Themistocles and his part on the Greco-Persian Wars (499-472/1)

Classical Greek History J. A. Caballero Prieto

1

Themistocles and his part on the Greco-Persian Wars (499-472/11)

All the glory of Athens -The Parthenon, Plato’s Academy, the immortal tragedies, even the revolutionary experiment in

democracy- can be traced back to one public meeting, one obstinate citizen, and a speech about silver and ships. (John

R. Hale Lords of the Sea)

1 All dates are BCE


2

No matter how much we look at antiquity through the eyes of the modern world we tend to miss

the people who really made an impact in ancient times. There are men, usually of great caliber,

that slip between the cracks of history never to be seen or found except for and by the initiated.

Much like the Eleusinian mysteries, the subject of my investigation tends to march off into the

unknown, having accomplished, albeit not single-handedly, the salvation of an entire ancient

Greek city-state, nay of Hellas itself.

Themistocles, son of Neocles, arose from the unknown in Athens. A product of the very

radical democracy initiated in 510 (fourteen years after his estimated birth) he reached manhood

CA 494, just in time to become eponymous ephor in 493 and build Athens’ walls, as well as to

participate in the battles of Marathon with the famous Miltiades. He would also orchestrate the

naval operation at Artemisium despite a very eager Lacedaemonian Admiral, organized the

evacuation of Athens’ citizens to Troezen and Salamis, defeat the Persian invaders at Salamis in

480 and surely lead his clan battalion during the battle of Plataea in 479 for a final Persian

defeat. All this was accomplished while building Athens into a naval empire, battling negative

Delphic predictions, promoting radical democracy and fighting it up with his nemesis Aristides.

Little of Themistocles is spoken in popular culture or trivial history; no movies have been

made about his person2. However, Themistocles was part of the Persian defeat in 490 and key in

the destruction of their navy in 480. Themistocles was the true savior of democracy, yet he will

be ostracized by the very people, and through the very system, he fought to uphold.

Themistocles’ Early years

Themistocles was born in the year 5243 to Neocles, Athenian born, and Abrotonon, a

Thracian4. Born in a middle class Athenian household in the Lycomidae

5 clan, he grew up

surrounded by Aristocrats that looked down on him. However, he never allowed for anyone to

put him down, making even those higher born children train with him in order to show his right

to equal status. This necessity for equality would later show in favor of Themistocles and the

people he would fight to empower. One of his teachers is said to have told him that “you my boy

will be nothing small, but great one way or another, for good or else for bad.”6

Plutarch further documents that Themistocles boasted whenever possible, at one time

offending fellow Athenians while attending the Olympic games, putting on a fancy show and

bringing with him ostentatious tents that did not become a Greek of his class. Themistocles

“went beyond all men in the passion for distinction”7. He was also well liked by the common

people, who seem to see him as the bridge between them and the aristocrats. Plutarch also

mentions that he called every citizen by name8.

Thus, we see in Themistocles a middle class Athenian that arose to the highest levels of

power by demonstrating that he, whether he had Aristocratic training or not, could have as much

2 He barely makes an appearance on “The 300 Spartans” (1962) and is completely ignored in the remake “300”

from 2006 3 According to the Oxford Classical Dictionary; Secondary sources vary on the dates of birth and death. Other dates

often given are 525/523 - 460 BC 4 Plut. Them p.162. Although the write also mentions an Euterpe as a possible mother of Themistocles.

5 Frost

6 Plut. Them. p.163

7 Plut. Them. p. 165

8 Plut. Them. p. 166


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ἀρεηή9 and ζωθροςύνη

10 as any other high born man of Athens. Indeed Themistocles would rise

to achieve the highest levels of political and military life.

499-494: Aristagoras of Miletus and the Ionian Rebellion

There must be a brief introduction as to the events that initiated the Greco-Persian wars

of which Themistocles would be a protagonist.

