minority groups overcome tlê effects of cultural-

deprivations. It is hoped that the success of these

policies will reduce frustrations among minority group

members by bettering their lot in life, thereby lowering

racial tensions. However, these policies have the potential

of stimulating the "backlash" effect in the white majority.

This could have the effect of increasing rather than lower-

ing racial tension. As racially discriminatory practices

are altered or changed, the charge that "reverse discrimi-

nation" is being practiced may be heard. Thus, it is

imperative that the white majority understands and accepts

the reasons for affirmative action policies and programs.

When people speak of "reverse racism" they usually

are describing practices which they perceive as giving

preference and privilege to minority groups. They pose the

question, "If it is wrong to give preference to majority

members solely on the basis of their color, isn't it equally

wrong to give privilege to minorities on the same basis?"

"How can a wrong be used to correct a wrong?" "Do two

wrongs make a right?" These questions are valid and deserve

62 answering.

The answer is that is is necessary to take special

actions with respect to minority groups in the present if

the Army is to be able to correct discrimination's harmful

effects of the past. These actions must be taken until

.JW;,,I,

,I,A^'..-.i ■ :"';'-'T ■•..■-...- ■___„__ .■:---- .■...■■:.■■ ■■

21

such time as the harmful effects are corrected. If the

scales of justice are imbalanced, adding equal weights to

both sides can never balance them. The scales must be

brought into balance before equal results can be attained

from equal treatment. However, in situations where special

action is judged to be necessary, it must never be seen as

a permanent policy. Rather, it should be viewed as a

temporary corrective measure. Affirmative actions should

not be understood as special preference or privileges. They

are intended only to be forces applied to an imbalanced

situation, designed to balance the situation. The desired

end result of affirmative action is to totally eliminate

race as a basis for allocating benefits or privileges of any

kind. J

It is probably apparent that this rather lengthy

justification of the Army's affirmative action policy avoids

an explanation of the philosophical side of the question

(i.e., "Do two wrongs make a right?" or, "Does the end

justify the means?") and focuses instead on answering why

affirmative action is needed. In studying the problem,

before arriving at affirmative action as the proposed

solution, the Army has straggled with this philosophical

argument.

In an interview. Colonel Loma 0. Allen, Director of

Race Relations and Equal Opportunity Programs for the Army,

indicated that in a very narrow philosophical sense neither

"The end justifies the means," nor "Two wrongs make a right,"

^LA-^W-V' :'■■.:■-■..>-.-.:■■ v.-:----..: ^■■■■■:' miii^mimmmmîm^^li^^l^,- ^44

■"■■■ ■■"v,^;"",,""''''f"'"l">"''""W','"<

22

are valid. He also allowed that while he knew of no specific

cane in point, some few whites may suffer because of affirm-

ative actions. However, he believes that, in a practical

sense, the number of white soldiers who have suffered, or

will suffer, because of affirmative action is so small as to

be insignificant. Comparing the number of Blacks who have

suffered past discrimination, the small number of whites

who may suffer for a limited time in the future to insure

equal opportunity for all, seems a reasonable price to pay.

Colonel Allen stated emphatically that the entire program

is under constant scrutiny to insure that white soldiers are

adversely affected to the minimum degree possible by these

programs.

However, even if it is conceded that affirmative

action is not totally defensible in a strictly philosophical

sense, does that mean that the program constitutes "reverse

racism?" To answer this it is functional to reflect on the

meaning of racism. In addition to the classic inferiority-

superiority attitude, racism is a relationship between two

or more groups of people wherein one group has defined the

rules by which the other group may act. This has always

been the black/white relationship in America. The effect

of this relationship has been economic, psychological,

social, and political subjugation of minorities. For the

charge of "reverse discrimination" to be valid on a large

scale, a complete reversal of the historical relationship

would have to occur and be directly attributed to affirm-

ative action. Such a result is highly unlikely.

i .M**)iam*u*^..^*i,*.., . , ..^.ftiiwMMiAeMiilfc.,.. ■iaii^^«aeaaa»ita&».^. ^....»^ .^.i,. _ jsutm

■■■pppwww*»* '" ^n^^-r™™-^. ™w*m^mw^^

■ ■■

. . ....

23

SUMMARY

Affirmative action is a policy which advocates-

corrective actions in order to balance or offset old

wrongs, discriminations, and deprivations. It became the

policy of the Army because it was felt that no other program

would be effective in helping minorities take full advantage

of their newly-won statutory equality. The goal of

affirmative action is not to reverse the relationship be-

tween the races! it is to eradicate those relationships

entirely. The Army believes that the success of this pro-

gram will move the Army closer to the ideal of freedom and

equality for all. 66

— "--■ ^..^.^.^.^.^

»mmm ■at^.^t^.,.-ôU.-;..^.....l-^.-.^..^ „v..,....»..^^..^.--^.-..

mmmm

PWPMPW»'>»"'"■ '■' iiwiwiiiwiwii«M»i«"»»>.»i«'iw«'Pijiiiiiij.niwu^n.i.iiiiinniiiii.iii .iLwiimniiiump^wjipiiiiiupgiiwiim ........WP.p r-r*—-— —^

CHAPTER IV

METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

This study is original in design and deliberately

limited in scope. It is intended as an initial attempt to

accumulate and present empirical data and not as a complete-

ly definitive work. However, the data collected can provide

a start point for future studies in this important area.

THE SAMPLE

The survey population was the white student officers

of the 1974-75 CGSC class. It was assumed that each of the

2k sections in the class was a stratified sample represen-

tative of the Army officer corps. The college administra-

tion goes to great lengths to create such stratification.

Sections, consisting of about 50 U.S. officers each, are

carefully constructed so as to contain, as nearly as

possible, equal representation of officers from all types

of diverse background and experience. In addition to such

cbvious factors as ethnicity, care it taken to equally

distribute officers by branch of service, military occupa-

• • 67 tional specialty, rank, and source of commission.

It was recognized that even though every attempt

had been made to make each section a true cross-section of

2k

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jppppgp!ppp!lp!!^p!^^

W^'-^!

25

the student body, some differences might exist. Thus,

permission was obtained to administer the survey to an

entire division, consistinf: of five sections and represent-

in" 20 percent of the student body. It was believed that

these two conditions assured a high degree of sample

representativeness of the student body as a whole.

SURVEY CONSTRUCTION

Since much of the initial interest in doing this

study came from overhearing comments, pro and con, about

race relations from fellow students, it seemed appropriate

to draw the bulk of survey questions used from tne same

source. Many statements made by other students were

recorded by the writer during the early months of this

study. It was these statements that were eventually

synthesized into the final survey questions. Thus, in a

very real sense, the students of this class wrote the

survey. It remained only to test these questions drawn

from scattered student sources against a representative

sample to determine what percentages of the student body

agreed or disagreed.

It was decided early to keep the questionnaire

brief and simple to answer. The students who were asked to

respond to this survey have many demands made on their time.

They are also subjected to numerous other surveys and fact

finding activities of both students and the college

administration. With these considerations in mind, only

■ ■■ ' '« ■ ■■ .-..:• .,.>:.„: ■„■I,,

^»■mAiwiaiii^

M'tiwumiiMimi i't^H!ia'.i|i,''.MiJi.:-!t.i^''-i''!i;ii»ji»i«!»« iaiattâalitaiWga^MiilffiBIWl^îi^^ r.<>Bwrf<w^»<l,Jl.l..llll.l.l »'!■■

26

one type of attitude measurement technique was used. A

five-point attitudinal response tc carefully constructed

69 statements was deemed adequate. 7 By using only one tech-

nique, less time was required in explaining how the survey

was to be answered. Therefore, those being sampled could

spend more time actually thinking about what they were

answering than the mechanical process of how the answers

were to be put on paper.

VJitnin those basic guidelines, an initial survey

was drafted in January of this year. This first effort

was shown to faculty advisors who made numerous construc-

tive comments and recommended extensive rewording. A

second effort was completed in early February and it too

underwent faculty scrutiny.70 This time, after incorporating

faculty suggested changes, the survey was pre-tested by

about a dozen students. The students were approached at

random and asked if they would mind reading the survey

carefully in order that any suggestions they might have for

improvements could be incorporated. As a result of the

student comments several additional changes were made.

By mid-February the third rewrite of the survey was

completed. It was now forwarded to the writer's consulting

71 civilian faculty advisor for his comments and suggestions.

By late February these suggestions had been received, dis-

cussed with the resident faculty, and incorporated into a

final survey instrument. It was assumed that these revisions,

based on student opinion and advice from both military and

1.,,:■„.■•-•..■.

