TOPIC 3READING SKILLS

Synopsis

This unit aims to enhance learners knowledge of reading skills with special emphasis on the Baretts taxonomy. The exercises that follow the explanation should provide some immediate practice in ehnancing your comprehension skills.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. understand Barretts taxonomy of reading comprehension

1. read for meaning and understanding of a variety of texts and give personal response.

CRITICAL READING SKILLSCritical reading means reading with the goal of finding deep understanding of a material, whether it is fiction or nonfiction. It is the act of analyzing and evaluating what you are reading as you progress, or as you reflect back. Critical reading skills involve your ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize what you read. It is the ability to see relationships of ideas and use them as an aid in reading.Barrett Taxonomy is a good guide to the levels at which we are trying to measure comprehension for a written text. The taxonomy was introduced at a conference in 1968. It is designed originally to assist classroom teachers in developing comprehension questions and / or test questions for reading. It is especially useful for classroom questioning in other content areas as well.

We will now read and look closely at Barrett Taxonomy.

Barrett Taxonomy of Reading Comprehension

1.0 Literal Comprehension

1.1 Recognition1.1.1 Recognition of Details1.1.2 Recognition of Main Ideas1.1.3 Recognition of a Sequence1.1.4 Recognition of Comparison1.1.5 Recognition of Cause and Effect Relationships1.1.6 Recognition of Character Traits

1.2 Recall1.2.1 Recall of Details1.2.2 Recall of Main Ideas1.2.3 Recall of a Sequence1.2.4 Recall of Comparison1.2.5 Recall of Cause and Effect Relationships1.2.6 Recall of Character Traits

2.0 Reorganization

2.1 Classifying2.2 Outlining2.3 Summarizing2.4 Synthesizing

3.0 Inferential Comprehension3.1 Inferring Supporting Details3.2 Inferring Main Ideas3.3 Inferring Sequence3.4 Inferring Comparisons3.5 Inferring Cause and Effect Relationships3.6 Inferring Character Traits3.7 Predicting Outcomes3.8 Interpreting Figurative Language

4.0 Evaluation4.1 Judgments of Reality or Fantasy4.2 Judgments of Fact or Opinion4.3 Judgments of Adequacy and Validity4.4 Judgments of Appropriateness4.5 Judgments of Worth, Desirability and Acceptability

5.0 Appreciation5.1 Emotional Response to the Content5.2 Identification with Characters or Incidents5.3 Reactions to the Authors Use of Language5.4 Imagery

(a)READ FOR MEANING AND UNDERSTANDING A VARIETY OF TEXTS

Reading for meaning focuses on five main areas namely

1. Main ideaThe main idea is the summary of essential points of the paragraph. The main idea of a paragraph can often be substituted with a topic sentence with controlling ideas.1. InferenceInferencing is a reading skill in which you use observations, prior knowledge and experiences, and details from the text to make connections and come up with ideas.1. SequenceSequencing in reading is to be considered when there is an order of incidents and actions in the selection. A sequence will be constituted only when order of occurrence is specifically required.

1. Compare and contrastComparing and contrasting is a reading skill where you can find the similarities and differences between items, characters, times and places that is stated in the selection.1. Cause and effect The skill of looking at happenings or actions in the selection where you can identify the causes of a problem or issue and the effects in an orderly way.

Now let us look at what text is and its variety.

Text is any piece of writing. This could be a letter, an email, a novel, a poem, a recipe, a note, instructions for D.I.Y, an article in a newspaper or magazine, writing on a webpage or an advert. All of these examples can be called texts.

When you are reading or writing any text, think about the purpose of the text or why it has been written.

What might the purpose of a text be? An advert might be trying to persuade you to buy something.A letter from school might be to inform you about something.A novel might describe somewhere or someone to you.A car manual might instruct you how to do something to your car.

Depending on the purpose of the text, different methods will be used to get the message across to the reader.