It would seem that at the time Themistocles was about twenty-five years old, Aristagoras

son of Molpagoras, in an attempt to help Naxian exiles, initiates a local rebellion and quarrels

with the Persian Satrap Megabates, who warns the Naxians of an impendent Persian attack11

.

However, Aristagoras fails in his attempt, and thinking the Persians will want revenge plans a

revolt against them. The Ionian tyrant is deposed, and then Aristagoras sails to Sparta in order to

seek help from Laconians; however, king Cleomenes refuses to aid him despite his bribes12

.

Refused at Sparta, Aristagoras turns to Athens for support and around 498 the city sends twenty

triremes, along with six more from Eretria in Euboea, across the Aegean in order to aid the

Ionians who are now in full revolt13

.

However, after some initial successes, the Ionian revolt fails, and the Athenians along

with the Eretrians retreat, but not before a temple is burnt in Sardis along with a sanctuary to the

local goddess Kybele14

. The burning of the temple will lead Darius to tell one of his servants to

tell him “three times whenever his dinner was served: “My Lord, remember the Athenians”15

.

The last of the Ionian revolt was suppressed by 494 with a naval battle at Lade, followed by the

capture of Miletus. Thus, the field was set for the first invasion of Greece.

CA. 493: Eponymous Archon

According to Thucydides, Themistocles became eponymous archon of Athens in 493.

This fact seems to be confirmed by J. Arthur R. Munro in The Chronology of Themistocles'

Career. He states that “Dionysus of Halicarnassus (vi. 34) gives Themistocles as the name of the

archon eponymous of 493”. Charles W. Fornara also concurs, adding that he derives part of his

evidence “according to the Armenian version of Eusebius’ Chronica under Ol. 71,1 (497/96).”

Although the date is off our initial date of 493, we can easily attribute the lack of agreement to a

calculation error made by one of the ancient historians. The point made however, is that

Themistocles was indeed eponymous archon at one point, and that he used this archonship to the

benefit of the city’s port. During this year16

, Themistocles manages to convince Athens to fortify

the Piraeus with hastily built walls filled with rubble, to defend against any attack. Themistocles

successfully predicted that if Athens was ever hard pressed, she would rely on the Piraeus to

keep her fed, or that, in dire necessity, the Athenians could be evacuated through that same

9 Lit. Goodness, excellence

10 Lit. Moderation, Discretion

11 Herod. 5.30-33

12 Herod. 5.38

13 Herod. 5.55, 65, 97

14 Herod. 5.102

15 Herod. 5.106

16 ca 493


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location. The walls could only be built to about half the size that Themistocles wanted, but later

on17

the city would have a chance to finish the work started18

.

It would seem reasonable that Themistocles saw something in Piraeus and the navy that

no other aristocrat could see. His father Neocles, was said to have expressed that the ships of

Athens had been abandoned to their luck at the dry docks of Piraeus, and that this was a comparison to

“…how the people cast of their leaders when they have no more for to them”.19

This remark may

have made a deep mark on young Themistocles, for he always saw the navy as the salvation of

Athens, and made sure that Athens needed him as long as possible.

According to Frank J. Frost, this may be the time at which Themistocles married the

daughter of Alysander of Alopeke: “The deme fairly bristles with important persons” and “it may

have meant an improvement in Themistocles’ social and economic position.”20

However, as Hale

explains: “within a few years the Persian threat seemingly evaporated, and the costly project was

left unfinished. The wall and the stumps of towers at the Piraeus now stood to only half the

height that Themistocles had envisioned, a constant reminder of his poor powers as a prophet.”

It would seem that despite the visionary work of Themistocles, his preparations would

indeed be only halfway ready when the Persians would initiate what they saw as a counter attack

for the Athenian aid given during the Ionian revolt. However, it would only be one more year

until the Athenians saw the threat of the Persian army looming in the horinzon.

