1. l ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS FOR VECTORS ANDTENSORS IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES(s is a scalar; v and w are vectors; T is a tensor; dot or cross operations enclosedwithin parentheses are scalars, those enclosed in brackets are vectors)Note: The above operations may be generalized to cylindrical coordinates by replacing(x, y, z) by (r, 6, z), and to spherical coordinates by replacing (x, y, z) by (r, 6, 4).Descriptions of curvilinear coordinates are given in Figures 1.2-2, A.6-1, A.8-1, andA.8-2.**.DIFFERENTIAL OPERATIONS FOR SCALARS, VECTORS, ANDTENSORS IN CARTESIAN COORDINATESdv, dvy dv, dvZ dvy dux[V x v], = ax - - d y dz aYdv, dvy dv,[V x v], = - - - [ V x v ] =---Y dz dx(V.v)=-+-+-dx d y dz

2. d2vz d2v, d2vZ[V2v]=, [V Vv] ,= - +-ax2 + 3 az2[v Vv] , dvx dvx dvx = vx - + v - + v, -- dx Y dy dz[v dvz dv, dvz ' Vv], = vx - + v - + v, - dx Y dy dz~(v,v,) a(vyvx) d(v,vX)[V vv] ,= -dx + --d--y- - + -dza(vXvy) a(vYvy) ~(v,v,)[V . vv], = - +-+- dx dy dza(vXvz) d(vyvz) ~(v,v,)[V vv], = ---- +-+- dx dy dzdvx dux dux(T : Vv) = rxx - + r - + rxz - dx dy dzNote: the differential operations may not be simply generalized to curvilinear coordi-nates;see Tables A.7-2 and A.7-3. 3. This Page Intentionally Left Blank 4. TransportPhenomenaSecond EditionR. Byron BirdWarren E. StewartEdwin N. LightfootChemical Engineering DepartmentUniversity of Wisconsin-MadisonJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc.New York / Chichester / Weinheim / Brisbane / Singapore / Toronto 5. Acquisitions Editor Wayne AndersonMarketing Manager Katherine HepburnSenior Production Editor Petrina KulekDirector Design Madelyn LesureIllustration Coodinator Gene AielloThis book was set in Palatino by UG / GGS Information Services, Inc. and printed and boundby Hamilton Printing. The cover was printed by Phoenix.This book is printed on acid free paper. aCopyright O 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmittedin any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanningor otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United StatesCopyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, orauthorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the CopyrightClearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (508)750-8400, fax(508)750-4470. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to thePermissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY10158-0012, (212)850-6011, fax (212)850-6008, E-Mail: PERMREQ@WILEY.COM.To order books or for customer service please call 1-800-CALL WILEY (225-5945).Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataBird, R. Byron (Robert Byron), 1924-Transport phenomena / R. Byron Bird, Warren E. Stewart, Edwin N. Lightfoot.-2nd ed.p. cm.Includes indexes.ISBN 0-471-41077-2 (cloth : alk. paper)1. Fluid dynamics. 2. Transport theory. I. Stewart, Warren E., 1924- 11. Lightfoot,Edwin N., 1925- 111. Title.QA929.B5 2001530.13'86~21 2001023739ISBN 0-471-41077-2Printed in the United States of America 6. PrefaceWhile momentum, heat, and mass transfer developed independently as branches ofclassical physics long ago, their unified study has found its place as one of the funda-mentalengineering sciences. This development, in turn, less than half a century old, con-tinuesto grow and to find applications in new fields such as biotechnology,microelectronics, nanotechnology, and polymer science.Evolution of transport phenomena has been so rapid and extensive that completecoverage is not possible. While we have included many representative examples, ourmain emphasis has, of necessity, been on the fundamental aspects of this field. More-over,we have found in discussions with colleagues that transport phenomena is taughtin a variety of ways and at several different levels. Enough material has been includedfor two courses, one introductory and one advanced. The elementary course, in turn, canbe divided into one course on momentum transfer, and another on heat and mass trans-fer,thus providing more opportunity to demonstrate the utility of this material in practi-calapplications. Designation of some sections as optional (0) and other as advanced (a)may be helpful to students and instructors.Long regarded as a rather mathematical subject, transport phenomena is most impor-tantfor its physical significance. The essence of this subject is the careful and compactstatement of the conservation principles, along with the flux expressions, with emphasison the similarities and differences among the three transport processes considered. Often,specialization to the boundary conditions and the physical properties in a specific prob-lemcan provide useful insight with minimal effort. Nevertheless, the language of trans-portphenomena is mathematics, and in this textbook we have assumed familiarity withordinary differential equations and elementary vector analysis. We introduce the use ofpartial differential equations with sufficient explanation that the interested student canmaster the material presented. Numerical techniques are deferred, in spite of their obvi-ousimportance, in order to concentrate on fundamental understanding.Citations to the published literature are emphasized throughout, both to place trans-portphenomena in its proper historical context and to lead the reader into further exten-sionsof fundamentals and to applications. We have been particularly anxious tointroduce the pioneers to whom we owe so much, and from whom we can still drawuseful inspiration. These were human beings not so different from ourselves, and per-hapssome of our readers will be inspired to make similar contributions.Obviously both the needs of our readers and the tools available to them havechanged greatly since the first edition was written over forty years ago. We have made aserious effort to bring our text up to date, within the limits of space and our abilities, andwe have tried to anticipate further developments. Major changes from the first editioninclude:transport properties of two-phase systemsuse of "combined fluxes" to set up shell balances and equations of changeangular momentum conservation and its consequencescomplete derivation of the mechanical energy balanceexpanded treatment of boundary-layer theoryTaylor dispersionimproved discussions of turbulent transportiii 7. iv PrefaceFourier analysis of turbulent transport at high Pr or Scmore on heat and mass transfer coefficientsenlarged discussions of dimensional analysis and scalingmatrix methods for multicomponent mass transferionic systems, membrane separations, and porous mediathe relation between the Boltzmann equation and the continuum equationsuse of the "Q+W convention in energy discussions, in conformity with the lead-ingtextbooks in physics and physical chemistryHowever, it is always the youngest generation of professionals who see the future mostclearly, and who must build on their imperfect inheritance.Much remains to be done, but the utility of transport phenomena can be expected toincrease rather than diminish. Each of the exciting new technologies blossoming aroundus is governed, at the detailed level of interest, by the conservation laws and flux expres-sions,together with information on the transport coefficients. Adapting the problem for-mulationsand solution techniques for these new areas will undoubtedly keep engineersbusy for a long time, and we can only hope that we have provided a useful base fromwhich to start.Each new book depends for its success on many more individuals than those whosenames appear on the title page. The most obvious debt is certainly to the hard-workingand gifted students who have collectively taught us much more than we have taughtthem. In addition, the professors who reviewed the manuscript deserve special thanksfor their numerous corrections and insightful comments: Yu-Ling Cheng (University ofToronto), Michael D. Graham (University of Wisconsin), Susan J. Muller (University ofCalifornia-Berkeley), William B. Russel (Princeton University), Jay D. Schieber (IllinoisInstitute of Technology), and John F. Wendt (Von Kdrm6n Institute for Fluid Dynamics).However, at a deeper level, we have benefited from the departmental structure and tra-ditionsprovided by our elders here in Madison. Foremost among these was Olaf An-dreasHougen, and it is to his memory that this edition is dedicated.Madison, Wisconsin 8. ContentsPreface 52.4 Flow through an Annulus 5352.5 Flow of Two Adjacent Immiscible Fluids 56Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport 52.6 Creeping Flow around a Sphere 58Phenomena 1 Ex. 2.6-1 Determination of Viscosity from theTerminal Velocity of a Falling Sphere 61Questions for Discussion 61Part I Momentum TransportChapter 1 Viscosity and the Mechanisms ofMomentum Transport 1151.1 Newton's Law of Viscosity (Molecular MomentumTransport) 11Ex. 1.1-1 Calculation of Momentum Flux 151 . 2 Generalization of Newton's Law of Viscosity 161 . 3 Pressure and Temperature Dependence ofViscosity 21Ex. 1.3-1 Estimation of Viscosity from CriticalProperties 23~1.4' Molecular Theory of the Viscosity of Gases at LowDensity 23Ex. 1.4-1 Computation of the Viscosity of a GasMixture at Low Density 28Ex. 1.4-2 Prediction of the Viscosity of a GasMixture at Low Density 2851.5' Molecular Theory of the Viscosity of Liquids 29Ex. 1.5-1 Estimation of the Viscosity of a PureLiquid 3151.6' Viscosity of Suspensions and Emulsions 311 . 7 Convective Momentum Transport 34Questions for Discussion 37Problems 37Chapter 2 Shell Momentum Balances and VelocityDistributions in Laminar Flow 40Problems 62Chapter 3 The Equations of Change forIsothermal Systems 753 . 1 The Equation of Continuity 77Ex. 3.1-1 Normal Stresses at Solid Surfaces forIncompressible Newtonian Fluids 7853.2 The Equation of Motion 78g3.3 The Equation of Mechanical Energy 8153.4' The Equation of Angular Momentum 8253.5 The Equations of Change in Terms of theSubstantial Derivative 83Ex. 3.5-1 The Bernoulli Equation for the SteadyFlow of Inviscid Fluids 8653.6 Use of the Equations of Change to Solve FlowProblems 86Ex. 3.6-1 Steady Flow in a Long CircularTube 88Ex. 3.6-2 Falling Film with VariableViscosity 89Ex. 3.6-3 Operation of a Couette Viscometer 89Ex. 3.6-4 Shape of the Surface of a RotatingLiquid 93Ex. 3.6-5 Flow near a Slowly RotatingSphere 9553.7 Dimensional Analysis of the Equations ofChange 97~xr3.7-1 Transverse Flow around a CircularCylinder 98Ex. 3.7-2 Steady Flow in an Agitated Tank 1012 . Shell Momentum Balances and Boundary Ex. 3.7-3 Pressure Drop for Creeping Flow in aConditions 41 Packed Tube 10352.2 Flow of a Falling Film 42 Questions for Discussion 104Ex. 2.2-1 Calculation of Film Velocity 47 Problems 104Ex. 2.2-2 Falling Film with VariableViscosity 47 Chapter 4 Velocity Distributions with More than52.3 Flow Through a Circular Tube 48 One Independent Variable 114Ex. 2.3-1 Determination of Viscosity from Capillary - ,Flow Data 52 1 Time-Dependent Flow of Newtonian Fluids 114Ex. 2.3-2 Compressible Flow in a Horizontal Ex. 4.1-1 Flow near a Wall Suddenly Set inCircular Tube 53 Motion 115 9. vi ContentsEx. 