^^-^ ..„.^^.^ -■■■ --.-~.-..^- ..- ■.—. -v —> — -- - • ---^^ ^......U.. --.-

■■■PIWIBP"""»^^"™^" .>..iin>.iii.i<.R.amlMMmlpa»i. ■in m'm*nm"«m\ wiiiiu mi MI J. <■ P.... . I... nu....... ..i»!...^™.—•!........--

civilian faculty, assured that a reasonable degree1 of

reliability had been built into the survey during its

construction.

27

SURVEY ADMINISTRATION

The questionnaire was administered to five College

sections in early March. The writer administered the

survey in Section k, his own section. In the other four

sections the test was administered by each respective sec-

tion leader. Because of the brevity of instructions given,

it is unlikely that this difference of proctors made any

significant difference. The oral instructions given were

short and simple, consisting only of the following:

1. A brief explanation of the survey and a request

for the cooperation and assistance of the students.

2. An oral restatement for emphasis of the fact

that anonymity was assured.

3. A reminder to the students to answer all

questions on the survey.

All students were tested in their respective

section classrooms. All of the classrooms are equipped and

arranged identically. Even the furniture is situated the

same. Only minor differences such as the color of rugs or

bulletin board notices deviate from this sameness; therefore,

there was no appreciable difference in environment from one

section to the next. Also, all students took the survey

at 0800 hours in the morning. Thus, all were probably at

■ - ^ - :..i ■,.,.■,.:l,^........... s.ti^v^MtJ.^-

*mv***m$mm. W^mwm ■ ^îu-piipijpiî.. ..(^ i; j: ii.,.^

mmimmmmm. 3W

28

the same level of attentiveness.

Other than the brief introduction comments of each

proctor, the only other instructions were those on paê one

of the survey. (See Appendix A) The survey was administer-

ed from 0800-0815 hours and then collected by each section

leader. The completed surveys were then collected by the

author. The usual procedure for administering surveys at

the college is to place them in each student's box. The

students then complete them at their leisure and return

them through the distribution system. It was decided that

this procedure would be detrimental to the objective of

getting the student's "gut" response. It was also consid-

ered unlikely that all of the students would return the

surveys, because of the delicate nature of race relations,

if they were distributed in this usual way. Thus, special

permission was secured to administer the questionnaire

directly in the classroom.

SURVEY QUESTIONS

The questionnaire was divided into two parts. Part

I contained 20 statements requiring one of five possible

responses ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

Part II contained seven demographic questions. These

questions were used to divide the respondents into subsets

for comparative purposes.

An assessment was made of the meaning of each of

the twenty statements in Part I. Each of the questions was,

judged to fall into one of three sub-scales. Questions 1.

.

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^9

?( 1'ji i^ [7, and 20 were believed to measure general

ra.-inl reeling:. Question; 3. 'i . 0. 7. 8. 10, 12, and 16

were conr,idered indicators of the threat of affirmative

action based on racial attitudes. Questions 6, 9, 11. 1^.

18, and 19 were believed to measure the threat of affirm-

ative action policies based on work ethic or "advancement

through achievement only" attitudes.

It was realized that some racial prejudices probably

underlie all of the first twenty questions. While this may

be true, it was still considered desirable to design the

questions so that some were slanted away from general race

bias and toward affirmative action threat. Admittedly, this

categorization of the questions is somewhat of a value judg-

ment but, one concurred in by the writer's advisory

committee. It was felt to be a necessary step if compari-

sons were to be made.

Some of the questions on the survey overlap by

intention. Other questions are worded in such a way as to

reverse the way in which a strongly threatened person would

respond. This was done to counteract any left handed

tendency that might have developed if all similar responses

had been either strongly agree or strongly disagree.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

To facilitate tabulation of over 200 questionnaire®

a numerical value was given to each response. The table

on the next page shows both the arbitrary Likert-Scale

■.A«a>^

^■iWJ'âjsfr-wsm^n;- ■ -m^^^^""'^T!i^»Jwip^^H^BW«JW5a^^

30

values assißned and the verbal interpretation of a ;';iven

response.

TABLE IV-1

Strongly Agree

Agree

Undecided

Dinagree

Strongly Threatened

Threatened

Neutral

Secure

»trongly Disagree^ Strongly Secure

- 1

- 2

- 3

= k

= 5

In transferring the raw data first from the questionnaires

to tables apd then from the tables to computer memory, data

were given a value according to the predetermined meaning

and not whether the response was literally strongly agree,

etc. ThicJ was because, as mentioned, several questions were

reversed in wording so that a strongly disagree response

might deserve a one value instead of the normal five. Thus,

once the values for each response were entered into the

computer it could manipulate answers to each question

without consideration as to which ones were reversed. This

facilitated design of a program.

Data to be used were placed in a workable format

and entered into computer memory. After this file had been

checked and edited, it became the master file, against which

reference would be made during all operations. (See

Appendix 13} Several minor and one major revision were

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Mii—" ~' ■Kwuücnppsi»'^1- ■•'TT^mffimmmi^'f'mf' ^w™^.77. • —-^ ^r-nr™™«™- .l^p««»

31

necessary before the desired pro-ram war: achieved. The

initial program was designed to identify and count responses

as they accurred. by question, along the strongly agree to

strongly disagree continuum. This program also performed

these functions for individual demographic subgroupings.

Upon examining the data resulting from this first program.

it was realized that further steps were necessary to

facilitate data analysis. Although the first program proved

to be only an interim effort, its output aided in conceptu-

alizing how the data would be further handled.

The problem with the first program data was that it

did not lend itself to analysis in order to answer the

central question, degree of affirmative action threat. The

second program was designed to overcome this deficiency.

This final program performed the necessary functions

and provided results in terms of a Likert-Scale. As

developed by Rensis Likert. the scale is a summated.

ordinal scale that allows the ranking of individuals in

terms of degree of expressed favorable or unfavorable

attitudes. The Likert-Scale is a widely used measurement

72 device in behavioral studies.

Tables were constructed to compare demographic

variables against three sets of contrived variables. Each

of the contrived scale score variables were derived from

summated scores of subsets of individual questions. The

contrived variables were called General Racial Feelings.

Racial Threat, and Work Ethnic Threat. Respectively, these

IPJaBHnpWtfff'"^"-^"'--'1 ■ "" "." . 'TT-*'™.™T?*.F?U*~M~?T*~T'*' .. ..-IT^r. — w..-^. .■-.,-, .■^-.-^, .^ ^.

itiTOriiMi|[[iiCii)i0t'ifr'',i ■' ■■■■^'■■■■'■■-■-^

^.

^"i^îfipnwwr^w^^^ww^-r- ^-T^r^^r^^^mmmmmig ■ : :;; ■■ ■ ■ •• ■.

32

variablen consist of 6, 8, and 5 itemr; each. (See page 28

for specifics)

Distributions of thene contrived variablen were

needed to determine if the shape and degree of variability

was appropriate for further analysis. Cutting point:: for

sub-dividing each of the three contrived variables were made

by evenly dividing their respective range;; into three part;-.

Table 2 shows ranges and cutting points. (High. Medium, or

Low threat - H. M, or L)

TABLE IV-2 Scale of Ranger, and Gutting Points

Range

General Racial Feelings 6-30

Racial Threat

Work Ethnic Threat

8-40

5-25

Hutting Points

H 6-14 M 15-22 L 2 3-30

H 8-19 M 20-30 L 31-^0

H 5-11 M 12-18 L 19-25

Next, the three contrived variables were compared

with six demographic variables to determine whether or not

a differential relationship existed. Finally, the three

contribed variables were compared with each other. A

total of twenty-one comparisons were made. These comparisons

are shown in Table IV- '-.

..MfeaaaflBtaHaflWaiflgiMiB ̂ wBMppwp*!»»»«-

^ , ... .' ,' ■ '■ .. .-.-■■ .-■ ■ -- -.■ - .-::■■,..-■■'.., _.. ..',. >.:..»... .:, .. ,..-.-.... '.,..- . :-. - ^ i^ _ _ A

Ninnw." ■Ml ^^S^m ^ra^n^^rTT^m^^^^^CTi™^»^ ■'«"SWÜSWf!

33

?ABLE IV-3 Relationships Tested

3- 4. '3. 6.

0. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 1^. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Ar.e Af-e

VFi General Racial Feelings (GRF) vs Racial Affirmative Action Threat (T-l)

Age vs Work Ethic Affirmative Action Threat (T- Geographic Origin vs GRF Geographic Origin vs T-l Geographic Origin vs T-2 Commission Source vs GRF Commission Source vs T-l Commission Source vs T-2 Civilian Education vs GRF Civilian Education vs T-l Civilian Education vs T-2 Military Rank vs GRF Military Rank vs T-l Military Rank vs T-2 Enlisted Service vs GRF Enlisted Service vs T-l Enlisted Service vs T-2 GRF vs T-l GRF vs T-2 T-l vs T-2 Total Response to GRF, Ti, and T2

■2)

The nature of the original data and the contrived

variables is such that chi square can be used as a measure

of independence and it was selected as the writer's test

method. In each of the twenty-one applications of chi

square, the null hypothesis was that the variables being

compared were independent of each other and that there was

73 no differential relationship.

