Tokoh Pejuang Wanita Indonesia

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Raden Adjeng Kartini21 April 1879 – 17 September 1904

Pemikiran Raden Adjeng Kartini

• Dunia wanita hanya sebatas tembok

Adanya keinginan untuk memperbaikikondisi kaum wanita yang disebabkankungkungan adat, antara lain :

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• Dunia wanita hanya sebatas tembokrumah.

• Tidak bebas mendapatkan aksespendidikan.

• Dipingit dan dinikahkan dengan priayang tidak dikenal.

Fakta di Indonesia

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Fakta di Indonesia

Penduduk yang Bekerja (2007)

20.000.000

30.000.000

5

0

10.000.000

Tenaga Profesional

Kepemim

pinan

TataUsaha

TUPenjualan

TUJasa

TUPertanian

Produksi

Lainnya

Wan

itaP

ria

Wanita Pria

Penduduk yang Bekerja (2007)

Jenis Pekerjaan Utama

JENIS KELAMIN

Jumlah

Pria Wanita

Tenaga Profesional 1.945.782 1.857.339 3.803.121

Kepemimpinan 310.089 57.295 367.384

Tata Usaha 2.608.947 1.383.556 3.992.503

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Tata Usaha 2.608.947 1.383.556 3.992.503

TU Penjualan 8.590.673 8.046.116 16.636.789

TU Jasa 3.351.697 2.992.762 6.344.459

TU Pertanian 26.479.175 15.753.497 42.232.672

Produksi 18.446.465 5.325.368 23.771.833

Lainnya 418.454 15.926 434.380

Jumlah 62.151.282 35.431.859 97.583.141

Rata-rata Upah (2006)

1.200.000

1.600.000

7

0

400.000

800.000

Pertanian

Pertambangan

Industri

Listrik

Bangunan

Perdagangan

Angkutan

Keuangan

JasaWa

nit

a

Pri

a

Wanita Pria

Rata-rata Upah (2006)

SEKTOR LAPANGAN PEKERJAAN PRIA WANITA

1Pertanian, Kehutanan, Perburuan, Perikanan

(Agriculture,Forestry,Hunting,Fishery)438.149 234.586

2 Pertambangan, Penggalian (Mining and Quarrying) 1.541.241 771.415

3 Industri Pengolahan (Manufacturing Industries) 826.257 583.768

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3 Industri Pengolahan (Manufacturing Industries) 826.257 583.768

4 Listrik, gas dan air (Electricity, Gaz and Water) 1.176.160 1.338.737

5 Bangunan (Construction) 734.070 1.073.573

6Perdagangan Besar, Rumah Makan & Hotel (Wholesale

Trade,Restaurant & Hotel)806.110 621.248

7Angkutan, Pergudangan dan Komunikasi (Transportation,Storage &

Communication)934.761 944.419

8Keuangan, Asuransi,Jasa Perusahaan (Financing,Insurance,Business

Services)1.422.252 1.461.926

9 Jasa Kemasyarakatan (Public Services) 1.126.559 789.557

Rata-rata 827.101 612.131

Penduduk yang Bekerja BerdasarkanJam Kerja Tahun 2007

30.000.000

45.000.000

9

0

15.000.000

Wanita

Pria

Wanita 803.388 14.623.275 20.005.196

Pria 1.798.703 15.615.701 44.736.878

<1 jam 1-35 jam >35 jam

Konsep Diskriminasi

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Konsep Diskriminasi

Konsep Diskriminasi

Differences in EARNINGS andEMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIESamong equally skilled workers

George Borjas :

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among equally skilled workersemployed in the same job simplybecause of the worker’s race,gender, national origin, sexualorientation, or other seeminglyirrelevant characteristics.

Konsep Diskriminasi

Discrimination means treating people

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Discrimination means treating peopledifferently and less favourably becauseof characteristics that are not related totheir merit or the requirements of the job.

These include race, colour, sex, religion,political opinion, national extraction andsocial origin.

The Discrimination Coefficient

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The Discrimination Coefficient

The Discrimination Coefficient

Lauched for the first time

by Gary S. Becker

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The Economics of Discrimination (1957)

• Basic Concept : Taste Discrimination

• Assumption Two types of workers :

The Discrimination Coefficient

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• Assumption Two types of workers :

• White workers : wage wW

• Black workers : wage wB

• If the employer is prejudiced againtsblack, employer gets disutility fromhiring black workers.