ExerciseRead each of the following paragraphs carefully. Look up any unfamiliar words if necessary. Then choose the title that best describes the main idea of each. Top of Form1. Universities are a microcosm of society. But they are more than a reflection or mirror; they are a leading indicator. In universities, an environment where students live, eat, and study together, racial and cultural differences come together in the closest possible way. Of all American institutions, perhaps only the military brings people of such different backgrounds into more intimate contact. With coeducation now a reality in colleges, and with the confident emergence of homosexual groups, the American campus is now sexually democratized as well. University leaders see it as a useful laboratory experiment in training young people for a multicultural habitat. Michael Sovern, president of Columbia, observes, "I like to think that we are leading society by grappling earnestly and creatively with the challenges posed by diversity."

--Dinesh D'Souza, Illiberal Education

1. The best title for this paragraph is A. "The University Environment" B. "Sexual Democratization on American College Campuses" C. "The University vs.the Military" D. "The University as a Microcosm of Society"

2. Marriage was not designed as a mechanism for providing friendship, erotic experience, romantic love, personal fulfillment, continuous psychotherapy, or recreation. The Western European family was not designed to carry a lifelong load of highly emotional romantic freight. Given its present structure, it simply has to fail when asked to do so. The very idea of an irrevocable contract obligating the parties concerned to a lifetime of romantic effort is utterly absurd.

--Mervyn Cadwallader, "Marriage as a Wretched Institution," Atlantic Monthly

3. The best title for this paragraph is A. "Unrealistic Expectations in Western Marriages" B. "The Failure of Romance" C. "Why Marriages Are Doomed to Failure" D. "Marriage and Romance"

3. The baby mastering the skills that lead to establishment of the upright posture behaves in the same way as the novice skier. He feels compelled to repeat the activity hundreds of times until he has mastered the skill and mastered his anxiety. He often reveals that he is having difficulty in "unwinding" when we put him to bed for his nap or for the night, and if you peek into his room while he is settling down for sleep (or unsettling down for sleep), you may see him, groggy and cross-eyed with fatigue, still climbing and pulling himself upright, collapsing momentarily with weariness, then exerting himself for another climb. He repeats this over and over until finally he cannot lift himself even once more and succumbs to sleep. One set of parents discovered their eight-month-old daughter climbing in her sleep on several occasions during this mastery period. At eleven or twelve at night they could hear soft sounds in the baby's room and upon entering would find the baby standing in her crib, dazed and dimly conscious, too sleepy to protest when she was put down in her bed again. When the art of standing was perfected, the baby gave up practicing in her sleep.

--Selma H. Fraiberg, The Magic Years

The best title for this paragraph is A. "Babies' Nighttime Activities" B. "How a Baby Masters the Skill of Standing" C. "The Sleep Habits of Babies" D. "Practice Makes Perfect"

(b)USE CONTEXTUAL, SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC CLUES TO DERIVE MEANING

When reading a passage for the first time, you have to make an effort to cope with unfamiliar or difficult words that you come across. You should first try to guess the meaning of the words rather than look them up in a dictionary. One way to find out the meaning of unfamiliar words is through the use of context. The context in reading refers to the overall meaning of the text. The context also refers to the surrounding words in a sentence that gives us clues about the words we read. The syntactic clues give us the word order clues where the information implicit in the grammatical structures of the language is utilized. The semantic clues give us the meaning clues where the reader recalls his own experiences and utilizes his own conceptual background in order to bring meaning to his/her reading.

Example 1:

Read the two sentences.

(a) The hungry spider __________ the juicy fly. [ With knowledge of spiders and flies, (that is context) the reader would be likely to predict that the missing word is ate.]

(b) The loving mother __________ the hungry baby. [ With knowledge, of mothers and babies (that is context) the reader would be likely to predict that the missing word is fed.]

ExerciseWrite the meaning for each of the nonsense words by reading the contexts.

