Int[ J[ Intercultural Rel[ Vol[ 11\ No[ 2\ pp[ 166Ð180\ 0887Þ 0887 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd[ All rights reserved\ Pergamon Printed in Great Britain

9036Ð0656:87 ,08[99¦9[99

PII] S9036Ð0656"87#99997ÐX

THE U!CURVE ON TRIAL] A LONGITUDINAL STUDY

OF PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOCULTURAL

ADJUSTMENT DURING CROSS!CULTURAL

TRANSITION

COLLEEN WARD0�\ YUTAKA OKURA0\ANTONY KENNEDY0\ TAKAHIRO KOJIMA1

0University of Canterbury\ New Zealand1International Paci_c Colle`e\ New Zealand

ABSTRACT[ The research examined cross!cultural transition and adjustment ofsojourners in a longitudinal study of psychological and sociocultural adaptation ofJapanese students in New Zealand[ Thirty!_ve newly arrived students completedquestionnaires which monitored depression "psychological adjustment# and socialdif_culty "sociocultural adaptation# at four time periods] within 13 hours of arrivalin the country and at 3\ 5 and 01 months in New Zealand[ Neither psychologicalnor sociocultural measurements of adaptation demonstrated the popular U!curve ofadjustment[ Contrary to the U!curve proposition and in line with our hypotheses\adjustment problems were greatest at entry point and decreased over time[ Themagnitudes of the correlations between psychological and sociocultural adjustmentwere also examined over the four time periods[ As hypothesized\ the relationshipbetween the two adjustment indicators was insigni_cant at the _rst testing"r�−9[94#^ however\ the magnitude signi_cantly increased "r�9[25\ p³9[94#after 01 months in New Zealand[ The distinction between psychological and socio!cultural adaptation\ their relationship and variation over time and the importance oflongitudinal research with sojourners are discussed[ Þ 0887 Published by ElsevierScience Ltd[ All rights reserved[

KEY WORDS[ Cross!cultural transition\ adjustment\ acculturation\ adaptation\ U!curve\ Japanese

INTRODUCTION

Although substantial research has been amassed over the past decadeson the experience of cross!cultural transition and the predictors of

The study was funded by a grant from the Department of Psychology\ University of Canter!bury\ Christchurch\ New Zealand[ The authors would like to thank the past Principal\D[ H[ Parker\ the past Vice!Principal\ N[ N[ Hanlon and the students at International Paci_cCollege\ Palmerston North\ New Zealand\ for their cooperation and support[�Corresponding author[ Department of Social Work and Psychology\ National Universityof Singapore\ Kent Ridge\ Singapore 008159\ Singapore[

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167 C[ Ward et al[

sojourner adjustment\ considerable controversy remains about the processof adapting to a new culture and the patterns of adjustment over time[The most popular and well!known stage theory of cross!cultural adap!tationwas originally advanced byLysgaard "0844# in his study ofNorwegianFulbright scholars in the United States[ Noting that the greatest adjust!ment di.culties were encountered by those sojourners who had residedabroad 5Ð01months compared to either those who had been overseas lessthan 5months or more than 07months\ Lysgaard "0844\ p[ 49# stated]

Adjustment as a process over time seems to follow a U!shaped curve] adjust!ment is felt to be easy and successful to begin with^ then follows a {{crisis|| inwhich one feels less well!adjusted\ somewhat lonely and unhappy^ _nally onebegins to feel better adjusted again\ becoming more integrated into the foreigncommunity[

A similar account of cross!cultural adaptation was provided by Oberg"0859# in his anthropological description and elaboration of {{cultureshock[|| Oberg "0859\ p[ 066# portrayed culture shock as an {{occupationaldisease of people who have been suddenly transplanted abroad[|| Althoughculture shock is commonly associated with negative psychological symp!toms such as fear\ anxiety\ anger and feelings of helplessness\ Obergmaintained that sojourners typically move through stages of culture shockand eventually achieve satisfactory adjustment[ Accordingly\ the experi!ence of cross!cultural transition commences with a {{honeymoon|| stageof enthusiasm and fascination with a new cultural environment[ This isfollowed _rst by a period of crisis\ distress\ hostility and withdrawal\secondly by a transition stage and _nally by a period of adjustment\integration and enjoyment[ Oberg|s stages of cross!cultural adaptation\like Lysgaard|s\ can also be graphically represented by a U!curve[