CA 492: Darius’ first expedition

I shall briefly mention that the first attempt at revenge against Greece by Darius ends in

utter failure when the Persian fleet is wrecked by the violent winds off Mount Athos in the

northern Aegean. Nonetheless, the Persians add parts of Thrace and the kingdom of Macedon to

their realm21

. Another expedition soon follows.

490: Marathon

In 490, Darius dashes across the Aegean, conquering the island of Naxos22

. During the

expedition, the Persians collect allies at the islands they passed. When they arrive at Euboea the

city of Eretria is besieged and after it held for six days, it was betrayed by two of its own

citizens.

Hippias now leads the Persians towards Marathon, supposedly, because the area is good

for landing cavalry23

. According his article Herodotus and the Battle of Marathon, J. A. S. Evans

claims that Hippias was there with the apparent intention of his re-establishment as a tyrant.24

17

478 according to Thucydides 18

Thuc. 1.93 19

Hale p.4 20

Frank p.113 21

Thuc. 6.45 22

Herod. 6.95 23

Herod. 9.13.3; Thuc. 7.27.5 24

P.282


5

Although the Spartans have been sent for via runner, call Pheidippides, the Laconians send back

word stating that they will not be able to arrive until the moon is full25

.

Miltiades is recognized as the great leader of this battle. He organizes the tribal leaders

and decides he will attack when it is his day to preside, since they leaders are taking turns daily

in order to keep command fair26

. At one point the Athenians, after they see the Persians

embarking in order to mount an attack on Athens, charge the Persian line obliterating their

enemies. After that battle they march to Athens, arriving before the Persian army does, and are

able to take defensive positions, dissuading their enemies from even attempting Piraeus27

. The

Persians return to their homeland in shame.

The story is well known, however, was Themistocles present? And if so, what was his

role during the battle? Erich S. Gruen asserts that “Miltiades and Themistocles cooperated

politically”.28

The fact that Themistocles had been eponymous archon only two years prior, and

that he had married into a higher-class clan, as well as the idea that he was pro-radical

democracy makes Themistocles and asset. It would seem strange if he was not present at the very

meetings described by Herodotus, indeed even counseling Miltiades as to what to do next.

Plutarch however, describes Themistocles as a jealous opponent who wanted to best his rival

beyond all else; he quotes him as saying that “the trophy of Miltiades would not let him sleep”29

.

Simply enough, the necessity of every able Athenian body at marathon was an imperative,

especially since the Spartan army was not to arrive until the full moon. It is likely that

Themistocles was present, at the very least, in charge of his clan troops.

489-486: Darius’ Death and Succession

After the defeat at Marathon, Darius prepares a third invasion of Greece, but he is

delayed by an Egyptian rebellion and later dies. He had chosen Xerxes as his successor however,

who diverts from the plan to attack Athens due to a series of revolts in the empire30

. Miltiades,

after a series of fiascos, is prosecuted for deceiving the Athenian people in 488 and dies in 489,

opening the door for Themistocles to consolidate his political power. It will still be nine years

before Xerxes will venture west, however a defining moment in Greek history was about to

occur. A decision that will mark the difference between Athens remaining a local power, or

become an empire, the choice between silver or triremes.

483/82: Silver and the 100 Triremes

In 483, with many Athenian leaders ostracized or dead, Themistocles is near the height of

his power. During this time, a large silver vein is found at Laureion31

“a rugged knot of hills

25

Herod. 6.105-107 26

Herod. 6.109-110 27

Herod. 6.110-116 28

P.92 29

Plut. Them. p.164 30

Herod. 7.1-6 31

Lit. Place of Silver


6

near the southern top of Attica, about twenty-five miles from Athens”.32

These mines had enough

money to produce 100 triremes33

. However, the citizens of Athens wanted to divide the gains

amongst themselves, an amount of ten drachmas per person. Although Themistocles, with what

is by now a well-developed power of persuasion, convinces the Athenians to build ships instead;

and so they do. Herodotus, speaking in flashback, praises Themistocles for his foresight, since by

480, by the time Xerxes attacks, the Athenian navy is 200 triremes strong. This force will be the

backbone of the allied maritime defense during the next Persian attack.