J-Lî ■ ■ V . ■ ^ ^ ^'^ ■ ,_. J '. ■ . . __._^l.^_- •.•,••„,: .■..;..... ^- >....i ..-^.1...y ......l-V...!, . ^jî^. iitüiüi

wmmm m^jpmpmpippippnpimnnp. •■I"..«'"!'"—«MW-IV-JI. -■»««■IUI. • iinianiww.-'<*.>»<«•"<''>"<".<■'••■■ '■<'. ....,™.......^,™»...,~.,,,^..-™~—^"——.-

s..' ■■',

CHAPTER V

ANALYSES AND FINDINGS

The research questiormarie war; administered to all

U. S. officers present in Division A on March 5. 1975. Allied

officers were not asked to respond. Black U.S. officers

completed the questionnaire but their answers were not

included in the study's results as their perceptions were

not the issue at hand.

Over 200 officers were surveyed, however the number

of surveys actually included in the study was 172. Thirty-

one surveys were discarded either for not being from the

pertinent sample or for other administrative reasons, such

as incomplete response.

PROCESSING THE DATA

Questionnaires were scored and tabulated by hand.

Each response was assigned a numerical value with the

responses indicative of the highest decree of perceived

threat feelings receiving the lowest numerical value.

Once tabulation was complete the data was analyzed

by computer. The computer program contained the following

parameters:

1. Questions were subdivided into throe contrived variables: Genoral Racial Feelings (GRF)j Racial Affirmative Action Threat (T-]); Work Ethic/ Affirmative Action Threat (T-2). (See page 31)

34

■,:,:

^^W^fWW^^ '■ ■ '■ - —'WTWBB^wrr-r.' ■■-- - ■ - :..,.„....,.

■■■■'■■■■; ■ ■ ■ '

35

2 Gutting points divided oums of responses^for each of the contrived variables by high, medium, or low threat. (See pa,:e 32)

3. Contrived variables were printed, for comparison, in 21 different matrices. (See page 33)

Orce computer manipulation was accomplished, the 21

matrices were each tested for differential relationship of

their respective variables, using chi square as the test

statistic of choice. Although a CGSG computer program was

available for computing chi square, the test was applied by

hand as a learning experience for the researcher.

LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE

In each case the null hypothesis (H0) was tested at

a 5% level of significance. This is to say, if chi square

(X2) for any of the 21 compared variables was found to be

.05 or less, the alternate hypothesis (%) would be

accepted. Thus. .0.5 described the degree of confidence of

asserting that a differential relationship did or did not

A 7^ exist between the variables compared.

FINDINGS AM) CONCLUSIONS

RELATED TO SUB HYPOTHESES

In testing the central hypothesis of this study.

it was functional to test 21 related sub hypotheses. Thus,

data, findings, and conclusions for H^Hg! are listed.

Hypothesis 1 (Hn). GRF threat feelings expressed

by white CGSG officer students are related to the ages of

the students.

HPHPh"' -»^^.J!,—.^■--w-..-,rB-«m™W,TOrr

36

Data and Findings. Table V-l shows the Likert-

Scale distribution of officers' responses pertinent to %

and the result:; of chi square application.

TABLE V-l A:-:e vs General Racial Feelings

Hi£k

GRF

Medium Low

Aê 35

35

6?

M.

30

11 N = 172 X2 = .669 df - 2 P > .05. •*• H0 not rejected

Conclusion 1. Age is inconsistently related to GRF,

as measured by this stuüy, and is an invalid indicator of

potential GRF threat. Therefore, Hx is not accepted.

Hypothesis 2 illpj • Tl feelings expressed by v/hite

CGSG officer students are related to the ages of the stu-

dents .

Data and Findings. Table V-2 shows the Likert-Scale

distribution of officers' responses pertinent to H2 and the

results of chi square application.

. J-a..,.i..-,.^.. . ..-—-v. ...-.., ..,.^~..^... ' -i-- ^-..^-J.

wm^gmmmmmmm mm IPHWÜP " """H'-TI"- - -^.„^rrrr

?ABLE V 2 A ';e va T-j

1?

Are

35

HiPih

35 2?

11.

T

iviedium

71

Low

8

N - 172 X2 = .199 df = 2 P > .05, ,'. H0 not rejected

Conclusion 2. Age is inconsistently related to Ti,

as measured by this study, and. is an invalid indicator of

potential Ti. Therefore, H2 is not accepted.

Hypothesis 3. T2 feelings expressed by white CGSC

officer students are related to the ages of the students.



result:; of chi square application.

MHimiriirrprirn ~,*™****^.,. ,.■.. -„,,„,, .... ^.. ;--.^

K-w-^'ro-w™!^- ^ ..-.„...^„^p^-™,-^. , .^^^^^— , ^Klf!m:^sw,WT^,.,„r„,,

TABLE V-3 Age vs T2

38

Age

High

35 33

35

T2

Medium

68

Jl

N - 172 X2 = 1.5^8 df = 2 P >.05. •

Low

k

H0 not rejected

Conclusion 3. Age is inconsistently related to T2.

as measured by thin study, and is an invalid indicator of

potential Tg. Therefore. H3 is not accepted.

Hypothesis 4. GRF threat feelings expressed by

white CGSC officer students are related to the geographic

origins of the students.

O^^^.Flndin^. Table V-^ shows the Likert-Scale

distribution of officers' responses pertinent to H^ and the


■r,\y.^

pp^^^^-^^pT^^^-^^^ra' î^mn^si^^ ■ ■ ■ ■■■■■■■ ■ ■ :. ■■..-„ _.„-„^.L_ _..„_-„, ,.,-_.^-™,™;.,_...;. _. i, HInMwwnfrmM.1 «■■umi _..,,; •" ,'„ •■..,,„,".,\.;.:.::. , .; ^

■

■. ■

39

Geo.

Origin

TABLE V-4 Geofraphlc Origin vn GRF

GRF

Hi^h Medium Low

Northeast >l

Southeast 3

Midwest 6

Southwest 1

West Coast 2

Mobile 1

32

20

1?

11

8

15

12

11

2

2

N = 166 (6 lost because of Alaska or Hawai i)

X2 = 7.433 df = 10 P > .05 . H0 not rejected

Conclusion k. Geographic origin is inconsistently

related to GRF, as measured by this study, and is an invalid

indicator of potential GRF. Therefore, H^ is not accepted.

Hypothesis 5. ^l feelings expressed by white CGSC

officer students are related to the geographic origins of

the students,

Dgtta and Findings. Table V-5 shows the Likert-Scale



•■- ...>t.i»*.la>jMtoa«t»aaaife;w;!,a..i. ...._ u 'liiiiliiilii'iBiM

'"IIII,,III.L ^^g^r^mrivwmmmwm^^ n^mmmf^^w^^- ■ ■•^•^-.rfmt^

TABLE V-5 Geographic Origin vs Ti

^0

Geo.

Origin

Medium Low

Northeast

Southeast

Midwest

Southwest

West Coast

Mobile

N

9

8

12

6

5

4

39

23

20

6

7

3

2

2

0

1

: 166 (6 lost because of Alaska or Hawaii)

X2 = 11.088 df = 10 P > .05 .*. H0 not rejected

Conclusion 5. Geographic origin is inconsistently

related to Ti, as measured by this study, and is an invalid

indicator of potential T1. Therefore, H5 is not accepted.

Hypothesis 6.' T2 feelings expressed by white CGSC

officer students are related to the geographic origins of

the students.




ittütt Mtigiij

, --■ ■ ,'•.••—■.•--• --„■■,:, -.-.•,,•. -^m

kl

.'ABLK V-6 Geographic Origin vs T2

T2

Northeast

Hiph Medium Low

20 29 2

Southeast 10 23 2

Midwest 10 23 1

Geo. Southwest 6 7 1

Origin West Coast k 8 1

Mobile

N

X2 df P >

8 9 3

166 (6 lost because of Hawaii)

8.095 10

.05 .'. H0 not rejected

Alaska or

Conclusion 6. Geographic origin is inconsistently

related to T2. as measured by this study, and is an invalid

indicator of potential T2. Therefore. H6 is not accepted.

Hv-oothesis 7. GRF threat feelings expressed by

white CISC officer students are related to the students'

source of commission.

Datg and Findings. Table V-7 shows the Likert-Scale



..■■ .. -. .-:iv. ...... ;.■......a>:^.:' ....-■::■;■■-.■■ .[*.vw.

tM^fefe^^. ^ . ■ .-..- --■.-.^..-.■.■^ - .. ^ ■■ ^ - ^ ^. ..»..^-t^^^-.^- .^- -^...^c ^.^.^«^^.„H.H ^■^r-.^k^.^^î

:.l:^...,. ..-...■ ....,.■..,..,.■ .V,.,.. , ,,,,....-.- .,....-...-,,,,.K^..:.,r..:.