The Discrimination Coefficient

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• Disutility : employer will act as if costsfor black worker wB (1 + d), where d ispositive number and is called :

The Discrimination Coefficient

• Suppose that wB = $10, and that d =0,5 ;the employer will then act as if hiring ablack worker costs $ 15

The Discrimination Coefficient

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• The greater the prejudiced, the greater isthe disutility from hiring black workers,and the greater is the discriminationcoefficient d.

• If these black employers prefer to hireblack workers, they will act as if hiring ablack worker is cheaper than it actually is.

The Discrimination Coefficient

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black worker is cheaper than it actually is.

Nepotism Coefficient wB (1 – n )

Labor Market Discrimination Analysis

FIRM

Non D iscrim inatoryF irm

D iscrim inatoryFirm

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F irm

W = VM P

Firm

W hite Firmagaints Black

Black Firmagaints B lack

D iscrim inationCoeffic ient

is very H igh

Discrim inationCoefficient

is relatively Low

Employer Discrimination

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Employer Discrimination

Skill and Labor Market Outcomes (2001)

WHITE BLACK HISPANIC

Male Female Male Female Male Female

Highschool Graduate ormore (Percent)

84.3 85.2 78.5 78.9 56.1 57.9

Bachelor’s degree or more29.1 25.4 16.4 17.5 11.0 11.2

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Bachelor’s degree or more(Percent)

29.1 25.4 16.4 17.5 11.0 11.2

Labor Force ParticipationRate (Percent)

79.9 59.9 72.1 65.2 83.8 59.3

Unemployment Rate(Percent)

4.7 3.6 8.0 7.0 5.2 6.6

Annual Earnings (in $1,000)49.8 29.6 33.5 26.0 30.8 22.3

Annual Earnings(Full Time)

55.4 37.1 38.5 30.8 34.3 28.0

Fact :

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White Wage > Black Wage

• Assumption :

White Workers and Black Workers arePerfect Subtitutes in Production.

Employer Discrimination

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• Firms’s output depends on the totalnumber of workers hired, regardless oftheir race have the same MarginalProduct of Labor ( MPE )

Employer Discrimination

Production function:

q = f ( EW + EB )

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q firm’s output

EW number of white workers hired

EB number of black workers hired

Employment ina non Discriminatory Firm

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a non Discriminatory Firm

Employment in a non Discriminatory Firm

• Both groups of workers have the sameValue of Marginal Product, a nondiscriminatory firms will hire whichevergroup is Cheaper

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• Suppose that wW > wB , a firms thatdoesn’t discriminate will hire blackworkers up to the point where

wB = VMPE*BE

The Employment Decision of a FirmThat Does Not Discriminate

DollarBlack workers

wage is less thanwhite wage How many worker

will be hired..??

?VMPE

wB = VMPE

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Bw

Employment*BE

Employment in aDiscriminatory Firm

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Discriminatory Firm

• The employer act as if black wage is notwB , but instead equal to wB (1 + d).Where d is discrimination coefficient.

Employment in a Discriminatory Firm

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• The employer’s hiring decision based ona comparison wW and wB (1 + d)

– Hire only blacks if wB (1 + d) < wW

– Hire only white if wB (1 + d) > wW

• As long as black and white workers are perfectsubtitutes, firms have a segregated workforce.

• Employer’s who have little prejudice and hence

Employment in a Discriminatory Firm

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• Employer’s who have little prejudice and hencehave small discrimination coefficient, will hireonly BLACKS (called “Black Firm”).

• Employer’s who are very prejudice and havevery large discrimination coefficient, will hireonly WHITES (called “White Firm”).

• The white firm hires workers up to thepoint where : wW = VMPE

Assumption : w > W

Employment in a Discriminatory Firm

WHITE FIRM

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• Assumption : wW > WB

• The white firm is paying an excessivelyhigh price for its workers and hiresrelatively few workers ( )*

WE

Ww

Dollar

The Employment Decision of aPrejudiced Firm

White Firm

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Employment*WE

VMPE

White Firm

• Non discriminatory firms :

wB = VMPE

Employment in a Discriminatory Firm

BLACK FIRM

*BE

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• If discrimination coefficient d0 :

– Price of Black Labor wB ( 1 + d0 )

– Amount of Labor hired :

wB ( 1 + d0 ) = VMPE

Employment in a Discriminatory Firm

BLACK FIRM

The number of black workers hired, therefore,is smaller for firms that have larger

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is smaller for firms that have largerdiscrimination coefficient.