1. Bultums1. Bultums are useful to wear when the weather is cold.1. Some bultums are waterproof.1. There are different types of bultums for different occasions.1. Some houses have a special cupboard near the front door where visitors can hang their bultums

Bultum means: _______________________________

2. Kester1. Mother gets kester when we are late home for dinner.1. The teacher was very kester when a student broke the computer.1. As people get older, they usually learn to control their kester moment.1. A kester person does not think as clearly as a non-kester person

Kester means: _______________________________

(c)READ AND MAKE INFERENCE

Making Inferences is a tool that takes us beyond what is literally on the page, expanding it to open up new meanings and personal connections. When we infer, we take statements in the text and read between the lines to figure out what an author is hinting at or to draw our own conclusions. For instance, if we are reading an article about a hospital closing, we would probably ask ourselves why. The reason might not be directly stated in the article, but from other facts in the article as well as what we know about where it is located, we might infer that the hospital was not getting enough funding to stay open.

More tips to help you to infer

Question the text, argue with it, or raise doubts about it. Show how to include your own ideas when you restate the text. Make an inference by connecting two or more details from different places in the text.

Use the text as your support to make an argument or try to persuade someone. Make inferences as you reflect on the text after reading.Example 1:

When Sarah went on stage to receive the best actress award for her role as Tun Fatimah in her Primary School play, her mothers eyes were brimming with tears.

The stated meaning contains the following information:(a) Sarah received her best actress award on stage.(b) She played the role of Tun Fatimah.(c) She was still in Primary School.(d) Her mother had tears in her eyes

The pieces of information that are not stated but can be interpreted or inferred are as follows:(a) Sarah was rewarded for her fine acting.(b) Sarah was still below 13 years old.(c) Sarahs mother witnessed her daughter receiving the award.(d) She was proud of her.(e) Her daughters achievement caused her to shed tears of joy.

(d) DISTINGUISH FACT FROM OPINION

A fact is objective information that can be checked or proved to be true and not a statement about the future. An opinion is a statement that cannot be proven to be true or false and is ones personal belief, idea, or feeling about a subject.

Clues to help you identify facts and opinions.FactsOpinions

The use of dates and yearThe use of adjectives which show your point of view or emotions

The use of statistic/figures/precise numbers or quantitiesThe use of comparison words which show a comparison between two or more things

The use of definitionsThe use of other words which show frequency, possibility, advisability and necessity

When stating a geographical or scientific factThe use of phrases which show a belief, a suggestion, a feeling, or an opinion

Lets look at some examples.

These are facts because they are concrete.

1. The house was painted on November 18, 1999. 1. Today is Saturday. 1. My son had a temperature of one hundred and two degrees this morning.

However, these facts can be changed to opinions when we add a belief or view.1. The house was painted recently on November 18, 1999, so it looks as good as new.

1. Today is Saturday and Mark always sleeps in on Saturdays, so that is why he is late for the game.

1. There was no way for me to go to school because my son had a temperature of one hundred and two degrees this morning.

ExerciseRead the following statements. Determine whether each statement is a fact or opinion. What are some of the signal words?

No.StatementsFact / Opinion

1The cerebral cortex or brain is characterized by a division into halves termed hemispheres which are connected by tissue called the corpus callosum.

2I think it is more interesting to watch a movie than to watch football at the stadium.

3The majority of drug addicts are between the ages 12 35 years.

4I believe that kids skip school because teachers are unsympathetic.

5As a matter of fact, oil spills from factories have been found to be related to the death of marine life.

6In my view, men are better at raising children than women.

7It is a matter of opinion that all facts are scientific facts.

8According to the national weather service, there is a 90 per cent chance of rain today. Therefore, it will probably rain today.

TaskRead an interview from a magazine or newspaper. Try to identify whether the speakers are giving their opinions or facts?

(e) IDENTIFY SHIFT IN ARGUMENT

Transitions are words and phrases used by writers to indicate specific relationships between ideas and to create coherence or logical connection between ideas and to create a coherence or logical connection between the ideas in a passage.

