Typologies of India’s democracy

A comparison of two approaches in the “worlds

largest democracy”:Is democracy working in

India?

India: An Overview• Electorate of approximately 600

million people- voter turnout averages around 60%

• 51 elections since independence• Election-related violence

improving: only 65 deaths in ‘98 vs. 210 in ‘96

Overview continued...• Average 150-200 parties: New

tendency toward Coalition governments

• High turnover of incumbent parties• Constitution, government policy

based on social welfare principles

More overview• Varying levels of patronage and

corruption: Bribing a common (expected) practice,

• Freedom house ratings: Consistently “free”- 2.3 avg.

• Concerns of electorate: corruption, stability, inflation, poverty

Societal Inputs• Caste system• majority scheduled castes• National literacy rate: 57%• Per capita income: $350 us• Regional disparity and animosity• Urban vs. Rural populations• Ethnic/Religious tensions

Powell’s Typology: Liberal Approach

• 1952-1977- Congress party majorities at state and national level; In-fighting, factions

• 1977- following Emergency Phase enacted in 1975, Congress ousted by Janata party

• Congress fragmented, many “Movements” sprang up

• Current trend of coalition govts

Extremist Parties• Strong Communist Party presence

at regional level• 176 parties in 1998 election- parties

of dissent, ethnic and language politics, regional autonomy

• Caste not a major issue in mainstream party support; more important to minor parties

Mobilization• Popular movements: Successful

Mobilization- issue-oriented civic groups

• Short term-formed at critical moments when conventional formations fail to articulate needs

• no social divisions- unite parties, groups and concerned publics

Powell’s Typology of Party Systems

AggregativeMajorityCanada, US

ResponsibleMajorityAustria, UKINDIA pre 1977

Fractionalized

Netherlands, NorwaySwitzerland, SwedenINDIA post 1977Representational

Labour Power Typology~political capacity~

• Strong left-wing presence: Congress, Communist parties, Left Democratic Front (Third Front Parties)

• Social welfare, “social justice” policy focus• Concern for distribution of scarce essential

resources to burgeoning population• Voting does not necessarily correspond

with class lines

Unionization• Extensive nationally organized industrial labour

trade unions• Many associations (peasant, students, business)

closely tied to parties• National organizations of labourers, white-collar

workers and agrarian associations provide parties with continuous base of support

• Organization of rural peasants and workers hampered by wide variations in agrarian property systems, social authority systems

Labour Power TypologyPolitical Capacity(left votes as % of

electorate)

economicCapacity(union mems as% of non-aglabour force

Belgium Sweden, UK

France, Canada, USNetherlands

INDIAFinland, Italy

Conclusion• 1999 Election: return of BJP-led

coalition• BJP pro-business, Hindu nationalist• Economic devel not listed as major

concern of public- major focus of govt

Conclusion- Powell’s Typology

• According to Powell’s typology, this movement away from secular party is of no concern

• More importantly- will coalition function?

• Unlikely to attain 2/3 majority in future- reliance on coalitions, opposition

• Extremism unlikely

Conclusion- Labour Power Typology

• Capacity of labour to influence government?

• Concern with business interests, foreign investment

• Decline in left votes• Labour willingness to accept new govt

emphasis?• Possible change in grouping

And finally...• Every Indian election reminds us forcibly

that a deep-rooted, strong democracy is possible in what at first glance seems like unfertile ground–enormous numbers of poor people, 40 percent illiterate, deeply divided by language and religion, with significant inequality derived from social and religious norms. The gradual percolation of power downward toward the grassroots is also impressive.

• Some relevant public opinion survey data are now available. In answer to the question "Do you think your vote has an effect on how things are run in this country, or do you think your vote makes no difference?" 59 percent of the respondents in 1996 said their vote "has an effect”(up from 49 percent in 1971), and 21percent said it makes no difference. To the question of whether government would be run better "without parties or assemblies and elections” the response was: 11 percent agreed, and 69 percent disagreed. All of this confirms the judgment of observers in election after election that the commitment to democratic functioning in India has increased and is at a very high level.