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International Energy Agency
Geothermal Implementing Agreement
Annex X: Data Collection and Information
TRENDS IN GEOTHERMAL APPLICATIONS
Survey Report on Geothermal Utilization and Development
in IEA-GIA Member Countries in 2010
with trends in geothermal power generation and heat use 2000 - 2010
IEA GEOTHERMAL
GIA Trends Report 2010
IEA-GIA
Britta Ganz with contributions from Betina Bendall, Romain Vernier, Lothar Wissing, Jónas Ketilsson, Paolo Romagnoli, Yoonho Song, David Nieva, Chris Bromley, Mike Mongillo, Jíri Muller, Carmen Roa Tortosa, Margarita de Gregorio, Rudolf Minder, Jay Nathwani
Corresponding Author: Britta Ganz, Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics, 30655 Hanover, Germany. Email: [email protected] Front-page images (clockwise direction from upper left): Krafla power plant in Iceland (ThinkGeoEnergy, www.flickr.com); Wellhead at Soultz-sous-Forêts, France (photo courtesy of Groupements Européen d´Interêt Économique (GEIE) - Exploitation Minière de la Chaleur); Hot spring at the Azores (photo courtesy Sandra Schumacher; Drill bit (ThinkGeoEnergy, www.flickr.com); Drilling site for ADP Orly, France (photo courtesy CDG Services). Rear page image: Power plant Soultz-sous-Forêts,France. (photo courtesy Energivie)
Publication of the IEA Geothermal Implementing Agreement, July 2012. www.iea-gia.org
38 pages, with 19 tables and 18 figures. IEA-GIA Secretariat: Dr. Mike Mongillo, GNS Science, Wairakei Research Centre Private Bag 2000, Taupo 3352, New Zealand. Email: [email protected]
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TRENDS IN GEOTHERMAL APPLICATIONS
Survey Report on Geothermal Utilization and Development
in IEA-GIA Member Countries in 2010
with trends in geothermal power generation and heat uses 2000 - 2010
Table of Contents 1 Introduction 3
1.1 Foreword 3
1.2 Glossary, units and abbreviations 4
2 Geothermal Applications Data 6
2.1 Geothermal power 7
Trends 2000 - 2010: Installed capacity 8
Trends 2000 - 2010: Electricity produced 10
2.2 Direct use of geothermal heat 12
Centralized installations for direct use 12
Small decentralized units for geothermal heat use
(ground source heat pumps) 14
Trends in geothermal heat utilization 2000 - 2010 16
3 CO2- and Energy Savings 17
3.1 Energy savings by geothermal applications 17
3.2 Carbon dioxide emission savings 17
4 Employees, Costs, Investments 19
5 Energy Market and National Policy 20
5.1 The role of geothermal in national policy 20
5.2 Share of geothermal energy in the national energy mix 25
5.3 Funding Instruments 25
6 Geothermal Highlights and HSE Management 28
7 References 35
2
Figures
Figure 1: Geothermal energy and uses. 3 Figure 2: Hot spring at the Azores. 5 Figure 3: Geothermal power generation and heat produced in 2010 in GIA countries and worldwide (2010). 6 Figure 4: Kalina cycle plant in Unterhaching, Germany. 7 Figure 5: Installed capacities in GIA countries and worldwide 2000 - 2010. 9 Figure 6: Installed capacities in GIA countries 2000 - 2010. 9 Figure 7: Geothermal power generation in GIA countries and worldwide 2000 - 2010. 11 Figure 8: Geothermal power generation in GIA countries 2000 - 2010. 11 Figure 9: Geothermal use for bathing: Peninsula Hot Springs, Australia. 12 Figure 10: Principle of GSHP Systems using borehole heat exchangers. 14 Figure 11: Installed capacity of geothermal heat uses in GIA countries and worldwide 2000 - 2010. 16 Figure 12: Annual heat use in GIA countries and worldwide 2000 - 2010. 16 Figure 13: CO2 emissions of different plant types. 18 Figure 14: The Larderello geothermal field, Italy. 21 Figure 15: The 2.5 MW EGS plant in Soultz-sous-Forêts, France. 28 Figure 16: The world´s hottest well: Flow test of IDDP-1 in Krafla, Iceland. 30 Figure 17: The Wairakei geothermal power station, New Zealand. 31 Figure 18: Geyser in Yellowstone US National Park. 33
Tables
Table 1: Energy units and prefixes. 4 Table 2: Participating countries (ISO 3166 country codes) and exchange rates. 4 Table 3: Geothermal power generation in GIA countries and worldwide in 2010. 7 Table 4: Installed electric capacities (MWe) in GIA countries and worldwide 2000 - 2010. 8 Table 5: Geothermal electricity (GWh/a) produced in GIA Countries and worldwide from 2000 to 2010. 10 Table 6: Installed capacities for direct heat use (other than heat pumps) in GIA countries in 2010. 12 Table 7: Direct use of geothermal heat in GIA countries in 2010. Heat use in a) GWh and b) TJ/year. 13 Table 8: Ground source heat pumps in GIA countries: installed capacity and energy use. 15 Table 9: Geothermal heat use in GIA Countries in 2010. . 15 Table 10: Fossil fuel savings by geothermal energy uses. 17 Table 11: CO2 savings for geothermal electricity. 17 Table 12: CO2 savings by geothermal heat uses. 18 Table 13: Capital investments in the geothermal market in selected countries. 19 Table 14: Professional personnel employed in geothermal related jobs in selected countries in 2010. 19 Table 15: Primary energy demand and share of geothermal. 25 Table 16: 2010 Electricity price, production costs for geothermal power, and feed-in tariffs. 25 Table 17: Public support for geothermal RD&D projects in 2010. 25 Table 18: REC programs for geothermal energy. 26 Table 19: Carbon taxes as stated in the Annex X National Reports 2010. 27
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Figure 1: Geothermal energy and uses. (photo courtesy BRGM, E. Lüschen, S. Schumacher, G.Ó. Friðleifsson/IDDP)
1 Introduction
1.1 Foreword
The International Energy Agency (IEA) is an intergov-ernmental organization which acts as an energy poli-cy advisor to 28 member countries in their effort to ensure reliable, affordable and clean energy for their citizens. Founded during the oil crisis of 1973-74, the IEA’s initial role was to co-ordinate measures in times of oil supply emergencies. As energy markets have changed, the IEA´s role has broadened to in-corporate the “Three E’s” of balanced energy policy making: energy security, economic development and environmental protection.
To promote international scientific collaboration and to foster research, development and deployment of particular technologies the IEA created a legal con-tract, the Implementing Agreement, and a system of standard rules and regulations. The Geothermal Im-plementing Agreement (GIA), founded in 1997, is a task-sharing agreement and is now in its third five-year operating period which will end in 2013.
The management of the organization (or implement-ing agreement) is headed by an Executive Commit-tee composed of one participant from each country, while the management of different tasks is in the re-sponsibility of the Operating Agents and their task leaders. Presently the GIA has 19 members: 13 coun-tries - Australia, France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Ja-pan, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Republic of Ko-rea, Spain, Switzerland, the United States; the Euro-pean Union, and five sponsors: the Canadian Geo-thermal Energy Association, Geodynamics Limited, the Geothermal Group of the Spanish Renewable
Energy Association, Green Rock Energy Limited and ORMAT Technologies Inc.
The GIA´s activities presently cover five different re-search areas, termed annexes: Annex I- Environmen-tal Impacts of Geothermal Development, Annex III- Enhanced Geothermal Systems, Annex VII- Advanced Geothermal Drilling and Logging Technologies, An-nex VIII- Direct Use of Geothermal Energy and Annex XI- Induced Seismicity. A new activity within the GIA, Annex X, is the collection and analysis of consistent statistical data on geothermal energy applications with first results presented in this report. To receive comparable data, a questionnaire was developed and distributed in 2011. The resulting Annex X Na-tional Reports provide the basis for the data collec-tion presented here. To provide trends and a com-parison with geothermal uses worldwide, additional data sources, such as the publications associated with the World Geothermal Congress, have been included.
The IEA-GIA Report “Trends in Geothermal Applica-tions” (2010) presents an annual collection of stand-ardized data from the 13 GIA member countries. These efforts extend the information provided in the more general GIA Annual Reports. Future trend reports will supply substantial information on geo-thermal application and aim to illustrate trends in geothermal energy use.
For further information see the GIA´s website www.iea-gia.org.
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1.2 Glossary, units and abbreviations
Units for Energy and Capacity
Capacity (thermal, electric): Watt [Wt], [We] Energy produced: Watt-hour [Wh]; Joule [J]
Table 1: Energy units and prefixes.
1 Megawatt-hour [MWh] 1,000 Kilowatt-hours [kWh] 1 Million Watt-hours [Wh] 1 Gigawatt-hour [GWh] 1 Million Kilowatt-hours [kWh] 1 Billion Watt-hours [Wh]
1 Terawatt-hour [TWh] 3.6 Petajoule [PJ] 1 Gigawatt-hour [GWh] 3.6 Terajoule [TJ] 1 Petajoule [PJ] 0.2778 Terawatt-hours [TWh] 1 Terajoule [PJ] 0.2778 Gigawatt-hours [TWh]
Exchange rates and country codes
Table 2: Participating countries (ISO 3166 country codes) and exchange rates. The conversion from national currency to US$ was based on exchange rates as follows (dated 01 July 2010):
Country Country code Currency and code Exchange rate 01 July 2010 1 USD/ US$ =
Australia AUS Australian Dollar (AUD) 1.20 AUD France FRA Euro (EUR) 0.82 EUR Germany DEU Euro (EUR) 0.82 EUR Iceland ISL Icelandic Krone (ISK) 128,20 ISK Italy ITA Euro (EUR) 0.82 EUR Japan JPN Yen (JPY) 87,72 JPY Mexico MEX Mexican Peso (MXP) 12,95 MXP Rep. of Korea KOR Korean Won (KRW) 1,228.65 KRW New Zealand NZL New Zealand Dollar (NZD) 1.47 NZD Norway NOR Norwegian Krone (NOK) 6.53 NOK Spain ESP Euro (EUR) 0.82 EUR Switzerland CHE Swiss Frank (CHF) 1.07 CHF United States of America USA US Dollar (USD or US$) 1 USD
Abbreviations
IEA International Energy Agency GIA Geothermal Implementing Agreement R&D research and development RD&D research, development and demonstration COP coefficient of performance SPF seasonal performance factor GSHP/ GHP ground source heat pump / geothermal heat pump BHE borehole heat exchanger toe tonnes of oil equivalent na (data) not available M million EGS enhanced/ engineered geothermal system
Kilo- (k) 103 Mega- (M) 106 Giga- (G) 109 Tera- (T) 1012 Peta- (P) 1015 Exa- (E) 1018
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Glossary
CAPACITY FACTOR: Indication of the amount of use over a given period of time, usually one year. For power generation, the capacity factor is the ratio of the actual output of a power plant to its out-put if operated at full nameplate capacity over a given time. A capacity factor of 1 would indicate a year-round use, and 0.5 would indicate a use of 4,380 full-load hours per year (Lund et al., 2005).
COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (COP) / SEASONAL PERFOR-
MANCE FACTOR (SPF): The COP describes the effi-ciency of ground source heat pumps. It is the ra-tio of the output energy divided by the input en-ergy (electricity) and usually varies from 3 to 6 (Curtis et al., 2005). In Europe, this is frequently referred to as the SPF, which is the average COP over the heating and cooling season and takes in-to account system properties (ibid.).
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY: Heat energy which is contained within the Earth. Geothermal energy derives from residual heat from the original formation of the Earth and from decay of naturally occurring radioactive isotopes. Heat from radioactive decay is estimated to contribute about half of Earth’s total heat flux in newer studies (KamLAND Col-laboration, 2011).
GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS: Three basic plant types are used for electric power generation by geo-thermal sources: Dry steam plants use hot steam piped directly
from a geothermal reservoir to drive the turbines which spin a generator to produce electric power. Flash steam plants are the most common form of geothermal plants. They use high-pressure hot water and convert it to steam to drive the tur-bines. The cooled steam condenses to water which is injected back into the ground to avoid a depletion of the reservoir. Binary cycle power plants transfer the heat from geothermal hot water to another liquid in a se-cond cycle. By passing the geothermal fluid through a heat exchanger, the working fluid is vaporized, and its vapor is used to drive a tur-bine, which spins a generator to produce power. The vapor is then condensed and reused in a closed cycle (USA Annex X National Report 2010). ORC plants use organic working fluids, Kalina Cy-cle Plants use a mixture of water and ammonia (Figure 4).
HIGH/ MEDIUM/ LOW ENTHALPY GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR: The enthalpy of a reservoir is used to express the thermal energy content of a system and is the most common criterion to classify geothermal re-sources (Dickson & Fanelli, 2004). A standard terminology to define low, intermediate or high enthalpy geothermal systems does not exist. The IPCC geothermal report 2008 (Fridleifsson et al., 2008) specifies a reservoir fluid temperature of 180° C as the boundary between low and high
enthalpy and may serve as a guide value. The threshold for low/medium enthalpy is fre-quently given at 100 °C.
INSTALLED CAPACITY: Nameplate energy output of a power plant or thermal power station.
OPERATING CAPACITY: Actual en-ergy output of a plant.
