Typologies of culture

HIGH AND LOW CONTEXT CULTURE (E.T.HALL)

• Low-context cultures – information and rules are explicit (e.g. USA)

• High-context cultures – information and rules are implicit (e.g. African cultures,

Latin American)

GEERT HOFSTEDE

CULTURAL TYPOLOGY

Includes three broad dimensions:

• Expected Social Behavior (Individualistic or group; Low or high power distance; masculine or feminine).

• Man’s search for truth (high or low uncertainty avoidance).

• Importance of time (short term or long term orientation).

Geert Hofstede’s cultural typology

• based upon a study of 100,000 IBM employees who work in IBM divisions throughout the world.

• dimensions of culture: – Power Distance– Uncertainty Avoidance– Individualism/Collectivism– Masculinity/Femininity– Long-Term Orientation

Power Distance (PD)

• Measures the extent to which less powerful members of organizations accept the unequal distribution of power

• Artifacts of high PD:– Centralization– # Org. Levels- Height– # Supervisors– Wage Differentials– Values

Power Distance (PD)Power distance: country examples and organizational implications

Power Distance (PD)Rank distinctions among the Japanese

Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)

• Uncertainty Avoidance is the extent to which uncertainty and ambiguity are tolerated.

• Artifacts of high UA:– Standardization– Structured activities– Written rules– Specialists– No risk tolerance– Ritualistic behavior

Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)Uncertainty avoidance: country examples and

organizational implications

Individualism/Collectivism (I/C)

• I/C is the extent to which the self or the group constitutes the center point of identification for the individual.

• Individual self interest is pursued individually, or as a part of a group.

• Artifacts of I/C– Firm as “family”– Utilitarian decision making– Group performance

Individualism/Collectivism

• Individualism exists when people define themselves as individuals. It implies loosely knit social frameworks in which people are supposed to take care only of themselves and their immediate families.

• Collectivism is characterized by tight social frameworks in which people distinguish between their own groups (i.e., relatives, organizations) and other groups.

Individualism/Collectivism (I/C)Individualism/collectivism: country examples and

organizational implications

Masculinity-Femininity (M/F)

• Refers to the extent to which traditional masculine values, like aggressiveness and assertiveness, are valued.

• Artifacts of M/F– Sex Roles Minimized– More Women In Jobs– Interpersonal Skills Rewarded– Intuitive Skills Rewarded– Social Rewards Valued

• MASCULINITY measures the extent to which the dominant values in society emphasize assertiveness and acquisition of money things while not particularly emphasizing concern for people.

• FEMININITY is the extent to which

dominant values in society emphasize relationships among people, concern for others, and the overall quality of life.

Masculinity-Femininity (M/F)Masculinity/femininity: country examples and

organizational implications

Long-Term Orientation (LTO)

• Confucian Dynamism (synonym)

• Values: thrift, persistence, and traditional respect of social obligations

• Organizations are likely to adopt longer planning horizon, with individuals ready to delay gratification.

Long-Term Orientation (LTO)Country scores on Confucian dynamism (long-term orientation)

VALUE ORIENTATION

Florence Kluckhohn and Fred Strodtbeck

value orientations are deeply held beliefs about the way the world should be, and not necessarily the way it is

human nature orientation

• innate character of human nature

• should human beings be seen as good, evil, or a mixture of ?

• are human beings capable of change (mutable) or are not able to change (immutable)?

person-nature orientation

the potential types of relations between humans and nature

(mastery over nature, harmony with nature, or subjugation to nature)

relational orientation

• INDIVIDUALISM

• LINEALITY

• COLLATERALLY

relational orientation individualism

preference for individual goals and objectives over group objectives

relational orientation lineality

focuses on the group and group goals crucial issue is the continuity of the group through time

relational orientation laterality

focuses on the value of the group, group members goals but not the group extended through time

activity orientation

• Doing

• Being

• Being-in-becoming (growing)

activity orientationdoing

emphasizes productivity and tangible outcomes

activity orientationbeing

spontaneity, emotional gratification, and personal balanaсe

activity orientation final activity orientation, being-in-

becoming

concerned with who we are and places importance on spiritual development

time orientation

examines how cultures come to terms with the past, the present, and the future

past orientation

predominates in cultures placing a high value on tradition and emphasizing ancestors and strong family ties

present orientation

predominates where people see only the here and now as real — the past is seen as unimportant and the future is seen as vague and unpredictable

future orientation

highly values change and progress

QUESTIONS?