Lets look at some examples.The following paragraph shows how carefully chosen transitions (CAPITALIZED) lead the reader smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion of the paragraph.I dont wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of the large-bodied "stegosaurus" houses little brain from our subjective, top-heavy perspective, BUT I do wish to assert that we should not expect more of the beast. FIRST OF ALL, large animals have relatively smaller brains than related, small animals. The correlation of brain size with body size among kindred animals (all reptiles, all mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is remarkably regular. AS we move from small to large animals, from mice to elephants or small lizards to Komodo dragons, brain size increases, BUT not so fast as body size. IN OTHER WORDS, bodies grow faster than brains, AND large animals have low ratios of brain weight to body weight. IN FACT, brains grow only about two-thirds as fast as bodies. SINCE we have no reason to believe that large animals are consistently stupider than their smaller relatives, we must conclude that large animals require relatively less brain to do as well as smaller animals. IF we do not recognize this relationship, we are likely to underestimate the mental power of very large animals, dinosaurs in particular.Stephen Jay Gould, Were Dinosaurs Dumb?

The following are also some of the words and phrases to indicate transitions in a paragraph or passage.

To show addition: again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second, etc.), further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, moreover, next, too

To give examples: for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to illustrate

To compare: also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly

To contrast: although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even though, however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, though, yet

To summarize or conclude: all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to sum up

To show time: after, afterwards, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before, during, earlier, finally, formerly, immediately, later, meanwhile, next, since, shortly, subsequently, then, thereafter, until, when, while

To show place or direction: above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here, nearby, opposite, to the left (north, etc.)

To indicate logical relationship: accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, hence, if, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore, thus

(adapted from Diana Hacker, A Writers Reference) TaskChoose one argumentative essay and identify the shift in arguments or ideas in the text. Exercise1. Read the following paragraph and circle the transition words that show time.

You can make your own cards to celebrate special events. First, gather the materials you need: construction paper, scissors, crayons or markers, and glue. Second, fold a piece of construction paper to create a card that has a front, a back, and an inside. Cut out interesting shapes from more construction paper, and glue the shapes to the front and back of your card. You may also draw colorful pictures on the front and back of the card. Finally, write a brief message inside the card, and sign your name. Now you're ready to give your card to someone special.

1. Read the sentences below and circle the transition words that compare or contrast.

1. I was anxious to leave. However, we had to wait until Uncle Pete arrived.

2. Mother told us to hurry onto the bus. Otherwise, we all would have been caught in the rain.

3. I make my sandwich in the same way that Shawna does. We both use food that is peanut free because of our food allergies.

4. I asked about the homework, but neither Todd nor Antonio knew what had been assigned.

5. Even though it was very cold, Mary Beth did not wear a jacket.

1. Transition words have been left out in the following paragraph. Select appropriate words from the list below, and write them in the blanks. There can be more than one word that fits in some blanks. Select the one that you think fits best.

Bottom of Form

meanwhileas a result offirst

whilethroughnextunderbesidethenonce upon a time

__(1) __ there lived a family of bears in a lovely wooded area. Their home was __(2)__ some trees __(3)__ a small stream. One day __(4)__ the bears were not at home, a little girl came to the house. __(5)__, she knocked on the door. __(6)__, even though no one answered her knock, she entered the house. __(7)__, she ate some of the bears' food, and she napped on one of their beds. __(8)__, the bears returned home. They were surprised to see their door open. Their roars woke up the girl, and she fearfully ran from the house, __(9)__ the woods, and back to her own home. __(10)__ her experiences, she never again went into the woods alone.

(f) IDENTIFY EMOTIONALLY-LADEN WORDSAuthors often write not only to communicate but also to arouse some emotion or make readers respond to their ideas or suggestions. Authors select words for their emotional, suggestive meanings to create vivid images. Carefully chosen words can be very effective in accomplishing these purposes, and a careful reader can recognize how words are used for certain effects. Lets look at some examples.These are words found in a text about adoption. The writer is very careful to use positive or neutral words so to sound politically correct and not offensive.