THERMAL WATERS / BRINES: Natu-rally occurring waters with temperatures > 20 °C.
Figure 2: Hot spring at the Azores. (photo courtesy S. Schumacher)
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Figure 3: Geothermal power generation and heat produced in 2010 in GIA countries and worldwide (2010). Heat data based on estimated geothermal contribution where possible. Data: GIA Annex X National Reports 2010; * = data from Bertani, 2011 (power) or Lund, 2011 (heat); map: The World Factbook 2007, CIA, www.cia.gov).
2 Geothermal Applications Data
Geothermal energy can be used for a wide range of applications from standard 12 kW heat pump systems in residential buildings up to geothermal power plants with an electric capacity of 100 MW and more. The application depends mainly on the system´s heat content (enthalpy) and on the desig-nated use of the geothermal source. For geothermal power generation usually a minimum fluid tempera-ture of 100 °C is required.
Geothermal Heat and Power 2010 -
an Overview
With the signing of the IEA Geothermal Implement-ing Agreement, the presently 13 GIA member coun-tries have declared their intention to promote the sustainable utilization of geothermal energy world-wide. Accounting for 60 % of the world´s geothermal power generation and about half of the geothermal heat produced worldwide, GIA members contribute a considerable share of the geothermal energy use worldwide. Figure 3 gives an overview of the geo-thermal energy produced in GIA countries.
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Figure 4: Kalina cycle plant in Unterhaching, Germany. (© Geothermie Unterhaching)
2.1 Geothermal power
Installed capacity and energy produced 2010
Table 3: Geothermal power generation in GIA countries and worldwide in 2010. cf = capacity factor. Data from Annex X National Reports; data Japan from GIA Annual Report 2011; data world: Bertani, 2011.
The designed output of a power plant is indicated by its installed capacity which is denoted in Watts [W]. How much energy is actually produced is given by the plant´s capacity factor.
In 2010, nine of 13 GIA countries had available units for geothermal power generation with eight coun-tries actually producing electricity. The total installed capacity in GIA countries accounted for 6,870 MW of the nearly 11,000 MW installed capaci-ty worldwide (Table 3). With 3,100 MWe installed, the USA contributes the largest share of geothermal capacities in GIA coun-tries, followed by Mexico, Italy, New Zealand, Ice-land, and Japan (Table 3, Figure 6). The produced electricity worldwide exceeded 67,000 GWh in 2010 (Bertani, 2011), with GIA countries contributing about 40,000 GWh/a. The average capacity factor is 0.7 worldwide and similar in GIA countries, indicat-ing that average geothermal plants are being oper-ated about 6,000 full load hours per year. The capac-ity factor varies widely among GIA countries, with a maximum of 0.9 or nearly 8,000 full load hours in Iceland followed by New Zealand and Mexico each with a capacity factor of about 0.8. Low capacity fac-tors indicate that units were not in operation during part of the year. Downtimes can be due to mainte-nance, repair work, or the commissioning of a new plant part way through the respective year.
Country Installed capacity
MW
Energy produced
GWh/a cf
AUS 0.1 0.0 0.0
DEU 7.3 27.5 0.4
FRA 18.3 14.9 0.1
ISL 575.0 4,465.0 0.9
ITA 882.5 5,376.0 0.7
JPN 537.7 2,908.0 0.6
MEX 958.0 6,618.0 0.8
NZL 792.0 5,551.0 0.8
USA 3,101.6 15,009.0 0.6
total GIA 6,872.5 39,969.4 0.7
World 10,898.0 67,246.0 0.7
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Trends 2000 - 2010: Installed capacity
From 2000 to 2010, the installed capacity for geo-thermal power generation worldwide (Huttrer, 2000; Bertani, 2005, 2007, 2011) has grown from about 8,000 MW to 11,000 MW, an increase of 38 %. In the same period, the capacity installed in GIA countries shows a similar increase of about 40 % from nearly 5,000 MW installed in 2000 to 6,870 MW in 2010, which equates about 63 % of the installed capacity worldwide (Table 4, Figure 5). In non GIA countries, the Philippines with 1,904 MWe and Indonesia with 1,297 MWe have the largest share of installed geothermal capacity (Bertani, 2011), accounting for 75 % of the difference between the capacity worldwide and the capacity for geothermal power generation in GIA countries.
This makes clear that a rather small number of coun-tries contributes significantly to the world´s geo-thermal power generation.
The USA accounts for the largest proportion of total increase and installed capacity in GIA countries with an increase of about 900 MW over the past ten years up to a total 3,100 MW installed in 2010. Significant growth is also reported from Iceland (405 MW in-crease), New Zealand (355 MW increase), and Mexi-co (203 MW increase) (Table 4, Figure 6).
Geothermal power generation: trends in installed capacity [MW] 2000 - 2010
Table 4: Installed electric capacities (MWe) in GIA countries and worldwide 2000 - 2010. Data: Countries 2010 from Annex X National Reports; countries 2002-2004, 2006-2009: GIA Annual Reports; countries 2005: Bertani (2011) and GIA Annual Report 2005; world 2005 and 2010: Bertani (2011); world 2007: Bertani (2007); world and countries 2000: Huttrer (2000).
Installed capacity (MWe)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
AUS 0.17 na 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.20 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.10
DEU 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 3.23 6.60 6.60 7.32
FRA 4.20 na 4.20 na na 15.00 15.00 15.00 17.20 17.20 18.30
ISL 170.00 na 170.00 200.00 202.00 202.00 422.00 485.00 575.00 575.00 575.00
ITA 785.00 na na 862.00 862.00 791.00 810.00 810.00 810.50 842.50 882.50
JPN 547.00 na 535.00 535.00 535.00 535.25 535.25 535.25 535.25 535.25 537.71
MEX 755.00 na 853.00 953.00 953.00 953.00 953.00 958.00 958.00 958.00 958.00
NZL 437.00 na na 431.00 452.00 435.00 450.00 452.00 632.00 632.00 792.00
USA 2,228.00 na 2,212.00 2,200.00 2,400.00 2,534.00 2,831.00 2,936.50 3,040.00 3,168.00 3,101.60
total GIA 4,926.37 na na 5,181.35 5,404.35 5,465.68 6,016.60 6,195.10 6,574.67 6,734.67 6,872.53
World 7,974.00 na na na na 8,903.00 na 9,732.00 na na 10,898.00
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0
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2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
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W]
Australia, Germany, France Iceland
Mexico
New Zealand
Japan Italy
USA
Trends in geothermal power generation: installed capacity worldwide and in GIA countries 2000 - 2010
Trends in geothermal power generation: installed capacity in selected GIA countries 2000 - 2010
0
2,000
4,000
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8,000
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2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
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Figure 5: Installed capacities in GIA countries and worldwide 2000 - 2010.
Figure 6: Installed capacities in GIA countries 2000 - 2010.
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Trends 2000 - 2010: Electricity produced From 2000 to 2010, the electricity produced in geo-thermal power plants worldwide has increased about 37 % from about 49,000 GWh in 2000 to over 67,000 GWh in 2010 (Huttrer, 2000; Bertani, 2005, 2007, 2011). In GIA countries, the electricity genera-tion grew from about 32,500 GWh in 2000 to nearly 40,000 GWh in 2010, an increase of about 23 % in ten years (Table 5, Figure 7). In 2010, the geothermal power produced in the nine GIA countries made up nearly 60 % of the world´s total geothermal power generation, a slight decrease compared to 66 % in 2000. Significant growth is reported from Iceland, which has nearly tripled production (3,327 GWh increase) and New Zealand with about twice as much power generation in 2010 than ten years be-fore (3,283 GWh increase).
Italy and Mexico also increased their geothermal power generation about 1,000 GWh each. A small but constant growth is reported from Germany which commissioned its first plant at the end of 2003. Other countries show stagnation or even de-crease in their geothermal electricity production, however. Japan´s production shows a slight decrease over the decade; and while the installed capacities in the United States have increased significantly in the past ten years, actual geothermal power generation in the US has fluctuated with 2010 levels of genera-tion slightly below data recorded in 2000 (Figure 8). However, these deviations are mainly due to a change in calculation methods.
Electricity produced 2000 - 2010 [GWh/a]
Table 5: Geothermal electricity (GWh/a) produced in GIA Countries and worldwide from 2000 to 2010. Data sources: Countries 2010: Annex X National Reports; countries 2002-2004, 2006 - 2009: GIA Annual Reports; countries 2005: Bertani (2011), and GIA Annual Report 2005; world 2005 and 2010: Bertani (2011); world 2007: calculated by installed capacity given in Bertani (2007) using a capacity factor of 0.7; world and countries 2000: Huttrer (2000).
Geothermal electricity produced (GWh/a)
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
AUS 0.90 na 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.50 0.70 0.53 0.77 0.60 0.00
DEU 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.50 1.50 1.50 0.40 18.00 19.00 27.52
FRA 24.60 na 24.60 na na 102.00 102.00 95.00 90.00 89.00 14.90
ISL 1,138.00 na 1,395.00 1,433.00 1,433.00 1,483.00 2,631.00 3,600.00 4,000.00 4,553.00 4,465.00
ITA 4,403.00 na na 5,036.00 5,127.00 5,340.00 5,200.00 5,233.00 5,181.00 5,200.00 5,376.00
JPN 3,532.00 na 3,437.00 3,437.00 3,486.00 3,467.00 3,228.00 3,102.00 3,064.00 2,765.00 2,908.00
MEX 5,681.00 na 5,398.00 6,283.00 6,360.00 6,282.00 6,685.00 7,393.00 7,056.00 6,740.00 6,618.00
NZL 2,268.00 na na 2,643.00 2,774.00 2,774.00 3,210.00 3,272.00 3,962.00 4,542.00 5,551.00
USA 15,470.00 na 13,000.00 13,357.00 16,000.00 16,840.00 16,250.00 14,500.00 15,000.00 15,000.00 15,009.00
total GIA 32,517.50 na na 32,190.00 35,182.50 36,290.00 37,308.20 37,195.93 38,371.77 38,908.60 39,969.42
World 49,261.00 na na na na 55,709.00 na 59,676.62 na na 67,246.00
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0
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Geothermal electricity produced worldwide and in GIA countries 2000 - 2010
Geothermal electricity produced in GIA countries 2000 - 2010
Figure 7: Geothermal power generation in GIA countries and worldwide 2000 - 2010.
0
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Mexico
USA
Italy
Japan
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Australia + Germany + France
Figure 8: Geothermal power generation in GIA countries 2000 - 2010.
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Figure 9: Geothermal use for bathing: Peninsula Hot Springs, Australia. (© ThinkGeoEnergy 2011, www.flickr.com)
2.2 Direct use of geothermal heat
Centralized installations for direct use Thermal waters for direct heat uses usually originate from deep geothermal aquifers produced at the sur-face from wells at depths of over 400 m. In high en-thalpy fields the necessary water temperature may be reached near the earth´s surface due to a high geothermal gradient. In hydrothermal power devel-opments, the separated waste water can also be used for heating purposes. Common direct heat ap-plications are district and space heating (which are not always clearly separated in national statistics), bathing (Figure 9) and the heating of greenhouses.
In some regions the geothermal heat is used for snow melting, aquaculture/ fish farming or industrial applications. Direct uses of geothermal heat in GIA countries account for an installed capacity of nearly 6,500 MWt with the most important categories for being district and space heating with an estimated value of about 2,550 MWt installed.
Iceland and Japan, with about 2,000 MWt each, have the largest proportion of the total installed thermal capacity (Table 6).
Geothermal Heat Use (centralized): Installed
capacity
Table 6: Installed capacities for direct heat use (other than heat pumps) in GIA countries in 2010. Data: Annex X National Reports 2010; data Japan from GIA Annual Report 2010.
Country MWt installed (2010) Country MWt installed
(2010)
AUS 106.0 JPN 2,086.2
CHE 39.0 KOR 43.6
DEU 183.1 MEX 156.0
ESP 22.3 NOR 0.0
FRA 345.0 NZL 385.0
ISL 2,061.3 USA 563.8
ITA 500.0 total 6,491.3
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Table 7 shows the heat used in GIA countries for direct use excluding ground source heat pumps (GHSP). The total heat use amounted to nearly 26,000 GWh/ 93,000 TJ in 2010.
If values for installed capacity were stated but values for the produced heat were not provided, the annual heat use was calculated using capacity factors for various categories of use given in Lund et al. (2011) by the following equation (Pester et al., 2007):
E = (P *8760 *capacity factor)/1,000 with E = annual production in GWh, P = installed capacity in MW, 8760 hours = 1 year
Space and district heating make up the largest por-tion of total uses together amounting to over 9,000 GWh. Due to a widespread use of geothermal springs for bathing; Japan is the largest user of geo-thermal heat with over 7,000 GWh, followed by Ice-land with 6,800 GWh and Italy with about 3,000 GWh (Table 7).