There was of course an ulterior motive for Themistocles, his family lands were in

“Phrearroi, on the edge of the mining district.34

There is a good chance that Themistocles may

have known a sizable vein was soon to be found, and therefore he would have time to think

ahead about what to do with the newfound wealth. This made Themistocles’ land more valuable

as well, granting him and his family more power over the decisions daily made in Athens.

Opposing Themistocles is his old rival Aristides; however, after a debate and much

campaigning, the latter is ostracized in 48235

. In addition, Frost suggests that “by fortifying

Piraeus and creating a navy [Themistocles] had shifted the balance of power to the lower

classes”.36

While Plutarch quotes a slogan of the time37

: “ἡ καηὰ θάλλαηαν ἀρχὴ γένεζίς ἐζηι

δημοκραηίας”38

.

Themistocles had reinforced Athens position by strengthening her walls, assisted at the

victory at Marathon, helped institute the radical democracy that would define Athens and much

of the western world. Now he was about to face his greatest challenge, the destruction of his city

by the Persian invaders who sought revenge on the Athenians for the destruction of ancient

temples in Ionia.

481-479: Xerxes Invasion

Xerxes leads a massive army westward from his capital Susa to the city of Sardis. His

engineers prepare bridges across the Hellespont and cut a canal through the peninsula at Mount

Athos. When Darius sent a request to Athens for earth and water it was “Themistocles, by the

consent of the people seized upon the interpreter, and put him to death, for presuming to publish

the barbarian orders and decrees in the Greek language.”39

He will also take care of a bribed

Arthmius of Zelea, who has been corrupted by Persian gold and is now coming to Athens to

attempt to persuade them to betray the rest of Hellas. As a result, Arthmius and his descendants

were condemned to be “degraded and disenfranchised”. Themistocles is also given responsibility

by Plutarch of the city’s peace through eradicating civil war. It would seem that thanks to

Themistocles, Athens would be able to present a Greek united front against the Persians40

.

The Athenians however, send for a prediction from the Delphic oracle, the Pythia

Aristonike gave the following prophecy:

32

Hale p.7 33

in addition to the 100 the Athenians already possessed. 34

Hale p.8 35

Aristides will be recalled in 480 in order to help face the incoming Persian threat. 36

P. 107 37

Plut. Them. 19.6 38

Lit. Democracy was first created upon the sea 39

Plut. Them. p. 166 40

Plut. Them. p.167


7

Why sit so idle, you poor wretched men? To the ends of the land

You should fee.

Leave your homes, leave the heights of your circular fortress,

For neither the head nor the body remains in its place,

Nor the feet underneath, nor the hands nor the middle

Is left as it was, but now all is obscure. For casting it down

Is fire and Ares so sharp on the heels of a Syrian chariot

And he will destroy many cities with towers, and not yours alone;

And into the devouring fire he will give the temples of eternal gods,

Which now drip with sweat and shake in their fear

As blood gushes darkly from the tops of their roofs,

Foreseeing the force of compelling disaster.

Now step out of the shrine, and shroud over your heart with the

Evils to come.

The Athenians were not looking at this prediction with any hope for the future. Their

request for a second oracle is also met with despair; it read thus41

:

Unable is Pallas to appease Zeus Olympian

With copious prayers, with counsel quite cunning.

Now to you once again my word I shall speak, making it adamantine:

The rest will be taken, all lying within the boundary of Kekrops

And that of the hollow of sacred Cithaeron.

But a wall made of wood does farsighted Zeus to Tritogenes grant

Alone and unravaged, to help you and your children,

Do not await peacefully the horse and the foot,

The army gigantic that comes from the mainland;

Withdraw, turn your backs, though someday you still will meet

Face to face.

O salamis Divinie, the children of women you will yet destroy

While Demeter is scattered or while she is gathered.