For more than thirty years the U!curve has assumed a central positionin theory and research on transition and adjustment[ Investigators haveborrowed the theorizing on sojourners| psycho!emotional changes overtime and applied the U!curve hypothesis to diverse forms of {{adjustment||such as social interaction with hosts\ attitudes\ host culture perceptions\culture!speci_c knowledge\ homesickness and even academic performance"Scott\ 0845^ Sewell + Davidsen\ 0850^ Davis\ 0860^ Chang\ 0862^Torbiorn\ 0871#[ Researchers have also extended the graphic repre!sentation of the {{U!curve|| to a {{W curve|| incorporating the re!entryphenomenon into the overall framework "Gullahorn + Gullahorn\ 0852#[The popularity of the model persists today even though the Lysgaard"0844# original theorizing was based on retrospective\ cross!sectional dataand the Oberg "0859# musings were largely anecdotal[ In addition\ morecomprehensive reviews of research in the _eld have concluded that supportfor the hypothesis is limited "Furnham + Bochner\ 0875^ Anderson\0883# and that evidence for the U!curve is {{weak\ inconclusive and over!generalized|| "Church\ 0871\ p[ 431#[

168U!curve

For all intents and purposes\ the U!curve is still on trial in the inter!cultural court\ the defense pointing to its continued popularity and itsheuristic application in understanding cross!cultural transition and adap!tation and the prosecution citing its limited empirical support[ But beforethe _nal verdict can be returned\ both methodological and theoreticalissues warrant further attention[ Two major shortcomings of the empiricalresearch on the U!curve are apparent[ First\ the majority of the studiesthat have explicitly investigated the phenomenon have been based oncross!sectional\ rather than longitudinal designs ðsee reviews by Church"0871# and Furnham + Bochner "0875#^ as well as recent studies such asTanaka et al[ "0883#Ł[ The longitudinal approach is clearly more appro!priate to explore changes in sojourner adjustment over time[ Secondly\there is some conceptual confusion over the de_nition and measurement ofsojourner {{adjustment[|| Both Lysgaard "0844# and Oberg "0859# discussedpsycho!emotional aspects of adaptation^ however\ as mentionedpreviously\ cognitive and behavioral indicators of adaptation have alsobeen interchangeably investigated in relation to length of residence abroad[Intercultural theory on sojourner transition suggests that variations in thede_nitions and measurements of the adjustment construct will producecontrasting patterns of ~uctuation over time[

The problem of de_ning cross!cultural {{adjustment|| has been discussedat length in previous studies by Ward and colleagues that have attemptedto provide a theoretical framework for synthesis of theory and researchon cross!cultural transition and adaptation "e[g[\ Searle + Ward\ 0889^Ward + Kennedy\ 0881^ Ward\ 0885#[ Along these lines\ two fundamentaltypes of sojourner adjustment have been identi_ed[ The _rst\ termedpsychological adjustment\ is associated with psychological well!being oremotional satisfaction^ the second\ referred to as sociocultural adaptation\is related to the ability to {{_t in|| or negotiate interactive aspects of thehost environment[ An emerging program of research has demonstratedthat psychological and sociocultural adjustment are inter!related but areconceptually and empirically distinct[ For example\ psychological adjust!ment is largely in~uenced by personality\ social support and life changevariables while sociocultural adaptation is more strongly a}ected by cul!tural distance\ amount of contact with host nationals and cultural knowl!edge[ Preliminary research also suggests that the two components ofadjustment follow somewhat di}erent sequences over time[

Ward and colleagues have previously argued that psychological adjust!ment is best understood within a stress and coping framework whilesociocultural adaptation is more appropriately situated within the culturelearning tradition[ Given these divergent theoretical underpinnings\di}erent temporal patterns of adaptation would be predicted[ Consistentwith a stress and coping approach to sojourner adjustment\ the greatestpsychological distress should be encountered upon entry to a new culture[