Table 7: Direct use of geothermal heat in GIA countries in 2010. Heat use in a) GWh and b) TJ/year (categories other than heat pumps). Data: Annex X National Reports 2010; Japan, Norway, and world: Lund 2011.
a) Category uses (other than heat pumps): energy produced in 2010 (GWh/a)
AUS CHE DEU ESP FRA ISL ITA JPN KOR MEX NOR NZL USA total
District heating 0.0 0.0 300.0 0.0 1,508.4 0.0 548.6 269.3 8.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 173.4 2,808.4
Space heating 317.6 0.0 0.8 10.0 0.0 5,226.0 298.6 0.0 14.8 0.0 0.0 250.0 237.7 6,355.6
Cascaded uses 0.0 10.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 425.0 0.0 435.3
Bathing / swimming 36.4 238.0 379.4 19.0 0.0 431.0 1,166.6 775.0 141.0 710.6 0.0 280.0 673.5 4,850.6
Greenhouses 0.0 0.0 0.0 22.0 0.0 195.0 416.7 125.5 0.4 0.0 0.0 105.0 314.6 1,179.1
Agriculture, crop drying 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 84.8 84.8
Aquaculture / Fish farming 0.0 24.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 487.0 500.0 39.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 777.1 1,827.5
Industry 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 222.0 97.2 8.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 1,730.0 21.3 2,079.1
Snow Melting 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 272.0 0.0 143.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.6 420.0
Other 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5,758.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.0 0.0 5,778.3
total 354.1 272.3 680.2 51.0 1,508.4 6,833.0 3,027.7 7,119.5 164.9 710.6 0.0 2,810.0 2,287.0 25,818.6
b) Category uses (other than heat pumps): energy produced in 2010 (TJ/a)
AUS CHE DEU ESP FRA ISL ITA JPN KOR MEX NOR NZL USA total
District heating 0.0 0.0 1,080.0 0.0 5,430.2 0.0 1,974.9 969.5 31.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 624.2 10,110.1
Space heating 1,143.5 0.0 2.9 36.0 0.0 18,813.6 1,075.0 0.0 53.4 0.0 0.0 900.0 855.7 22,880.1
Cascaded uses 0.0 37.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1,530.0 0.0 1,567.1
Bathing / swimming 131.2 856.8 1,365.8 68.4 0.0 1,551.6 4,199.9 2,790.1 507.6 2,558.2 0.0 1,008.0 2,424.6 17,462.2
Greenhouses 0.0 0.0 0.0 79.2 0.0 702.0 1,499.9 451.7 1.3 0.0 0.0 378.0 1,132.6 4,244.8
Agriculture, crop drying 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 305.3 305.3
Aquaculture / Fish farming 0.0 86.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 1,753.2 1,800.0 141.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2,797.6 6,579.0
Industry 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 799.2 349.9 30.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 6,228.0 76.7 7,484.7
Snow Melting 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 979.2 0.0 516.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.6 1,512.0
Other 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 20,729.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 72.0 0.0 20,801.7
total 1,274.7 980.3 2,448.7 183.6 5,430.2 24,598.8 10,899.6 25,630.1 593.6 2,558.2 0.0 10,116.0 8,233.2 92,947.0
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Small decentralized units for geothermal
heat use (ground source heat pumps)
Residential space heating with ground source heat pumps (GSHP) or geothermal heat pumps (GHP) is the most common application of geothermal energy. According to Lund et al. (2011) geothermal heat pumps account for 69.7 % of the total installed ca-pacity and 49 % of total geothermal energy used. Heat pump systems extract heat energy from aqui-fers and ground with temperatures between 5 °C and 30 °C using heat exchangers. Common systems in residential buildings are ground source or ground water coupled heat pumps using borehole heat ex-changers, wells, and horizontal collectors (Figure 10). Common heat pump systems for residential re-quirements have installed capacities of about 10 to 15 kWt; the annual full load hours differ due to re-gional aspects and modes of use. For heating and cooling of larger buildings, such as offices, commer-cial buildings and schools, ground source heat pump systems using borehole heat exchangers (BHE), groundwater wells or energy piles are becoming increasingly popular.
Large GSHP systems may deliver up to some hundreds of kW in heating capacity (Sanner, 2005). For the GIA Trends Report, we aimed to distin-guish between private use of small GSHP units and utilization in com-mercial and public buildings. Howev-er, in most countries statistics on such systems are poor and reliable data were often not available. There-fore, data on small residential sys-tems and larger systems are com-bined in this report.
Number of GSHP installations
Only four countries reported on the number of total and newly installed units, so an estimation of the total number of GSHP units in GIA coun-tries is not possible. Switzerland states 73,488 GSHP units with 6,479 new installations, France 151,938 GSHP units (12,250 new), Germany about 240,000 geothermal heat pumps (24,500 new), and the United States about 1 million installations
with about 100,000 new units in 2010.
Installed capacity and heat use
Table 9 shows the installed capacity and heat pro-duced by GSHP installations in GIA countries. For this report, we asked for the pure geothermal contribu-tion of GSHP installations (renewable part). This ta-ble contains only data for heat pumps in the heating mode. We are aiming at reporting on cooling use of heat pumps systems in future reports, too. Calculations: 1. Annual heat use: If the reports did not provide data for annual heat use and full load hours/year, these values have been calculated assuming an av-erage installed capacity of 12 kWt and a mean runtime of 2,200 full load hours/year, as stated in Lund et al. (2011) as average values for common heat pump systems.
2. Geothermal contribution: Heat pumps using geo-thermal heat need auxiliary pow-er - usually electricity - to oper-ate. The geothermal contribution (the renewable part of the ener-gy input) to heat production can be calculated according to Annex VII of the EU directive “Renewa-ble Energy” by the equation:
Egeothermal = Qusable * (1 - 1/SPF)
with Egeothermal = geothermal energy in kWt Qusable = the estimated total usable heat delivered by heat pumps in kWt SPF = seasonal performance factor For the calculation, a mean SPF of 3.5 is used following various au-thors (Sonnen-froh et al., 2010; Curtis et al., 2005). The SPF equates the average coefficient of performance (COP) of the heating and cooling season and takes into account system prop-erties (Curtis et al., 2005).
Figure 10: Principle of GSHP Systems using borehole heat exchangers. The yellow arrow shows the average ge-othermal gradient. The enthalpy of near-surface systems, indicated by the shal-low cavities on the left side, derives mainly from solar radiation. Image: Courtesy of State Authority for Mining, Energy and Geology, Lower Saxony, Germany (LBEG).
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Heat pump utilization 2010
In 2010, the total installed capacity of geothermal heat pumps in GIA countries accounted for over 19 GWt with an estimated geothermal contribution of 14.5 GWt, more than twice the capacity of all other
thermal uses. The annual heat use was nearly 30,000 GWh or over 100,000 TJ, making over half of the in-stalled capacity and heat use by GSHP systems worldwide (Table 8).
Table 8: Ground source heat pumps in GIA countries: installed capacity and energy use. Data: Annex X National Reports 2010; Norway and Japan from WGC country updates (Middttømme, 2010; Sugino & Akeno, 2010); data world from Lund et al. (2011). Calculation methods see above.
Total direct uses 2010
Table 9: Geothermal heat use in GIA Countries in 2010. Data from Annex X National Reports (2010); Norway, Japan, and world from Lund (2011).
In 2010, 78 countries worldwide were utilizing geo-thermal energy for direct heat uses with a total in-stalled capacity of 48,493 MWt and an annual use of 117,740 GWh/year (Lund et al., 2011). Direct use in GIA countries amounted to nearly 26,000 MWt inst-
alled capacity with an estimated geothermal contri-bution of about 21,000 MWt. The total heat use in GIA countries in 2010 amounted to over 55,000 GWh/200,000 TJ in 2010, accounting for nearly half of the worldwide direct use capacity (Table 9).
Installed capacity
(total) [MWt] Installed capacity
(geothermal) [MWt] Annual heat use
[GWh/a] Annual heat use
[TJ/a] AUS 26.00 26.00 11.00 39.60
FRA 1,671.30 1,253.50 2,535.30 9,127.08
DEU 2,880.00 2,057.14 2,500.00 9,000.00
ISL 4.00 2.90 6.30 22.68
ITA 500.00 500.00 472.20 1,699.92
JPN 13.36 13.36 18.85 67.86
MEX 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
NZL 0.00 0.00 11.00 39.60
NOR 1,000.00 1,000.00 3,000.00 10,800.00
KOR 229.80 164.23 250.90 903.24
ESP 70.00 52.50 140.00 504.00
CHE 1,327.00 915.60 1,714.30 6,171.48
USA 12,000.00 8,571.43 18,857.10 67,885.56
total GIA 19,721.50 14,556.50 29,517.00 106,261.00
World* 33,134.00 55,597.00 200,149.00
Geothermal Heat Installed capacity (total and estimated geothermal contribution) (MWt) and energy use (GWh, TJ)
Country Installed capacity (total) [MWt]
Estimated geothermal con-tribution [MWt]
Heat use (estimated geo-thermal contribution)
[GWh/a ]
Heat use (estimated geothermal contribution)
[TJ/a]
AUS 132.00 132.00 365.08 1,314.29
CHE 1,366.00 954.60 1,986.60 7,151.76
DEU 3,063.10 2,240.24 3,180.20 11,448.72
ESP 92.28 74.78 191.00 687.60
FRA 2,016.30 1,598.50 4,043.70 14,557.32
ISL 2,065.34 2,064.24 6,839.30 24,621.48
ITA 1,000.00 1,000.00 3,499.85 12,599.47
JPN 2,099.07 2,099.07 7,138.31 25,697.92
KOR 273.40 207.83 415.80 1,496.88
MEX 156.00 156.00 710.61 2,558.20
NOR 1,000.00 1,000.00 3,000.00 10,800.00
NZL 385.00 385.00 2,821.00 10,155.60
USA 12,563.80 9,135.23 21,144.10 76,118.76
total GIA 26,212.00 21,047.50 55,335.50 199,207.00
World 48,493.00 117,740.00 423,830.00
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Trends in geothermal heat utilization
2000 - 2010 Due to different methods of collecting data, GIA An-nex X heat use data sometimes differ from data in other publications, such as Lund et al. (2011, 2007, and 2005) and the WGC country updates. Further-more, data collections do not always cover exactly the same period: Lund et al. (2011) state the end of 2009 as reference date for direct use data worldwide in 2010, whereas our 2010 report refers to energy uses in 2010. This makes an approach to show trends from 2000 onward much more complicated than for
geothermal electricity, where data are generally bet-ter documented in national statistics. Figure 11 and 12 show the installed capacities and heat use of geo-thermal energy worldwide (based on data from Lund et al. 2001, 2005, 2011) and GIA countries. Presum-ably the slight decrease in 2010 heat use results from the attempt to include only the geothermal contribution of heat pumps in the Annex X data. If total installed capacities were used here, the red line would follow the dashed line.
Figure 11: Installed capacity (MWt) of geothermal heat uses in GIA countries and worldwide 2000 - 2010. Figure based on data from Lund et al. (2001, 2005 - countries and world, 2010: world); GIA Annual Reports (Executive Summaries) 2007, 2008, 2009, and GIA Annex X National Reports 2010.
Figure 12: Annual heat use (GWh/year) in GIA countries and worldwide 2000 - 2010. Figure based on data from Lund et al. (2001: all data, 2005 - countries and world, 2010: world only); GIA Annual Reports (Executive Summaries) 2007, 2008, 2009, and GIA Annex X National Reports 2010.
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
inst
alle
d ca
paci
ty [M
Wt]
World
GIA Countries
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
annu
al h
eat u
se [G
Wh/
a]
(geothermal contribution only)
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3 CO2- and Energy Savings Energy and CO2 savings by geothermal applications are calculated using the GIA conversion (Mongillo, 2005).
3.1 Energy savings by geothermal
applications
The fuel oil savings factors in the following table are based on the GIA Conversion (Mongillo, 2005) as-suming an efficiency factor of 35 % if the competing energy is used to replace electricity and an efficiency factor of 70 % for direct burning to produce heat ac-cording to Lund et al. (2005). The fossil fuel savings (Table 10) are estimated using the values for geo-thermal produced electricity and heat given in the previous chapter.
3.2 Carbon dioxide emission
savings
CO2 savings for geothermal power generation
The following CO2 savings (Table 11) are calculated using savings factors given by Lund et al. (2005) as-suming an efficiency factor of 35 % for production of electricity. The savings are calculated by the equa-tion [energy produced * savings factor].
Table 10: Fossil fuel savings by geothermal energy uses. Calculation based on values for produced electric-ity and geothermal heat (all uses) given in the Annex X National Reports, Lund (2011) (data Norway), and GIA Annual Report 2011 (data Japan), respectively. toe = tonnes of oil equivalent
Fossil fuel savings for geothermal power
generation [toe]
Fuel savings for geo-thermal heat & pow-er utilizations [toe]
AUS 0 1,394
CHE 0 251,702
DEU 6,974 94,587
ESP 0 22,223
FRA 3,776 516,119
ICE 1,131,431 1,997,969
ITA 1,362,278 1,865,557
JPN 776,418 1,047,416
KOR 0 52,679
MEX 1,677,001 1,767,034
NOR 0 380,100
NZL 1,406,623 1,764,044
USA 3,803,281 6,192,481
total 10,167,782 15,953,305
Table 11: CO2 savings for geothermal electricity. Calculation based on values for produced electricity from Annex X National Reports 2010 and the GIA Annual Re-port 2011 (data Japan).