The Employment Decision of aPrejudiced Firm

Dollar

Black Firm 1 dw

11 dwB

Discrimination Coefficient

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Bw

*BE0

BE Employment

VMPE

1BE

01 dwB

Discrimination and Profits

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Discrimination and Profits

Firms that discriminate lose on two counts :

• The prejudiced employer could have hiredthe same number of black worker at lowerwage. Because black and white workers are

Discrimination and Profits

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wage. Because black and white workers areperfect subtitutes.

• Discriminatory black firms are hiring too fewworkers ( or ) they are giving upprofits in order to minimize contact withblack workers.

0BE 1

BE

Dollar

Profit and Discrimination Coefficient

max

Max Profit

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DiscriminationCoefficient

BlackFirm

w

dw0

White Firm

Max Profit

The Most Profitable Firm

Zero Discrimination

Discrimination and Profits

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Zero Discrimination

Labor Marker Equilibrium

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Labor Marker Equilibrium

• Firm dengan Discrimination Coefficient :– Rendah cenderung Black Firm

– Tinggi cenderung White Firm

Discrimination and Profits

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• Asumsi : Supply Black Worker PerfectlyInelastic sejumlah N Black person tidakterpengaruh tingkat upah.

Labor Market Equilibrium

Black-WhiteWage Ratio

1

S

D’

)'/( WB ww

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*)/( WB ww

Black Employment0

1

R

D

D’

N

Employee Discrimination

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Employee Discrimination

• Diskriminasi dilakukan oleh “Fellow Worker”

• Misal : White worker yang bekerja pada BlackFirm dengan upah w akan merasa mendapat

Employee Discrimination

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Firm dengan upah wW akan merasa mendapatupah wW (1- d).

• Tidak berpengaruh terhadap “Profitability ofFirms” karena white worker dan black workeradalah perfect subtitutes sehingga firmmembayar jumlah upah yang sama.

Customer Discrimination

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Customer Discrimination

• Dikemukakan oleh Harry J. Holzer dan KeithR. Ihlanfeldt (1998) research di Atlanta,Boston, Detroit dan Los Angeles.

Customer Discrimination

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• Keputusan membeli tidak ditentukan olehActual Price ( p ) tapi oleh The Utility-Adjusted Price p (1 + d).

• Employer dapat mengatur tenaga penjualansesuai kondisi.

Customer Discrimination

TYPE FIRM> 50 %BLACK

CUSTOMER

> 75 %WHITE

CUSTOMERPERBEDAAN

Customer &worker

58,0 % 9,0 % 49,0 %

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workerbertemu 58,0 % 9,0 % 49,0 %

Customer &worker tidakbertemu 46,6 % 12,2 % 34,4 %

Perbedaan - - 14,6 %

Customer Discrimination and NBA

Lawrence Kahn and Peter Sherer 1998) :

A study of attenance records indicatesthat replacing a black player with an

eqqually talented white player bring in

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eqqually talented white player bring inabout 9,000 additional fans per year.

At $50 a head (a very conservative estimate ofticket prices and concession revenues), theracial switch would increase annual teamrevenues by roughly $450,000

Measuring Discrimination

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Measuring Discrimination

Measuring Discrimination

___

MW___

FW

Asumsi : Tenaga kerja terdiri dari

• Male, dengan average wage

• Female, dengan average wage

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_________

FM WWW

Diskriminasi : selisih average wage, yaitu :

Measuring Discrimination

Pengembangan model :

Schooling mempengaruhi pendapatan

Earning Function :

• Male : Sw

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• Male :

• Female :

MMMM Sw

FFFF Sw

M menyatakan pendapatan pria meningkat bilamendapatkan tambahan 1 tahun pendidikan.

Measuring Discrimination

Model Regresi :

_________

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FFFMMMFM ssWWW _________

Measuring The Impact ofDiscrimination on the Wage

Dollars

Women’sEarningFunction

___

MW

*

Men’sEarningFunction

Women’s Earning

Men’s Earning

Men’sEarning

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M

F

___

FW

Schooling

Function*

Fw

__

Fs__

Ms

Women’s SchoolingMen’s Schooling

Measure Discrimination :

*Fw

___

FWWoman’sEarning

Trend in Female-Male Wage Ratio(USA 1930-1990)

0.63

0.66

0.69

0.72

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Global Gender Gap 2007

INDONESIA

Rank 2007 : 81Score 2007 : 0.6550 ( 1 = equality )

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Rank 2006 : 68Score 2007 : 0.6541( 1 = equality )

Global Gender Gap 2007

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Global Gender Gap 2007

INDONESIA

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Terima kasih…