TABLE V-7 Commission Source vs JRF

k2

Gomm.

Source

GRF

Hi^h Medium

U.S.M.A,

R.O.T.C.

Other

4

6

24

52

JO.

Low

9

27

N = 172 X2 = 2.319 df = 4 P > .05 .*. Hn not rejected

Conclusion 7. Commission source is inconsistently

related to GRF, as measured by this study, and is an invalid

indicator of potential "rRF. Therefore, H-- is not accepted.

Hypothesis 8. T^ feelings expressed by white GGSC

officer students are related to the students' source of

commission.


distribution of officers' responses pertinent to Hg and the


L----*wv,. ,...■:, - ■ ■ ^...^.liâtaMiÂihaa ■ ....„...^^...^^■..^..iÂ.fa.. .■-■..■.,^. -..^^ .... .^^^.. ■„ . - ,.,...^^^^^^^^^^

i i i.ipimmimPMiii^ ■ ' """■ " ,"u i l" . Hl IM .i«^WUi»WMiJI»iuni-i« i«

■ , . . ... . ■,.. . . . ■ ■

'SkBLK V-8 Commission Source vs T 1

^3

Hi£h Medium

Comm.

oource

U.S.f.l.A.

R.O.T.G.

Other

9

XL

£1

57

Low

3

6

N = 1?2 X2 = 2.536 df = 4 f

P > .05, •• H not rejected


related to Tl, as measured by this study, and is an invalid

indicator of potential T^. Therefore, H3 is not accepted.

Hypothesis 9. T2 feelings expressed by white CGSC

officer students are related to the students' source of

commission.


distribution of officers" responses pertinent to Hq and the


:i

MiiiMiiiiiimi^ gBlWBMgJ!«^ • ■■■"IBBM

IPipiPKWJiWWPHI»^^ '" ■-' l:«P!BJ#«Jlfl|li

<«■.»>•"■"'

TABLE V-9 Commission Source vr> T2

i]4

T2

Hi^h Medium

U.S.M.A. 11 C omm.

R.O.T.C 26 Source

Other 23

2^+

55

24

N = 172 X2 = 4.2? df = 4 P > .05 .'. H0 not rejected

Low

2

4


related to TQ. as measured by this study, and is an invalid

indicator of potential T2. Therefore, H9 is not accepted.


white CG3C officer students are related to the students'

civilian educational level.

Data and Findings. Table V-10 shows the Likert-

Scale distribution of officers' responses pertinent to H10

and the results of chi square application.

WrtMIII»«.!»- __.__ L^.:.^.:.'.^,^..:.^,: ________ _______________ ____ _.:..._

'■»'•""■•'''''''''""""''■''"•""''•"»■"»"^^ ,.■.•.:„-,

TABLE V-l 0 Civil) an ; ducatlon vr> ;RF

k5

ÜRF

Hiüh

Civ. Bachclorr; Ed. Level Masters

10

Medium

^7

is.

Low

21

26

i; = l69 (3 officerr; were medical doc torn)

X2 - 1.397 df = 2 P > .05 .*. H0 not rejected

nnndur.ion 10. Civilian educational level is

inconsistently related to GRF, as measured by thin study,

and is an invalid indicator of potential GRF. Therefore.

H1o is not accepted.

Hypothesis 11. T! feelings expressed by white CGSC

officer student, are related to the students' civilian

educational level.

Datajind Findings. Table V-ll shows the Likert-

Scale distribution of officers' responses pertinent to li^


m, ~. mmmmmtm aaeiipar.iiü.ii'w^:' v--:?i" IJ'-'v ■ ■■

:-. """"^"^""^ ' -—--^^——-- '■-"^■^^"•^ ■ ^,■ .^ |W^W^...wl-;^MJidi^î^m!>.^...JJi

-r-^»;.v.-,.-... 7.-.,..■.:;. ..^.. ■■ v- - , . -.■- .■ -.■■■ ^ ■■■ --, - - .

:

.. ,, ...^ ,.1. i-r-n-iic

46

TABLE V-ll Civilian Education vs Ti

Ti

Hip.h Medium LOW

Civ. Bachelors 25 Ed. Level Masters 21

46

-1 N = 169 (3 officers were medical

doctors) X^ = 2.95 df = 2 P > .05 •'. H0 not rejected

Conclusion 11. Civilian educational level is

inconsistently related to T^, as measured by this study,

and is an invalid indicator of potential T^. Therefore,

Hji is not accepted.

Hypothesis 12. T2 feelings expressed by white GGSC

officer students are related to the students' civilian

educational level.


Scale distribution of officers' responses pertinent to H^


1 1

■■-- :- ■ •■ -■■■^■-n-i-iniii ■i,riniiiiitr*îiir':A!",;jL-- - .,.~^^^^^.-.^-..-.«a.-,^^^

„„„„., ,_,T^,_,,^, JJHIjppppiy.F ■ - ■ • .?^ww!-^.T^-T'!?^.'''-'.--w.!;!5

TABLK V-12 Civilian Education vt; T?

l\7

Hif^h Medium Low

Civ. Bachelors:; 35 Ed. Level Masters 2*?

39

61 A. M = 169 (3 officers were medical

doctors) X2 = 5.649 df = 2 ?"> .05 . H0 not rejected

Conclusion 12. Civilian educational level is

inconsistently related to T2, as measured by this study,

and is an invalid indicator of potential ^2' Therefore

Hi 2 i-' no't: accepted.

Hypothesis 13. GRF threa'ö feelings expressed by

white CGSC officer students are related to the students'

military rank.




... • •

iüÜi iiiM ÜMiaM w...,.-,.,^,..,:,,,;..^.'..,. ■ ...;... .■... :',:. ,;.. ■■-■■'-"■ • I -■■ ....»läiäaaaMiMM > mtM

fi^.V;r!'^^^hW^fl^W«|ww,^!^Hr.,-^^^--- ^ r^7W»*T^-i■.■■.-.iWP.TwwvBr^r^ ^ - - ^ rr"Tf.^^^^-7T^ww?^^.^^^ ■^w^r^/-; ...:^,,TJ^_

.. ■ . ■. -. . ■ . .

TABLE V-13 Military Rank vs QRF

48

Rank

GRF

Hi/rh

Company Grade 5

Field Grade 12

Medium

23

N = 1?2 X2 - .48? df = 2 P > .05 .*. H0 not rejected

Low

11

J8

Conclunion 13. Military rank is inconsistently

related to GRF, ac measured by this study, and is an invalid

indicator of potential GRF. Therefore, Hi3 is not accepted.

Hypothesis 14. T^ feelings expressed by white CGSC

officer students are related to the students' military

rank.

Data and Findings. Table V-l4 shows the Likert-

Scale distribution of officers' responses pertinent to Hl4


~ ■ ■ " ■ ■ •"" - --T ■ ' ; ' - ' ,•,■.■"■,-«• ■•..,.. . ■• • • .,;•- . - ,,:,,.-;:,.,.,.,,r.. -,- ■-.-,-,. ■..,..-,■.. -,. : , , , .^ , • ■ ,

TABLE V L4 Military Rank vn T]

^9

Rank

T-

Hifih led i um

Company irade

Field Grade

9 27

06

N = 172 X2 = .351 df = 2 P > .05 .*. Hn not rejected

Low

3

10

Conclusion 1^-. Military rank in inconsistently

related to T-p as measured by this study, and is an invalid

indicator of potential T^ Therefore, H^ is not accepted.

Hypothesis 15. Tg feelings expressed by white CGSC

officer students are related to the students' military

rank.


Scale distribution of officers' responses pertinent to H-^

and the results of chi square aDplicatlon.

> ,n:Y^^;-:^^.^;m^V**:-~^-*.~

BSPSilPPPSSPwafS? ^gmw^f'^W:

50

TABLE V-15 Military Rank vs T2

Rank Company Grade

Field Grade

T2

Hip:h Medium Low

1^ 22 3

46 81 6

N = 172 X2 = .70? df = 2 P > .05, .'. H0 not rejected

Conclusion 15. Military rank is inconsistently

related to T2, as measured by this study, and is an invalid

indicator of potential T2. Therefore, H^ is not accepted.


white GGSC officer students are related to whether or not

the student has had enlisted experience.