CO2 emission savings for geothermal power generation [tonnes of CO2 ]
for gas for oil for coal
AUS 0 1 2
CHE 0 0 0
DEU 5,311 22,484 26,227
ESP 0 0 0
FRA 2,876 12,173 14,200
ICE 861,745 3,755,749 4,380,941
ITA 1,037,568 3,647,905 4,255,145
JPN 0 2,503,288 2,919,992
KOR 0 0 0
MEX 1,277,274 5,406,906 6,306,954
NOR 0 0 0
NZL 1,071,343 4,535,167 5,290,103
USA 2,896,737 12,262,353 14,303,577
total 7,152,854 32,146,027 37,497,140
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Figure 13 shows the CO2 emissions of different con-ventional plant types. If the energy source is brown coal, modern plants emit about 0.94 kg CO2 per kWh produced. CO2 emissions from burning hard coal are about 0.73 kg CO2/kWh, and for gas 0.35 kg CO2/kWh (Federal Environment Agency, Germany). A rather small conventional plant with 200 MW in-stalled operating 6,000 full load hours/year would produce over 1 million t CO2/year, a gas plant of the same size about 400,000 tonnes of CO2/year. The total CO2 savings by geothermal power generation account for 37.5 million tonnes of CO2 for coal and over 7 million tonnes of CO2 for the replacement of gas.
CO2 Savings for Geothermal Heat
CO2 savings calculations in Table 12 are based on CO2 savings factors used according to Lund et al. (2005) assuming an efficiency factor of 70 % for direct burn-ing to produce heat and based on the values for geo-thermal heat production in the previous chapter. The savings are calculated by [energy produced *savings factor].
Table 12: CO2 savings by geothermal heat uses. Calculation based on values for geothermal heat from Annex X National Reports 2010, Norway based on value in Lund (2011), Japan from GIA Annual Report 2011.
CO2 emission savings for geothermal heat in tonnes of CO2 for the replaced energy source
for gas for oil for coal
AUS 1,067 4,499 5,247
CHE 192,700 812,519 947,608
DEU 67,076 282,824 329,846
ESP 13,580 57,260 66,780
FRA 392,244 1,653,894 1,928,869
ISL 682,811 2,879,068 3,357,739
ITA 385,304 1,624,633 1,894,744
JPN 692,473 2,919,810 3,405,255
KOR 40,331 170,054 198,327
MEX 68,928 290,635 338,956
NOR 291,000 1,227,000 1,431,000
NZL 273,637 1,153,789 1,345,617
USA 1,829,143 7,712,571 8,994,857
total 4,930,294 20,788,557 24,244,846
Figure 13: CO2 emissions of different plant types (German Federal Environment Agency, modified). (Background picture: Coal plant in Germany © 2006 Bruno & Lígia Rodrigues, from www.flickr.com)
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Table 13: Capital investments in the geothermal market in selected countries. Data from Annex X National Reports 2010.
Capital investments in the geothermal market 2010 (US$)
power heat heat pump market total
CHE 10,000,000 300,000,000 310,000,000
DEU 850,000,000
FRA 17,125,000 153,125,000 170,250,000
ITA 140,000,000 140,000,000
KOR 1,009,000 86,690,000 87,699,000
NZL 400,000,000 400,000,000
USA 700,000,000 700,000,000
total 1,250,000,000 18,134,000 539,815,000 2,657,949,000
4 Employees, Costs, Investments
Costs for geothermal installations
Information on costs for geothermal installations was mostly not available. The average costs per Mega-Watt installed electric capacity for geothermal power plants was around US$ 2.2 million in Mexico, US$ 2.5 to 3 million in Iceland and New Zealand, and US$ 5 million per MWe installed in Italy. Costs for heating plants were only reported from France (US$ 1.5 million per MWt installed). Average costs for geo-thermal heat pumps systems for residential use are given with US$ 1,000/kWt installed capacity in Korea, US$ 2,000/kWt in Germany and US$ 4,000/kWt in Switzerland.
Capital investments
Capital investments in the geothermal market - for power plants, heating installations and heat pumps - were only partially available. However, Table 13 lists the available data on capital investments for geo-thermal energy uses. These data may not be com-plete or representative, but the total investment of over US$ 2.5 billion in seven countries indicates that geothermal energy can be regionally an economic factor of some importance.
Employees
Reliable numbers of employees in geothermal relat-ed jobs in 2010 were often not available, so the total number of over 43,000 people (Table 14) employed in the geothermal sector is a rough approximation of professional personnel in the geo-thermal sector.
Table 14: Professional personnel employed in geothermal related jobs in selected coun-tries in 2010. Data from Annex X National Reports 2010.
Professional personnel in the geothermal sector in selected countries
CHE 1,200 DEU 13,000 ESP 415 FRA 8,029 ISL 210 ITA 1,250 JPN 500 KOR 130 NZL 320 USA 18,300 total 43,404
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5 Energy Market and National
Policy
5.1 The role of geothermal in national
policy
Geothermal energy can contribute to a more sus-tainable energy supply as it is considered an eco-friendly, low-emission form of energy. In some coun-tries, geothermal energy is part of national energy strategies and greenhouse gas emission plans. An overview of how geothermal fits into the national energy strategy, if it is part of policy concepts to re-duce greenhouse gas emissions, and of support mechanisms and legal regulations in selected GIA member countries, is presented here.
France
• In 2009, France decided a target of 23 % of renew-able energies in its energy mix for 2020. This objective is written in the European Renewables Directive 2009/28/EC and in the French law (law 2009-967 of August 2009: "Programmation relative à la mise en œuvre du Grenelle de l'environnement").
• France has defined precise objectives for geo-thermal heat in 2012 and 2020: - Direct use: from 1.5 TWh in 2006 to 2.3 TWh in
2012 and 5.8 TWh in 2020. - Geothermal heat pumps: from 1.0 TWh in 2006
to 3.9 TWh in 2012 and 6.6 TWh in 2020. - Geothermal heat use is thus expected to multiply
by 5 between 2006 and 2020 whereas the gen-eral objective for renewable heat is a factor of 2.
• A renewable heat fund has been put in place to fund projects related to industry, collective hous-ing and commercial buildings. US$ 1.5 billion have been allocated to cover the 2009 to 2013 period, for all renewable energies. The principle is to bridge the financial gap between a project using renewable heat and a reference solution (natural gas). Development of heating networks and subsi-dies for feasibility studies can also be funded. In addition, there is a tax reduction for heating networks using more than 50 % renewable energy (the tax paid by the customer is 5.5 % instead of 19.6 %).
• Geothermal electricity is expected to reach 80 MW in France in 2020. There are two main is-sues with this objective: Provide French islands (French West Indies and La Réunion) with a decarbonized energy, replacing the actual thermal electricity production at a rea-sonable cost.
• Acquire a good experience in EGS projects to de-velop this energy in a larger way by 2050.
• A higher feed-in tariff was put in place in July 2010. It is now US$ 160/MWh overseas and US$ 250/MWh on the mainland, with a bonus up to $ 80 if there is a use of the coproduced heat.
Germany
• The strong market development for deep geo-thermal energy in Germany can primarily be at-tributed to the Renewable Energy Sources Act which, with its scale of feed-in tariffs, creates an encouraging economic environment for the opera-tion of geothermal plants. With the adoption of the amended law on 6 June 2008, the German Par-liament significantly improved the conditions for geothermal energy. Whereas the maximum tariff had previously been US$ 0.19/kWh, depending on the size of the plant, under the new provisions the basic tariff increased to US$ 0.2/kWh supplied. US$ 0.13/kWh is paid for plants with a capacity of 10 MWe or more and an additional bonus of US$ 0.05/kWh for plants commissioned before the end of 2015. A further bonus of 0.05 US$/kWh has been introduced for EGS techniques (use of hot rock) to encourage the market launch of innovative technologies. Operators who use the waste heat from their plants are eligible for a further US$ 0.04/kWh.
• The market incentive program focuses on heat-generating deep geothermal systems, e.g., the funding of power or heating plants and of manu-facturing costs for deep boreholes. Unforeseen ad-ditional costs incurred due to the technical risks as-sociated with deep boreholes are also eligible for subsidies. The market incentive program also sup-ports district heating networks that run on renew-able resources.
• As part of the market incentive program and in col-laboration with the KfW banking group and Munich
21
Figure 14: The Larderello geothermal field, Italy. (photo courtesy E. Lüschen)
Re, the Federal Environment Ministry (BMU) has created a new loan program to provide long-term financing for deep geothermal drilling. The loan program helps to hedge the discovery risk for hy-drothermal projects, i.e., the risk of failing to find sufficient temperatures or water volumes. Special loans from KfW will finance up to 80 % of the drill-ing costs, including stimulation measures. If the re-quired production rates and temperatures can be achieved, the funds become available for use in another project. If the drilling is unsuccessful, this loan need not be repaid. In order to ensure that the largest possible number of drilling projects can be financed through the loan program, the risk of failure is limited by strict application requirements and screening procedures. In this way, one of the main barriers to the faster market development of deep geothermal projects is minimized.
Iceland
• As it provides reliable base load, green energy and favorable prices, geothermal power is competitive with hydropower in Iceland (current retail price US$ 0.07 + VAT for 3.5 MWh/a consumption, but can get considerably lower for the power in-tensive industry due to very high load fac-tors). It is estimated that the installation cost of a relatively large geothermal power plant is around US$ 2.5 to 3 million /MW with about 2 % annual maintenance and operation costs.
• It is the policy of the Icelandic Government to increase the utilization of renewable energy resources even further for the power inten-sive industry, direct use and transport sector. A broad consensus on conservation of valua-ble natural areas has been influenced by so-cial opposition against large hydropower and some geothermal projects, however.
• In 1997, the Icelandic Government decided to develop a Master Plan for potential power projects. All proposed projects are being evaluated and categorized based on their en-ergy efficiency and economics but also on the possible impacts on the environment. The Master Plan has been presented to the Ice-landic Parliament and the final ranking for projects will be completed in 2012.
• The high demand of electricity for power in-tensive industries resulting from the favora-ble prices of electricity has resulted in large-
scale geothermal power development in Iceland. Power intensive industries accounted for about 80 % of the total consumption in 2010. Due to the success in Iceland, the geothermal industry has been increasingly exporting the know-how to other countries, both as consultants and as investors at the feasibility stage.
• The government gives grants to various projects with emphasis on finding usable geothermal water for space heating in areas where resources have not yet been found. A group for stimulating the market development has been formed by all the major players in the industry.
Italy
• Geothermal energy is included in the national energy strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emis-sions. The Italian policy supports the development of renewable resources using a different approach, with a tariff depending on the size of the plant.
• Feed-in tariff for smaller plants (installed capacity lower than 1 MW); in 2010, this tariff reached an average value of US$ 250/MWh.
22
• RECs/Green Certificates: The mechanism of Re-newable Energy Certificates is alternative to the Green Certificate or, in general terms, to other kinds of incentives. Green Certificates are consid-ered the most important way to offer an incentive for the development of renewable energy: electric-ity operators of non-renewable sources have to supply a portion of their input from renewable sources by generating directly or by purchasing the rights from other producers. This obligation gener-ates a market for the green energy rights, the so called “Green Certificates” (GC) that sustain the renewable sources. All new power plants produc-ing electricity from renewable sources have the right to sell the electricity as GC for duration of 15 years. The 2010 value of Green Certificate was US$ 111/MWh which, like RECs, should be added to the market value of the energy.
Republic of Korea
• The Korean government has set The 3rd New and Renewable Energy Basic Plan which is a subsidiary of the First National Energy Master Plan (2008-2030). According to the plan, it is aimed for new and renewable energy to cover 11 % of the total primary energy supply and 7.7 % of the electricity generation by 2030. The target for geothermal energy is 3.8 % of the total new and renewable energy contribution, which means only 0.42 % of the total primary energy. Considering the rapid in-crease of geothermal heat pump (GHP) installa-tions, it is expected that geothermal can cover a larger proportion of about 1 % of total primary energy, however. Main incentives for the rapid increase in GHP installations are the active government subsidy program and a special act for new and renewable energy.
• There are several subsidy programs - Deployment Subsidy Program, Rural Deployment Program, One Million Green Homes by 2020 Program - by which the government subsidizes 50 % of the total instal-lation costs based on competition as the budget is pre-determined each year. Another powerful sub-sidy program enacted in 2010 is the Greenhouse Deployment Program for which the central gov-ernment subsidizes 50 % and local governments cover 30 %, so rural farmers only have to pay 20 % of the GHP installation costs for greenhouses. The annual market for this special program is expected to reach US$ 163 million in 2011.
• In 2004, the Mandatory Public Renewable Energy Use Act came into effect. It states that “…in con-
struction of all public buildings with an area over 3,000 m2, more than 5 % of total budget must be used to install renewable energy equipment.” Ac-cording to the Act, GHP installation plans amount-ing to a total of 70 MWt in 2009 and 78 MWt in 2010 were reported, which will be completed two or three years after planning due to construction times.
• There is no electricity generation yet. However, a five-year term pilot plant EGS project was launched at the end of 2010 which is a partly gov-ernment funded and industry matching RD&D pro-gram. The geothermal community in Korea expects 20 MWe from one EGS power plant by 2020 and 200 MWe (10 sites) by 2030 using EGS technology.
Mexico
Development of all renewable energy sources has been established as a priority by the Federal Gov-ernment of Mexico. However, as yet there are no feed-in tariffs or fiscal benefits in effect; a special tariff is applicable for the case of renewable energy. It is accurate to state that, for the most part, power generation with geothermal energy is considered conventional in Mexico, and thus it is set to compete under the same conditions as fossil fuel, convention-al hydropower and nuclear technologies.