4.1-2 Unsteady Laminar Flow between TwoParallel Plates 117Ex. 4.1-3 Unsteady Laminar Flow near anOscillating Plate 12054.2' Solving Flow Problems Using a StreamFunction 121Ex. 4.2-1 Creeping Flow around a Sphere 12254.3' Flow of Inviscid Fluids by Use of the VelocityPotential 126Ex. 4.3-1 Potential Flow around a Cylinder 128Ex. 4.3-2 Flow into a Rectangular Channel 130Ex. 4.3-3 Flow near a Corner 13154.4' Flow near Solid Surfaces by Boundary-LayerTheory 133Ex. 4.4-1 Laminar Flow along a Flat Plate(Approximate Solution) 136Ex. 4.4-2 Laminar Flow along a Flat Plate (ExactSolution) 137Ex. 4.4-3 Flow near a Corner 139Questions for Discussion 140Problems 141Chapter 5 Velocity Distributions inTurbulent Flow 152Comparisons of Laminar and TurbulentFlows 154Time-Smoothed Equations of Change forIncompressible Fluids 156The Time-Smoothed Velocity Profile near aWall 159Empirical Expressions for the TurbulentMomentum Flux 162Ex. 5.4-1 Development of the Reynolds StressExpression in the Vicinity of the Wall 164Turbulent Flow in Ducts 165Ex. 5.5-1 Estimation of the Average Velocity in aCircular Tube 166Ex. 5.5-2 Application of Prandtl's Mixing LengthFomula to Turbulent Flow in a CircularTube 167Ex. 5.5-3 Relative Magnitude of Viscosity and EddyViscosity 167~ 5 . 6Tu~rb ulent Flbw in Jets 168Ex. 5.6-1 Time-Smoothed Velocity Distribution in aCircular Wall Jet 168Questions for Discussion 172Problems 172Chapter 6 Interphase Transport inIsothermal Systems 1776.1 Definition of Friction Factors 17856.2 Friction Factors for Flow in Tubes 179Ex. 6.2-1 Pressure Drop Required for a Given FlowRate 183Ex. 6.2-2 Flow Rate for a Given PressureDrop 18356.3 Friction Factors for Flow around Spheres 185Ex. 6.3-1 Determination of the Diameter of a FallingSphere 187~ 6 . 4Fr~ic tion Factors for Packed Columns 188Questions for Discussion 192Problems 193Chapter 7 Macroscopic Balances forIsothermal Flow Systems 1977.1 The Macroscopic Mass Balance 198Ex. 7.1-1 Draining of a Spherical Tank 19957.2 The Macroscopic Momentum Balance 200Ex. 7.2-1 Force Exerted by a Jet (Part a) 201g7.3 The Macroscopic Angular MomentumBalance 202Ex. 7.3-1 Torque on a Mixing Vessel 202g7.4 The Macroscopic Mechanical EnergyBalance 203Ex. 7.4-1 Force Exerted by a Jet (Part b) 20557.5 Estimation of the Viscous Loss 205Ex. 7.5-1 Power Requirement for PipelineFlow 207g7.6 Use of the Macroscopic Balances for Steady-StateProblems 209Ex. 7.6-1 Pressure Rise and Friction Loss in aSudden Enlargement 209Ex. 7.6-2 Performance of a Liquid-LiquidEjector 210Ex. 7.6-3 Thrust on a Pipe Bend 212Ex. 7.6-4 The Impinging Jet 214Ex. 7.6-5 Isothermal Flow of a Liquid through anOrifice 21557.7" Use of the Macroscopic Balances for Unsteady-State Problems 216Ex. 7.7.1 Acceleration Effects in Unsteady Flowfrom a Cylindrical Tank 217Ex. 7.7-2 Manometer Oscillations 21957.8 Derivation of the Macroscopic Mechanical EnergyBalance 221Questions for Discussion 223Problems 224Chapter 8 Polymeric Liquids 2318.1 Examples of the Behavior of PolymericLiquids 23258.2 Rheometry and Material Functions 23658.3 Non-Newtonian Viscosity and the GeneralizedNewtonian Models 240Ex. 8.3-1 Laminar Flow of an IncompressiblePower-Law Fluid in a Circular Tube 242Ex. 8.3-2 Flow of a Power-Law Fluid in a NarrowSlit 243 10. Ex. 8.3-3 Tangential Annular Flow of a Power-Law Fluid 244~8.4' Elasticity and the Linear ViscoelasticModels 244Ex. 8.4-1 Small-Amplitude OscillatoryMotion 247Ex. 8.4-2 Unsteady Viscoelastic Flow near anOscillating Plate 24858.50 The Corotational Derivatives and the NonlinearViscoelastic Models 249Ex. 8.5-1 Material Functions for the Oldroyd 6-Constant Model 251S8.6. Molecular Theories for Polymeric Liquids 253Ex. 8.6-1 Material Functions for the FENE-PModel 255Questions for Discussion 258Problems 258Part 11 Energy TransportChapter 9 Thermal Conductivity andthe Mechanisms of EnergyTransport 2639.1 Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction (MolecularEnergy Transport) 266Ex. 9.1-1 Measurement of ThermalConductivity 27059.2 Temperature and Pressure Dependence of ThermalConductivity 272Ex. 9.2-1 Effect of Pressure on ThermalConductivity 27359.3' Theory of Thermal Conductivity of Gases at LowDensity 274Ex. 9.3-1 computation of the ThermalConductivity of a Monatomic Gas at LowDensity 277Ex. 9.3-2 Estimation of the Thermal Conductivityof a Polyatomic Gas at Low Density 278Ex. 9.3-3 Prediction of the Thermal Conductivityof a Gas Mixture at Low Density 27859.4' Theory of Thermal Conductivity ofLiquids 279Ex. 9.4-1 Prediction of the Thermal Conductivity ofa Liquid 28059.5' Thermal Conductivity of Solids 28059.6' Effective Thermal Conductivity of CompositeSolids 28159.7 Convective Transport of Energy 28359.8 Work Associated with MolecularMotions 284Questions for Discussion 286Problems 287Contents viiChapter 10 Shell Energy Balances andTemperature Distributions inSolids and Laminar Flow 290Shell Energy Balances; BoundaryConditions 291Heat Conduction with an Electrical HeatSource 292Ex. 10.2-1 Voltage Required for a GivenTemperature Rise in a Wire Heated by anElectric Current 295Ex. 10.2-2 Heated Wire with Specified HeatTransfer Coefficient and Ambient AirTemperature 295Heat Conduction with a Nuclear HeatSource 296Heat Conduction with a Viscous HeatSource 298Heat Conduction with a Chemical HeatSource 300Heat Conduction through CompositeWalls 303Ex. 10.6-1 Composite Cylindrical Walls 305Heat Conduction in a Cooling Fin 307Ex. 10.7-1 Error in ThermocoupleMeasurement 309Forced Convection 310Free Convection 316Questions for Discussion 319Problems 320Chapter 11 The Equations of Change forNonisothermal Systems 333511.1 The Energy Equation 333511.2 Special Forms of the Energy Equation 336511.3 The Boussinesq Equation of Motion for Forcedand Free Convection 338511.4 Use of the Equations of Change to Solve Steady-State Problems 339Ex. 11.4-1 Steady-State Forced-Convection HeatTransfer in Laminar Flow in a CircularTube 342Ex. 11 -4-2 Tangential Flow in an Annulus withViscous Heat Generation 342Ex. 11.4-3 Steady Flow in a NonisothermalFilm 343Ex. 11.4-4 Transpiration Cooling 344Ex. 11.4-5 Free Convection Heat Transfer from aVertical Plate 346Ex. 11.4-6 Adiabatic Frictionless Processes in anIdeal Gas 349Ex. 11.4-7 One-Dimensional Compressible Flow:Velocity, Temperature, and Pressure Profiles in aStationa y Shock Wave 350 11. viii Contents311.5 Dimensional Analysis of the Equations of Changefor Nonisothermal Systems 353Ex. 11.5-1 Temperature Distribution about a LongCylinder 356Ex. 11.5-2 Free Convection in a Horizontal FluidLayer; Formation of Bknard Cells 358Ex. 11.5-3 Surface Temperature of an ElectricalHeating Coil 360Questions for Discussion 361Problems 361Chapter 12 Temperature Distributions with Morethan One Independent Variable 374512.1 Unsteady Heat Conduction in Solids 374Ex. 12.1-1 Heating of a Semi-Infinite Slab 375Ex. 12.1-2 Heating of a Finite Slab 376Ex. 12.1 -3 Unsteady Heat Conduction near a Wallwith Sinusoidal Heat Flux 379Ex. 12.1-4 Cooling of a Sphere in Contact with aWell-Stirred Fluid 379912.2' Steady Heat Conduction in Laminar,Incompressible Flow 381Ex. 12.2-1 Laminar Tube Flow with Constant HeatFlux at the Wall 383Ex. 12.2-2 Laminar Tube Flow with Constant HeatFlux at the Wall: Asymptotic Solution for theEntrance Region 384512.3' Steady Potential Flow of Heat in Solids 385Ex. 12.3-1 Temperature Distribution in aWall 386512.4' Boundary Layer Theory for NonisothermalFlow 387Ex. 12.4-1 Heat Transfer in Laminar ForcedConvection along a Heated Flat Plate (the vonKa'rma'n Integral Method) 388Ex. 12.4-2 Heat Transfer in Laminar ForcedConvection along a Heated Flat Plate (AsymptoticSolution for Large Prandtl Numbers) 391Ex. 12.4-3 Forced Convection in Steady Three-Dimensional Flow at High PrandtlNumbers 392Questions for Discussion 394Problems 395Chapter 13 Temperature Distributions inTurbulent Flow 407Time-Smoothed Equations of Change forIncompressible Nonisothermal Flow 407The Time-Smoothed Temperature Profile near aWall 409Empirical Expressions for the Turbulent HeatFlux 410Ex. 13.3-1 An Approximate Relation for the WallHeat Flux for Turbulent Flow in a Tube 411513.4' Temperature Distribution for Turbulent Flow inTubes 411513.5' Temperature Distribution for Turbulent Flow inJets 415513.6. Fourier Analysis of Energy Transport in Tube Flowat Large Prandtl Numbers 416Questions for Discussion 421Problems 421Chapter 14 Interphase Transport inNonisothermal Systems 422Definitions of Heat Transfer Coefficients 423Ex. 14.1-1 Calculation of Heat Transfer Coefficientsfrom Experimental Data 426Analytical Calculations of Heat TransferCoefficients for Forced Convection through Tubesand Slits 428Heat Transfer Coefficients for Forced Convectionin Tubes 433Ex. 14.3-1 Design of a Tubular Heater 437Heat Transfer Coefficients for Forced Convectionaround Submerged Objects 438Heat Transfer Coefficients for Forced Convectionthrough Packed Beds 441514.6' Heat Transfer Coefficients for Free and MixedConvection 442Ex. 14.6-1 Heat Loss by Free Convection from aHorizontal Pipe 445514.70 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Condensation ofPure Vapors on Solid Surfaces 446Ex. 14.7-1 Condensation of Steam on a VerticalSurface 449Questions for Discussion 449Problems 450Chapter 15 Macroscopic Balances forNonisothermal Systems 454315.1 The Macroscopic Energy Balance 455515.2 The Macroscopic Mechanical EnergyBalance 456515.3 Use of the Macroscopic Balances to Solve Steady-State Problems with Flat Velocity Profiles 458Ex. 15.3-1 The Cooling of an Ideal Gas 459Ex. 15.3-2 Mixing of Two Ideal GasStreams 460s15.4 The &Forms of the Macroscopic Balances 461Ex. 15.4-1 Parallel- or Counter-Flow HeatExchangers 462Ex. 15.4-2 Power Requirement for Pumping aCompressible Fluid through a Long Pipe 464515.5' Use of the Macroscopic Balances to SolveUnsteady-State Problems and Problems withNonflat Velocitv Profiles 465 12. Contents ixEx. 15.5-1 Heating of a Liquid in an AgitatedTank 466Ex. 15.5-2 Operation of a Simple TemperatureController 468Ex. 15.5-3 Flow of Compressible Fluids throughHeat Meters 471Ex. 15.5-4 Free Batch Expansion of a CompressibleFluid 472Questions for Discussion 474Problems 474Chapter 16 Energy Transport by Radiation 487516.1 The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation 488516.2 Absorption and Emission at Solid Surfaces 490516.3 Planck's Distribution Law, Wien's DisplacementLaw, and the Stefan-Boltzmann Law 493Ex. 16.3-1 Temperature and Radiation-EnergyEmission of the Sun 496516.4 Direct Radiation between Black Bodies in Vacuo atDifferent Temperatures 497Ex. 16.4-1 Estimation of the Solar Constant 501Ex. 16.4-2 Radiant Heat Transfer betweenDisks 501516.5' Radiation between Nonblack Bodies at DifferentTemperatures 502Ex. 16.5-1 Radiation Shields 503Ex. 16.5-2 Radiation and Free-Convection HeatLosses from a Horizontal Pipe 504Ex. 16.5-3 Combined Radiation andConvection 505316.6' Radiant Energy Transport in AbsorbingMedia 506Ex. 16.6-1 Absorption of a Monochromatic RadiantBeam 507Questions for Discussion 508Problems 508Ex. 17.2-3 Estimation of Binary Diffusivity at HighDensity 524517.3' Theory of Diffusion in Gases at Low Density 525Ex. 17.3-1 Computation of Mass Diffusivity forLow-Density Monatomic Gases 528517.4' Theory of Diffusion in Binary Liquids 528Ex. 17.4-1 Estimation of Liquid Diffusivity 530517.5' Theory of Diffusion in ColloidalSuspensions 531517.6' Theory of Diffusion in Polymers 532517.7 Mass and Molar Transport by Convection 