There begun a debate as to what the wooden walls meant, some said that it was the

wooden wall then around the acropolis, others thought that it meant the triremes, but they

foresaw death once embarked. It is interesting that here we see the first mention of Themistocles

in Herodotus, he wrote: “But among the Athenians was a certain man who had just recently

come into the highest prominence; his name was Themistocles, and he was called the son of

Neokles. Now this man asserted that the explanation of the oracle interpreters was not entirely

correct.”42

Themistocles goes on to defend that the warning was not intended towards Athens, but

her enemies, and that they wooden wall was indeed the navy, which would save them for

destruction. The people took to Themistocles’ prediction despite the expert interpreters’ simply

because it sounded better43

; the politician also seemed to have understood that Xerxes’ navy was

the weakest of its assets, since it was manned solely with subjugated peoples and commanded by

Persians; perhaps easier to demoralize and defeat.44

41

Herod. 7.140-1 42

Herod. 7.143.2 43

Herod. 7.143.3 44

Hale p.34


8

Tempe

At the end of 481, beginning of 480, the Hellenes who are willing to resist the Persians

meet in council at the Isthmus of Corinth; the Thessalonians threaten to join the Persians if they

are not defended. Themistocles who is an attendance as the delegate from Athens suggests that

the Athenians should embark an army and sail to Tempe in order to stop the Persians as far north

as possible; he linked up with a body of Lacedaemonians and headed to “the pass that leads from

Macedon into Thessaly. It runs along the River Peneios, which flows between Mount Olympus

and Mount Ossa”45

. The allies have about 10.000 hoplites. However, a warning from Alexander I

of Macedon and the discovery (according to Herodotus) of a pass that could encircle their

position makes the allies retreat back to the isthmus. The Thessalians medized immediately

after46

.

Artemisium

Once the position at Tempe had been lost, the only option for the allies was to set up a

two-front war, so it is decided that the pass of Thermopylae is defensible enough for this

purpose. A naval expedition is sent to Artemisium, in conjunction with a Spartan-led land army.

Admiralship does not fall to Themistocles despite his city’s 200 triremes, however; it is under

Eurybiades son of Eurylkeides, a Spartan king47

and land-lover with little to no maritime

experience; although we should not count resourceful Themistocles out yet. When Eurybiades

loses hope at the size of the Persian fleet, with money that he obtained from the Euboeans

Themistocles bribed Eurybiades and the Corinthian commander to remain in charge but quietly,

so the Themistocles himself could lead the efforts at sea. Themistocles understood that the naval

contingent was protecting Leonidas’ back at Thermopylae; to retreat at that time would have

meant the destruction of the allies at that pass by allowing the Persian navy to outflank them and

attack them from the rear.

Themistocles holds fast to his position, ensuring the survival of Leonidas and the allied

forces at the Thermopylae pass. The confused Persians are at a loss as to what to do, however a

contingent of 200 Persian48

ships are sent around Euboea to try and cut Themistocles off, but all

Persian ship shipwrecked off the Eastern coast of the island. Under Themistocles’ direction,

naval battles are won, which dismay the Persians further.49

On the third day of the conflict however, Ephialtes50

betrays the land position at

Thermopylae and a synchronized attack is suffered by both Leonidas and Themistocles. Both

hold on as long as they can, but the Athenians have half of their ships damaged51

so they decide

to retreat. Themistocles set fires in Euboea and killed the flocks present in the island in order to

hinder the Persian advance through lack of supplied. Finally a messenger boat communicates to

Themistocles that Leonidas and the allies at the pass have been overwhelmed, and that the

45

Herod. 7.173 46

Herod. 7.174 47

Plut. Them. and Histories 8.2 48

Manned with Phoenician vessels and forced labor 49

Herod. 8.8 50

Lit. Nightmare 51

Herod. 8.18


9

commander and all the Spartiates are dead52

. The naval contingent no longer delays and ships to

their accorded fall back location.