New Zealand
• The National Party Government has recently re-affirmed its commitment to a policy of 90 % re-newable electricity in NZ by 2025; noting that growth in geothermal has largely been responsible for achieving 74 % of renewable electricity by 2010, up from 65 % in 2008.
• The New Zealand Energy Strategy document, re-cently completed, recognizes the potential benefits of future development of low-temperature shallow resources, and unexplored high-temperature deep geothermal resources, in addition to the known resources.
• The 2010 Electricity Industry Act allowed electrici-ty distribution (lines) companies to invest in geo-thermal and hydro generation within their own dis-tribution area (this was previously not allowed, without special dispensation).
• Accelerated development is achievable because economics are favorable (geothermal is currently the cheapest option for new power generation), and because geothermal resources are allocated to any applicant through Regional Councils on the basis of assessing potential effects and negotiated
23
land access agreements alone; no royalties or con-cession fees are payable.
• Through a National Policy Statement, the govern-ment has directed local councils to take into account the national significance of a reliable and secure transmission system, and electricity supply from renewable sources. Central government has made submissions in support of consent applica-tions to local authorities for geothermal develop-ments, to reinforce the national significance of de-veloping renewable indigenous resources. Regional Councils have established policies and plans to guide the management and allocation of geother-mal resources for development or protection. In-dependent Peer Review Panels provide an ongoing review function for each project to ensure sustain-able development, and environmental compliance.
• A carbon tax of NZ$ 25 (US$ 17/tonne) for CO2 equivalent emissions has been introduced and ap-plied to all electricity producers (with a 50 % dis-count for the first year). The Climate Change (Emis-sions Trading) Response Bill has been enacted and is operational. Some small geothermal projects have benefitted financially from the international carbon credit scheme.
Norway
• Deep geothermal resources: The Norwegian gov-ernment has formulated ambitious targets for the deployment of renewable energy sources in Nor-way in the Energy21 strategic document. However, the targets for deep geothermal lag behind other renewables. The Energy21 states: “There is cur-rently a relatively limited activity related to the uti-lization of deep geothermal energy. There are still some smaller operators who see the possibilities for exploitation of this energy resource.”
• The high drilling costs, which account for 50 - 70 % of the project costs, are considered the biggest re-straint for the utilization of deep geothermal ener-gy. Companies with interest in geothermal energy mainly have a background in the oil and gas indus-try. Norwegian companies may have opportunities to serve such a market, but this is not yet a devel-oped market. Generally, the development of a large Norwegian market for deep geothermal heat in the short to medium term is not very likely.
• There are still large unused shallow geothermal resources which are expected to be developed first. In some foreign markets, such plants are prof-itable without subsidies.
• Ambitions for deep geothermal focus on the de-
velopment of drilling technologies in hard rocks as a strategic research objective and the support of business initiatives with potential for value crea-tion in the area.
• Ground Source Heat Pumps: Many of the largest closed-loop GHP systems in Europe using bore-holes as ground heat exchangers are located in Norway. The Energy21 document summarizes aims to increase the use of heat pump systems and to improve knowledge and competence.
• Strategic research objectives focus on new tech-nologies with the potential for lower costs and higher efficiency, and the development of freely available computer models to calculate the profit-ability of heat pump technology uses. Further-more, it is intended to develop local and district heating plants that use low-temperature energy.
• Acts for implementation are e.g., the support business initiatives, information offers for potential users and experts, strengthening of market orient-ed measures, and field measurements to identify best solutions and the communication of the re-sults.
Spain
• Geothermal is part of a series of national strategy papers and regulations in Spain, see also chapter 6. The development and use of geothermal energy is regulated by several legislations:
• Mining Legislation: Geothermal resources are in-cluded in the mining legislation. Access to research and use must be conducted according to the re-spective legislation.
• Environmental Legislation: In numerous phases before the exploitation of the resource, environ-mental impact assessments must be carried out.
• Water Legislation: In many cases, consultation with the hydraulic authority is also necessary to avoid possible problems that may affect the geo-thermal resource.
• Energy Legislation: The applied legislation depends on the final use of the geothermal resource. There are regulations concerning electricity production, applicable special regimes, thermal installations in buildings, etc. In addition, different local (mostly municipal) legislations must be taken into account which may have an effect on these resources.
• Housing Legislation (energy aspects): Technical Building Code (R.D. 314/2006, of 17 March).
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Switzerland
• Laws and regulations: Switzerland's energy policy and strategy are framed predominantly by the En-ergy Law, laws and regulations governing the use of water, the Electricity Law, laws and regulations governing nuclear energy and protection against radiation, the Pipeline Law and the CO2-Law.
• Geothermal energy is considered a renewable en-ergy and enjoys a principal role for reaching targets with respect to greenhouse gas emission goals, amount of electricity generated utilizing renewable energy sources and the amount of heat sold to consumers.
• Building on the Energy and CO2 Law, the principal policy instruments are the framework program SwissEnergy, designed to (1) reduce CO2 emissions by 10 % by 2010 compared to the 1990 level, in accordance with CO2 legislation; (2) limit the increase in electricity consumption to a maximum of 5 % relative to the 2000 level; and (3) increase the contribution of renewable energy to electricity production by 0.5 TWh, and to heat production by 3.0 TWh.
• In addition, there exist general laws and regula-tions allowing the Swiss Confederation to engage in and support research and development activi-ties (Art. 64 of the Constitution and the Federal Research and Innovation Promotion Act and specif-ic articles in the Energy Law and related Ordinance and CO2 Law).
USA
• The mission of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is to discover the solutions to power and se-cure America’s future. The Geothermal Technolo-gies Program (the Program) will help the Depart-ment achieve this mission by accelerating the arri-val and use of new technologies. Geothermal ener-gy is an enormous, underused heat and power re-source that is renewable, clean, capable for base load and domestic. The Program promotes scien-tific and technological innovation in support of advancing the national, economic and security in-terests of the United States.
• In addition, geothermal technologies will improve the quality of the environment by reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and environmental im-pacts on land, water, and air from energy produc-tion and use.
• Modern closed-loop geothermal power plants emit no greenhouse gases and consume less water on average over the lifetime energy output than most conventional generation technologies.
• In 2010, the Government Performance and Re-sults (GPRA) Modernization Act was passed to im-prove the performance of the Federal Govern-ment. In order to implement the Act, Federal agencies identified ambitious, outcome-focused, near-term High Priority Performance Goals (HPPGs).
• The Program supports a U.S. Department of Energy HHPG to “double renewable energy generating capacity (excluding conventional hydropower) to 60 GW by 2012.” The United States is the world leader in installed geothermal capacity with ap-proximately 3 GWe of installed capacity. The geo-thermal industry is developing an additional 1.6 GWe, and geothermal development is expanding into new geographic areas.
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5.2 Share of geothermal energy in
the national energy mix
Total demand of primary energy and propor-
tion of geothermal energy in GIA countries
Table 15 shows the primary energy demand and the contribution of geothermal energy to the primary energy, which is presently still negligible in the larger industrial nations with a portion of 1 % and less of the national energy demand. From the reporting ten GIA member nations, geothermal today plays a major role in two, New Zealand and Iceland.
5.3 Funding Instruments
a) Feed-in tariff and electricity price
Table 16 shows the average electricity prices in GIA countries, which are highest in Germany, Australia, and Switzerland. Iceland, Korea, and Spain have the lowest energy prices. Few countries reported on the production costs for geothermal power, which are e.g., very high in Germany due to a lack of high en-thalpy reservoirs. In high enthalpy regions like Ice-land and New Zealand, the low generation costs make geothermal competitive with other energy forms. These countries do not offer feed-in tariffs for geothermal, whereas high tariffs are granted in Switzerland, Germany, and France.
b) Governmental expenditure on geothermal
RD&D projects
Only a few countries reported on governmental funding for geothermal RD&D projects, hence the sparse data in Table 17. The support for geothermal projects in these six countries already totals US$ 127 million, showing a large interest in the research and development of this energy form.
Table 15: Primary energy demand (reference year 2009) and share of geothermal. .. = data not available; *= conversion from Mtoe to PJ based on IEA numbers (IEA Key Statistics 2011)
National Energy demand and share of geothermal energy
Mtoe (IEA Key
Energy Sta-tistics 2011)
Calculated demand in
PJ *
% primary energy
supplied by geothermal
% of power generation supplied by geothermal
AUS 131.1 5,487.6 < 0.1 % < 0.1 %
CHE 27.0 1,128.3 0.6 0
DEU 318.5 13,336.2 0.11% 0.0001 %
ESP 126.5 5,297.1 0.01 0
FRA 256.2 10,727.4 0.21 % 0.003 %
ISL 5.2 218.6 66 27
ITA 164.6 6,892.7 1 1
JPN 472.0 19,761.3 .. ..
KOR 229.2 9,595.3 0.01 0
MEX 174.6 7,311.8 .. ..
NOR 28.2 1,182.4 .. ..
NZL 17.4 728.5 5.80 % 12.80 %
USA 2,162.9 90,557.1 0.036 0.0038
Table 17: Public support for geothermal RD&D projects in 2010. Data: Annex X National Reports 2010; .. = data not available.
Public support in US$
AUS ..
CHE 5,000,000
DEU 14,200,000
ESP ..
FRA ..
ISL 1,057,000
ITA ..
JPN ..
KOR 8,752,000
MEX ..
NOR ..
NZL 3,900,000
USA 94,000,000
Table 16: 2010 Electricity price, production costs for geo-thermal power, and feed-in tariffs in selected countries. Data source: Annex X National Reports 2010. *= data from IEA Key World Statistics 2011; .. = data not available.
Current aver-age electricity
retail price [US
cent/kWh]
Production costs for geo-
thermal power generation
[US cent/kWh]
Feed-in tariff for geothermal
electricity (max)
[US cent/kWh] AUS 31.67 .. ..
CHE 24.00 .. 47.62
DEU 36.00 36.00 36.00
ESP 7.30 .. 7.30
FRA 15.25 .. 35.00
ISL 2.40 2.40 0.00
ITA 28.00 5.78 25.00
JPN *23.00 .. ..
KOR 7.30 0.00 0.00
MEX 27.70 9.76 ..
NOR 17.00 .. ..
NZL *8.70 5.00 0.00
USA 9.88 .. ..
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c) Market incentives
As described below, some countries use market incentives or special credit offers to foster the development of geothermal projects or applications in residential buildings:
• France: In 2010, there was a 40 % tax reduction for individual housing; the tax only covers investments for heat pumps. At the end of 2010, it was decided that the 2011 rate would be 36 %, but this tax reduction would cover the heat pump and the geo-thermal heat exchanger.
• Germany: In addition to the combined heat and power bonus under the Renewable Energy Sources Act, the more widespread use of waste heat from geothermal energy generation will now also be en-couraged through the Act on the Promotion of Re-newable Energies in the Heat Sector (Renewable Energies Heat Act), which was adopted by the German Parliament on 6 June, 2008, and entered into force on 1 January, 2009. Under the Act, all owners of new buildings are obliged to purchase part of their heat demand from renewable energy sources.
• Republic of Korea: The governmental subsidy pro-gram One Million Green Homes by 2020 Project supports 50 % of the total installation costs based on competition. This project started in 2007 and geothermal heat pumps have been included from 2009 on. In 2010, US$ 9.9 million corresponding to 13.82 MWt were supported by the government.
• Spain: In 2010, geothermal projects have been subsidized for low-temperature heat pump and district heating at regional level, included in the subsidies of the Saving and Efficiency of the Re-newable Energy Plan for the 2005-2010 period. Furthermore, the GEOTCASA Program aims to en-courage the use of shallow geothermal energy in buildings for hot water, heating and air-conditioning through Energy Service Companies in order to provide an offer that meets the needs of users and the highest quality of service.
• Switzerland: Heat pumps using geothermal energy are subsidized by some cantons through energy ef-ficiency support programs. In addition, there exist guarantee schemes aimed at reducing the adverse financial impact in case of unsuccessful exploration projects.
• USA: In 2010, the Federal Production Tax Credit (PTC) was 0.021 US$/kWh for geothermal projects for the first ten years of operation. The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act
(ARRA) has extended the credit until 2013. The ARRA also created a Treasury Department Grant Program (section 1603) allowing geothermal prop-erty owners to apply for cash grants in lieu of PTCs or Investment Tax Credits (ITCs). Under Section 707 of the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization and Job Creation Act of 2010, this program was extended to projects placed in ser-vice after 2011, but only if construction of the property began during 2009, 2010 or 2011.
d) Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs)/
Renewable Energy Credits/ Green Certificates
A REC is a certificate which proves the origin of elec-tricity from a renewable source. The producer receives a certificate for each MWh of green electric-ity produced. A REC is tradable and can be used within trade and sale of green electricity as a proof of origin.
RECs are essential components to promote the pro-duction of electricity by renewable energy sources. In Europe, a system to control and certify green energy is already established (Website of RECS Ger-many www.recs-deutschland.de). However, geo-thermal energy is often not yet included in REC trad-ing (Table 18).
REC programs for geo-thermal?
AUS N
CHE N
DEU N
ESP N
FRA N
ISL N
ITA Y
JPN Y
KOR N
MEX N
NOR ..