533517.8 Summary of Mass and Molar Fluxes 536517.9' The Maxwell-Stefan Equations for MulticomponentDiffusion in Gases at Low Density 538Questions for Discussion 538Problems 539Chapter 18 Concentration Distributions inSolids and Laminar Flow 543518.1 Shell Mass Balances; Boundary Conditions 545518.2 Diffusion through a Stagnant Gas Film 545Ex. 18.2-1 Diffusion with a MovingInterface 549Ex. 18.2-2 Determination of Diffusivity 549Ex. 18.2-3 Diffusion through a NonisothevmalSpherical Film 550518.3 Diffusion with a Heterogeneous ChemicalReaction 551Ex. 18.3-1 Diffusion with a Slow HeterogeneousReaction 553518.4 Diffusion with a Homogeneous ChemicalReaction 554Ex. 18.4-1 Gas Absorption with Chemical Reactionin an Agitated Tank 555518.5 Diffusion into a Falling Liquid Film (GasAbsorption) 558Ex. 18.5-1 Gas Absorption from Rising-Bubbles 560Part 111 Mass Transport s18.6 Diffusion into a Falling Liquid Film (SolidDissolution) 562Chapter 17 Diffusivity and the Mechanisms ofMass Transport 513517.1 Fick's Law of Binary Diffusion (Molecular MassTransport) 514Ex. 17.1-1. Diffusion of Helium through PyrexGlass 519Ex. 17.1-2 The Equivalence of and 9, 520517.2 Temperature and Pressure Dependence ofDiffusivities 521Ex. 17.2-1 Estimation of Diffusivity at LowDensity 523Ex. 17.2-2 Estimation of Self-Diffusivity at HighDensity 523518.7 Diffusion and Chemical Reaction inside a PorousCatalyst 563518.8' Diffusion in a Three-Component GasSystem 567Questions for Discussion 568Problems 568Chapter 19 Equations of Change forMulticomponent Systems 582519.1 The Equations of Continuity for a MulticomponentMixture 582Ex. 19.1-1 Diffusion, Convection, and ChemicalReaction 585 13. x Contents519.2 Summary of the Multicomponent Equations ofChange 586519.3 Summary of the Multicomponent Fluxes 590Ex. 19.3-1 The Partial Molar Enthalpy 591519.4 Use of the Equations of Change for Mixtures 592Ex. 19.4-1 Simultaneous Heat and MassTransport 592Ex. 19.4-2 Concentration Profile in a TubularReactor 595Ex. 19.4-3 Catalytic Oxidation of CarbonMonoxide 596Ex. 19.4-4 Thermal Conductivihj of a PolyatomicGas 598519.5 Dimensional Analysis of the Equations of Changefor Nonreacting Binary Mixtures 599Ex. 19.5-1 Concentration Distribution about a LongCylinder 601Ex. 19.5-2 Fog Formation duringDehumidification 602Ex. 19.5-3 Blending of Miscible Fluids 604Questions for Discussion 605Problems 606Chapter 20 Concentration Distributions withMore than One IndependentVariable 612520.1 Time-Dependent Diffusion 61 3Ex. 20.1-1 Unsteady-State Evaporation of a Liquid(the "Arnold Problem") 613Ex. 20.1 -2 Gas Absorption with RapidReaction 617Ex. 20.1-3 Unsteady Diffusion with First-OrderHomogeneous Reaction 619Ex. 20.14 Influence of Changing Interfacial Areaon Mass Transfer at an Interface 621520.2' Steady-State Transport in Binary BoundaryLayers 623Ex. 20.2-1 Diffusion and Chemical Reaction inIsothermal Laminar Flow along a Soluble FlatPlate 625Ex. 20.2-2 Forced Convection from a Flat Plate atHigh Mass-Transfer Rates 627Ex. 20.2-3 Approximate Analogies for the Flat Plateat Low Mass-Transfer Rates 632520.3. Steady-State Boundary-Layer Theory for Flowaround Objects 633Ex. 20.3-1 Mass Transfer for Creeping Flow arounda Gas Bubble 636S20.4. Boundary Layer Mass Transport with ComplexInterfacial Motion 637Ex. 20.4-1 Mass Transfer with NonuniformInterfacial Deformation 641Ex. 20.4-2 Gas Absorption with Rapid Reaction andInterfacial Deformation 642520.5. "Taylor Dispersion" in Laminar Tube Flow 643Questions for Discussion 647Problems 648Chapter 21 Concentration Distributions inTurbulent Flow 657521.1 Concentration Fluctuations and the Time-Smoothed Concentration 657521.2 Time-Smoothing of the Equation of Continuityof A 658521.3 Semi-Empirical Expressions for the Turbulent MassFlux 659~21.4' Enhancement of Mass Transfer by a First-OrderReaction in Turbulent Flow 659521.5 Turbulent Mixing and Turbulent Flow withSecond-Order Reaction 663Questions for Discussion 667Problems 668Chapter 22 Interphase Transport inNonisothermal Mixtures 671522.1 Definition of Transfer Coefficients in OnePhase 672522.2 Analytical Expressions for Mass TransferCoefficients 676522.3 Correlation of Binary Transfer Coefficients in OnePhase 679Ex. 22.3-1 Evaporation from a Freely FallingDrop 682Ex. 22.3-2 The Wet and D y BulbPsychrometer 683Ex. 22.3-3 Mass Transfer in Creeping Flow throughPacked Beds 685Ex. 22.3-4 Mass Transfer to Drops andBubbles 687522.4 Definition of Transfer Coefficients in TwoPhases 687Ex. 22.4-1 Determination of the ControllingResistance 690Ex. 22.4-2 Interaction of Phase Resistances 691Ex. 22.4-3 Area Averaging 693~ 2 2 . 5M~as s Transfer and Chemical Reactions 694Ex. 22.5-1 Estimation of the Interfacial Area in aPacked Column 694Ex. 22.5-2 Estimation of Volumetric Mass TransferCoefficients 695Ex. 22.5-3 Model-Insensitive Correlations forAbsorption with Rapid Reaction 696522.6' Combined Heat and Mass Transfer by FreeConvection 698Ex. 22.6-1 Additivity of Grashof Numbers 698Ex. 22.6-2 Free-Convection Heat Transfer as a Sourceof Forced-Convection Mass Transfer 698 14. Contents xi~ 2 2 . 7Ef~fe cts of Interfacial Forces on Heat and MassTransfer 699Ex. 22.7-1 Elimination of Circulation in a RisingGas Bubble 701Ex. 22.7-2 Marangoni Instability in a FallingFilm 702522.8' Transfer Coefficients at High Net Mass TransferRates 703Ex. 22.8-1 Rapid Evaporation of a Liquid from aPlane Surface 710Ex. 22.8-2 Correction Factors in DropletEvaporation 71 1Ex. 22.8-3 Wet-Bulb Performance Corrected forMass-Transfer Rate 711Ex. 22.8-4 Comparison of Film and PenetrationModels for Unsteady Evaporation in a LongTube 712Ex. 22.8-5 Concentration Polarization inUltrafiltration 71 3522.9. Matrix Approximations for Multicomponent MassTransport 716Questions for Discussion 721Problems 722Chapter 23 Macroscopic Balances forMulticomponent Systems 726-g23.1 The Macroscopic Mass Balances 727Ex. 23.1-1 Disposal of an Unstable WasteProduct 728Ex. 23 .I -2 Bina y Splitters 730Ex. 23 .I -3 The Macroscopic Balances and Dirac's"Separative Capacity" and "ValueFunction" 731Ex. 23.1-4 Compartmental Analysis 733Ex. 23.1-5 Time Constants and ModelInsensitivity 736323.2' The Macroscopic Momentum and AngularMomentum Balances 738523.3 The Macroscopic Energy Balance 738523.4 The Macroscopic Mechanical EnergyBalance 739523.5 Use of the Macroscopic Balances to Solve Steady-State Problems 739Ex. 23.5-1 Energy Balances for a Sulfur DioxideConverter 739Ex. 23.5-2 Height of a Packed-TowerAbsorber 742Ex. 23.5-3 Linear Cascades 746Ex. 23.5-4 Expansion of a Reactive Gas Mixturethrough a Frictionless Adiabatic Nozzle 749523.6' Use of the Macroscopic Balances to SolveUnsteady-State Problems 752Ex. 23.6-1 Start-up of a ChemicalReactor 752Ex. 23.6-2 Unsteady Operation of a PackedColumn 753Ex. 23.6-3 The Utility of Low-OrderMoments 756Questions for Discussion 758Problems 759Chapter 24 Other Mechanisms forMass Transport 764524.1 The Equation of Change for Entropy 765524.2. The Flux Expressions for Heat and Mass 767Ex. 24.2-1 Thermal Diffusion and theClusius-Dickel Column 770Ex. 24.2-2 Pressure Diffusion and the Ultra-centrifuge772524.3' Concentration Diffusion and Driving Forces 774524.4' Applications of the Generalized MaxwellStefanEquations 775Ex. 24.4-1 Centrifugation of Proteins 776Ex. 24.4-2 Proteins as HydrodynamicParticles 779Ex. 24.4-3 Diffusion of Salts in an AqueousSolution 780Ex. 24.4-4 Departures from Local Electroneutrality:Electro-Osmosis 782Ex. 24.4-5 Additional Mass-Transfer DrivingForces 784524.5' Mass Transport across Selectively PermeableMembranes 785Ex. 24.5-1 Concentration Diffusion betweenPreexisting Bulk Phases 788Ex. 24.5-2 Ultrafiltration and ReverseOsmosis 789Ex. 24.5-3 Charged Membranes and DonnanExclusion 791524.6' Mass Transport in Porous Media 793Ex. 24.6-1 Knudsen Diffusion 795Ex. 24.6-2 Transport from a Bina y ExternalSolution 797Questions for Discussion 798Problems 799Postface 805AppendicesAppendix A Vector and Tensor Notation 807A . Vector Operations from a GeometricalViewpoint 8085A.2 Vector Operations in Terms ofComponents 810Ex. A.2-1 Proof of a Vector Identity 814 15. xii ContentsTensor Operations in Terms ofComponents 815Vector and Tensor Differential Operations 819Ex. A.4-1 Proof ofa Tensor Identity 822Vector and Tensor Integral Theorems 824Vector and Tensor Algebra in CurvilinearCoordinates 825Differential Operations in CurvilinearCoordinates 829Ex. A.7-1 Differential Operations in CylindricalCoordinates 831Ex. A.7-2 Differential Operations in SphericalCoordinates 838Integral Operations in CurvilinearCoordinates 839Further Comments on Vector-TensorNotation 841Appendix B Fluxes and the Equations ofChange 843Newton's Law of Viscosity 843Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction 845Fick's (First) Law of Binary Diffusion 846The Equation of Continuity 846The Equation of Motion in Terms of 7 847The Equation of Motion for a Newtonian Fluidwith Constant p and p 848The Dissipation Function a, for NewtonianFluids 849The Equation of Energy in Terms of q 849The Equation of Energy for Pure NewtonianFluids with Constant p and k 850The Equation of Continuity for Species a in Termsof j, 850The Equation of Continuity for Species i inTerms of w, for Constant p9,, 851Appendix C Mathematical Topics 8521 Some Ordinary Differential Equations and TheirSolutions 85292.2 Expansions of Functions in TaylorSeries 8535C.3 Differentiation of Integrals (the LeibnizFormula) 8545C.4 The Gamma Function 8555C.5 The Hyperbolic Functions 8565C.6 The Error Function 857Appendix D The Kinetic Theory of Gases 858D l The Boltzmann Equation 8585D.2 The Equations of Change 8595D.3 The Molecular Expressions for theFluxes 8595D.4 The Solution to the Boltzmann Equation 8605D.5 The Fluxes in Terms of the TransportProperties 8605D.6 The Transport Properties in Terms of theIntermolecular Forces 8615D.7 Concluding Comments 861Appendix E Tables for Prediction ofTransport Properties 863E l Intermolecular Force Parameters and CriticalProperties 8645E.2 Functions for Prediction of Transport Propertiesof Gases at Low Densities 866Appendix F Constants and ConversionFactors 8671 Mathematical Constants 8675F.2 Physical Constants 8675F.3 Conversion Factors 868Notation 872Author Index 877Subject Index 885 16. Chapter 0The Subject of TransportPhenomena90.1 What are the transport phenomena?50.2 Three levels at which transport phenomena can be studied50.3 The conservation laws: an example50.4 Concluding commentsThe purpose of this introductory chapter is to describe the scope, aims, and methods ofthe subject of transport phenomena. It is important to have some idea about the struc-tureof the field before plunging into the details; without this perspective it is not possi-bleto appreciate the unifying principles of the subject and the interrelation of thevarious individual topics. A good grasp of transport phenomena is essential for under-standingmany processes in engineering, agriculture, meteorology, physiology, biology,analytical chemistry, materials science, pharmacy, and other areas. Transport phenom-enais a well-developed and eminently useful branch of physics that pervades manyareas of applied science.0 . WHAT ARE THE TRANSPORT PHENOMENA?The subject of transport phenomena includes three closely related topics: fluid dynam-ics,heat transfer, and mass transfer. Fluid dynamics involves the transport of momenfum,heat transfer deals with the transport of energy, and mass transfer is concerned with thetransport of mass of various chemical species. These three transport phenomena should,at the introductory level, be studied together for the following reasons:They frequently occur simultaneously in industrial, biological, agricultural, andmeteorological problems; in fact, the occurrence of any one transport process by it-selfis the exception rather than the rule.The basic equations that describe the three transport phenomena are closely re-lated.The similarity of the equations under simple conditions is the basis for solv-ingproblems "by analogy."The mathematical tools needed for describing these phenomena are very similar.Although it is not the aim of this book to teach mathematics, the student will be re-quiredto review various mathematical topics as the development unfolds. Learn-inghow to use mathematics may be a very valuable by-product of studyingtransport phenomena.The molecular mechanisms underlying the various transport phenomena are veryclosely related. All materials are made up of molecules, and the same molecular 17. 