Data and Findings. Table V-l6 shows the Likert-



■■ ..■.■.::■, ; ..■....,. .'.■;.■... ....„i :.- ...,..,„.....,„, ., ■ . .L. ...... ..... ^ .^ ..^.'^^^^^^^...^L^^MM

1» I ... I WLI.mitMnWHWmiUVUJMMI "'«■•-•■ l.".lil"lMHi,>i«IW»ll<...K"il"PHiW."iJili'i l^SPPWPPW™^ ,IJw*W^«Wf

j,:,:*"!«?«":'. >.*- « 1»1:»«.» 5,«1HW1-"-

51

TABLE V-l6 Enlisted Service vs GRF

Enlisted

Service

GRF

High Medium Low

Mo

Yea

9

8

72 37

12

N - 172 x2 = 3.0^4 df = 2 P1 > .05, •'• H0 not rejected

ConclusiorUi. unlisted experience is inconsistently

related to GRF. as measured by this study, and is an invalid

indicator of potential GRF. Therefore. Hl6 is not accepted.

Hypothesise. Ti feelings expressed by white CGSC

officer students are related to whether or not the student

has had enlisted experience.

^êMIinäin^. Table V-17 shows the Likert-

•v. 4.' « ^-p officers' responses pertinent to H17 Scale distribution of ollicerö my


.^^;._;i.w. _^„. ■■—. —-i .^■■,.--....^..J..-.^. :■■■-■ ^^.-^^.^ ,:*.., ...r^^..J.„:...^....-.^......... ^-^^ „„.^v.-,.-,....^.^*.

PJI!PW-r#^,.RfM'.lWW^^tWW^-»,-^- - ." ^^*w^wn^wr?p^m^^ ,, ,., . . :,.. ., ^ ;.. . ......

TABLE V ■17 Enlisted Service vs Ti

52

Enlisted

Service

Tl

No

Yes

Hi^n

29

Medium

80

_1L

M = 172 X2 = .911 df = 2 . + A p > .05. .'. H0 not rejected

Low

9

Conclusion 17. Enlisted experience is inconsist-

ently related to T,. as measured by this study, and is an

invalid indicator of potential T,. Therefore. Hl7 is not

accepted.

aaatMsis 18. T2 feelings expressed by white CG3C

officer students are related to whether or not the student

has enlisted experience.

Dat^ndjindlnes. Tahle V-18 shows the Likert-

Soale distribution of offioers- responses pertinent to Hl8

and the results of ohi scjuare application.

..J.^-^-^..^^^^.^....-.—,.....-.^H I.iniiiiifliiMiff'-'-'"^-^^-"-^^ ■■"---^■■-^—-^- -.^-..i.^.^...■.^■^-^^■».i-^.■ i | mMj-iiiMiiii^

-:V ^■-■-^^-.■'":;.~; ... . ^.■,V,«|...,.i.-..,..V.,:..V...,-;.............

■i , iitfiiiliiiMiii .■■■■■w>.^.,..„. _ ■ ., ■ ,.. , ■ ^

. ■■

53

PABLS V-18 Enl Vnteii Service va Tg

Hiph ?/Iedium Low

Enlisted

Service

NO

Yen

35

11

78 5

4

N2 = 172

6.077 2

P < .05, .*. H0 not accepted

Conclusion 18. Enlisted experience is consistently

related to Tg, as measured by this study, and is a valid

indicator of potential T2. Therefore, H-Lß is not rejected.


white CGSC officer students are related to T1 feelings

expressed by the same.


Scale distribution of officers' responses pertinent to Hi9


M|pj»Mlllii,ili1i'11.' ^TWlllWWÎIWIftWWiWfWIWIJipMW

ÜP PliPIBVWiJw'WW^WPW^wwiw^^

■ ■ ■

TABLE V-.19 GRF vs T 1

^

Ti

riRF

Hish Medium

High 12

Medium 5

Low 0

30

71

Low

4

37

8

N = 172 X2 = 30.198 df = 4 P < .001, .*. H0 not accepted

Conclusion 19. GRF threat feelings are very

consistentxy related to T]_ feelings, as measured by this

study, and are a valid indicator of potential T^. Since

the relationship is differential, the reverse is true.

Therefore, H^ is not rejected.


white CGSC officer students are related to T2 feelings

expressed by the same.




IBtfHikiü'^.uM^MÂ. ■■- ■„■....■..i^Mû.. ., . . -.-,,...^.^.J...=. .....■■.-. .„^.■..- ^—

I - -"iWjip(B«fW?PfS^s^"r- ■ ' ■..■,■.•-..■• ppgp^ppppp ■ ■ ■ , ■ ■' '

55

TABLE V-20 ;RP vs T2

GRF

High Low

T2

High

Medium

Low

16

1

0

35

71

o

9

0

N =172 X2 = 32.308 df = 4 4 P < .001, •*. H0 not accepted

Conclusion 20. GRF threat feelings are very con-

sistently related to T2 feelings, as measured by this study,

and are a valid indicator of potential T2. Since the

relationship is differential, the reverse is true.

Therefore, H20 is not rejected.

Hypothesis 21. Ti feelings expressed by white CGSG

officer students are related to T2 threat feelings express-

ed by the same.




.-:,..<. J. ..-.■■. ■.■...,^._...J^..^^.„,^.i....,w^-^.-^...x.-.-..J ■^^^l^^^.^*---^.^^*».«»^^^ ■.^^■.I..«.1i

■ ■ •■ ......;.-..; ,-.., .„,-,L -...-....,,........ .,. , - ■ ■'^W^^^^W^W^^"'77^ ™

■^n^ûmmwrni ...,;: ^..;^..-f

^0

TABLE V-21 Hi vs T2

Ti

UML Medium Low

riv

High 28

Medium 17

Low 1

31

79

1

7

N = 172 X2 = ^9.173 df = k P < .001, .*. H not accepted

Concluoion 21. T^ feelings are very consistently

related to T2 feelings, as measured by this study, and are

valid indicators of potential T2. Since the relationship

is differential, the reverse is true. Therefore, H?i is

not rejected.

FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

RELATED TO THE BASIC PROBLEM STATEMENT

The basic problem statement was to determine the

percentage of white officer students in the 197^-75 Command

and General Staff College Regular Course who felt threat-

ened by the "affirmative action" policies of the Army.

Thin derived from the basic hypothesis of this study, that

CGSC officer students (representative of the upper $0% of

Army middle management) might feel threatened by these

policies.

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,,,:™-m~, ••: : .■ •■ . ' '■■■-' pjp^j|p|p!j-!p8j^p^si^wr,.r,TCT.CT'v:;i?.

■^'mm;^

57

Data and Findinp-jr,. Table V-22 shown the Likert-

Scale distribution of officers' responses, pertinent to the

main hypothesis.

TABL:,i V-22 Total Response to GRP, Ti and Tg

Officers

^ of N

Officers

fo of N

Hi£h.

17

10^

High

36

121

GRF

Medium

106

62%

N = 172

Tl

Medium

113

66%

N 172

Low

49

Low

13

Officers

'/■ o f N

High

60

T2

Medium

103

6o^

N = 172

Low

9

Conclusions. A significant number of white CGSC

officer students do feel threatened by the affirmative

action policies of the Army.

1. Officers are most threatened by work ethic

«"'üllüh1.. ■ ■ ■ - "■ ■■■

58

threat, T?, with 95/£ expressing at least moderate

threat feelings. Also, 35^ expressed a high degree

of T2.

2. Although not as high as T2, racial affirmative

action threat, Ti, was felt to a high degree with

93^ expressing at least medium threat and 2?^

feeling highly threatened.

3. Expression of general racial feeling, GRF,

was lower still. Even in this least threatening

of the contrived variables, 12% expressed at least

moderate threat feelings, and 10$ felt highly

threatened.

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CHAPTER VI

oUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS, AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

SUMMARY

The hypothesis tested in this study was that the

white officer students in the 197^-75 Command and General

Staff College Regular Course felt threatened by the

affirmative action policies of the Army. Implicit in this

hypothesis, was an unstated assumption by the researcher

that any perceived affirmative action threat was separate

and distinct from general racial threat feelings.

The findings of this study support the main stated

hypothesis and reveal a significant degree of affirmative

action threat. (See page 57) However, the implicit

assumption by the researcher that affirmative action threat

was separate from general racial feelings was proven false.

The differential relationship between general racial feel-

ing.. (CRF), racial affirmative action threat (Ti), and

ethic affirmative action threat (T2) was found to be so

great, a confidence level of .001, that any attempt to

imply a distinction is highly doubtful.

Also tested were the relationships between the three

contrived variables (GRP, T^ and T2) and six demographic

variables. In applying the chi square test to the eighteen

59

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■■"■"" »ir^^w^TPKiT^PTi^^^ ^T^-g^-^^^pf^^^ ...-.^^.■...^V^T—^—.■-—^— -.--^ -.—^-

60

resultant matrices, it was found that only one demographic

vs.riable was not independent. The differential relation-

ship between enlisted experience and work ethic affirmative

action threat (T2) was found to be at the .05 level.