Birthparent not real parentBiological parent not natural parentBiological or birth father not real fatherBirth child not own childMy child not adopted child, own childBorn to unmarried parents not illegitimateTerminate parental rights not give upMake adoption plan not give awayWaiting child not Adoptable / available childMaking contact with not reunionParent not adoptive parent TaskWhat other words or phrases can you think of that are emotionally laden words? List them down

(g) IDENTIFY WRITERS MOOD, TONE, BIAS, PURPOSE OR POINT OF VIEW

While an authors purpose is closely related to the main idea and can often be inferred from the main idea and the way in which the details are presented, the tone of a piece of writing is a little more illusive. The tone refers to the authors attitude, mood or feeling reflected in the writing. The tone also suggests the authors purpose to criticize, to persuade, to sympathise and to appreciate.

Below is an example of how you may infer a writer's tone or attitude:

"...Had the researchers spoken to anyone who has witnessed the ravages of the Green Revolution, they would have learned that their basic premise was dismissed as simplistic nonsense years ago.'

(an extract from Beware Outbreak of Mad Scientist Disease)

Tone and Attitude The use of such a negative word like "ravages" suggests the writer is highly critical of the usefulness of the Green Revolution, and his dismissive tone as exemplified by the use of the phrase "simplistic nonsense" indicates his low opinion of the researchers' achievement.

Exercise1. What is the writer's attitude towards pure scientists? Find five words/phrases in this passage that indicate the writer's attitude.

Pure scientists have by and large been dim-witted about engineers and applied science. They couldn't recognise that many of the problems were as intellectually exacting as pure problems, and that many of the solutions were as satisfying and beautiful. Their instinct -- perhaps sharpened in this country by the passion to find a new snobbism wherever possible, and to invent one if it doesn't exist -- was take it for granted that applied science was an occupation of second-rate minds.

1. What is tone of the excerpt below?

What devices does he use to show his attitude to the government of Singapore, caning and Americans who support the caning?

Does he try to present his own inferences as facts?

What kind of person does he want to be seen as?

What kind of person do you infer him to be?

The verb "torture" is defined in the Webster's Tenth Collegiate Dictionary as "the infliction of intense pain (as from burning, crushing or wounding) to punish, coerce or afford sadistic pleasure". The dictatorship of Singapore has found an American teenager guilty of spray-painting cars and sentenced him to four months in prison, a $2,000 fine -- and torture. Singapore's torture of choice is flogging by rattan cane which elicits the screams satisfying to the torturer and scars the torturee physically and mentally for life. Torture is an act of savagery as old as civilisation. Demosthenes described it as the surest means of obtaining evidence. Tomas de Torquenada issued detailed instructions for its use in the Spanish Inquisitions.

But now civilised nations have a Covenant on Civil and Political Rights that declares, "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment." The United Nations has a "Convention Against Torture". The government of Singapore stands aloof from the universal condemnation. Singapore's dictator is actually proud of his country's reputation for keeping order by inflicting pain. Moreover, his diplomats in the United States report that many Americans endorse the lashing to be meted out to the young offender. That some people in America thoughtlessly espouse torture is undeniable. One sap on the street in Washington told a New York Times reporter: If you've ever had your antenna ripped off your car, you can sympathise with the government of Singapore. Lash him."

I have had more than a few antennas ripped off my car, and a few swastikas sprayed on my house, and have felt a surge of mindless fury at the perpetrators. But I have also seen a Kurdish patriot crippled for life by one of Saddam Hussein's tortures, and witnessed the misdirected self-loathing on the face of a rape victim, and I don't think any person or government has any right to inflict any physical pain on another human being.