Salamis

Once they cross Thermopylae the Persians take Phocia and burn twelve cities, there being

nothing the allies can do. The oracle at Delphi is surprisingly spared.53

It is at this time that

Themistocles evacuates all women and children from Athens to Troezen, safely behind the

Isthmus and into the Peloponnese (see J. A. S Evans article The Oracle of the "Wooden Wall" for

a detailed account on this subject). We do not have any direct record of the words or method

used by Themistocles to convince Athens to make such a sacrifice, but it speaks volumes for the

politician’s ability to inspire trust and commitment54

.

The allies now hold a council of war at Salamis, where the Athenians had set up a

“government in exile”55

, and the Corinthians amongst others are strongly suggesting the defense

of the isthmus in order to prevent an invasion of the Peloponnese. During the discussions, news

arrive that the Persians have burned Thespiai and Plataea, and that they are entering into

defenseless Attica. Athens is taken and the acropolis burnt. The fires are most likely visible from

Salamis, where Themistocles and the rest of the Athenians find themselves without a city. At this

point, a certain Mnesiphilos convinces Themistocles to make a plea to remain at Salamis and

offer a naval battle there56

, so our naval commander convinces Eurybiades to set up a last council

of war. One can only imagine the feeling of desperation that Themistocles may be experiencing,

his city burning, having failed his fellow citizens.

Herodotus reports that even before Eurybiades opened the meeting, the usually

calculative Themistocles begins to speak “with great urgency, since “he was now quite

desperate.”57

However, Adeimantos a Corinthian commander reprehends him. Themistocles,

undaunted, continues his argument unstopped by Eurybiades58

, stating that the fleet should offer

battle at Salamis due to the advantages it supposes. However, the Corinthian commander, eager

to defend the isthmus insults him by telling Themistocles that he should not be able to propose a

motion for a vote, since he is a man without a city.

One can tell the desperation and frustration of Themistocles in the next sentences by

Herodotus. Themistocles replied “with venom directed against Adeimantos and the Corinthians”

telling them that the Athenians had 200 fully manned ships, that being greater land than Corinth,

and that if he needed to invade the city itself, he would not hesitate. Then he turns to Eurybiades

and tells him that Athens will sail off to Italy and leave the allies with little naval power59

.

52

Herod. 7.224 speaks of the death, while the message is conveyed in 8.22 53

Perhaps a foothold to claims of Persian corruption of the shrine through bribery, although Herodotus claims divine intervention 54

Herod. 8.41 55

Hale p.39 56

Herod. 8.58. The epic homage here is quite obvious. An older character, unknown to us, advices Themistocles as to what needs to be done next; Herodotus may be trying to explain away Themistocles impetuous request of a second council as the idea of an older, wiser man as he seems to view the general as inexperienced 57

Herod. 8.59 58

The commander may have opposed the engagement at Salamis although he was probably still under Themistocles’ influential bribe 59

Herod. 8.61-62


10

The Corinthian is heard of no further, and Eurybiades grants Themistocles’ motion.

However, there is a second debate later on, seeming as if the allies would indeed retreat to the

isthmus and defend that section of the country. Themistocles’ genius nature comes out more than

at any other time. He sends a message to Xerxes letting him know that some of the allies will

attempt a retreat, which the king finds credible, sending part of his navy to cut off any chances of

escape. Some have suggested that Themistocles was attempting to create a win-win situation for

himself. If the Hellenes lose, he would be spared as the one who allowed such a defeat, if they

win, he would be responsible for the Persian naval division, allowing the allied cities to face a

smaller contingent.

It seems to me however, that Themistocles remembered the lessons of the battle at

Marathon and Thermopylae. He knew that a divided Persian navy would be easier to defeat, and

that an elated Xerxes would be more likely to send his naval forces into the straight if he thought

the Greeks were in disarray. Once in the enclosed space of Salamis, the more maneuverable

Greek triremes could ambush the Phoenicians and destroy them, then turning upon the encircling

part of the Persian navy, destroying them as well, or intimidating them into retreat as had happen

at Athens ten years prior.