NZL N
USA Y
Table 18: REC programs for geothermal energy. Data: Annex X National Reports 2010. Y = yes N = no; .. = data not available
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Table 19: Carbon taxes as stated in the Annex X National Reports 2010. Y = yes, N = no; .. = data not available
Country
Carbon Tax / emission fee?
Y - yes N - no .. not available
AUS N
CHE Y
DEU Y
ESP N
FRA N
ISL ..
ITA ..
JPN N
KOR N
MEX N
NOR ..
NZL Y
USA N
e) Other support/ renewable standards
Some countries have installed further support mechanisms for geothermal projects or installations as described below:
• France: Two risk mitigation schemes have been put into place by public authorities and are funded partly by two public funds, one for deep geother-mal projects and one for shallow. Both of them cover short term risks (initial flow rate and tem-perature) and long term risks (sustainability over 20 years).
• Germany: The Federal Environment Ministry´s market incentive program for renewable energies is another tool to stimulate the market for deep geothermal energy. The funding focuses on tech-nologies that generate heat from renewable ener-gies. This program offers financial grants for geo-thermal installations (with wells over 400 m deep): - For the construction of geothermal plants exclu-
sively for heating: 200 € (US$ 250)/kWth installed, maximum 2 million € (US$ 2.5 M)/ plant.
- For deep drilling: max. 2.5 million € (US$ 3 M)/ borehole, maximum 5 million € (US$ 6.2M)/ project.
- For deep drilling projects with higher risks and additional investments: up to 50 % of additional costs; maximum 1.25 million € (US$ 1.5 M)/ borehole.
• New Zealand: Government investment in drilling between 1950´s and 1980´s helped reduce uncer-tainties and risks for future development and drill-ing of proven or inferred geothermal resources. Applied research funded by the government (US$ 4 M per year) can provide free advice to support ge-othermal projects (developers pay for specific studies).
• Switzerland: The Canton of Thurgau will subsidize exploration wells that target direct use and power projects. The Swiss confederation has accrued a ~US$ 200 million fund to offset exploration risk for geothermal power projects.
f) Carbon tax / carbon emissions fee
Carbon tax in selected countries (Table 19): A carbon tax is an instrument of environmental cost internali-zation. It is an excise tax on the producers of raw fossil fuels based on the relative carbon content of those fuels (United Nations, Glossary of Environment Statistics 1997).
Two examples from GIA members show how carbon taxes are calculated and how renewables may bene-fit from the tax:
In New Zealand, the carbon tax is for industry and power producers set at NZ$ 25 (US$ 17)/tonne CO2 equivalent (discounted by 50 % for the first year). Benefit for geothermal comes from competitive pricing through open spot electricity market, allowing renewables such as geothermal and hydro to bid in at lower cost.
In Switzerland, fossil fuels are charged at a rate of 36 CHF (US$ 33) per tonne of CO2; the collected money is redistributed to the population.
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6 Geothermal Highlights and
HSE Management The following summary presents an overview of highlights in the geothermal energy sector in GIA countries. “Highlights” can be newly installed geo-thermal plants or planned projects as well as politi-cal support, investments, new research activities or other positive developments. The countries were also asked to report on challenges for the develop-ment of geothermal energy use or issues of Health, Security and Environment Management (HSE), such as problems with well integrity, plant availability, greenhouse gas emissions, induced seismicity, and social or political obstacles.
Australia
• Projects: Panax Geothermal Ltd drilled its first well Salamander 1 to reservoir depths (about 4,000 m) to test their hot sedimentary aquifer (HSA) within the Pretty Hill Formation of the Otway Basin in South Eastern Australia.
• Geodynamics Ltd undertook hydraulic stimulation of the Jolokia 1 well (at about 4,400 to 4,700 m depth) in South Australia´s Cooper Basin near the town of Innamincka.
• Governmental funding: The Australian Govern-ment’s primary mechanism for stimulating invest-ment in renewable energy is the expanded Renewable Energy Target (RET). As of 1 January 2011, the RET will be split into two parts - the Small-scale Renewable Energy Scheme (SRES) and
the Large-scale Renewable Energy Target (LRET). The LRET, covering large-scale renewable energy projects, will deliver the vast majority of the 2020 target (41,000 GWh). The SRES, covering small-scale technologies such as solar panels and solar hot water systems, will deliver the remainder of the target and provide a fixed price of $ 40 per MWh of electricity produced.
• A total of over AU$ 187 million (US$ 159 million) in Commonwealth geothermal grant contracts were allocated during 2010 under the Geothermal Drilling Program (GDP) and the Renewable Energy Demonstration Program (REDP).
France
New Projects in 2010: • ADP, the company running the Parisian airports,
has completed two geothermal wells (one for pro-duction, one for injection) for Orly airport in the Dogger aquifer (depth: 1,700 m; temperature: 75 °C). This 12.7 M € (US$ 15.5 M) project is a suc-cess. The plant delivers 10.5 MWt and will save more than 8,000 tonnes of CO2 per year.
• The ORC turbine of the Soultz-sous-Forêt EGS pilot plant (Figure 15) was started in September 2010 for several tests. It´s gross capacity is 2.5 MW for a net capacity of about 1.5 MW. During the tests, it has been operated at a lower level due to reduced flow rates compared to the initial objective.
Figure 15: The 2.5 MW EGS plant in Soultz-sous-Forêts, France. (photo courtesy of GEIE)
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The situation will probably improve in 2011; the plant will be connected to the electrical grid at the beginning of 2011.
Challenges/ HSE Management: The Bouillante geothermal plant in Guadeloupe has not produced much due to technical problems and improvement works performed on the wells and pipes. A partial reinjection is being put in place and will start in 2011. An exploration well for direct use was also drilled in 2010 in Gardanne (Provence), but it was a failure due to its low temperature.The French regulation scheme is being discussed because the current regulation has been written for deep projects and is not appropriate for small projects using geothermal heat pumps.
Germany
• Projects: At the end of 2010, some 15 geothermal projects were operating across Germany, and ap-plications for exploration permits had been sub-mitted for a further 150 sites. Two new heating plants were commissioned in Bavaria with an an-nual heat production of about 50 GWh or 180 TJ.
• Governmental Funding: In 2010, the Federal Envi-ronment Ministry (BMU) approved a total of 30 new projects with a funding volume of 15 million Euros (US$ 18.5 M). At the same time, 10 million € (US$ 12.5 M) were allocated to ongo-ing projects. In its funding announcement of 2008, BMU outlined its priority areas for research fund-ing in the field of geothermal energy. The R&D focus lies on the development and improvement of methods and techniques to min-imize exploration risks (borehole measurement instruments, pumps and equipment optimized for reliable operation in geothermal applications), improvement of drilling techniques used specifical-ly for tapping geothermal reservoirs, and devel-opment of methods and techniques to optimize the reservoir management (stimulation, monitor-ing). Furthermore, the government fosters the in-vestigation, optimization and development of methods and techniques for converting geother-mal energy (hot water and steam) into usable heat and electricity, e.g., cogeneration of pow-er/heat/cooling, ORC and Kalina process or inno-vative techniques, including combinations with other renewable energies, and the incorporation of geothermal energy into local supply systems (heat/electricity) in areas with a high multiplier potential.
• CO2-Savings: In 2010, the use of geothermal ener-gy for heating avoided 400,000 t of CO2 emissions.
• Economic relevance: In 2010, about 13,300 people were employed in the geothermal industry in Germany. Investments in geothermal heat pumps and power plants amounted to 850 million € (US$ 10.4 billion) in 2010.
Challenges/ HSE Management: On 15 August 2010, an earthquake with magnitude of 2.7 occurred in the region of Landau, a small city in the Upper Rhine Graben. The quake was associat-ed with the operation of the nearby geothermal power plant. The temblor was sudden and brief and accompanied by a sound that in some cases has been likened to a sonic boom. Nobody was injured and there was no known structural damage to build-ings in the city. However, the quake has raised fears and set off debate about the method’s safety in the state parliament, which had subsidized the construc-tion of the plant. During the year this incident at-tracted a lot of public attention and discussions about the safety of geothermal technology. The dis-cussion about the reasons for this incident disturbed many current projects, and additional risk analyses for geothermal projects were requested.
Iceland
New Projects: • Hottest Well - the Iceland Deep Drilling Project
(IDDP, Figure 16) started a new era in geothermal development. The main purpose is to find out if it is economically feasible to extract energy and chemicals out of hydrothermal systems at super-critical conditions. The drilling at Krafla was initi-ated in 2008 and continued in March 2009 by the largest drill rig in Iceland, Týr. At about 2 km depth, the rig ran into repeated trouble due to channels of molten lava. Superheated steam, rich with hydrochloric acid, entered the well and turned corrosive when mixed with liquid water. The well was completed with a casing cemented down to 2,000 m. With a fluid temperature of about 441°C, the well is now believed to be the hottest well in the world with a measured enthal-py of 3,400 kJ/kg. The estimated power output is on the order of 25 to 35 MWe.
• Outlook: IDDP-2 is likely to be in Reykjanes. For the Master Plan, research is ongoing on high-temperature geothermal areas.
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Figure 16: The world´s hottest well: flow test of IDDP-1 in Krafla, Iceland. (photo courtesy G.Ó. Friðleifsson, IDDP)
In addition, geothermal areas are be-ing searched for in nearby districts that do not have geothermal space heating and Orkustofnun is involved in a few heat pump installations.
• Funding: - The three major power companies in
Iceland each grant US$ 1.4 M for R&D of the IDDP, and are also responsible for drilling to 3.5 km depth in the respective permit areas with an estimated cost of about US$ 13.9 M per well. In 2010, the energy fund of Reykjavik Energy granted 45 M ISK (US$ 350,000) to 31 pro-jects, and the energy fund of Landsvirkjun Power 58 M ISK (US$ 450,000) to 41 projects.
- In the Master Plan for hydro and geo-thermal energy resources projects have been evaluated with respect to their envi-ronmental, social and economical impacts. The Parliament is now reviewing the results before passing the law on the Master Plan.
- GEORG, an international Geothermal Research Group with participation of the major power companies and research institutes, is financially supported by the Science and Technology Policy Council (RANNÍS) with up to 70 million ISK (US$ 0.6 M) annual contributions for seven years. The Energy Fund granted 23 M ISK (US$ 0.2 M) in to-tal to 18 projects in 2010.
- The total amount from Orkustofnun, which rep-resents the government on the steering commit-tee of the IDDP, is about US$ 4.6 M.
- The Icelandic International Development Agency (ICEIDA) is involved in geothermal R&D in devel-oping countries. A US$ 4 M project is being car-ried out in Nicaragua. In cooperation with the UN Environmental Program and other partners, ICEIDA also participates in a joint project with six states in North-eastern Africa to develop geo-thermal energy in the East African Rift.
Challenges/ HSE Management: A broad consensus on conservation of valuable nat-ural areas has been influenced by social opposition, increasing over the last decade, against large hydro-power and some geothermal projects. The Icelandic Government decided in 1997 to develop a Master Plan for potential power projects. All proposed pro-jects are being evaluated and categorized on their
energy efficiency and economics, and also on the basis of the impact that the power developments would have on the environment. The Master Plan has been presented to the Icelandic Parliament and the final ranking for projects will be done in 2012. Development constraints are mostly due to envi-ronmental issues and low electricity prices in Ice-land, though geothermal energy was looked upon more positively than hydropower in a recent nation-al review. Local issues do place constraints on drill-ing sites and access to them. As well, the visual im-pact of geothermal power plants is becoming in-creasingly important. Another development con-straint is the governmental subsidies for other ener-gy forms, amounting to nearly US$ 9 million in 2010, to communities where there is no access to geo-thermal water for space heating. The subsidies, alt-hough effective for regional development, can de-crease interest in the search for geothermal re-sources.
Republic of Korea
A five-year term pilot plant EGS project was launched at the end of 2010 which is a partly gov-ernment funded and partly industry matching RD&D program. Geothermal power generation is frequently considered impossible in Korea, so the future plant is expected to be an important corner-stone for the Korean geothermal community. Once the pilot project succeeds in generating electricity, a lot of investment from public companies and indus-tries can be expected. The geothermal community in
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Figure 17: The Wairakei geothermal power station, New Zealand. (© Norbert Rupp 2010, www.flickr.com)
Korea expects an installed capacity of 20 MWe in the EGS power plant by 2020 and 200 MWe by 2030 using EGS technology at a total of ten sites.
Challenges/ HSE Management: About 90 % of total installations of ground source heat pumps use borehole heat exchangers. It is like-ly that many systems are over-designed because of insufficient understanding of subsurface information such as thermal conductivity and hydraulic parame-ters. However, official reports deal with installed ca-pacity only and a rough estimate of produced ener-gy. Concerns about the need for accurate statistics, along with technical parameters such as heat exchanger type, actual COP monitoring, and so on, are growing.
Mexico
Progress in power generation: • The net installed capacity at the end of 2010 was
958 MWe, distributed among four geothermal fields as follows: Cerro Prieto (720 MWe), Los Azufres (188 MWe), Los Humeros (40 MWe) and Las Tres Vírgenes (10 MWe).
• In 2010, the construction of two new 25 MWe condensing units started at the Los Humeros geo-thermal field. Three of the current eight backpres-sure units in operation, 5 MWe each, are planned to be dismantled, and then the net additional ca-pacity in this field will be 35 MWe, to reach 75 MWe in total.