(From The New York Times, 1994 "The Caning of Michael Fay, by William Safire)

(h) UNDERSTAND THE USE OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE AND ITS EFFECT ON MEANING

Writers sometimes use figurative language to express a point or to clarify an idea through imaginative comparisons or with words used in unusual, suggestive or symbolic ways. Figurative language often enhances meaning by representing abstract ideas in more concrete, vivid images.To understand figurative expressions, you must first recognize words are being used figuratively and are not meant to be taken literally. You must infer what the figurative expression means in the context of the sentence. There are many types of figurative language used in writing, but the most frequently used are similes, metaphors, hyperboles, personification, symbolism and irony.Simile A simile uses the words like or as to compare one object or idea with another to suggest they are alike.Example: busy as a bee

Personification A figure of speech in which human characteristics are given to an animal or an object. Example: My teddy bear gave me a hug.

Hyperbole An exaggeration that is so dramatic that no one would believe the statement is true.Tall tales are hyperboles.Example: He was so hungry, he ate that whole cornfield for lunch, stalks and all.

SymbolA thing (could be an object, person, situation or action) which stands for something else more abstract. Example: a flag is a symbol of our countryIrony It is a figure of speech when an expression used is the opposite of the thought in the speaker's mind, thus conveying a meaning that contradicts the literal definition.Example: The Road Not Taken: Verbal irony - the speaker knows he will tell the old story "with a sigh" of a choice that "made all the difference."

Exercise

Read the lyrics below and identify the figurative language.

Breath (2am)

2 AM and she calls me 'cause I'm still awake,"Can you help me unravel my latest mistake?I don't love him. Winter just wasn't my season"Yeah we walk through the doors, so accusing their eyesLike they have any right at all to criticize,Hypocrites. You're all here for the very same reason

Chorus:'Cause you can't jump the track, we're like cars on a cableAnd life's like an hourglass, glued to the tableNo one can find the rewind button, girl.So cradle your head in your handsAnd breathe... just breathe,Oh breathe, just breathe

May he turned 21 on the base at Fort Bliss"Just a day" he said down to the flask in his fist,"Ain't been sober, since maybe October of last year."Here in town you can tell he's been down for a while,But, my God, it's so beautiful when the boy smiles,Wanna hold him. Maybe I'll just sing about it.

ChorusThere's a light at each end of this tunnel,You shout 'cause you're just as far in as you'll ever be outAnd these mistakes you've made, you'll just make them againIf you only try turning around.

2 AM and I'm still awake, writing a songIf I get it all down on paper, it's no longer inside of me,Threatening the life it belongs toAnd I feel like I'm naked in front of the crowdCause these words are my diary, screaming out loudAnd I know that you'll use them, however you want to

But you can't jump the track, we're like cars on a cable,And life's like an hourglass, glued to the tableNo one can find the rewind button nowSing it if you understand.and breathe, just breathewoah breathe, just breathe,Oh breathe, just breathe,Oh breathe, just breathe.

(i) IDENTIFY AND DIFFERENTIATE IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS AND METAPHORS

Idiomatic ExpressionsLanguage is full of idiomatic expressions or idioms. They can be just one word or a group of words. If you try to understand an idiomatic expression literally, in most cases, it will make very little sense. The objective of an idiom is to try to develop a new meaning that goes beyond the literal significance. Idiomatic expressions have different forms and structures. They can be short with only one word or they can be long using combinations of words.

1. Bill has two hands, a right hand and a left hand.(literal sentence)1. Bill is an old hand in the store.(This means that Bill has a lot experience in the store. An old hand refers to a person with experience.) 1. John is a nut.(John is crazy.)1. Bob has the bull by the horns.(Bob has the situation under control.)

Metaphor The metaphor states a fact or draws a verbal picture by the use of comparison.A simile would say you are like something; a metaphor is more positive - it says you are something.Example: You are what you eat.

ExerciseChoose the correct meaning.1. Animal Idioms

1. Wow! It's raining cats and dogs today! I wish I'd brought my umbrella to school!a. I forgot my umbrella today.b. It's raining heavily.c. Cats and dogs are falling from the sky.