Themistocles’ old enemy, Aristides, who has been recalled from exile, braves the

elements, death and his own pride to tell him that the Persians are indeed enveloping the allied

forces and that there is not escape. Themistocles reveals that this was part of his plan, and that

Aristides should tell the allies, since they would be more likely to believe him60

. The allies have

yet another council of war, and Herodotus reports Themistocles giving a final speech to them in

regards to the worst and best of humanity letting everyone know they have a choice61

. A. J.

Graham, in his article Themistocles' Speech before Salamis: The Interpretation of Herodotus

8.83.1 analyzes the translation of Herodotus and determines it to mean that “Themistocles alone

of them all foretold victory”.62

At any rate, Themistocles seems to have given an inspirational

speech worth of his stature. The admiral would get (and win) his battle at sea the battle of

Salamis; an incredible success by any standard. Herodotus reports a “rumor” in regards to

Corinthian vessels and their leader, Adaimantus, cowering and fleeing the scene63

, we do not

know who started it, Themistocles however was a likely culprit.

The Persians back is now broken, Xerxes retreats to his homeland, leaving Mardonius in

charge of the now decimated land forces. The Persian ships now sail to the Hellespont to protect

the king’s retreat through the bridge they had set up, to which Themistocles proposes to have the

navy sail and cut both the retreating Persian fleet off and destroy the bridges. However,

Eurybiades opposes this, saying that it is best to let the enemy leave, rather than trapping it in

Greece and forcing them to fight64

. Themistocles accepts this reasoning. However, the

Athenians, enraged by the sacrilege at Athens, want to pursue the enemy fleet. Herodotus

suggests that Themistocles persuades them not to in order to gain favor with Persia, I think the

admiral had it right, but not the historian, since the Athenians cannot effectively pursue a counter

attack with their country and city in shambles. However, Themistocles does initiate, seemingly

60

Herod. 8.81; Plut. Them. p.172 61

Herod. 8.83 62

P.325 63

Herod. 8.94; This seems more like an attempt by Herodotus to further discredit the Corinthian contingent after they had opposed Themistocles and the Athenian proposal 64

Herod. 8.108


11

on his own, a punitive campaign against some of the medized islands to get money from them, in

order to rebuild Athens.

478-472: Thanks to Themistocles

With the Persians defeated, Themistocles continues to serve Athens. It is certain,

although we have no direct record, that the general led his tribal battalion during the final battle

of Plataea. In 478, thanks to Themistocles distraction of the Spartans, the Athenians rebuild their

city walls65

. The Athenian general Aristides66

follows the Spartan regent Pausanias with an

Athenian squadron to Cyprus and the Byzantium, where the Ionians beg the Athenians to

become their hegemon.

In 477, the Athenians and their allies establish the so-called Delian League. Athens will

lead punitive campaigns against the Persian Empire, and the allies will contribute either ships or

money. Aristides assesses the contributions. The Athenians general Cimon leads the first annual

campaign, capturing the city of Eion on the Strymon River in Thrace.

Once, when “Themistocles entered the [Olympic] stadium, the audience neglected the

contestants all day long to gaze on him, and pointed him out with admiring applause to visiting

strangers, so that he too was delighted, and confessed to his friends that he was now reaping in

full measure the harvest of his toils in behalf of Hellas."67

Thus we see that, if only for a small

moment, Themistocles was able to gather the rewards of his sacrifices, extensively spoken of by

Borimir Jordan on his article The Honors for Themistocles after Salamis. Yet, the prediction of

his father Neocles quoted above would become true: that when no longer needed, leaders are

abandoned.