CONCLUSIONS

The writer concluded, based on the findings of this

study, that a high degree of perceived threat exists among

white CGSC officer students with respect to affirmative

action. It was further concluded that because of the high

confidence level, .001, that general racial feelings (QRF),

racial affirmative action threat (T^), and work ethic

affirmative action threat (Tg) are not independent of each

other. It would be unsafe to assert that affirmative action

threat feelings among officers were unrelated to general

racial feelings. In short, if an officer was threatened by

general racial feelings he was likely, at the .001 level,

to be threatened by affirmative action policies which he

perceived either as a racial or work ethic threat.

Another major conclusion was that demographic

variables of CG3C students are unlikely indicators of

potential racial threat feelings. Save only prior enlisted

service, all of the demographic variables proved to be

independent from the contrived variables. The writer can

offer no certain explanation of why this proved to be so.

However, a possible explanation rests with the socialization

process experienced by all of the respondents. Since all

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61

officer:-: have 8-12 years of Army experience/socialization

before attending the U.S. Army Command and General Staff

College, it would appear that this Institutional experience

mi^ht be what eliminated demographic variables an a reliable

indicator.

The one demographic variable which wan related

differentially to a contrived variable was prior enlisted

service. Enlisted service can be associated with potential

for perceived work ethic affirmative action threat (T2). as

measured by this study, at the .05 confidence level. A

possible, though by no means certain, explanation of this

lone exception is that officers with prior enlisted service

perceive themselves as having "pulled themselves up by

their bootstraps." They entered the Army at the bottom as

enlisted men, learned the rules of the institution and

applied them diligently in order to advance. Affirmative

action policies now seem to threaten the sense of work ethic

held by these men.

RECOMMENDATIONS

This was an initial study and its findings and

conclusions indicate the nature and direction of the white

officer student's racial threat feelings. The research

findings are tentative and do not support a list of explicit

recommendations. This study was but an investigation into

the existence of racial and affirmative action threat

feelings on the part of white CGSC officers.

•

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62

However, it Is recommended that this same study be

conducted at basic and advanced course levels and at the

Army War College. If such subsequent studies should con-

firm a high degree of threat feelings toward affirmative

action, a case might be made for a far more sophisticated

research project by a civilian research organization.

Finally, the writer recommends that the Army

continue, nay intensify its efforts at race relations

education, to include instruction on affirmative action.

It is imperative that an understand in-- of the true meaning

of affirmative action policies be understood by all Army

personnel. A better explanation of affirmative action mu: I

be forthcoming if the Army is to avoid a possible leader-

ship/communications problem which could have serious, con; .■ •

quences for combat effectiveness. This study has found

that affirmative action threat, feelings of "backlash", are

intimately related to general racial feelings. In short,

a person expressing high feelings of affirmative action

threat is likely to also express very intolerant general

racial views. If further studies prove this to be true for

the Army in general, perhaps affirmative action threat will

no longer be thought of as a separate problem. The writer

firmly believes it is not separate but simply a part of

the bigger problem.

.■■...

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ENDNOTEf.

?«PJ*J »f •'■"-"•

ENDNOTES

Daniel P. Moynihan, in U.S. Department of Labor, The Nerro Family« The Caê for National Action/Moynihan _ Report/ (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1965).

p. 75- 2Robert Coles, The Middle Americans (Boston«

Atlantic-Little, Brown and Company. 1971). Passim; and U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, The American Soldier (Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas« Department of Command. 197^ PP; Pl-82 to Pl-89. quoting Peter Schräg. "The Forgotten Ameri- can," From Out of Place in America by Peter Schräg (New York« Random House, Inc., 1969)

3The officer making this statement did not realize that his comment would be quoted, therefore, he must remain anonymous.

Îbid.

5lbid. 6P.H. Cressy and L.R. Desiosses, "Developing an

Alternative Approach to Race Relations Education. Identi- fying Military Middle Management Resistance," Naval ^lar College Review, July/August 197^.

7opinion expressed by Major General John Cushman in an address ("Commandant's Welcome") at U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leavenworth. Kansas. August

12. 197^.

ÖBenjamin Quarles. The Negro in the Making of Ameri- ca (New York« Collier Books. 1969). PP' ^5.

9lbid.. p. ^6.

10Ibid.

Hlbid. , p. ^7.

12Ibid.

13Richard J. Stillman, II. Integration of the Negro ^n the U.S. Armed Forces (New York« Fredrick A. Praeger.

Publir.hei-s, TO^TT PP- ^-0-

I'11 bid. , p. 9.

6k

: .._..______....__. _,,. ...■_..,:, ...__. ___;• :. .....J. . .....;- ....._._ ____________ ___ ___________ .______._... , ...■^-■k^^^^üM,-.^- ^..iäi

nmtivm^t—mmHiH'« ilWmw.m<m" ■ » < .&< IIIH<* "j •!l,.»*«i-^"U.T.«V*","1,,i|«W M" I^W»|BIWI^ vmwimi •—****•—mwvmw-n^Lwimwm jyi« u .—«a;...!..- ■.. J...,. ,«.,.«... uu «

65 ^5]bid.

i^john Hope Franklin, From Slavery to Freedomt A History of No^ro American; (New York i Vintage Book Edition, 196971 p. 272.

1'7Ibid. , p. 277.

1 8 ■L Peter P/l. Gergman, The Chronological History of the Negro in America (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1969). p. 231.

^Franklin, op.cit. , p. 290.

20Ibid. , pp. 293-29^.

21 otillman, op. cit., p. 11.

22Ibid. , p. 12.

23lbid.

22+Ibid.

25lbid., p. 18.

26Ibid., pp. 15-16.

27Franklin, op. cit,, p. 468.

28

219!

Stillman, op. cit., p. 1?.

Leclie H. Fishel, Jr., and Benjamin Quarles, The Black American; A Documentary History (Glenview, 111.: Scot, Foresman and Co., 1970), p. 419.

30Ibid.. p. 436.

31lbid., p. 473.

32Uuarlep., op. cit., pp. 215-316.

53ibid., p. 219.

34 Ibid., p. 224,

^-'Stillman, op. cit., p. 29.

36ibid., p. 27.

3'Quarles, op. cit., p. 226.

^"Franklin, op. cit., p. 609.

•v.;.-,, CM:',*.,;-.,..' - ;,„..s;-,,',.

MiMtamu^-^*^^,**.^., - - - - ■ ■ ■■■--■■- ^•- ■*-" ■■^■■^ -^^^.J--.^^-. -■■■ ...■..^:^.^^J...H...»,. .............^^—>,- - ...^^îrii

■\i^:' :.-:^^^î.^^-m^ ■ - ■ ■■■ ■ ■ ■ ■' ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

.y,...^^.^^..,^,^,,.-;.^-.,..,^.

66

39. 'tillman, op. cit., p. 2^.

Ibid.

Franklin, op. cit., p. 609.

42 Ibid.

p. 50. ^3stillmanl op. cit.,

Îbid. , pp. 51-52.

îbid., pp. 56.

^°Fishel and Quarles, op. cit., p 499.

Û.S, Commission on Civil Rights, Staff. Family Housing and the Negro Serviceman; 1963 Staff Report fuTs. Government Printing Office, 1963), pp. 21-22.

^8U.S. Department of Defense, Secretary. Department of Defense Directive 5120.35; Subject» Equal Opportunity in the Armed Forces (Washington, D.C.: July 26, I963).

^Charles C. Moskos, Jr., "Deliberate Change: "Racial Relations in the Armed Forces,'" in Russell Fndo and William Strawbridge (eds.), Perspectives on Black America (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.. 1970), p. 162.

50Harry W. Brooks, Jr., and James M. Miller. The Gathering Storm--An Analysis of Racial Instability Within the Army.Student Research Paper (Carlisle Barracks, Pa: U.S. Army War College, 9 March 1970), pp. 20-21.

51U.S. Army, Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, Special Affairs and Review Division. Fact Sheet; Subject: Affirmative Action Programs in Race Relations and Equal Opportunity and Treatment; to: Acting Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense (Civil Rights), n.p. Spring 1970 .

52U.S. Army, Race Relations Conference, Fort Monroe, Virginia, 17-20 November 1970. Race Relations Conference (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army, Secretary, 14 April 1971).

53u.S. Army, Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, Director of Military Personnel Policies, Equal Opportunity Branch. Department of the Army Fact Sheet (Washington, D.C.: 19 March 1971).

- U.S. Army, Continental Army Command, Headquarters, Commander, Continental Army Command Regulation No. 600-3; Race Relations. (Fort Monroe, Va.: 18 May 1971).

... .J...-. *.^*.<.~«.~.,.^—... .-^-»-.■. --- ■ ■■ ■- ■- - —^ —-■ ---—-.v-^.... —^■—^

IPPJUJ... '^" wm ■-•- » "H|p|||i| ■ ;- ■ - ■ ; ■ i ■ ■- ;

6?