2 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport Phenomenamotions and interactions are responsible for viscosity, thermal conductivity, anddiffusion.The main aim of this book is to give a balanced overview of the field of transport phe-nomena,present the fundamental equations of the subject, and illustrate how to usethem to solve problems.There are many excellent treatises on fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and mass trans-fer.In addition, there are many research and review journals devoted to these individualsubjects and even to specialized subfields. The reader who has mastered the contents ofthis book should find it possible to consult the treatises and journals and go more deeplyinto other aspects of the theory, experimental techniques, empirical correlations, designmethods, and applications. That is, this book should not be regarded as the completepresentation of the subject, but rather as a stepping stone to a wealth of knowledge thatlies beyond.50.2 THREE LEVELS AT WHICH TRANSPORTPHENOMENA CAN BE STUDIEDIn Fig. 0.2-1 we show a schematic diagram of a large system-for example, a large pieceof equipment through which a fluid mixture is flowing. We can describe the transport ofmass, momentum, energy, and angular momentum at three different levels.At the macroscopic level (Fig. 0.2-la) we write down a set of equations called the"macroscopic balances," which describe how the mass, momentum, energy, and angularmomentum in the system change because of the introduction and removal of these enti-tiesvia the entering and leaving streams, and because of various other inputs to the sys-temfrom the surroundings. No attempt is made to understand all the details of thesystem. In studying an engineering or biological system it is a good idea to start withthis macroscopic description in order to make a global assessment of the problem; insome instances it is only this overall view that is needed.At the microscopic level (Fig. 0.2-lb) we examine what is happening to the fluid mix-turein a small region within the equipment. We write down a set of equations called the"equations of change," which describe how the mass, momentum, energy, and angularmomentum change within this small region. The aim here is to get information about ve-locity,temperature, pressure, and concentration profiles within the system. This moredetailed information may be required for the understanding of some processes.At the molecular level (Fig. 0.2-lc) we seek a fundamental understanding of the mech-anismsof mass, momentum, energy, and angular momentum transport in terms of mol-1 Q = heat added to syst--W,,, = Work done on the system bythe surroundings by meansof moving partsFig. 0.2-1 (a) A macro-scopicflow system contain-ingN2 and 0,; (b) amicroscopic region withinthe macroscopic systemcontaining N, and 02,which are in a state of flow;(c) a collision between amolecule of N, and a mole-culeof 0,. 18. 50.2 Three Levels At Which Transport Phenomena Can Be Studied 3ecular structure and intermolecular forces. Generally this is the realm of the theoreticalphysicist or physical chemist, but occasionally engineers and applied scientists have toget involved at this level. This is particularly true if the processes being studied involvecomplex molecules, extreme ranges of temperature and pressure, or chemically reactingsystems.It should be evident that these three levels of description involve different "lengthscales": for example, in a typical industrial problem, at the macroscopic level the dimen-sionsof the flow systems may be of the order of centimeters or meters; the microscopiclevel involves what is happening in the micron to the centimeter range; and molecular-levelproblems involve ranges of about 1 to 1000 nanometers.This book is divided into three parts dealing withFlow of pure fluids at constant temperature (with emphasis on viscous and con-vectivemomentum transport)--Chapters 1-8Flow of pure fluids with varying temperature (with emphasis on conductive, con-vective,and radiative energy transport)-Chapters 9-16Flow of fluid mixtures with varying composition (with emphasis on diffusive andconvective mass transport)-Chapters 17-24That is, we build from the simpler to the more difficult problems. Within each of theseparts, we start with an initial chapter dealing with some results of the molecular theoryof the transport properties (viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusivity). Then weproceed to the microscopic level and learn how to determine the velocity, temperature,and concentration profiles in various kinds of systems. The discussion concludes withthe macroscopic level and the description of large systems.As the discussion unfolds, the reader will appreciate that there are many connec-tionsbetween the levels of description. The transport properties that are described bymolecular theory are used at the microscopic level. Furthermore, the equations devel-opedat the microscopic level are needed in order to provide some input into problemsolving at the macroscopic level.There are also many connections between the three areas of momentum, energy,and mass transport. By learning how to solve problems in one area, one also learns thetechniques for solving problems in another area. The similarities of the equations in thethree areas mean that in many instances one can solve a problem "by analogy"-that is,by taking over a solution directly from one area and, then changing the symbols in theequations, write down the solution to a problem in another area.The student will find that these connections-among levels, and among the varioustransport phenomena-reinforce the learning process. As one goes from the first part ofthe book (momentum transport) to the second part (energy transport) and then on to thethird part (mass transport) the story will be very similar but the "names of the players"will change.Table 0.2-1 shows the arrangement of the chapters in the form of a 3 x 8 "matrix."Just a brief glance at the matrix will make it abundantly clear what kinds of interconnec-tionscan be expected in the course of the study of the book. We recommend that thebook be studied by columns, particularly in undergraduate courses. For graduate stu-dents,on the other hand, studying the topics by rows may provide a chance to reinforcethe connections between the three areas of transport phenomena.At all three levels of description-molecular, microscopic, and macroscopic-theconservation laws play a key role. The derivation of the conservation laws for molecu-larsystems is straightforward and instructive. With elementary physics and a mini-mumof mathematics we can illustrate the main concepts and review key physicalquantities that will be encountered throughout this book. That is the topic of the nextsection. 19. 4 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport PhenomenaTable 0.2-1 Organization of the Topics in This BookType of transport Momentum Energy MassTransport by 1 Viscosity 9 Thermal 17 Diffusivitymolecular motion and the stress conductivity and the(momentum flux) and the heat-flux mass-fluxtensor vector vectorsTransport in one 2 Shell momentum 10 Shell energy 18 Shell massdimension (shell- balances and balances and balances andbalance methods) velocity temperature concentrationdistributions distributions distributionsTransport in 3 Equations of 11 Equations of 19 Equations ofarbitrary continua change and their change and change and(use of general use their use their usetransport equations) [isothermal] [nonisothermall [mixtures]Transport with two 4 Momentum 12 Energy transport 20 Mass transportindependent transport with with two with twovariables (special two independent independent independentmethods) variables variables variablesTransport in 5 Turbulent 13 Turbulent 21 Turbulentturbulent flow, and momentum energy transport; mass transport;eddy transport transport; eddy eddy thermal eddyproperties viscosity conductivity diffusivityTransport across 6 Friction factors; 14 Heat-transfer 22 Mass-transferphase boundaries use of empirical coefficients; use coefficients; usecorrelations of empirical of empiricalcorrelations correlationsTransport in large 7 Macroscopic 15 Macroscopic 23 Macroscopicsystems, such as balances balances balancespieces of equipment [isothermal] [nonisothermall [mixtures]or parts thereofTransport by other 8 Momentum 16 Energy 24 Mass transportmechanisms transport in transport by in multi-polymericradiation componentliquids systems; crosseffects50.3 THE CONSERVATION LAWS: AN EXAMPLEThe system we consider is that of two colliding diatomic molecules. For simplicity we as-sumethat the molecules do not interact chemically and that each molecule is homonu-clear-that is, that its atomic nuclei are identical. The molecules are in a low-density gas,so that we need not consider interactions with other molecules in' the neighborhood. InFig. 0.3-1 we show the collision between the two homonuclear diatomic molecules, Aand B, and in Fig. 0.3-2 we show the notation for specifying the locations of the twoatoms of one molecule by means of position vectors drawn from an arbitrary origin.Actually the description of events at the atomic and molecular level should be madeby using quantum mechanics. However, except for the lightest molecules (H, and He) at 20. 90.3 The Conservation Laws: An Example 5Molecule A before collision IIFig. 0.3-1 A collisionbetween homonucleardiatomic molecules,/ such as N, and 02.// Molecule A is made up / Molecule B before collision of two atoms A1 and A2. Molecule B is made up of two atoms B1'b and B2.Molecule B after collisionMolecule A after collisiontemperatures lower than 50 K, the kinetic theory of gases can be developed quite satis-factorilyby use of classical mechanics.Several relations must hold between quantities before and after a collision. Both be-foreand after the collision the molecules are presumed to be sufficiently far apart thatthe two molecules cannot "feel" the intermolecular force between them; beyond a dis-tanceof about 5 molecular diameters the intermolecular force is known to be negligible.Quantities after the collision are indicated with primes.