With Aristides and other politicians back in the equation, Themistocles begins to be

accused of abusing his power and influence. In 476, driven by the desire to quench these

accusations, Themistocles sponsors a performance of Phrynichus’ Phoenician Women to remind

the Athenians of his own contribution to the victory over the Persians, which gains him

temporary safety. Although, after political battles and being a victim of his own success, further

rumors of Themistocles abuses during the Greco-Persian wars spread. Around 47268

or 47169

Themistocles is ostracized. We have more examples of ostraka70

used on his banishment than for

any other politician. He will never return to Greece, dying ironically, in a city of the empire he

had so blatantly fought against.71

Conclusion

However we look at Themistocles, we must conclude that he was someone of special

caliber, even in the remarkable time in which he lived. His actions during the Greco-Persian

65

Plut. Them. p.176 66

Themistocles’ great rival, returned from exile 67

Plut. Them. 17 68

Cary p.162 69

Munro p.333 70

Ostracism voting ballots 71

Hale, Chronology, ps.319-321


12

wars, especially during the Xerxian invasion, saved Greece from being taken over by the oriental

empire, keeping its way of life and system of government. Themistocles empowered more

people than any other politician to choose for themselves, setting up the radical democracy that

Pericles would carry into the future. Athens is now on the path towards empire, and the decades

from 479 to 399 are arguably the most incredible of human history; producing some of the

greatest minds of all time.

Themistocles was calculative, manipulative, unashamed, unapologetic, simply an

Athenian of the late fifth century who bowed to no one and knew no master. He participated in

the greatest battles of all time, and was the driving force behind a Democratic system which we

attempt to follow today. I believe there has been no greater commander in all of history than

Themistocles, nor a more capable politician.


13

Bibliography

Ancient Sources

Herodotus, Purvis, Andrea L. (Translator), Strassler, Robert B. (Editor), Thomas, Rosalind

(Introduction) (2009) The landmark Herodotus Anchor Books

Plutarch, Dryden, Johyn (Translator) Lehmann, Clayton Miles (Introduction) (2006) Lives The

Barnes and Noble Library of Essential Reading

Thucydides, Crawley, Richard (Translator), Strassler, Robert B. (Editor), Hanson, Victor Davis

(Introduction) (2008) The landmark Thucydides Free Press

Modern Sources

Cary, M. (1922) When Was Themistocles Ostracised? The Classical Review Vol. 36, No. 7/8,

pp. 161-162 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical

Association

Evans, J. A. S. (1993) Herodotus and the Battle of Marathon Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte

Geschichte Vol. 42, No. 3 (3rd Qtr.), pp. 279-307 Published by: Franz Steiner Verlag

Evans, J. A. S. (1982) The Oracle of the "Wooden Wall" The Classical Journal Vol. 78, No. 1 pp.

24-29 Published by: The Classical Association of the Middle West and South

Fornara, Charles W. (1971) Themistocles' Archonship Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte

Vol. 20, No. 5/6 (4th Qtr.), pp. 534-540 Published by: Franz Steiner Verlag

Frost, Frank J. (1968) Themistocles' Place in Athenian Politics California Studies in Classical

Antiquity Vol. 1, pp. 105-124 Published by: University of California Press

Graham, A. J. (1996) Themistocles' Speech before Salamis: The Interpretation of Herodotus

8.83.1 The Classical Quarterly New Series, Vol. 46, No. 2, pp. 321-326 Published by:

Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association

Gruen, Erich S. (1970) Stesimbrotus on Miltiades and Themistocles California Studies in

Classical Antiquity Vol. 3, pp. 91-98 Published by: University of California Press

Hale, John R. (2009) Lords of the Sea Penguing Group

Jordan, Borimir (1988) The Honors for Themistocles after Salamis The American Journal of

Philology Vol. 109, No. 4, pp. 547-571 Published by: The Johns Hopkins University

Press


14

Munro, J. Arthur R. (1982) The Chronology of Themistocles' Career The Classical Review Vol.

6, No. 8, pp. 333-334 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The

Classical Association

Oxford Classical Dictionary, Hornblower and Spawforth (1998) s.v.

Documents

Themistocles and his part on the Greco-Persian Wars (499-472/1)