179 C[ Ward et al[

This is the point at which the individual experiences the most immediatelife changes and\ in all likelihood\ has the most limited resources and socialsupport[ While a drop in adjustment di.culties would be expected\ thelongitudinal pattern is di.cult to predict precisely as psychological distressis likely to be in~uenced by a multitude of environmental and transitionalfactors[ Selby and Woods "0855#\ for example\ suggested that the psycho!logical adjustment of foreign students may ~uctuate in line with changesin the academic calendar[ In any case\ psychological adjustment is unlikelyto follow a U!curve\ rather psychological distress would be anticipated tobe at its peak on entry to a new culture[

The greatest sociocultural di.culties are also expected at point of entry[This is the period in which the sojourner has the least familiarity with andknowledge about the host culture[ There is also limited experience ofmeaningful interactions with host nationals[ Adaptation problems wouldbe anticipated to decrease markedly in the early period of the sojourn andcontinue to decrease slightly over time[ In the culture learning tradition\the acquisition of culture!speci_c skills would be predicted to follow alearning curve\ fairly steep at the beginning of the sojourn and eventuallyleveling o} over time[

Our earlier research with Malaysian and Singaporean students in NewZealand seem to con_rm this pattern "Ward + Kennedy\ 0885a#[ Studentsexperienced the greatest amount of depression "psychological adjustmentproblems# within the _rst month of arrival[ Depression dropped sig!ni_cantly after 5months in the country and rose again slightly 5monthslater[ Sociocultural adaptation problems\ in contrast\ commenced at ahigh level\ dropped markedly within 5months and slightly but not sig!ni_cantly over the following half year[ There were\ however\ two limi!tations of this research[ First\ the number of subjects was quite small[ Only03 students participated in the longitudinal component of the research[Secondly\ the _rst testing occurred within the _rst month of arrival in NewZealand[ As Oberg "0859# has maintained that the {{honeymoon|| stagemay last anywhere from a few days to 5months\ it is possible that thesestudents had already entered the crisis stage of culture shock[

The major objective of this study\ then\ is the investigation of psycho!logical and sociocultural adjustment over time[ In line with our pastresearch\ it is hypothesized that psychological adjustment di.culties willbe greatest upon entry to a new culture^ the subsequent pattern of psycho!logical adjustment\ however\ is not predicted[ It is further hypothesizedthat problems in sociocultural adaptation will be greatest at entry to anew culture but that these di.culties will decrease markedly within the_rst months of residence in a new culture and will continue to decreaseslightly over time[

A second research question pertains to the relationship between psycho!logical and sociocultural adjustment over time[ Research data have con!

170U!curve

sistently exhibited a signi_cant\ positive relationship between the twoadjustment domains[ However\ Ward and colleagues have argued that themagnitude of the relationship between psychological and socioculturaladjustment may be a}ected by a variety of factors including sojourners|need\ capacity and opportunity for integration into the host culture[ It hasalso been suggested that the greater the reliance on the host culture as theprimary environment for interaction\ the stronger the relationship betweenthe two adjustment domains[ For example\ if sojourners choose "or areforced# to inhabit an {{expatriate bubble|| and have minimum interactionswith host nationals\ it is unlikely that there will be a strong relationshipbetween psychological well!being and sociocultural competence[ If\ onthe other hand\ sojourners are well integrated into the host culture\ therelationship between culture!speci_c social skills and psychological sat!isfaction should be greater[ Along these lines\ it has been previously dem!onstrated that the magnitude of the relationship between psychologicaland sociocultural adjustment is greater in a sojourning group who makesa small "Malaysian students in Singapore# vs[ a large "Malaysian andSingaporean students in New Zealand# cross!cultural transition "Ward +Kennedy\ 0882a#[ In addition\ the magnitude of the relationship betweenthe two adjustive outcomes is greater in a sedentary "New Zealand studentsat home# vs[ a sojourning group "New Zealand AFS students abroad^Ward + Kennedy\ 0882b#[