1. When I told my mom I would be home around 2 am, she had a cow!a. My mom bought a baby cow.b. My mom is really strange.c. My mom was really upset.

1. Jean: How did you know it was my birthday today?Susan: Oh, a little birdie told me!a. Jean told Susan it was her birthday.b. An unnamed person told Susan about Jean's birthday.c. Susan told Jean it was her birthday.

1. Frank: Why didn't your brother ride the roller coaster with us?Sam: Oh, he's such a scaredy cat! He won't get on any fast ride.a. Sam's brother is afraid to ride the roller coaster.b. Sam's brother is a cat.c. Sam's brother didn't go to the roller coaster.

1. Body Idiom

IdiomMeaning

You did it. You have to face the music.You have to memorize it.

Yes. You hit the nail on the head.You have to accept the consequences of your actions.

You two don't see eye to eye.You're absolutely right.

You have to learn it by heart.You don't agree with each other.

TaskGo online and try to collect more idioms.http://www.idiomconnection.com 20/10/2009http://knowgramming.com/metaphors/metaphor_chapters/examples.htm 27/10/2009 (j) READ CRITICALLY AND RESPOND TO TEXTCritical reading is a skill which can be developed through practices, such as:a. Taking notes of the text's main ideas and adding your own responsive comments.

b. Talking to others about what you have read.

c. Relating a given text to similar or contrasting themes.

d. Explaining what the text means and making it intelligible. This will help you to see the underlying, unstated assumptions

e. Asking yourself: "Is it possible to disagree with any of this?"

f. Asking yourself: 'How can I convince my peers that I understand what this is about?'

ExerciseRead the following paragraph and answer the questions that follow. In ancient times people believed in the predictions and advice of astrologers because astrology was part and parcel of their magical world view. They looked upon celestial objects as abodes or omens of the Gods and, thus, intimately connected with events here on earth; they had no concept of the vast distances from the earth to the planets and stars. Now that these distances can and have been calculated, we can see how infinitesimally small are the gravitational and other effects produced by the distant planets and the far more distant stars. It is simply a mistake to imagine that the forces exerted by stars and planets at the moment of birth can in any way shape our futures. Neither is it true that the position of distant heavenly bodies make certain days or periods more favorable to particular kinds of action, or that the sign under which one was born determines one's compatibility or incompatibility with other people. --Bart J. Bok, "Objections to Astrology," The HumanistTop of Form1. This paragraph is a _____________.A. narration B. description C. exposition D. persuasion

2.Which of the following can we accurately infer? Astrology developed in the ancient world largely because A. people believed that the stars and planets were deities B. it was part of their traditional mythology C. they had a desire to explain what they didn't understand D. they were scientifically ignorant

3. The author's attitude toward astrology can be best described as A. unbelieving B. angry C. sympathetic D. laudatory

Suggested Answers

(a)READ FOR MEANING AND UNDERSTANDING OF A VARIETY OF TEXTExercise1. C2. A3. B

(b)USE CONTEXTUAL, SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC CLUES TO DERIVE MEANINGExercise1. jacket2. Temperamental

(c) DISTINGUISH FACTS FROM OPINIONExercise1. Fact2. Opinion3. Fact4. Opinion 5. Fact6. Opinion7. Opinion8. Opinion

(d)IDENTIFY SHIFT IN ARGUMENT

1. Read the following paragraph carefully. Then, locate and circle each transition word that shows time.

You can make your own cards to celebrate special events. First, gather the materials you need: construction paper, scissors, crayons or markers, and glue. Second, fold a piece of construction paper to create a card that has a front, a back, and an inside. Cut out interesting shapes from more construction paper, and glue the shapes to the front and back of your card. You may also draw colorful pictures on the front and back of the card. Finally, write a brief message inside the card, and sign your name. Now you're ready to give your card to someone special.