(a) According to the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of the molecules enter-ingand leaving the collision must be equal:Here m, and mB are the masses of molecules A and B. Since there are no chemical reac-tions,the masses of the individual species will also be conserved, so thatm, = mi and rn, = mf, (0.3-2)(b) According to the law of conservation of momentum the sum of the momenta of allthe atoms before the collision must equal that after the collision, so thatin which r,, is the position vector for atom 1 of molecule A, and i,, is its velocity. Wenow write r,, = r, + RA, so that r,, is written as the sum of the position vector for theof molecule A0Arbitrary originfixed in spaceFig. 0.3-2 Position vectors for the atomsA1 and A2 in molecule A. 21. 6 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport Phenomenacenter of mass and the position vector of the atom with respect to the center of mass, andwe recognize that RA2 = -RA,; we also write the same relations for the velocity vectors.Then we can rewrite Eq. 0.3-3 asThat is, the conservation statement can be written in terms of the molecular masses andvelocities, and the corresponding atomic quantities have been eliminated. In gettingEq. 0.3-4 we have used Eq. 0.3-2 and the fact that for homonuclear diatomic moleculesmAl = mA2 = 51 mA.(c) According to the law of conservation of energy, the energy of the colliding pair ofmolecules must be the same before and after the collision. The energy of an isolated mol-eculeis the sum of the kinetic energies of the two atoms and the interatomic potential en-ergy,+,, which describes the force of the chemical bond joining the two atoms 1 and 2 ofmolecule A, and is a function of the interatomic distance lrA2 - rA,l. Therefore, energyconservation leads toNote that we use the standard abbreviated notation that el = (fAl . iAl). We now writethe velocity of atom 1 of molecule A as the sum of the velocity of the center of mass of Aand the velocity of 1 with respect to the center of mass; that is, r,, = iA + RA,. Then Eq.0.3-5 becomesin which MA = $mA1~+il $ nA2~;+, 4, is the sum of the kinetic energies of the atoms, re-ferredto the center of mass of molecule A, and the interatomic potential of molecule A.That is, we split up the energy of each molecule into its kinetic energy with respect tofixed coordinates, and the internal energy of the molecule (which includes its vibra-tional,rotational, and potential energies). Equation 0.3-6 makes it clear that the kineticenergies of the colliding molecules can be converted into internal energy or vice versa.This idea of an interchange between kinetic and internal energy will arise again whenwe discuss the energy relations at the microscopic and macroscopic levels.(dl Finally, the law of conservation of angular momentum can be applied to a collisionto givein which X is used to indicate the cross product of two vectors. Next we introduce thecenter-of-mass and relative position vectors and velocity vectors as before and obtainin which 1, = [R,, x m, , ~ ~ ,+] [ R x~ m~A2 ~Ais2 th]e sum of the angular momenta of theatoms referred to an origin of coordinates at the center of mass of the molecule-that is,the "internal angular momentum." The important point is that there is the possibility forinterchange between the angular momentum of the molecules (with respect to the originof coordinates) and their internal angular momentum (with respect to the center of massof the molecule). This will be referred to later in connection with the equation of changefor angular momentum. 22. s0.4 Concluding Comments 7The conservation laws as applied to collisions of monatomic molecules can be ob-tainedfrom the results above as follows: Eqs. 0.3-1, 0.3-2, and 0.3-4 are directly applica-ble;Eq. 0.3-6 is applicable if the internal energy contributions are omitted; and Eq. 0.3-8may be used if the internal angular momentum terms are discarded.Much of this book will be concerned with setting up the conservation laws at the mi-croscopicand macroscopic levels and applying them to problems of interest in engineer-ingand science. The above discussion should provide a good background for thisadventure. For a glimpse of the conservation laws for species mass, momentum, and en-ergyat the microscopic and macroscopic levels, see Tables 19.2-1 and 23.5-1.50.4 CONCLUDING COMMENTSTo use the macroscopic balances intelligently, it is necessary to use information about in-terphasetransport that comes from the equations of change. To use the equations ofchange, we need the transport properties, which are described by various molecular the-ories.Therefore, from a teaching point of view, it seems best to start at the molecularlevel and work upward toward the larger systems.All the discussions of theory are accompanied by examples to illustrate how the the-oryis applied to problem solving, Then at the end of each chapter there are problems toprovide extra experience in using the ideas given in the chapter. The problems aregrouped into four classes:Class A: Numerical problems, which are designed to highlight important equa-tionsin the text and to give a feeling for the orders of magnitude.Class B: Analytical problems that require doing elementary derivations usingideas mainly from the chapter.Class C: More advanced analytical problems that may bring ideas from other chap-tersor from other books.Class D: Problems in which intermediate mathematical skills are required.Many of the problems and illustrative examples are rather elementary in that they in-volveoversimplified systems or very idealized models. It is, however, necessary to startwith these elementary problems in order to understand how the theory works and to de-velopconfidence in using it. In addition, some of these elementary examples can be veryuseful in making order-of-magnitude estimates in complex problems.Here are a few suggestions for studying the subject of transport phenomena:Always read the text with pencil and paper in hand; work through the details ofthe mathematical developments and supply any missing steps.Whenever necessary, go back to the mathematics textbooks to brush up on calculus,differential equations, vectors, etc. This is an excellent time to review the mathemat-icsthat was learned earlier (but possibly not as carefully as it should have been).Make it a point to give a physical interpretation of key results; that is, get in thehabit of relating the physical ideas to the equations.Always ask whether the results seem reasonable. If the results do not agree withintuition, it is important to find out which is incorrect.Make it a habit to check the dimensions of all results. This is one very good way oflocating errors in derivations.We hope that the reader will share our enthusiasm for the subject of transport phe-nomena.It will take some effort to learn the material, but the rewards will be worth thetime and energy required. 23. 8 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport PhenomenaQUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSIONWhat are the definitions of momentum, angular momentum, and kinetic energy for a singleparticle? What are the dimensions of these quantities?What are the dimensions of velocity, angular velocity, pressure, density, force, work, andtorque? What are some common units used for these quantities?Verify that it is possible to go from Eq. 0.3-3 to Eq. 0.3-4.Go through all the details needed to get Eq. 0.3-6 from Eq. 0.3-5.Suppose that the origin of coordinates is shifted to a new position. What effect would thathave on Eq. 0.3-7? Is the equation changed?Compare and contrast angular velocity and angular momentum.What is meant by internal energy? Potential energy?Is the law of conservation of mass always valid? What are the limitations? 24. Part OneMomentumTransport 25. This Page Intentionally Left Blank 26. Chapter 1Viscosity and the Mechanismsof Momentum Transport51.1 Newton's law of viscosity (molecular momentum transport)2 Generalization of Newton's law of viscosity1 . 3 Pressure and temperature dependence of viscosity~1.4' Molecular theory of the viscosity of gases at low density51.5' Molecular theory of the viscosity of liquids51.6' Viscosity of suspensions and emulsions1 . 7 Convective momentum transportThe first part of this book deals with the flow of viscous fluids. For fluids of low molecu-larweight, the physical property that characterizes the resistance to flow is the viscosity.Anyone who has bought motor oil is aware of the fact that some oils are more "viscous"than others and that viscosity is a function of the temperature.We begin in 31.1 with the simple shear flow between parallel plates and discuss howmomentum is transferred through the fluid by viscous action. This is an elementary ex-ampleof molecular momentum transport and it serves to introduce "Newton's law of vis-cosity"along with the definition of viscosity p. Next in 31.2 we show how Newton's lawcan be generalized for arbitrary flow patterns. The effects of temperature and pressureon the viscosities of gases and liquids are summarized in 51.3 by means of a dimension-lessplot. Then 51.4 tells how the viscosities of gases can be calculated from the kinetictheory of gases, and in 51.5 a similar discussion is given for liquids. In 51.6 we make afew comments about the viscosity of suspensions and emulsions.Finally, we show in 31.7 that momentum can also be transferred by the bulk fluidmotion and that such convective momentum transport is proportional to the fluid density p.51.1 NEWTON'S LAW OF VISCOSITY (MOLECULARTRANSPORT OF MOMENTUM)In Fig. 1.1-1 we show a pair of large parallel plates, each one with area A, separated by adistance Y. In the space between them is a fluid-either a gas or a liquid. This system isinitially at rest, but at time t = 0 the lower plate is set in motion in the positive x direc-tionat a constant velocity V. As time proceeds, the fluid gains momentum, and ulti-matelythe linear steady-state velocity profile shown in the figure is established. Werequire that the flow be laminar ("laminar" flow is the orderly type of flow that one usu-allyobserves when syrup is poured, in contrast to "turbulent" flow, which is the irregu-lar,chaotic flow one sees in a high-speed mixer). When the final state of steady motion 27. 12 Chapter 1 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of Momentum TransportFluid initially< O at restLower platef = O set in motionVelocity buildupin unsteady flowv IFig. 1.1-1 The buildup tothe steady, laminar velocityprofile for a fluid containedbetween two plates. Theflow is called "laminar" be-causethe adjacent layers offluid ("laminae") slide pastone another in an orderlyfashion.Final velocityLarge t distribution inYt steady flowhas been attained, a constant force F is required to maintain the motion of the lowerplate. Common sense suggests that this force may be expressed as follows:That is, the force should be proportional to the area and to the velocity, and inverselyproportional to the distance between the plates. The constant of proportionality p is aproperty of the fluid, defined to be the viscosity.We now switch to the notation that will be used throughout the book. First we re-placeF/A by the symbol T, which is the force in the x direction on a unit area perpen-dicularto the y direction. It is understood that this is the force exerted by the fluid oflesser y on the fluid of greater y. Furthermore, we replace V/Y by -dvx/dy. Then, interms of these symbols, Eq. 1.1-1 becomesThis equation, which states that the shearing force per unit area is proportional to thenegative of the velocity gradient, is often called Newton's law of visco~ityA.