55Based on personal interview between Colonel Loma Ü. Allen, Jr., Director of Army Equal Opportunity ProgramB, and the writer.

5%TOin a speech by President Lyndon B. Johnson at Howard University (Washington, D.C.) on June 4, 1965,

^^From an explanation of the necessity for affirmative action by Staff Sergeant Larry Addy, Race Relations/ Equal Opportunity Instructor at the U.S. Army Missile Munition Center and School (Redstone Arsenal, Alabama) Fall, 197^.

5ßü.S. Army, Headquarters, Department of the Army Regulation No. 600-21; Race Relations and Equal Opportunity. (Washington, D.C: 26 July 1973). P- 2.

59ibid.

6oIbid., p. 3.

6lU.S. Army, Headquarters, Department of the Army Pamphlet No. 600-16; Improving Race Relations in the Army, Handbook for Leaders (Washington, D.C: June 1973). P- 12.

62lbid.

63lbid.

^Based on personal interview between Colonel Loma 0. Allen, Jr., Director of Army Equal Opportunity Programs, and the writer,

65D. A. Pamphlet No. 600-l6, op. cit. , pp. 12-13-

66Ibid., p. 13.

^Statement by LTC George Kuykendall, Military Coordinator of MMAS Program, personal interview, October

1975. 683tatement by Major David Fisher, Comptroller of

the Command and General Staff College, personal interview, March 1975.

înstruction by Major David Fisher, Comptroller of the Command and General Staff College, during the MMAS Research Methodology Course, Fall, 197^■

70Revisions recommended by the resident faculty were coordinated and consolidated by Major Rodney Symons, Chair- man of the writer's MMAS Committee.

i^^Äil**«^ mmm »mmu m iiiiimiiiiw^wwwwiiMiiiwtwiiW]!!^^

.. ^ ^.L^-1.!..^ .■.._..■.:^.^..;,..^..-^,.,..^^ ■-.-..-.. . -^ . . .^.■..y.^rî^.*^^^ ..^ „ —-^--^

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68

71Fevisions recommended by LTG William R. Larson, _ Professor of Behavioral Science. California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, Ca.

^Claire Selltiz et al., Research Methods in Social Relations (New York. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965).

pp. 336-369.

73f eorge A. Ferguson, Statistical Analysis i_ri *? T,^ J-: ,;„ f-M*,., V^vlr, Mnrâw-Hl 11 BOOK

PP.

7^]bid., pp. 148-150.

'JCeoree A. Ferguson, statistical AnaiyKj.^ ±n ^Y.H.i^Y°nd Education (New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company.

1971). PP. 147-1^8.

— --.- ...... --.-^ - ^■■■-- .---^ „..^1-,.... „„.w...^..^^...... J...^-^..—-..,! iiiiimiifiiMrtMliiiiitiiii^^

HJpjHinpppnipiiiipwwip»^1' - ^,„^^-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^y^,-,-^^.;.^,,™-...^,,-_ ,-,„-,_

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Illl^JfpjJfP^flSiSWpi^^!^^ -■■•■ ■■^■■.- ■ ' ,,™.s^,»r^.„- . • •■., ,,™.^

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Bergman, Peter M. The Chronological History of the Ne^rq in America. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, i960.

Brink, William J. Black and White. New Yorki Simon and Schuster, 196?.

Coles, Robert. The Middle Americans. Boston: Atlantic- Little, Brown and Co., 1971.

Ferguson, George A. Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education. Now York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1971-

Fishel, Leslie H. Jr., and Benjamin Quarles. The Black American; A Documentary History. Glenview, 111.: Scot, Foresman and Co., 1970.

Franklin, John Hope. From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Ne^ro Americans. New York: Vintage Book Edition, 1969.

Hoult, Thomas Ford. Dictionary of Modern Sociology. Totowa, New Jersey: Littlefield, Adams and Co., 1969.

La Farge, ohn. No Postponement. New York: Longmans-Green, 1950.

Maclver, R.M. The More Perfect Union. New York: The Mac- millan Co., I9W.

Moskos, Charles C. Jr. Perspectives on Black America. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970.

Myradal, Gunnar. An American Dilemma. New York: Harper & Row, 1962.

Nelson, Dennis D. The Integration of the Nep:ro Into the U.S. Navy. New York: Farrar, Straus and Young, 1951.

Pettigrew, Thomas F. Racially Separate or Together. New York: McGraw-Hin , 1071.

Quarles, Benjamin. The Ner:ro in the Making of America. New York: Collier Books, 1969.

70

teimfM,mämtäumMmMiMm^*miiimi,t* "-*-«■-■■-- - n 1 iiiiiiümiii ünnii - -- • -

I^WPP^ppiWWHHJWi.ii, ™ , .. , - -«wspwRtr ,.. „.,,,,., ,. ,. .... ,.,. , -^

71

ochwartz, Barry N. White Racinm. New York: Dell Publish- ing Co., 1970.

Delltiz, Claire., et al. !<enoarch Methods in Social Rela- tion£. Now Yorki Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965.

Stillman, Richard J. II. Integration of the Negro in the U.S. Armed Forces. New York: Fredrick A. Praeger, Publishers, 1968.

Government Documents

Cressy, P.H. and L.R. Desfosses. Developinp; an Alternative Approach to Race Relations Education: Identifying Military Middle Management Resistance. Naval War College Review, 197^.

U.S. Army. Command and General Staff College. The American Soldier. Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas: Department of Command, 1974.

U.S. Army. Continental Army Command, Headquarters, Commander, Continental Army Command Regulation No. 60O-3. Race Relations. Ft. Monroe, Virginia, 18,May 1971.

U.S. Army. Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, Director of Military Personnel Policies, Equal Opportunity Branch. Department of the Army Fact Sheet. Washing- ton D.C.: 19 March 1971.

U.S. Army. Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, Special Affairs and Review Division. Fact Sheet. Subject: Affirmative Action Programs ir Race Relations and Equal Opportunity and Treatment. Washington. D.G.. Spring, 1970.

U.S. Army. Headquarters. Department of the Army Pamphlet No. 600-16. Improving Race Relations in the Army, Handbook for Leaders. Washington, D.C.: 1973.

U.S. Army. Headquarters. Department of the Army Regulation No. 600-21. Race Relations and Equal Opportunity. Washington, D. C . : 1973. " "" - -—.

U.S. Army. Race Relations Conference. Race Relations Conference, Fort Monroe, Virginia, 17-20 November 1970. Washington, D.C.i Ik April 1971.

U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. Family Housing and the Negro Serviceman. Staff Report. Washington: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1963.

aäataäsäMiaiiäisW ^j ^ ^^ ■ ,-■, ... .

'-""•••^-"' » u i <<I<IVIJA.W.'LIÜJ J|llWIWMVI!ILIIW«MIJIMIlllllUilMIW)f|Wlli«)l|PWI«JI ■ " ' ' '■ ' "l ■■■«'. "

72

U.S. Department of Defense, Secretary. Equal Opportunity in tne Armed Forces. Department of Jefense Directive 5120.35. Washington, D.G., 26 July 1963.

U.3. President, I965- (Johnson). Speech at Howard Univer- sity on June ^, 1965. Washington, D.C., 1965.

Periodicals

Allen, Arthur W., Jr. "Equal Opportunity in the Armed Forces." Army [yianaêment Views, book 1, July 19^9• pp. 191-198.

Baumgarner, James. "Navy steps up minority proup officers program." Armed Forces Journal, 7 September 1Q^P, p. 2?. ' --—-^ -^

Bowie, Nolan. "Telling it like it is ..." U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, August 1970, pp. 123-12^.

Boyd, George M, "A look at racial polarity in the armed forces." Air University Review, September-October 1970, pp. 42-50.

Cressy, P.H., and L.R. Desfosses , "Developing an Alternative Approach to Race Relations Education: Identifying Military Middle Management Resistance," Naval War College Review, July/August 1974.

Janowitz, Morris. "The U.S. Forces and the Zero Draft." Adelphi Papers. Number 94. International Institute per Strategic Studies, 1973•

"Human Goals." Commander's Digest, Department of Defense, 1974.

Unpublished Works

Addy, SSG Larry, Race Relations/Equal Opportunity Instructor at the U.S. Army Missile Munition Center and School (Redstone Arsenal, Alabama). From an explanation of the necessity for affirmative action. Fall, 1974.

Allen, Col. Loma 0. Jr., Director of Equal Opportunity Programs. Personal Interview.

Brooks, Harry W. Jr., and James M. Miller. "The Gathering Storm—An Analysis of Racial Instability Within the Army." Unpublished Student's Research Paper, Carlisle Barracks. Pa., U.S. Army War College, 1970.