• Detailed geologic surveys were conducted in two geothermal zones (Cuitzeo Lake, Michoacán, and Chichonal Volcano, Chiapas) and two exploration wells were drilled in the Tulechek geothermal zone, State of Baja California.
• CFE (Federal Electricity Commission) is also work-ing on the development of 25 MWe in Cerritos Colorados, and on plans for replacing four old 5 MWe backpressure units in the Los Azufres field with one condensing unit of 50 MWe. CFE is also planning to develop the Acoculco field as its first EGS project.
New Zealand
• Power Generation: The Rotokawa NAP 140 MW triple flash plant and Te Huka 23 MW binary plant were successfully commissioned. The replacement of the 45 MW decommissioned Wairakei plant (Figure 17) by the Te Mihi 166 MW project was confirmed.
• New research into hotter and deeper resources and low enthalpy resources was initiated. The high-level of deep geothermal drilling (~30 wells per year) continues.
• Direct use expansions are reported from Kawerau, where the geothermal installation for the SCA pa-per mill (32 MWt, 300 TJ/yr), was commissioned. At Mokai, a geothermal plant for a dairy milk fac-tory (270 TJ/yr) is under construction.
• Outlook: The development of a 80-100 MW plant at Ngatamariki is consented and construction plans confirmed, a 250 MW application for Tauhara is approved. The plans for the Kawerau NSK embedded 20 MW expansions are confirmed.
• The results from exploration drilling of new 'greenfield' prospect (Taheke) are promising. Envi-ronmental management plans and allocation pro-cedure for Bay of Plenty Region geothermal fields have commenced the revision process.
• Other future plans include: 50 MW at Kawerau, 35 MW at Rotoma, 40 MW at Tikitere and 50 MW at Taheke.
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Spain
In Spain, there are around 150 MWt installed in di-rect use, which is not much compared to the coun-try´s geothermal potential. However, a rapidly grow-ing market and good future prospects are forecast for developments in the geothermal sector. In 2010, the Spanish geothermal sector worked on key aspects to enable the development of geothermal energy: • Inclusion of geothermal energy in the new Spanish
Renewable Energy Plan (PER) 2012 - 2020 and National Action Plan for Renewable Energy (NREAP) with the adoption of regulatory measures and the definition of pilot programs. Geothermal is also expected to be included in the Law on Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy to achieve the objectives of the EU Renewables Directive.
• Updating and permanent management of the knowledge pertaining to the Spanish geothermal potential.
• Development of RD&D programs aimed at signifi-cant reductions in generation costs and increasing system efficiencies.
• Vision 2030, a study published by the Spanish Ge-othermal Technology Platform (GEOPLAT), pre-sents an analysis of the state of the art of geo-thermal future scenarios. The Strategic Research Agenda aims to coordinate research activities, and to define objectives and milestones for the devel-opment of geothermal energy uses in Spain. It is the first time that a strategic report on the devel-opment of geothermal, agreed to by the industry, is presented in Spain.
• Development of a training and certification model that covers the different aspects of geothermal energy by the government and other agencies to support the development of geothermal uses by training and informing professionals.
• Financial support for the installation of geother-mal systems in buildings. The program GEOTCASA, released by the Institute for Diversification and Saving of Energy (IDAE), helps to finance geother-mal projects and to promote setting up quality offers.
• Geothermal power generation: Throughout Spain, more than 50 search permits are applied for.
Challenges/ HSE Management A number of constraints have hindered the imple-mentation of high and low enthalpy geothermal technology in Spain. Lower thermal demand and
energy costs in Spain explain part of the relatively slow development. The aim of the geothermal sec-tor is to prove that geothermal energy can play a significant role in the Spanish energy mix, if the re-quired support mechanisms are implemented within the next years and included in the renewable energy plans. The geothermal branch in Spain works on in-creased investment in low enthalpy geothermal en-ergy to enable the development of projects that are economically viable. Regarding R&D, the Document of Vision for 2030 of GEOPLAT shows an analysis of the geothermal sector and points out the most rele-vant challenges and opportunities for the future and, furthermore, presents scenarios for 2020 and 2030.
Switzerland
Switzerland's energy industry is dominated by local and regional utilities, often in majority ownership of cantons and the population. Within this framework, on 28 November 2010, the city utility of St. Gallen, a major centre in Eastern Switzerland, sought and received the approval in a referendum of the city population to spend US$ 200 million on a 2-well-geothermal combined heat-and-power project with a major expansion of a district heating network. Challenges/ HSE Management: There have been no reported significant incidents (fatalities, permanent disabilities, lost time injuries) due to the utilization of geothermal energy. Obtain-ing data is challenging owing to data and incident reporting. The Swiss Federal Office of Energy has published a number of studies related to operational challenges of ground source heat pumps: (1) Long-term operational experience with ground source heat pumps in Switzerland (published in German): www.bfe.admin.ch/forschunggeothermie/ 02484/02765/index.html?lang=de (2) Deep Ground Source Heat Pump Oftringen: Overhaul of a 706 m deep 40 mm-2-circle-PE-ground source heat pump: dislodged calcite scale caused progressive plugging of the pilot facility Tiefen-EWS Oftringen (published in German): www.bfe.admin.ch/forschunggeothermie/02484/ 02765/index.html?lang=de&dossier_id=04887. (3) Documentation of damages of borehole heat ex-changers (published in German): www.bfe.admin.ch/php/modules/enet/streamfile. php?file=000000009159.pdf&name=000000260072.pdf
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Figure 18: Geyser in Yellowstone US National Park. (© Reid Beels 2008, www.flickr.com)
No HSE related studies have been performed for hydrothermal systems. The Canton of Basel-City has published the Basel Seismic Risk Analysis in the wake of the induced seismicity attributable to the Basel EGS project: www.wsu.bs.ch/politikdossiers/ abgeschlossene-dossiers/geothermie.htm and links therein). For a summary see also the website of the Swiss Federal Office of Energy's website: http://www.bfe.admin.ch/forschunggeothermie/02484/02767/index.html?lang=de&dossier_id=04479 .
USA
• 15 MW Geothermal Power Plant in Nevada: In 2010, a 15 MW utility-scale geothermal plant (Jer-sey Valley) came online, providing additional re-newable energy to northern Nevada’s electricity grid. The plant is currently in commissioning, operating at partial load with final completion ex-pected in 2011.
• Geothermal energy capacity expanded by 6 % in the United States in 2009, due to six new geo-thermal plants which came online, adding 176.68 MW. Three projects came into service in Nevada, with one apiece in California, Oregon, and Utah. The total online capacity in the U.S. reached 3,152.72 MW as of August 2009, according to the Geothermal Energy Association (GEA).
• Dept. of Energy (DOE) offers $15 million for the Geothermal Heat Recovery Opportunity: In 2010, the Geothermal Technologies Program announced a $15 million funding opportunity to research and develop innovative methods for extracting heat from geothermal resources.
DOE is promoting the advancement and commer-cialization of technologies for heat recovery with environmental, technical, and financial risks that are potentially lower than currently available methods.
• The Funding Opportunity Announcement (FOA) seeks applicants to expand geothermal power generation into geologically diverse environments, such as permeable sedimentary formations that minimize the risk of rapid drawdown of a reser-voir's heat. The FOA also calls for the reduction of the cost of electricity for new methods of geo-thermal energy production from US$ 0.1 to US$ 0.06 $/kWh.
• DOE awards $20 million to develop geothermal power technologies: In 2010, DOE announced its selection of seven projects to research, develop, and demonstrate cutting-edge geothermal energy technologies involving low-temperature fluids, ge-othermal fluids recovered from oil and gas wells, and highly pressurized geothermal fluids. While traditional geothermal power plants require un-derground water reservoirs at temperatures greater than 180 °C, the latest generation of pow-er plants is using binary-cycle technology to draw on lower-temperature resources.
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• U.S. and Iceland sign bilateral agreement on Scientific and Technological Cooperation on Geo-thermal Research and Development: In 2010, U.S. Ambassador to Iceland, Luis Arreaga, and Icelandic Minister of Industry, Energy and Tourism, Katrín Júlíusdóttir, signed an agreement aimed at increasing the world’s understanding of advanced geothermal technologies and accelerat-ing their deployment. It is designed to allow an ex-change of researchers, joint projects, and educa-tion initiatives, and to identify key obstacles to in-creasing the use of this renewable energy re-source. Demonstrating cutting-edge geothermal technolo-gies will reduce the dependence on fossil fuels in both countries, while significantly cutting carbon pollution and creating new jobs in geothermal re-search, deployment and operations.
Challenges/ HSE Management: Geothermal development continues to require high upfront investment and has high exploration risks. As a result, the geothermal market relies heavily on federal, state, and local tax incentives to attract investors. Naturally existing hydrothermal reservoirs
remain geographically limited to western states where the most desired reservoirs tend to be re-motely located and require significant transmission infrastructure. As EGS technologies are developed and deployed ,the challenges surrounding location are expected to be lessened. However, a new set of challenges surface. Vast quantities of water will be needed to create the reservoirs and maintain pro-duction. In addition, the processes associated with EGS development have been shown to cause in-duced seismicity. Permitting and leasing processes are also challenges to geothermal development. Induced Seismicity: The Program is working to address and mitigate issues related to induced seismicity, hydraulic fracturing and water use and established a draft protocol for induced seismicity in 2009 (required for all DOE- funded EGS demos). An updated protocol and Best Practices document will be developed in 2011. In addition, several projects to enhance scientific understanding of the causes and mitigation of induced seismicity have been funded.
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7 References
Bertani, R. (2005): Worldwide geothermal genera-tion 2001 – 2005: State of the Art. Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2005; Antalya, Turkey.
Bertani, R. (2007): World Geothermal Generation in 2007. Proceedings European Geothermal Congress 2007; Unterhaching, Germany.
Bertani, R. (2011): Geothermal Power Generation in the World: 2005 – 2010 update report. Geothermics (article in press), Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/j.geothermics.2011.20.001.
Curtis, R., Lund, J., Sanner, B. Rybach, L., Hellström, G. (2005): Ground Source Heat pumps – Geothermal Energy for Anyone, Anywhere: Current Worldwide Activity. Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2005; Antalya, Turkey.
Dickson, M. & Fanelli, M. (2004): What is geother-mal energy? International Geothermal Association, Download: http://www.geothermal-energy.org/314,what_is_geothermal_energy.html
Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC.
Federal Environment Agency of Germany (2009): Climate protection and security of energy supplies - development of a sustainable power supply. Climate Change 13 (2009), Dessau-Roßlau, Germany. Image on CO2 Emissions of different plant types: http://www.umweltbundesamt-daten-zurumwelt.de/umwelt daten/public/document/downloadImage.do;jsessionid=4688B695D7B07BD0607E1977AA8B2727?ident=20764
Fridleifsson, I.B., Bertani, R., Huenges, E., Lund, J.W., Ragnarsson, A. & Rybach, L. (2008): The possible role and contribution of geothermal energy to the mitiga-tion of climate change. - In: O. Hohmeyer and T. Trittin (Eds.) - IPCC Scoping Meeting on Renewable Energy Sources, Proceedings, 2008, 59-80, Luebeck, Germany.
Huttrer, Gerald W. (2000): The Status of World Geo-thermal Power Generation 1995 - 2000. Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2000; Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan.
International Energy Agency (2011): 2011 Key World Energy Statistics. Publication of the IEA, Paris. Download: http://www.iea.org/publications
IEA Geothermal Implementing Agreement (2011a): IEA Geothermal Energy 14th Annual Report 2010. Download: http://www.iea-gia.org
IEA Geothermal Implementing Agreement (2011b): IEA Geothermal Energy 13th Annual Report 2009. Download: http://www.iea-gia.org/publications.asp
IEA Geothermal Implementing Agreement (2009): IEA Geothermal Energy 12th Annual Report 2008. Download: http://www.iea-gia.org/publications.asp
IEA Geothermal Implementing Agreement (2008): IEA Geothermal Energy Annual Report 2007. Download: http://www.iea-gia.org/publications.asp
IEA Geothermal Implementing Agreement (2008): IEA Geothermal Energy Annual Report 2006. Download: http://www.iea-gia.org/publications.asp
IEA Geothermal Implementing Agreement (2006): IEA Geothermal Energy Annual Report 2005. Download: http://www.iea-gia.org/publications.asp
IEA Geothermal Implementing Agreement (2005): IEA Geothermal Annual Report 2004. Download: http://www.iea-gia.org/publications.asp
IEA Geothermal Implementing Agreement (2004): IEA Geothermal Annual Report 2003. Download: http://www.iea-gia.org/publications.asp
IEA Geothermal Implementing Agreement (2003): IEA Geothermal Annual Report 2002. Download: http://www.iea-gia.org/publications.asp
The KamLAND Collaboration (2011): Partial radio-genic heat model for Earth revealed by geoneutrino measurements. Nature Geoscience 4, 647-651.
Midtømme, K., Berre, I., Hauge, A., Musæus, T.E. & Kristjànsson, B.R. (2010): Geothermal Energy - Coun-try update for Norway. . Proceedings World Geo-thermal Congress 2010, Bali, Indonesia.