~c tually weSome authors write Eq. 1.1-2 in the formin which ryx [=] lbf/ft2, v, [=] ft/s, y [=I ft, and p [=] lb,/ft. s; the quantityg, is the "gravitationalconversion factor" with the value of 32.174 poundals/lbf. In this book we will always use Eq. 1.1-2 ratherthan Eq. 1.1-2a.Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727), a professor at Cambridge University and later Master of the Mint,was the founder of classical mechanics and contributed to other fields of physics as well. Actually Eq.1.1-2 does not appear in Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematics, but the germ ofthe idea is there. For illuminating comments, see D. J. Acheson, Elementary Fluid Dynamics, OxfordUniversity Press, 1990,6.1. 28. 51.1 Newton's Law of Viscosity (Molecular Transport of Momentum) 13should not refer to Eq. 1.1-2 as a "law," since Newton suggested it as an empiricism3-the simplest proposal that could be made for relating the stress and the velocity gradi-ent.However, it has been found that the resistance to flow of all gases and all liquidswith molecular weight of less than about 5000 is described by Eq. 1.1-2, and such fluidsare referred to as Newtonian fluids. Polymeric liquids, suspensions, pastes, slurries, andother complex fluids are not described by Eq. 1.1-2 and are referred to as non-Newtonianfluids. Polymeric liquids are discussed in Chapter 8.Equation 1.1-2 may be interpreted in another fashion. In the neighborhood of themoving solid surface at y = 0 the fluid acquires a certain amount of x-momentum. Thisfluid, in turn, imparts momentum to the adjacent layer of liquid, causing it to remain inmotion in the x direction. Hence x-momentum is being transmitted through the fluid inthe positive y direction. Therefore r,, may also be interpreted as the flux of x-momentumin the positive y direction, where the term "flux" means "flow per unit area." This interpre-tationis consistent with the molecular picture of momentum transport and the kinetictheories of gases and liquids. It also is in harmony with the analogous treatment givenlater for heat and mass transport.The idea in the preceding paragraph may be paraphrased by saying that momentumgoes "downhill" from a region of high velocity to a region of low velocity-just as a sledgoes downhill from a region of high elevation to a region of low elevation, or the wayheat flows from a region of high temperature to a region of low temperature. The veloc-itygradient can therefore be thought of as a "driving force" for momentum transport.In what follows we shall sometimes refer to Newton's law in Eq. 1.1-2 in terms offorces (which emphasizes the mechanical nature of the subject) and sometimes in termsof momentum transport (which emphasizes the analogies with heat and mass transport).This dual viewpoint should prove helpful in physical interpretations.Often fluid dynamicists use the symbol v to represent the viscosity divided by thedensity (mass per unit volume) of the fluid, thus:This quantity is called the kinematic viscosity.Next we make a few comments about the units of the quantities we have defined. Ifwe use the symbol [=I to mean "has units of," then in the SI system r,, [=I N/m2 = Pa,v, [= J m/s, and y [=I m, so thatsince the units on both sides of Eq. 1.1-2 must agree. We summarize the above and alsogive the units for the c.g.s. system and the British system in Table 1.1-1. The conversiontables in Appendix F will prove to be very useful for solving numerical problems involv-ingdiverse systems of units.The viscosities of fluids vary over many orders of magnitude, with the viscosity ofair at 20C being 1.8 x Pa . s and that of glycerol being about 1 Pa . s, with some sili-coneoils being even more viscous. In Tables 1.1-2,l. 1-3, and 1.1-4 experimental data4 areA relation of the form of Eq. 1.1-2 does come out of the simple kinetic theory of gases (Eq. 1.4-7).However, a rigorous theory for gases sketched in Appendix D makes it clear that Eq. 1.1-2 arises as thefirst term in an expansion, and that additional (higher-order) terms are to be expected. Also, even anelementary kinetic theory of liquids predicts non-Newtonian behavior (Eq. 1.5-6).A comprehensive presentation of experimental techniques for measuring transport properties can befound in W. A. Wakeham, A. Nagashima, and J. V. Sengers, Measurement of the Transporf Properties offluids,CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. (1991). Sources for experimental data are: Landolt-Bornstein, Zahlenwerte undFunktionen, Vol. II,5, Springer (1968-1969); International Critical Tables, McGraw-Hill, New York (1926);Y. S. Touloukian, P. E. Liley, and S. C. Saxena, Tkermopkysical Properties of Matter, Plenum Press, New York(1970); and also numerous handbooks of chemistry, physics, fluid dynamics, and heat transfer. 29. 14 Chapter 1 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of Momentum TransportTable 1.1-1 Summary of Units for QuantitiesRelated to Eq. 1 .l-2--SI c.g.s. BritishNote: The pascal, Pa, is the same as N/m2, and the newton,N, is the same as kg - m/s2. The abbreviation for "centipoise"is "cp."Table 1.1-2 Viscosity of Water and Air at 1 atm PressureWater (liq.)"TemperatureT ("C)Viscosityp (mPa s)1.7871.00190.65300.46650.35480.2821Kinematic viscosityv (cm2/s)0.01 7870.0100370.0065810.0047440.0036510.002944Viscosityp (mPa. s)Kinematic viscosityv (cm2/s)Talculated from the results of R. C. Hardy and R. L. Cottington, J. Research Nut. Bur. Standards, 42,573-578 (1949); and J. F. Swidells, J. R. Coe, Jr., and T. B. Godfrey, J. Research Naf. Bur. Standards, 48,l-31(1952).Calculated from "Tables of Thermal Properties of Gases," National Bureau of Standards Circular 464(1955), Chapter 2.Table 1.1-3 Viscosities of Some Gases and Liquids at Atmospheric Pressurea- - --Temperature Viscosity Temperature ViscosityGases T CC) p (mPa s) Liquids T rC) p (mPa. s)(C&&,O O25C6H6 20Br2 25Hg 20C2H50H 02550H2S0, 25Glycerol 25Talues taken from N. A. Lange, Handbook of Chemistry, McGraw-Hill, New York, 15th edition(1999), Tables 5.16 and 5.18.H. L. Johnston and K. E. McKloskey, J. Phys. Chern., 44,1038-1058 (1940).CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. (1999).Landolt-Bornstein Zahlenwerfe und Funktionen, Springer (1969). 30. $1.1 Newton's Law of Viscosity (Molecular Transport of Momentum) 15Table 1.1-4 Viscosities of Some Liquid MetalsTemperature ViscosityMetal T ("(3 p (mPa s)-- - --Data taken from The Reactor Handbook, Vol. 2, AtomicEnergy Commission AECD-3646, U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, Washington, D.C. (May 1955), pp. 258et seq.given for pure fluids at 1 atm pressure. Note that for gases at low density, the viscosityincreases with increasing temperature, whereas for liquids the viscosity usually decreaseswith increasing temperature. In gases the momentum is transported by the molecules infree flight between collisions, but in liquids the transport takes place predominantly byvirtue of the intermoIecular forces that pairs of molecules experience as they wind theirway around among their neighbors. In g51.4 and 1.5 we give some elementary kinetictheory arguments to explain the temperature dependence of viscosity.Compute the steady-state momentum flux T,, in lbf/ft? when the lower plate velocity V in Fig.1.1-1 is I ft/s in the positive x direction, the plate separation Y is 0.001 ft, and the fluid viscos-Calculation of ity p is 0.7 cp.Momentum FluxSOLUTIONSince T ~ ,is desired in British units, we should convert the viscosity into that system of units.Thus, making use of Appendix F, we find p = (0.7 cp)(2.0886 X = 1.46 x Ibf s/ft2.The velocity profile is linear so thatdv, - Av, - -1.0 ft/s= -10oos-~dy Ay 0.001 ftSubstitution into Eq. 1.1-2 gives 31. 16 Chapter 1 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of Momentum Transport1 . 2 GENERALIZATION OF NEWTON'S LAW OF VISCOSITYIn the previous section the viscosity was defined by Eq. 1.1-2, in terms of a simplesteady-state shearing flow in which v, is a function of y alone, and v, and v, are zero.Usually we are interested in more complicated flows in which the three velocity compo-nentsmay depend on all three coordinates and possibly on time. Therefore we musthave an expression more general than Eq. 1.1-2, but it must simplify to Eq. 1.1-2 forsteady-state shearing flow.This generalization is not simple; in fact, it took mathematicians about a century and ahalf to do this. It is not appropriate for us to give all the details of this development here,since they can be found in many fluid dynamics books.' Instead we explain briefly the mainideas that led to the discovery of the required generalization of Newton's law of viscosity.To do this we consider a very general flow pattern, in which the fluid velocity maybe in various directions at various places and may depend on the time t. The velocitycomponents are then given byIn such a situation, there will be nine stress components ril (where i and j may take onthe designations x, y, and z), instead of the component T~ that appears in Eq. 1.1-2. Wetherefore must begin by defining these stress components.In Fig. 1.2-1 is shown a small cube-shaped volume element within the flow field,each face having unit area. The center of the volume element is at the position x, y, z. AtFig. 1.2-1 Pressure and viscous forces acting on planes in the fluid perpendicular to the threecoordinate systems. The shaded planes have unit area.W. Prager, Introduction to Mechanics of Continua, Ginn, Boston (1961), pp. 89-91; R. Aris, Vectors,Tensors, and the Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. (19621, pp. 30-34,99-112; L. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Fluid Mechanics, Pergamon, London, 2nd edition (1987), pp. 44-45.Lev Davydovich Landau (1908-1968) received the Nobel prize in 1962 for his work on liquid helium andsuperfluid dynamics. 32. 