Along similar lines\ it is expected that the magnitude of the relationshipbetween psychological and sociocultural adjustment will vary over time[In the majority of cases it is likely that the relationship between psycho!logical and sociocultural adjustment will be modest at entry and thenincrease over time as sojourners have the experience and opportunity ofinteracting with host nationals and immersing themselves in the hostculture[ In this research the sojourners arrived overseas in a large co!national cohort group and lived and studied together in a segregatedschool[ Over the academic year they gained greater exposure to and experi!ence with the host culture[ Consequently\ it is hypothesized that therelationship between sociocultural and psychological adjustment will besmall\ even insigni_cant at entry\ but will increase over time as sojournersgain more intercultural experience in the host country[

METHOD

Subjects

The subjects were 24 Japanese students "07 women and 06 men# at theInternational Paci_c College "IPC#[ Their average age at date of arrival inNew Zealand was 07[5 years "S[D[�9[70 years#[

171 C[ Ward et al[

International Paci_c College is an institution of higher learning\ which\at the time of the study\ catered predominantly to Japanese studentswho intended to advance to international tertiary educational programsconducted in the English language[ First!year students depart from Japanand arrive as a group on the IPC campus for an orientation programbefore the start of the academic year[ During their _rst year of studies\they reside in student accommodation on the college campus\ which is onthe outskirts of Palmerston North\ a university town on the North Islandof New Zealand^ however\ students do have access to the city and thesurrounding areas[

Materials

The questionnaire was composed of demographic information such asage\ sex and length of stay in New Zealand and measures of socioculturaladjustment "social di.culty# and psychological adjustment "depression#[Initially the questionnaire was written in English\ then translated intoJapanese by a native Japanese speaker "the second author# and _nallyback translated into English by another bilingual Japanese speaker toensure linguistic equivalence[

Sociocultural adjustment[ The Sociocultural Adjustment Scale "SCAS#is concerned with the skills that are required to manage everyday socialsituations in a new cultural context[ The development of the SCAS wasbased on Furnham and Bochner|s "0871# work with the Social SituationsQuestionnaire^ however\ unlike the original measurement\ the referencepoints are not framed in a}ective terms "e[g[\ fear\ anxiety\ embarrass!ment#[ Subjects utilize 4!point scales "endpoints] no di.culty:extremedi.culty# to rate the amount of di.culty that they experience in varioussocial situations[ The scale has been modi_ed for various sojourner groupsand has consistently proven reliable and valid "e[g[\ Searle + Ward\ 0889^Ward + Kennedy\ 0882a\ 0882b#[ This version contains 19 items "e[g[\going shopping\ dealing with public transport# with scores ranging from9Ð79^ higher scores are associated with greater di.culty negotiating thehost culture[

Psychological Adjustment[ The Zung "0854# Self!rating Depression Scale"ZSDS# was employed to assess psychological adjustment[ The ZSDSrelies on 3!point rating scales "endpoints] a little of the time:most of thetime# for responses to 19 statements that cover a}ective\ physiological andpsychological components of depression[ The instrument scores from 9Ð59 with higher scores indicative of greater depression[ This ZSDS hasproven reliable and valid in previous sojourner research including studies

172U!curve

of other Asian student samples "Searle + Ward\ 0889^ Ward + Kennedy\0882a#[

Procedure

Subjects completed four questionnaires over the course of the research^the _rst within 13 hours of arriving in New Zealand\ the second 3 monthsafter arrival\ the third 5months after arrival and the _nal questionnaire01months after the initial arrival and an intervening school break[ Ques!tionnaires were distributed by the _rst author for the _rst _eld testing andby the fourth author for subsequent testings[ Participation in the researchwas anonymous and voluntary[ Of the 015 students who completed thearrival questionnaire\ 24 "17)# produced usable questionnaires for allfour testings in the longitudinal study[

RESULTS

Scalar Reliability

Preliminary data analysis consisted of testing the internal reliability ofeach of the scales using Cronbach|s alpha[ The SCAS proved highlyreliable in its original form "a�9[74#^ however\ the ZSDS was reduced to01 items to produce an internally consistent scale "a�9[69#0[ Consequently\the modi_ed ZSDS scored from 9Ð25[