Mongillo, M.A. (2005): Savings Factors for geother-mal energy applications. IEA-Geothermal Imple-menting Agreement. Download: http://www.ieagia.org/documents/SavingsFactorsforGeoEnergyUseMongillo14Jan0523Dec08.pdf.
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Lund, J.W., Freeston, D.H. & Boyd, T.L. (2011): Direct utilization of geothermal energy 2010 worldwide Re-view. Geothermics, 40, 159-180.
Lund, J.W., Freeston, D.H. & Boyd, T.L. (2005): Direct application of geothermal energy: 2005 worldwide review. Geothermics 34, 691-727.
Lund, J.W. & Freeston, D.H. (2001): World-wide di-rect uses of geothermal energy 2000. Geothermics 30, 29-68.
Pester, S., Schellschmidt, R. & Schulz, R. (2007): Ver-zeichnis geothermischer Standorte - Geothermische Anlagen in Deutschland auf einen Blick . Geothermische Energie 56/57, 4-8.
Sanner, B. (2005): Examples of GSHP and UTES Sys-tems in Germany. Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2005, Antalya, Turkey.
Sonnenfroh, F., Imhasly, S, Signorelli, S., Rybach, L. (2010): Statistik der geothermischen Nutzungen in der Schweiz – Ausgabe 2009. – Geowatt AG. (Eds.). Download: http://www.geothermie.ch/data/dokumente/miscellanusPDF/Publikationen/GeoStatisikCH_2007.pdf
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Sugino, H. & Akeno, T. (2010): 2010 country update for Japan. Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2010, Bali, Indonesia.
References used in Annex X National
Reports 2010
Australia Author National Report: Dr. Betina Bendal (Primary Industries & Resources, Government of South Aus-tralia, Adelaide)
1 Australian Energy Market Operator: Average Proce Tables http://www.aemo.com.au/data/avg_price/averageprice_main.shtml
2 Australian Bureau of Statistics: Energy Update 2011 http://adl.brs.gov.au/data/warehouse/pe_abares99010610/EnergyUpdate_2011_REPORT.pdf
France Author National Report: Romain Vernier (BRGM Geothermal Energy Dept., Orléans)
1 Plan d'action national en faveur des énergies renouvelables, Période 2009-2020, MEEDDM, 2010
2 Les filières industrielles stratégiques de l’économie verte, MEEDDM, 2010
3 Etat des énergies renouvelables en Europe - édi-tion 2010, EUROBSERV'ER, 2010
4 Baromètre Pompes à chaleur géothermiques 2011, EUROBSERV’ER, 2011
5 Program de suivi scientifique et technique de la centrale géothermique de Soultz pendant l’exploitation - Rapport d’avancement Phase III : activité 2010, GEIE Exploitation Minière de la Chaleur, 2010
6 Informations diverses reçues des sociétés Géo-thermie Bouillante et CFG Services
Germany Author National Report: Dr. Lothar Wissing (Forschungszentrum Jülich, Project Management)
1 Innovation durch Forschung: Jahresbericht 2010 zur Forschungsförderung im Bereich der erneu-erbaren Energien; BMU (Federal Environment Ministry)
2 Development of renewable energy sources in Germany 2010; 23th March 2011, based on sta-tistical data from the Working Group on Renew-able Energy Sources -Statistics (AGEE-Stat)
3 Innovation through research: 2009 annual re-port on research funding in the renewable ener-gy sector
4 Announcement of R&D funding in the area of renewable energies of 20 November 2008, BMU
5 Platt, M., Exner, S., Bracke, R. 2010: Analysis of the German Heat Pump Market - inventory and trends (published in German). Study of the In-ternational Geothermal Center Bochum for the Working Group of Renewable Energy Statistics (AGEE-Stat). Download: http://www.erneuerbare-energien.de/inhalt/46667/40870/
6 pers. comment Gregor Dilger, Bundesverband Wärmepumpe, on numbers and capacity of GHSP systems in Germany, 30.01.2012.
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7 Bundesverband Wärmepumpe BWP (2012): Heat pump sales figures increased by 11.8 per cent in 2011. BWP press release 26 January 2012 (in German) http://www.waermepumpe.de/fileadmin/grafik/pdf/PIs_ab-11-2009/2012-01-26_BWP_Absatzzahlen_2011.pdf
8 Federal Minstry the Environment, Nature Con-servation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) (2012) De-velopment of renewable energy resources in Germany 2011 - graphics and tables. www.erneuerbareenergien.de/files/english/pdf/applicaton/pdf/ee_in_deutschland_graf_tab_en.pdf
Iceland Author National Report: Jónas Ketilsson (Orkustofnun)
1 Orkustofnun
Italy Author National Report: Dr. Paolo Romagnoli (Enel Green Power)
1 TERNA - Statistical data (Electricity production, primary Energy need, feed in tariff, GC value
2 Authority for the control of the Energy & Gas market (Average retail price)
3 UGI Italian geothermal association (data regard-ing direct uses of geothermal energy)
4 Internal evaluation, related to plants of large size (production costs, number of people em-ployed, total investments, cost of the projects)
Japan Author National Report: Prof. Hirofumi Muraoka (North Japan Research Institute for Sustainable En-ergy, Hirosaki University)
1 Agency for Natural Resources and Energy (2011) The Energy White Paper 2011. http://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/topics/hakusho/2011/index.htm, 242p (in Japanese)
2 Sugino, H. and Akeno, T. (2010) 2010 Country Update for Japan. Proceedings of World Geo-thermal Congress 2010 (CD-ROM), Bali, Indone-sia.
3 Thermal and Nuclear Power Engineering Society (2011) Prompt temporary report on the opera-tion state of geothermal power plants in Japan. http://www.tenpes.or.jp/H2122chinetsu.pdf (in Japanese)
Korea Author National Report: Dr. Yoonho Song (Korea In-stitute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources, Daejon)
Mexico Author National Report: Dr. David Nieva (Instituto de Investigaciones Electricas, Temixco)
1 Web page www.gob.mx from Comisión Federal de Electricidad (CFE).
2 Web page www.sener.gob.mx from Secretaría de Energía
3 Costos y parámetros de referencia para la for-mulación de proyectos de inversión en el Sector Eléctrico (COPAR), 2011, Generación. CFE, Sub-dirección de Programmeación, Coordinación de Evaluación.
4 Gutiérrez-Negrín, L. C. A., Maya-González, R. and Quijano-León, J. L. (2010) "Current Status of Geothermics in Mexico". Proceedings, World Geothermal Congress 2010, Bali, Indonesia, 25-29 April 2010.
New Zealand Author National Report: Chris Bromley (GNS Science, Wairakei Researche Centre)
Norway Author National Report: Dr. Jiri Muller (Institute for Energy Technology, Kjeller)
Spain Authors National Report: Carmen Roa Tortosa (Institute for Diversification and Saving on Energy IDEA, Madrid) Dr. Margarita de Gregorio (Spanish Renewable Ener-gy Association APPA, Madrid)
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Switzerland Author National Report: Dr. Rudolf Minder (Geo-thermal Energy Research Program, Federal Office of Energy BFE, Oberlunkhofen)
1 Statistics of geothermal Energy Utilization in Switzerland 2009 (German): http://www.geothermie.ch/data/dokumente/miscellanusPDF/Publikationen/GeothermiestatistikCH_2009.pdf
2 Statistics of geothermal Energy Utilization in Switzerland 2010 (German): to be published
3 www.fws.ch (Swiss heat Pump Association) 4 Statistics of Renewable Energies in Switzerland
2010: http://www.bfe.admin.ch/themen/00526/00541/00543/index.html?lang=de
United States of America Author National Report: Jay Nathwani (US Dpt. of Energy, Geothermal Technologies Program, Wash-ington DC)
1 Geothermal Energy Association, "Geothermal Power Plants - USA" http://www.geo-energy.org/plants.aspx Re-trieved 11 Oct 2011
2 Energy Information Agency - Electric Power Monthly for August, 2011.
3 OIT, GeoHeatCenter "DirectUseMaster.xls" (no date)
4 United National Environment Program. (2010).Global Trends in Renewable Energy In-vestment 2011. Figure 19: Financial new in-vestment in renewable energy in the United States by sector and asset class, 2010, $bn.
5 Geothermal Energy Association, "Green Jobs Through Geothermal Energy." October, 2010. Retrieved 27 Oct 2011 from http://www.geo-enegy.org/pdf/reports/GreenJobs_Through_Geothermal_Energy_Final_Oct2010.pdf
6 Lund, John. Geothermal (Ground Source) Heat Pumps Introduction. NREL, 2011. Retrieved 27 October 2011 from: www.nrel.gov/applying_technologies/state_local_activities/pdfs/webcast_20110623_ghp.pdf
7 Bloomberg New Energy Finance, 2011.
8 Lund, J.W., Freeston, D.H. & Boyd, T.L. (2010): Direct utilization of geothermal energy 2010 worldwide Review. Proceedings World Geo-thermal Congress 2010, Bali, Indonesia.
9 Jennejohn, D. (2011). Annual U.S. Geothermal Power Production and Development Report. Geothermal Energy Association. Accessed Octo-ber 24, 2011 from http://geoenergy.org/pdf/reports/April2011AnnualUSGeothermalPowerProductionandDevelopmentReport. pdf
10 Energy Information Administration (2011). Elec-tric Power Monthly, Table 1.1.A Net Generation Other Renewables: Total – All Sectors. Accessed on October 24, 2011 from http://205.254.135.24/electricity/monthly
CONTACT LIST GIA Secretary Dr Mike Mongillo GNS Science Wairakei Research Centre Private Bag 2000 Taupo 3352 NEW ZEALAND Ph: +64-7-374-8211 Fax: + 64-7-374-8199 E-mail: [email protected] Annex X Leader Britta Ganz Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics Geocenter Hannover Stilleweg 2 30655 Hannover GERMANY Ph: +49-511-643-3359 Fax: + 49-511-643-3665 E-mail: [email protected] Australia Dr Betina Bendall Petroleum and Geothermal Group Primary Industries & Resources-SA Government of South Australia GPO 1671 Adelaide SA 5001 AUSTRALIA Ph: +61-8-8463-3243 Fax: +61-8-8463-3229 E-mail: [email protected] France Romain Vernier Head Geothermal Energy Department BRGM 3 Avenue Claude Guillemin BP 36009 45060 Orléans Cedex 02 FRANCE Ph: +33-2-38-64-3106 Fax: +33-2-38-64-3334 E-mail: [email protected] Germany Dr Lothar Wissing Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH Project Management Organization D-52425 Jülich GERMANY Ph: +49-2461-61-4843 Fax: +49-2461-61-2840 E-mail: [email protected]
Iceland Jónas Ketilsson Orkustofnun Grensásvegur 9 108 Reykjavik ICELAND Ph: +354-569-6000 E-mail: [email protected] Italy Dr Paolo Romagnoli ENEL Green Power Via Andrea Pisano 120 56100 Pisa ITALY Ph: +39-050-618-5998 Fax: +39-050-618-5504 E-mail: [email protected] Japan Dr Hirofumi Muraoka Hirosaki University North Japan New Energy Research Center 2-1-3 Matsubara Aomori 030-0813 JAPAN Ph: +81-17-762-7294 Fax: +81-17-735-5411 E-Mail: [email protected] Mexico Dr David Nieva Manager of Technology Transfer Instituto de Investigaciones Electricas Av. Reforma N°113, Col. Palmira 62490 Temixco, Mor. MEXICO Ph: +52-777-318-3811, ext. 7495 Fax: +52-777-318-9542 E-mail: [email protected] New Zealand Chris Bromley (ExCo Chair) GNS Science Wairakei Research Centre Private Bag 2000 Taupo 3352 NEW ZEALAND Ph: +64-7-374-8211 Fax +64-7-374-8199 E-mail: [email protected] Norway Jiri Muller Institute for Energy Technology P.O. Box 40 NO-2027 Kjeller NORWAY Ph: +47-6380-6185 E-mail: [email protected]
Republic of Korea Dr Yoonho Song Geothermal Resources Department Korea Institute of Geoscience & Mineral Resources (KIGAM) 92 Gwahang-no Yuseong-gu Daejeon 305-350 REPUBLIC OF KOREA Ph: +82-42-868-3175 Fax: +82-42-863-3413 E-mail: [email protected] Spain Carmen Roa Tortosa IDAE- Minihidraulic, Geothermal and Sea Energy Department C/Madera 8 Madrid 2802 SPAIN Ph: +34-91-456-5009 Fax: +34-91-523-0414 E-mail: [email protected] Dr Margarita de Gregorio Thermoelectric Energies Manager APPA- Spanish Renewable Energy Association Aquarón 23B, 1ºB 28023 Madrid SPAIN Ph: +34-91-307-1761 Fax: +34-91-307-0350 E-mail: [email protected] Switzerland Dr Rudolf Minder Geothermal Energy Research Program Federal Office of Energy (BFE) c/o Minder Energy Consulting Ruchweid 22 CH-8917 Oberlunkhofen SWITZERLAND Ph: +41-56-640-1464 Fax: +41-56-640-1460 E-mail: [email protected] United States of America Jay Nathwani Acting Program Manager Geothermal Technologies Program Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy US Department of Energy EE-2C 1000 Independence Ave., SW Washington, DC 20585 UNITED STATES Ph: +1-202-586-9410 Fax: +1-202-586-7114 E-mail: [email protected]
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