1 2 Generalization of Newton's Law of Viscosity 17any instant of time we can slice the volume element in such a way as to remove half thefluid within it. As shown in the figure, we can cut the volume perpendicular to each ofthe three coordinate directions in turn. We can then ask what force has to be applied onthe free (shaded) surface in order to replace the force that had been exerted on that sur-faceby the fluid that was removed. There will be two contributions to the force: that as-sociatedwith the pressure, and that associated with the viscous forces.The pressure force will always be perpendicular to the exposed surface. Hence in (a)the force per unit area on the shaded surface will be a vector p6,-that is, the pressure (ascalar) multiplied by the unit vector 6, in the x direction. Similarly, the force on theshaded surface in (b) will be p6,, and in (c) the force will be p6,. The pressure forces willbe exerted when the fluid is stationary as well as when it is in motion.The viscous forces come into play only when there are velocity gradients within thefluid. In general they are neither perpendicular to the surface element nor parallel to it,but rather at some angle to the surface (see Fig. 1.2-1). In (a) we see a force per unit areaT, exerted on the shaded area, and in (b) and (c) we see forces per unit area T, and 7,.Each of these forces (which are vectors) has components (scalars); for example, T, hascomponents T,,, T,~, and T,,. Hence we can now summarize the forces acting on the threeshaded areas in Fig. 1.2-1 in Table 1.2-1. This tabulation is a summary of the forces perunit area (stresses) exerted within a fluid, both by the thermodynamic pressure and theviscous stresses. Sometimes we will find it convenient to have a symbol that includes bothtypes of stresses, and so we define the molecular stresses as follows:r . = paii + rii where i and j may be x, y, or z 'I (1.2-2)Here Sij is the Kronecker delta, which is 1 if i = j and zero if i # j.Just as in the previous section, the r,j (and also the 'rr$ may be interpreted in two ways:rZ=i pa,, + ril = force in the j direction on a unit area perpendicular to the i direction,where it is understood that the fluid in the region of lesser xi is exertingthe force on the fluid of greater xi'rrY = paij + rij = flux of j-momentum in the positive i direction-that is, from the regionof lesser xi to that of greater xiBoth interpretations are used in this book; the first one is particularly useful in describ-ingthe forces exerted by the fluid on solid surfaces. The stresses .rr,, = p + T,,, 5, = p +ryy',r rzz = p + T,, are called normal stresses, whereas the remaining quantities, IT,,= T,,,5,= T ~. . ~. ar,e called shear stresses. These quantities, which have two subscripts associ-atedwith the coordinate directions, are referred to as "tensors," just as quantities (suchas velocity) that have one subscript associated with the coordinate directions are calledTable 1.2-1 Summary of the Components of the Molecular Stress Tensor (or MolecularMomentum-Flux Tensor)"DirectionnormalVector forceto theper unit area on theshadedshaded face (momentumface flux through shaded face)X Tr, = pajx + TwY n, = p6, + T,z m, = p6, + T,Components of the forces (per unit area)acting on the shaded face (components of themomentum flux through the shaded face)x-component y-component z-component" These are referred to as components of the "molecular momentum flux tensor" because they areassociated with the molecular motions, as discussed in g1.4 and Appendix D. The additional "convectivemomentum flux tensor" components, associated with bulk movement of the fluid, are discussed in 51.7. 33. 18 Chapter 1 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of Momentum TransportI, vectors." Therefore we will refer to T as the z~iscous stress tensor (with components T ~ )and .rr as the molecular stress tensor (with components qj).W hen there is no chance forconfusion, the modifiers "viscous" and "molecular" may be omitted. A discussion ofvectors and tensors can be found in Appendix A.The question now is: How are these stresses rij related to the velocity gradients inthe fluid? In generalizing Eq. 1.1-2, we put several restrictions on the stresses, as follows:The viscous stresses may be linear combinations of all the velocity gradients:dvk7.. = -CkClp.. - where i, j, k, and 1 may be 1,2,3 (1.2-3) 11 vk' dx1Here the 81 quantities pijkalr e "viscosity coefficients." The quantities x,, x,, x3 inthe derivatives denote the Cartesian coordinates x, y, z, and v,, v,, v, are the sameas v,, v,, v,.We assert that time derivatives or time integrals should not appear in the expres-sion.(For viscoelastic fluids, as discussed in Chapter 8, time derivatives or time in-tegralsare needed to describe the elastic responses.)We do not expect any viscous forces to be present, if the fluid is in a state of purerotation. This requirement leads to the necessity that ri, be a symmetric combina-tionof the velocity gradients. By this we mean that if i and j are interchanged, thecombination of velocity gradients remains unchanged. It can be shown that theonly symmetric linear combinations of velocity gradients areIf the fluid is isotropic-that is, it has no preferred direction-then the coefficientsin front of the two expressions in Eq. 1.2-4 must be scalars so thatWe have thus reduced the number of "viscosity coefficients" from 81 to 2!Of course, we want Eq. 1.2-5 to simplify to Eq. 1.1-2 for the flow situation in Fig.1.1-1. For that elementary flow Eq. 1.2-5 simplifies to T,, = A dv,/dy, and hence thescalar constant A must be the same as the negative of the viscosity p.Finally, by common agreement among most fluid dynamicists the scalar constantB is set equal to $p - K, where K is called the dilatational viscosity. The reason forwriting B in this way is that it is known from kinetic theory that K is identicallyzero for monatomic gases at low density.Thus the required generalization for Newton's law of viscosity in Eq. 1.1-2 is thenthe set of nine relations (six being independent):Here T~~ = T,~, and i and j can take on the values 1,2,3. These relations for the stresses in aNewtonian fluid are associated with the names of Navier, Poisson, and ~ t o k e sI.f ~d e-'C .-L.-M.-H. Navier, Ann. Chimie, 19,244-260 (1821); S.-D. Poisson, I. ~ c o lPe o lytech., 13, Cahier 20,l-174(1831); G. G. Stokes, Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., 8,287-305 (1845). Claude-Louis-Marie-Henri Navier (1785-1836)(pronounced "Nah-vyay," with the second syllable accented) was a civil engineer whose specialty was roadand bridge building; George Gabriel Stokes (1819-1903) taught at Cambridge University and was presidentof the Royal Society. Navier and Stokes are well known because of the Navier-Stokes equations (see Chapter3). See also D. J. Acheson, Elemazta y Fluid Mechanics, Oxford University Press (1990), pp. 209-212,218. 34. 1.2 Generalization of Newton's Law of Viscosity 19sired, this set of relations can be written more concisely in the vector-tensor notation ofAppendix A asin which 6 is the unit tensor with components SV, Vv is the velocity gradient tensor withcomponents (d/dxi)vj, (Vv)' is the "transposer' of the velocity gradient tensor with com-ponents(d/dxj)vi, and (V . v) is the divergence of the velocity vector.The important conclusion is that we have a generalization of Eq. 1.1-2, and this gen-eralizationinvolves not one but two coefficients3 characterizing the fluid: the viscosity pand the dilatational viscosity K. Usually, in solving fluid dynamics problems, it is notnecessary to know K. If the fluid is a gas, we often assume it to act as an idealmonoatomic gas, for which K is identically zero. If the fluid is a liquid, we often assumethat it is incompressible, and in Chapter 3 we show that for incompressible liquids(V v) = 0, and therefore the term containing K is discarded anyway. The dilational vis-cosityis important in describing sound absorption in polyatomic gases4 and in describ-ingthe fluid dynamics of liquids containing gas bubble^.^Equation 1.2-7 (or 1.2-6) is an important equation and one that we shall use often.Therefore it is written out in full in Cartesian (x, y, z), cylindrical (r, 8, z), and spherical(r, O f + ) coordinates in Table B.1. The entries in this table for curvilinear coordinates areobtained by the methods outlined in 55A.6 and A.7. It is suggested that beginning stu-dentsnot concern themselves with the details of such derivations, but rather concen-trateon using the tabulated results. Chapters 2 and 3 will give ample practice in doingthis.In curvilinear coordinates the stress components have the same meaning as in Carte-siancoordinates. For example, r,, in cylindrical coordinates, which will be encounteredin Chapter 2, can be interpreted as: (i) the viscous force in the z direction on a unit areaperpendicular to the r direction, or (ii) the viscous flux of z-momentum in the positive rdirection. Figure 1.2-2 illustrates some typical surface elements and stress-tensor compo-nentsthat arise in fluid dynamics.The shear stresses are usually easy to visualize, but the normal stresses may causeconceptual problems. For example, T,, is a force per unit area in the z direction on aplane perpendicular to the z direction. For the flow of an incompressible fluid in theconvergent channel of Fig. 1.2-3, we know intuitively that v, increases with decreas-ingz; hence, according to Eq. 1.2-6, there is a nonzero stress r,, = -2p(dv,/dz) actingin the fluid.Note on the Sign Convention for the Stress Tensor We have emphasized in connectionwith Eq. 1.1-2 (and in the generalization in this section) that T~~ is the force in the posi-tivex direction on a plane perpendicular to the y direction, and that this is the force ex-ertedby the fluid in the region of the lesser y on the fluid of greater y. In most fluiddynamics and elasticity books, the words "lesser" and "greater" are interchanged andEq. 1.1-2 is written as r,, = +p(dv,/dy). The advantages of the sign convention used inthis book are: (a) the sign convention used in Newton's law of viscosity is consistentwith that used in Fourier's law of heat conduction and Fick's law of diffusion; (b) thesign convention for rij is the same as that for the convective momentum flux pw (seeSome writers refer to p as the "shear viscosity," but this is inappropriate nomenclature inasmuchas p can arise in nonshearing flows as well as shearing flows. The term "dynamic viscosity" is alsooccasionally seen, but this term has a very specific meaning in the field of viscoelasticity and is aninappropriate term for p.L. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, op. cit., Ch. VIII.G. K. Batchelor, An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press (1963, pp. 253-255. 35. 20 Chapter 1 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of Momentum Transportof radius RForce by fluid in+8 direction onsurface element(RdB)(dz)i s- ~ ~ o ( ~ = R R d e d zZsurface element(RdNdz) is- 7 , . , ( , . = ~ R d ~ d ~ZSolid notchedForce by fluid inz direction onsurface element(dr)(dz)is+To2 1 o = (,/zI - , dr dz/ IY a k' ISolid sphereof radius RForce by fluid in8 direction onsurface element(RdB)(R sin 8 d4) is- r r o l r = R ~ 2 s i n 0 d 8 d 4Solid sphereof radius RForce by fluid in4 direction onsurface element(RdMR sin 8 d4) is- T ~ + ~ ~sin= 8 ~d8Rd4~IForce by fluid inr direction onsurface elementSolid cone (dr)(r sin a d+) iswith half- r o r ( o=asrin ru drd4Fig. 1.2-2 (a) Some typical surface elements and shear stresses in the cylindrical coordinate system.(b) Some typical surface elements and shear stresses in the spherical coordinate system.51.7 and Table 19.2-2); (c) in Eq. 1.2-2, the terms paij and T~~ have the same sign affixed,and the terms p and T~~ are both positive in compression (in accordance with commonusage in thermodynamics); (d) all terms in the entropy production in Eq. 24.1-5 havethe same sign. Clearly the sign convention in Eqs. 1.1-2 and 1.2-6 is arbitrary, and eithersign convention can be used, provided that the physical meaning of the sign conventionis clearly understood. 36. 