Sociocultural and Psycholo`ical Adjustment Over Time

One!way analyses of variance were conducted to examine the patternsof sociocultural and psychological adjustment from entry to 01months[The analysis indicated signi_cant changes in sociocultural adaptation overtime^ F"2\ 23#�4[78\ p³9[990[ Post hoc tests revealed that the greatestamount of social di.culty was experienced at entry to New Zealand\ butthat there were no signi_cant di}erences across the subsequent 3\ 5 and01month time periods "Figure 0#[ A similar pattern was found for psycho!logical adjustment^ F"2\ 23#�4[09\ p³9[992[ Post hoc analyses revealedthat subjects produced the highest depression scores at the initial testing[There were no signi_cant di}erences in depression\ however\ across thesubsequent three testings "Figure 1#[

As only 24 of the original 015 subjects participated in all four testings\comparisons were made between these 24 subjects and the remaining 80

0The reliability analysis was based on the original sample of 015 respondents[ The Zung Self!Rating Depression Scale was originally administered as a 08!item scale\ omitting the item onsexual enjoyment[

173 C[ Ward et al[

FIGURE 1. Social difficulty over time.

students at the _rst testing[ T!test revealed that there were no signi_cantdi}erences in either psychological adjustment ðt"1\ 013#�9[39Ł or soci!ocultural adaptation ðt"1\ 013#�9[10Ł on entry to New Zealand[ These_ndings suggest a diminished probability of sample bias[

174U!curve

FIGURE 2. Depression over time.

175 C[ Ward et al[

The Relationship between Sociocultural and Psycholo`icalAdjustment

Pearson correlations were performed on sociocultural and psychologicaladjustment at each of the four time periods[ The correlations were]r�−9[94 "ns# at entry\ r�9[08 "ns# at 3months\ r�9[05 "ns# at 5monthsand r�9[25 "p³9[94# at 01months[ A test for signi_cant di}erencesbetween correlations indicated a signi_cant increase between entry and01months^ z�0[60\ p³9[94\ one!tailed[ There were no signi_cant di}er!ences among comparisons between the other testing periods[

DISCUSSION

The research examined variations in and the relationship betweenpsychological and sociocultural adjustment over time in a group ofJapanese students in New Zealand[ In line with the hypotheses\ bothpsychological "depression# and sociocultural "social di.culty# adjustmentproblems were greatest at entry to the new culture[ Adjustment di.cultiesdecreased between entry and four months of overseas experience with nofurther signi_cant changes at the 5 and 01month testings[ In addition\ aspredicted\ the magnitude of the correlation between psychological andsociocultural adjustment increased over time\ with signi_cant di}erencesfound between point of entry and 0 year of residence abroad[

Comparisons may be made between these _ndings and both theLysgaard "0844# original research on the stages and schedule of sojourneradaptation and the Oberg "0859# sequential description of culture shock[In the _rst instance and in contrast to Lysgaard|s cross!sectional research\no evidence was found to suggest that psychological adjustment is betterin the _rst six months compared to the 5Ð01month period^ in fact\ elevatedlevels of depression occurred in conjunction with students| overseas arrival[Secondly\ with respect to Oberg|s model\ there is no support for a euphoric{{honeymoon|| stage of entry to a new country[ Psychological distress\rather than euphoria\ appeared to characterize entry to a foreign milieu[Furthermore\ as sojourners were tested within 13 hours of arrival intheir new country of residence\ these data are particularly powerful inundermining the validity of Oberg|s theorizing[ Previous studies of cross!cultural transition and adaptation\ including some of the best designedlongitudinal research\ have failed to capture sojourners so early in theentry phase "e[g[\ Kealey\ 0878^ Zheng + Berry\ 0880#[

These results are in line with our past research "Ward + Kennedy\0885a# and complement more comprehensive and more recent longitudinalinvestigations of cross!cultural transition and adaptation[ Klineberg andHull "0868#\ for example\ undertook a massive study of foreign studentadjustment\ examining adaptation in both cross!sectional and longitudinal