■MMMMM... . - ..,.. ■ • . .- , . ,. .....„.• ,-; .,,.. . ' :■.■.: -i.,-.^...^.!.;..,..

^mmmvm-mmmmtrmv; !jpipp(pipBgjiI»!^PHIP(p|pWluiiuiii|iii«jiu»>iiMi.i™i»i»uwui.»

7?

Cur.hman, Ma.ior General John. "Commandant's Welcome." Addre;;:-, at U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, Ft, Leavenworth, Kansas, August 12, 197^»

Fisher, Maj. David, Comptroller of the Command and General Staff College. Instruction during the MMAS Research Methodology Course. Fall, 197^.

Fisher, Maj. David., Comptroller of the Command and General Staff College. Personal interview. October, 1975-

Kuykendall, LTC George, Military Coordinator of MMAS Pro- gram. Personal interview. October, 1975«

Larson, LTC William R., Professor of Behavioral Science, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, Cal. Recommended revisions.

Symons, Maj. Rodney, Chairman of the writer's MMAS Committee. Coordinated and consolidated revisions recommended by the resident faculty.

Reports

Foley, P.P. Validity of the officer qualification test for ' minority groups applicants to Officer Candidate School. Naval Personnel Research and Development Laboratory. v'RR 71-1 (revised), January 1971. N-19^32.5

Lundberg, !eorge A. Social Research. New York; Longmans, Green and Co., 19^2.

Voynihan, Daniel P. In U.S. Department of Labor, The Negro Fnmil.y. The Case for National Action. [Moynihan ReportJ Washingtont U.S. Government Printing Office, 19o5).

Shalala, Samuel R. A study of ethnocentrism among white professional military officers. USACGSC student thesis. 1969. N-I9052.II6

lAiHlliiaiiir.itii^ ■ ^^^.»^.■.^.^^.^■.■J.^.-....^J.w...-.l..,.........^^«.,fir ,M«HliM'-^'^'---^*'^-^^'irtimirtiri i -.^—^-.-..^ ■-■■—-^-•^•-'^■»^-'■•■'■'"ft'ilfiaiirt'lHUiii'- " ^■',"a'

mnMiajiminiu.Uj.j|iipwi>piwW4i|<iV^ ., i. i .1 1., »..»«(.m..».!.»^^.» i^îji-«»«.«

APPENDICES

....... ■:--..--~..-. :..■ ■■ ■-^- - ■ ^.^,_...^. ^ J..,...^...... ....... ■..,L.,.J., -..-..■.- .- ^.

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- ■ I

APPENDIX A

IVIMA3 SURVEY

INTRODUCTION

Please indicate your reaction to the followinp; Btatemente by placing an X after the appropriate symbol. These symbols are to represent the degree to which you agree or disagree with the statement. The symbols are:

SA = Strongly Agree

A = Agree

U = Undecided

D = Disagree

SD = Strongly Disagree

Please do not sign this survey or identify yourself in any way. There are neither control numbers on this survey nor any other way by which the author could identify persons taking this survey. Therefore, absolute anonymity is assured. With this guarantee, please respond to the statements as honestly as possible. No one will ever know how you responded.

It is realized that some of the statements are simplistic, while others are complex. Some of the statements are recognizable as sweeping generalizations. It is unlikely that any of the statements will express exactly the feelings of anyone answering this questionnaire. Thus, a strongly agree (SA) response would not necessarily mean that you agree 100 percent with all aspects of a statement.

75

^ ' „ 1 1 ., . ' ■■ -■ v.-"- , . , •...,.■ ^„i . . . ■■ ■ ■ : ^ - ^^ '.^ I ..— ,__

i»> inun.* .Hi.».-- . ui. >i i. uuq.u.i.n,«. mtm^^wm ■miwium-* lUiuiWMUipuui um ii. .iiii«i.»«jfw.«..i..^..i..i •™-

■

APPENDIX A 76

PART I

1.

3.

^.

■

5.

There are no important qualitative differences races.

between

u D oD

2. Measurable criteria such as IQ tests, which seem to dicate a qualitative difference between races, are attributable to environmental not genetic factors.

m-

SA A U D SD

Black Americans have such a history of deprivation that merely to grant them statutory equality is not enough. If they are ever going to catch up to the white majority they must be given more than just equal opportunity. Positive, affirmative action is necessary if blacks are ever to attain true equality.

3Ä A U SD

In giving blacks a "helping hand" it is not enough just to be more understanding. Concrete measures are required, such as quota systems, in order to assure equal black participation in our society.

U SD

Blacks have now achieved basic equality before the law. That is to say, overt or de jure discrimination has ceased to be a problem.

U SD

Nobody gave other echnic groups a "helping hand." The other ethnic groups had hard times but they eventually made it on their own. If blacks v/ouldjust work hard for a few generations they could make it too.

SA U SD

It is unfair to expect Blacks to compete with whites using the same competitive standards. For instance, in the critical areas of schooling and jobs, most of the entry criteria are culturally biased In favor of the white middle class. Therefore, until the blacks achieve an equal cultural base the whites must institute quotas or other mechanisms to insure representative participation by blacks.

SA U D SD

TO-I™"W"-- -■■5JTT^-i;s-sra-™s~iBig^p||jpip8p1jL»1i!î!»si

APPENDIX A

8.

77

9.

10.

11.

12

13

Helping blacko attain equality is a fine idea. However, if it means that my own child might suffer reverse discrimination to make way for a less qualified blacK 1 would be opposed.

SA

1'+.

A D SD

The Army is practicing the quota call it by another name, such as but it is really a quota system.

system now. affirmative

They may action,

SA A U U SD

The black officers in this CGSC class probably did not have -:o compete as fiercely to be selected for attend ance as did the white officers.

SA A |J D SD

It is wron- for the Army to have quotas, official or otherwise."' The Army should insure that n? overt d1-" crimination exists 'and that is as far as ^.ôuld go. If the Army does more than that it is practicing reverse discrimination.

5 A U D SD

Too much fuss is being made over this reverse discrimi- mtion thine. Sure, some of it is going on. It is necesSarv if we are to help blacks. Anyway, the number ^whites that have actually suffered because of reverse discrimination is so small as to be insignificant.

SA A U D SD

all T am tired of hearing about race relations. Maybe of^his emphasis on the black problem was necessary a few years ago, but, we

5A A U

are over-doing it now,

D SD_

Blacks must be required at some level to prepare them- -Plves to compete on an equal basis with whitss. ii a WMTP officer comes from a deprived background he is white officer come. * ^ t/his deficiencies in areas expected to worK xo eiim-i-iicti-c m. rin»« nnt -uoh a*- oral and written communication. If he does nox do so he will probably not get ahead. Blacks however, a?e allowed toPper?etuate their.substandard dialect and point to it as a source of ethnic pride.

3A A D SD

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15. It is often a strain to be around black officers. You must be more careful of your manners, etc. If you happen not to like a certain black officer for reasons other than race, you must be careful not to let this show. Your dislike for this individual would likely be miscon- strued as racial prejudice.

SA U D 3D

16. Assuming that my qualifications and experience remained the same, I would have a better chance of making general officer if I suddenly became black.

SA U SD

17. Generally, blacks have unfairly taken advantage of the race relations emphasis in the Armv.

SA U D 3D

18. Race is not an appropriate matter for consideration by promotion boards either for officers or enlisted.

SA U D SD

19. Army promotion boards should seek to promote the best qualified individuals without regard to race.

SA A U D SD

20. The commander today is in a dilemma. If the commander treats blacks equally he can be criticized for not taking their socio-economic deprivation into account. If the commander takes the background of young black soldiers into account, and thus spends more of his time helping them, he can be chastised for not treating them the same as he would white soldier;;.

SA U SD

PART II

1. What is your age?

a. 26-29 b. 30-35

c. d.

36-40 40+

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APPENDIX A 79

In which geographic area did you spend your formative years?

a. Northeast

b. Southeast

c. Midwest

d. Southwest

e. West Coast

f. Hawai i

g. Alaska

h. Other

i. My family was so mobile during my youtl- that I really do not identify with any particular region.

3- What is your source of commission?

a. U.S.M.A. d. OCS

b. ROTC, DMG e. National Guard

c ROTC f. Direct or Battlefield

4. What is your highest civilian educational level? Assum- ing responses a-d represent ascending order.)

5-

a. Bachelors c. Professional (Law, Medicine, etc.)

b. Masters d. Ph. D.

To what racial :;-roup do you belong?

d. American Indian

e. Latin American

f. Other

a. Caucasian

b. Negro

c. Oriental

6. What is your rank?

a. Captain

b. Major

c. Lieutenant Colonel

7, Do you have prior enlisted service?

a. No c. More than two years, less than four

b. Two years or less d. Four or more years

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