1. Read the following sentences carefully. Then, locate and circle each transition word that compares or contrasts.1. However2. Otherwise3. that is 4. but 5. Even though.

1. Once upon a time2.under3.beside4.while5. First6.Then7.Next8.Meanwhile9.through 10.As a result of

(e) IDENTIFY WRITERS MOOD, TONE, BIAS, PURPOSE OR POINT OF VIEW

1. Pure scientists have by and large been dim-witted about engineers and applied science. They couldn't recognise that many of the problems were as intellectually exacting as pure problems, and that many of the solutions were as satisfying and beautiful. Their instinct -- perhaps sharpened in this country by the passion to find a new snobbism wherever possible, and to invent one if it doesn't exist -- was take it for granted that applied science was an occupation of second-rate minds. (The writers attitude is very sarcastic, arrogant and condemning. Yes, the writer is trying to convince his readers through wit.)

1. The verb "torture" is defined in the Webster's Tenth Collegiate Dictionary as "the infliction of intense pain (as from burning, crushing or wounding) to punish, coerce or afford sadistic pleasure". The dictatorship of Singapore has found an American teenager guilty of spray-painting cars and sentenced him to four months in prison, a $2,000 fine -- and torture. Singapore's torture of choice is flogging by rattan cane which elicits the screams satisfying to the torturer and scars the torturee physically and mentally for life. Torture is an act of savagery as old as civilisation. Demosthenes described it as the surest means of obtaining evidence. Tomas de Torquenada issued detailed instructions for its use in the Spanish Inquisitions.But now civilised nations have a Covenant on Civil and Political Rights that declares, "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment." The United Nations has a "Convention Against Torture". The government of Singapore stands aloof from the universal condemnation. Singapore's dictator is actually proud of his country's reputation for keeping order by inflicting pain. Moreover, his diplomats in the United States report that many Americans endorse the lashing to be meted out to the young offender. That some people in America thoughtlessly espouse torture is undeniable. One sap on the street in Washington told a New York Times reporter: If you've ever had your antenna ripped off your car, you can sympathise with the government of Singapore. Lash him."I have had more than a few antennas ripped off my car, and a few swastikas sprayed on my house, and have felt a surge of mindless fury at the perpetrators. But I have also seen a Kurdish patriot crippled for life by one of Saddam Hussein's tortures, and witnessed the misdirected self-loathing on the face of a rape victim, and I don't think any person or government has any right to inflict any physical pain on another human being. (From The New York Times, 1994 "The Caning of Michael Fay, by William Safire)(The writer does not agree with caning. He includes concrete evidence and personal experience to convince the readers. He is trying to infer himself as a person who is against cruelty.)

(f) UNDERSTAND THE USE OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE AND ITS EFFECT ON MEANING

Chorus:'Cause you can't jump the track, we're like cars on a cable - simileAnd life's like an hourglass, glued to the table personification / simileNo one can find the rewind button, girl.So cradle your head in your hands - personificationAnd breathe... just breathe,Oh breathe, just breathe

ChorusThere's a light at each end of this tunnel, - metaphorYou shout 'cause you're just as far in as you'll ever be out - simileAnd these mistakes you've made, you'll just make them againIf you only try turning around.

2 AM and I'm still awake, writing a songIf I get it all down on paper, it's no longer inside of me,Threatening the life it belongs toAnd I feel like I'm naked in front of the crowd - simileCause these words are my diary, screaming out loud - personificationAnd I know that you'll use them, however you want to

(g) IDENTIFY AND DIFFERENTIATE IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS AND METAPHORS

Exercise1. Animal Idioms 1. B2. C3. B4. A

1. Body Idioms

IdiomMeaning

You did it. You have to face the music.You have to memorize it.

Yes. You hit the nail on the head.You have to accept the consequences of your actions.

You two don't see eye to eye.You're absolutely right.

You have to learn it by heart.You don't agree with each other.

(h) READ CRITICALLY AND RESPOND TO TEXT

Exercise 1. C2. B 3. A