176U!curve

data[ They reported no support for a U!curve in depression\ loneliness orhomesickness in their extensive cross!sectional data from foreign studentsin both developing and industrialized countries[ In addition\ in!depthlongitudinal data collected from 57 students in France\ Brazil and theUnited States revealed that only three subjects experienced a U!curve ofpsychological adjustment to their foreign universities[ Rather\ the majorityof students felt lonely and depressed at the beginning of their sojourn[Similar _ndings were reported by Kealey "0878# in his work with Canadiantechnical assistants on overseas placements[ Combining cross!sectionaland longitudinal data on 166 volunteers\ he reported that only 09) ofthe sample produced evidence of a U!curve of psychological adjustment"feelings of satisfaction# over a two!year period abroad[ More recently\the Nash "0880# research with American students in France demonstratedno support of U!curve ~uctuations in anxiety over a 09!month sojournabroad[ All in all\ there appears to be considerable hard data availablefrom longitudinal studies of psychological adjustment of sojourners todiscredit the U!curve proposition\ and contrary to popular theorizing\ itis more likely that sojourners commence their overseas stay in a state ofat least moderate psychological distress[

In contrast to psychological adjustment\ sociocultural adaptation\ inthe main\ has not been investigated in reference to the U!curve[ There is\however\ related work by Torbiorn "0871# which examined ~uctuations inhost culture knowledge during cross!cultural transition[ Althoughvaliantly attempting to locate the elusive U!curve\ his cross!sectional datawere more persuasive in con_rming an increase in knowledge over time[Our own cross!sectional research has demonstrated the same temporalpattern of knowledge acquisition "Armes + Ward\ 0878# and socioculturaladaptation "Ward + Kennedy\ 0882a#[ More importantly\ these _ndings\which reveal a high level of social di.culty upon entry to a new environ!ment and a rapid and marked drop in sociocultural adjustment problems\are consistent with out previous longitudinal research on Malaysianand Singaporean students in New Zealand as well as New Zealandvolunteers abroad "Ward + Kennedy\ 0885a\ 0885b#[ Results recon_rmthe relatively rapid acquisition of sociocultural skills over time[

A second area of interest in this study has been variations in the relation!ship between psychological and sociocultural adjustment over time[ Ourpast research has consistently reported signi_cant\ positive correlationsbetween the two adjustment domains[ Studies with a variety of sojourninggroups "students\ domestic workers\ businesspeople and spouses\ diplo!mats\ aid workers and volunteers# in diverse cultural settings have pro!duced correlations between 9[12Ð9[61\ with a median of 9[20 over 00samples[ However\ it has been argued that the magnitude of this relation!ship will be a}ected by numerous factors\ including the sojourner|s associ!ation with the host culture[ It has been hypothesized\ for example\ that

177 C[ Ward et al[

the more sojourners rely upon the host culture as the primary operatingenvironment\ i[e[\ the more enmeshed they are\ the stronger the relation!ship between psychological and sociocultural adaptation[ This has beenpreviously documented in sojourners who have made small\ vs[ large\cross!cultural transitions and in sedentary\ vs[ sojourning\ groups "Ward+ Kennedy\ 0882a\ 0882b#[ In addition\ psychological and socioculturaladaptation are strongly related in those instances where sojourners havelittle or no co!national supports and are forced to operate exclusivelywithin the host culture milieu[ For example\ our research with VolunteerServices Abroad "the New Zealand counterpart to the American PeaceCorps# has\ to date\ generated the strongest correlation "9[61# between thetwo adjustment domains "Ward + Kennedy\ 0885b#[

In a number of instances\ the magnitude of the relationship betweensojourners| psychological and sociocultural adjustment would be expectedto increase over time[ This was predicted and con_rmed for the groupunder study[ In this case the Japanese students commenced their stay inNew Zealand by entering a largely culturally homogeneous and segregatedenvironment at International Paci_c College[ Over the academic year theyhad greater access to the host culture and were able to acquire moreexposure to and experience with the host nationals[ Moving from sepa!ratism to at least some level of integration was associated with an increasein the strength of the relationship between psychological and socioculturaladaptation[ It should be noted\ however\ that this pattern of variation incorrelations over time is not expected to generalize indiscriminately to allsojourning groups[ The type of group and circumstances surroundingtheir transition requires careful consideration in the prediction of therelationship between psychological and sociocultural adaptation[