3 Pressure and Temperature Dependence of Viscosity 21Fig. 1.2-3 The flow in a converging duct is an example of a situationin which the normal stresses are not zero. Since v, is a function ofr and z, the normal-stress component T,, = -2p(dv,/dz) is nonzero.Also, since v, depends on r and z, the normal-stress componentT,, = -2p(dvr/dr) is not equal to zero. At the wall, however, the'z") normal stresses all vanish far fluids described by Eq. 1.2-7 providedthat the density is constant (see Example 3.1-1 and Problem 3C.2).1 . 3 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCEOF VISCOSITYExtensive data on viscosities of pure gases and liquids are available in various scienceand engineering handbooks.' When experimental data are lacking and there is not timeto obtain them, the viscosity can be estimated by empirical methods, making use of otherdata on the given substance. We present here a corresponding-states correlation, which fa-cilitatessuch estimates and illustrates general trends of viscosity with temperature andpressure for ordinary fluids. The principle of corresponding states, which has a soundscientific basis: is widely used for correlating equation-of-state and thermodynamicdata. Discussions of this principle can be found in textbooks on physical chemistry andthermodynamics.The plot in Fig. 1.3-1 gives a global view of the pressure and temperature dependenceof viscosity. The reduced viscosity pr = p/p, is plotted versus the reduced temperature T,= T/T, for various values of the reduced pressure p, = p/p,. A "reduced quantity is onethat has been made dimensionless by dividing by the corresponding quantity at the criti-calpoint. The chart shows that the viscosity of a gas approaches a limit (the low-densitylimit) as the pressure becomes smaller; for most gases, this limit is nearly attained at 1 atmpressure. The viscosity of a gas at low density increases with increasing temperature,whereas the viscosity of a liquid decreases with increasing temperature.Experimental values of the critical viscosity p, are seldom available. However, p,may be estimated in one of the following ways: (i) if a value of viscosity is known at agiven reduced pressure and temperature, preferably at conditions near to those of- - --J. A. Schetz and A. E. Fuhs (eds.), Handbook of Fluid Dynamics and Fluid Machinery, Wiley-Interscience, New York (1996), Vol. 1, Chapter 2; W. M. Rohsenow, J. P. Hartnett, and Y. I. Cho, Handbookof Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 3rd edition (19981, Chapter 2. Other sources are mentioned infn. 4 of 91.1.J. Millat, J. H. Dymond, and C. A. Nieto de Castro (eds.), Transport Properties of Fluids, CambridgeUniversity Press (1996), Chapter 11, by E. A. Mason and F. J. Uribe, and Chapter 12, by M. L. Huber andH. M. M. Hanley. 37. 22 Chapter 1 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of Momentum TransportFig. 1.3-1 Reduced vis-cositypr = p/p, as afunction of reducedtemperature for severalvalues of the reducedpressure. 10. A. Uye-haraand K. M. Watson,Nat. Petroleum News,Tech. Section, 36,764(Oct. 4,1944); revisedby K. M. Watson (1960).A large-scale version ofthis graph is availablein 0. A. Hougen,K. M. Watson, andR. A. Ragatz, C. P. P.Charts, Wiley, NewYork, 2nd edition(1960)l.Reduced temperature T, = T/T,interest, then pc can be calculated from p, = p/pY; or (ii) if critical p-V-T data are avail-able,then p, may be estimated from these empirical relations:Here p, is in micropoises, p, in atm, Tc in K, and in cm3/g-mole. A tabulation of criticalviscosities3 computed by method (i) is given in Appendix E.Figure 1.3-1 can also be used for rough estimation of viscosities of mixtures. ForN-component fluids with mole fractions x,, the "pseudocritical" properties4 are:That is, one uses the chart exactly as for pure fluids, but with the pseudocritical proper-tiesinstead of the critical properties. This empirical procedure works reasonably well". A. Hougen and K. M. Watson, Chemical Process Principles, Part 111, Wiley, New York (1947),p. 873. Olaf Andreas Hougen (pronounced "How-gen") (1893-1986) was a leader in the development ofchemical engineering for four decades; together with K. M. Watson and R. A. Ragatz, he wroteinfluential books on thermodynamics and kinetics.0. A. Hougen and K. M. Watson, Chemical Process Principles, Part 11, Wiley, New York (1947), p. 604. 38. 1 . 4 Molecular Theory of the Viscosity of Gases at Low Density 23unless there are chemically dissimilar substances in the mixture or the critical propertiesof the components differ greatly.There are many variants on the above method, as well as a number of other empiri-cism~T. hese can be found in the extensive compilation of Reid, Prausnitz, and Poling.'EXAMPLE 1.3-1 Estimate the viscosity of NZ at 50C and 854 atm, given M = 28.0 g/g-mole, p, = 33.5 atm, andT, = 126.2 K.Estimation of Viscosityfrom Critica I Properties SOLUTIONUsing Eq. 1.3-1 b, we getp, = 7.70(28.0)"~(33.5)~'~(126.2)'/~= 189 micropoises = 189 X poise (1.3-3)The reduced temperature and pressure areFrom Fig. 1.3-1, we obtain p, = p/pc = 2.39. Hence, the predicted value of the viscosity isp = p,(p/p,) = (189 X 1OP6)(2.39=) 452 X poise (1.3-5)The measured value6 is 455 X lop6 poise. This is unusually good agreement.1 . 4 MOLECULAR THEORY OF THE VISCOSITYOF GASES AT LOW DENSITYTo get a better appreciation of the concept of molecular momentum transport, we exam-inethis transport mechanism from the point of view of an elementary kinetic theory ofgases.We consider a pure gas composed of rigid, nonattracting spherical molecules of di-ameterd and mass m, and the number density (number of molecules per unit volume) istaken to be n. The concentration of gas molecules is presumed to be sufficiently smallthat the average distance between molecules is many times their diameter d. In such agas it is known1 that, at equilibrium, the molecular velocities are randomly directed andhave an average magnitude given by (see Problem 1C.1)7in which K is the Boltzmann constant (see Appendix F). The frequency of molecularbombardment per unit area on one side of any stationary surface exposed to the gas isR. C. Reid, J. M. Prausnitz, and B. E. Poling, The Properties of Gases and Liquids, McGraw-Hill, NewYork, 4th edition (19871, Chapter 9.A. M. J. F. Michels and R. E. Gibson, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A134,288-307 (1931).' The first four equations in this section are given without proof. Detailed justifications are given inbooks on kinetic theory-for example, E. H. Kennard, Kinetic Theory of Gases, McGraw-Hill, New York(1938), Chapters I1 and 111. Also E. A. Guggenheim, Elements of the Kinetic Theory of Gases, PergamonPress, New York (1960), Chapter 7, has given a short account of the elementary theory of viscosity. Forreadable summaries of the kinetic theory of gases, see R. J. Silbey and R. A. Alberty, Physical Chemistry,Wiley, New York, 3rd edition (2001), Chapter 17, or R. S. Berry, S. A. Rice, and J. Ross, Physical Chemistry,Oxford University Press, 2nd edition (2000), Chapter 28. 39. 24 Chapter 1 Viscosity and the Mechanisms of Momentum TransportThe average distance traveled by a molecule between successive collisions is the meanfree path A, given byA =1 (1.4-3)V?ird2nOn the average, the molecules reaching a plane will have experienced their last collisionat a distance a from the plane, where a is given very roughly byThe concept of the mean free path is intuitively appealing, but it is meaningful onlywhen A is large compared to the range of intermolecular forces. The concept is appropri-atefor the rigid-sphere molecular model considered here.To determine the viscosity of a gas in terms of the molecular model parameters, weconsider the behavior of the gas when it flows parallel to the m-plane with a velocitygradient dvx/dy (see Fig. 1.4-1). We assume that Eqs. 1.4-1 to 4 remain valid in this non-equilibriumsituation, provided that all molecular velocities are calculated relative to theaverage velocity v in the region in which the given molecule had its last collision. Theflux of x-momentum across any plane of constant y is found by summing the x-momentaof the molecules that cross in the positive y direction and subtracting the x-momenta ofthose that cross in the opposite direction, as follows:In writing this equation, we have assumed that all molecules have velocities representa-tiveof the region in which they last collided and that the velocity profile vx(y) is essen-tiallylinear for a distance of several mean free paths. In view of the latter assumption,we may further writeBy combining Eqs. 1.4-2,5, and 6 we get for the net flux of x-momentum in the positive ydirectionThis has the same form as Newton's law of viscosity given in Eq. 1.1-2. Comparing thetwo equations gives an equation for the viscosity1 p = nmiiA = ipiiA (1.4-8)Velocity profile vx(y)Fig. 1.4-1 Molecular transportof x-momentum from the plane atx (y - a) to the plane at y. 40. 4 Molecular Theory of the Viscosity of Gases at Low Density 25or, by combining Eqs. 1.4-1,3, and 8This expression for the viscosity was obtained by Maxwell2 in 1860. The quantity d2iscalled the collision cross section (see Fig. 1.4-2).The above derivation, which gives a qualitatively correct picture of momentumtransfer in a gas at low density, makes it clear why we wished to introduce the term"momentum flux" for rp in 1 .l.The prediction of Eq. 1.4-9 that p is independent of pressure agrees with experimen-taldata up to about 10 atm at temperatures above the critical temperature (see Fig. 1.3-1).The predicted temperature dependence is less satisfactory; data for various gases indi-catethat p increases more rapidly than 1/T. To better describe the temperature depen-denceof p, it is necessary to replace the rigid-sphere model by one that portrays theattractive and repulsive forces more accurately. It is also necessary to abandon the meanfree path theories and use the Boltzmann equation to obtain the molecular velocity dis-tributionin nonequilibrium systems more accurately. Relegating the details to AppendixD, we present here the main result^.^'^^7 of area d2,/- -///II Fig. 1.4-2 When two rigid spheres of diameter d approach1 each other, the center of one sphere (at 0')"se es" a circle of area md2 about the center of the other sphere (at O), on/ '. ---/ which a collision can occur. The area &I2is referred to as the / "collision cross section."-- - - - -James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) was one of the greatest physicists of all time; he is particularlyfamous for his development of the field of electromagnetism and his contributions to the kinetic theoryof gases. In connection with the latter, see J. C. Maxwell, Phil. Mag., 19,19, Prop. XI11 (1860); S. G. Brush,Am. J. Phys, 30,269-281 (1962). There is some controversy concerning Eqs. 1.4-4 and 1.4-9 (see S. Chapmanand T. G. Cowling, The Mathematical Theory of Non-Uniform Gases, Cambridge University Press, 3rdedition 1970), p. 98; R. E. Cunningham and R. J. J. Williams, Diffusion in Gases and Porous Media, PlenumPress, New York (1980), s6.4.Sydney Chapman (1888-1970) taught at Imperial College in London, and thereafter was at theHigh Altitude Observatory in Boulder, Colorado; in addition to h s seminal work on gas kinetic theory,he contributed to kinetic theory of plasmas and th