Although this study has made a valuable contribution to understandingthe process of cross!cultural transition and adjustment\ it is not withoutits limitations[ On methodological grounds\ psychometric concerns arisein connection with the reliability of the Zung Self!rating Depression Scaleas a measurement of psychological adjustment with Japanese students[The ZSDS has been used widely in cross!cultural studies of depression\and the full scale reliability of the English version has held up in our ownresearch with diverse sojourning groups[ In this study\ however\ the backtranslated version of the scale was reduced to 01 items to achieve su.cientinternal consistency[ This may raise questions about the most appropriatechoice of instruments to assess psychological adjustment of Japanese stu!dents[ We believe that there is no convincing reason to argue that thetranslation and item deletion have adversely a}ected the scale|s validity^in fact\ the Zung "0858# research with the instrument corroborated itsvalidity with Japanese subjects via the correlations between ZSDS scoresand physicians| ratings of depression[ However\ as cross!cultural researchalso indicates that the symptoms of depression may be manifest di}erently

178U!curve

and occur with varying frequencies across cultures "Marsella\ 0879#\additional measurements of psychological adjustment di.culties couldhave strengthened our _ndings[

Another methodological concern relates to the size and the nature ofthe sample[ The research achieved a relatively good response rate forvoluntary participation in a longitudinal study^ however\ only 17) of theoriginal sample participated in all four _eld testings1[ The comparisonbetween these subjects and the subsequent dropouts at the _rst testingrevealed no signi_cant di}erences in the psychological and socioculturaladjustment scores[ While this diminishes the probability of a sample bias\it is still impossible to conclude that the students who did not participatein all four testings experienced the same pattern of adjustment over time[

It should also be borne in mind that the generalizability of our con!ceptual alternative to the U!curve model of sojourner adjustment may belimited by social and cultural factors[ On the _rst count our subjectscommenced their overseas stay in an expatriate enclave\ arriving as a _rstyear cohort of international students and living in an environment that isrelatively detached from the host culture[ Adjustment patterns ofsojourners who commence their relocation primarily in an {{expatriatebubble|| may di}er from those who adopt a more consistent integratedapproach to life in a new culture[ Indeed\ we have already advancedthis argument with respect to the relationship between psychological andsociocultural adjustment over time[ On the second count\ the research wascon_ned to Japanese students who relocated to New Zealand[ As we havepreviously argued\ the process and product of sojourner adaptation shouldnot be assumed to be universal and cultural origins and destinations ofsojourners should be taken into account in the examination of cross!cultural transition and adaptation "Ward and Kennedy\ 0882a#[

Despite the encouraging _ndings reported here\ further research is stillwarranted on the patterns of cross!cultural adjustment over time[ Aspreviously argued\ future investigators should concentrate on longitudinalstudies to examine temporal ~uctuations in sojourner adaptation[Research with di}erent types of sojourning groups originating from avariety of cultural origins and relocating to a variety of cultural des!tinations should be pursued[ It is also necessary to identify carefully andto de_ne precisely the type of adjustment under study and to specifyany limitations concerning the generalizability of research _ndings[ Withrespect to psychological well!being\ more speci_cally\ it may also be impor!tant to consider any time of year e}ects[ Is it possible\ for example\ thatforeign students experience the greatest levels of psychological distressduring examination periods or that depression decreases over holidays\

1Longitudinal questionnaire research often loses approximately half of its respondents ineach subsequent testing "Weissman + Furnham\ 0876^ Rogers + Ward\ 0882#[

189 C[ Ward et al[

irrespective of length of sojourn< In these cases a comparative\ longitudinalsample of local students may be able to tease out sojourn!speci_c vs[ moregeneral variations in psychological well!being over time[ Most certainly\there is considerable scope and future potential for well!designed theory!driven and applied research on sojourner adjustment\ and this research isbest undertaken in broad\ multi!cultural contexts[

In conclusion\ neither the results from this study nor the _ndings fromother longitudinal investigations of cross!cultural transition lend sub!stantial support to the U!curve model of sojourner adjustment[ The U!curve has been on trial now for almost 39 years\ and the time is longoverdue to render a verdict[ Despite its popular and intuitive appeal\ theU!curve model of sojourner adjustment should be rejected\ and morepromising conceptual perspectives such as stress and coping theories andculture learning approaches should be further and more pro_tably inves!tigated[

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180U!curve

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