THE OCCURRENCE OF TRIHALOMETHANES IN … Occurrence of Trihalomethanes In... · COD BOD . LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ... no association between the soil type factor and ... Pearson

THE OCCURRENCE OF TRIHALOMETHANES IN SARAWAKS JABATAN KERdA RAYA WATER SUPPLIES AND

THE POSSmLE RELATIONSIDP WITH SOIL TYPES

Christopher Anak George

Master of Environmental Science (Land Use and Water Resource Management)

2006

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik UNIVERSlll MALAYSIA SARAWAJ(

THE OCCURRENCE OF TRIHALOMETHANES IN

SARAWAKS JABATAN KERJA RAYA WATER SUPPLIES

AND THE POSSIBLE RELATIONSHIP WITH SOIL TYPES PKHIDMAT MAKLUMAT AKADEMIK

111111111 f~illll 11111 1000246232

By

CHRISTOPHER ANAK GEORGE

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of


Faculty of Resource Science and Technology UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA SARAWAK

December 2005

Ii

I

I

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

d

First and foremost I would like to thank the following people who have assisted me

whether directly or indirectly from the conception till the completion of this

dissertation and they are as follows shy

(i) my supervisor in University Malaysia Sarawak Prof Wan Sulaiman Wan

Mohamad

(ii) the SLUSE (Cohort 5) Coordinator Dr Siti Rubiah Zainudin

(iii) the SLUSE lecturers

(iv) my fonner supervisor and senior engineer Mr Lim Yiam Sui (Operation And

Maintenance Section of Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters Kucbing)

whom I have the opportunity to work with from 2003 until 2005 and

(v) Mr Ngap Dollah (Soil Branch Agricultural Department Kuching) for providing

me with the softcopy of the relevant soil maps

Finally my very special thanks to my family members and friends who have given

me the support and encouragement in the course of completing this dissertation

~

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik Ul1VERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements

Table of Contents

Appendices

List of Tables

List of Figures

List ofAbbreviations and Acronyms

Abstract

CHAPTER 1

11

12

13

14

CHAPTER 2

21

22

23

CHAPTER 3

31

32

33

INTRODUCTION

The Water Supply System In Sarawak

Methodology

Objective Of The Study

Scope Of The Study

LITERATURE REVIEW

Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes

211 Water Quality Index (WQI)

212 Water Quality Classification

213 Water Quality Parameters

The Characteristic Of Peat Soil

Method of Treating Drinking Water Containing

Trihalomethanes

231 Properties of Activated Carbon

MATERIALS ANO METHODS

Data Sources

Water Quality Parameters

Data Analyses

Page t

i

II

iv

v

vi

Vll

IX

1

4

7

7

9

16

17

17

20

32

33

37

37

38

11

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

I

41 Descriptive Study 40

42 Trihalomethanes Violation 42

43 Frequency Occurrence 43

44 Correlation 46

45 Discussions 50

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

51 Conclusion 60

52 Recommendation 61

BmLIOGRAPHY 63

iii

APPENDICES

Page

Appendix 1 Interim National Water Quality Standard for 67

Malaysia (DOE 1995)

Appendix 2 Drinking Water Quality Standards And Frequency 70

Of Monitoring (Ministry Of Health Malaysia 2000)

Appendix 3 Letter Horizons 73

Appendix 4 Sampling Programme For Analysis At Chemistry 74

Department - Water Analysis Frequency For Water

Supply (JKR Sarawak 1999)

Appendix 5 The Summary Of Trihalomethanes Occurrence In 76

The Respective Water Supply Authorities From 1996

- 2005

Appendix 6 The Area Coverage Of Different Soil Types Located 79

At The Water Supply Authorities

Appendix 7 Results Of Frequencies Correlations And Crosstabs 82

Of Various Parameters

tv

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities 6

Table 21 Distribution Of Peat Swamps (Hectares) Per Division In 26

Sarawak

Table 22 Surface Areas Of Typically Available Activated Carbons 34

Table 41 Soil Type Located At Water Supply Authorities In 41

Sarawak

Table 42 Trihalomethanes Violation 43

Table 43 The Frequency Occurrence Of Trihalomethanes Violation 44

Table 44 Average Level Of Trihalomethanes Observed In The Past 45

10 Years (1996 - 2005)

Table 45 Relationship Between Soil Type And The Presence Of 48

Trihalomethanes

Table 46 Interpretation Ofr Value 48

Table 47 Relationship Between Soil Area And The Occurrence Of 49

Trihalomethanes

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water 2

Supply Authorities

Authorities

Catchment Areas

Area Boundary

Gazetting Processes

Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 5

Figure 21 The Distribution Of Various Soil Type In Sarawak 27

Figure 22 The Distribution Of Peat Soil In Sarawak 28


Figure 24 The Delineation Of A Water Supply Catchment 30

Figure 25 The Sarawak Water Supply Catchment Area 31

Figure 41 Sop Type at Various Water Supply Authorities 42

vi

I I

I I

As BOD CEC CFU COD CPI DO DOE EPA SFPUC HAA FCC HCl INWQS JKR LAKU SWB KWB kg km Ilg Ilhos 1 ml ppm ppt MOH MWA NfuN NSDWQ NTU RM RWQC SLUSE SPSS TCC TCU TSS UNIMAS WQI Ho Ha

RES CHL pH COL TUR TDS COD BOD

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

Arsenic Biological Oxygen Demand Cation Exchange Capacity Colony Forming Unit Chemical Oxygen Demand Consumer Price Index Dissolved oxygen Department of Environment Environmental Protection Agency San Francisco Public Utilities Commission Haloacetic acid Faecal Coliform Count Hydrochloric Acid Interim National Water Quality Standard Public Works Department Jabatan Kerja Raya Northern Zone Water Board Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara Sibu Water Board Kuching Water Board kilogram (s) kilometre(s) microgram micromhos litre(s) millilitre(s) parts per million parts per trillion Ministry of Health Malaysian Water Association ammoniacal nitrogen National Standard for Drinking Water Quality Nephelometric Turbidity Unit Malaysian Ringgit Raw Water Quality Criteria Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resource Management Statistic Package for Social Science Total Coliform Count True Colour Unit Total Suspended Solids

University Malaysia Sarawak Water Quality Index Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis

Residual Chlorine pH Colour Turbidity Total Dissolved Solids Chemical Oxygen Demand Biological Oxygen Demand

VB

NH3 NN TN MBASE TA FL CHL FE MN AL THM CHCla CHBr2CI CHChBr CHBr3 As Hg Cd Pb Cr Ag Cu Zn Mg Na Se S04 DBP NDMA CDBP DOM Kp TOC PAC GAC SMK MLD

Ammonia Nitrogen Nitrate Nitrogen Total Nitrogen Detergent Total Alkalinity Fluoride Chlorine Ferum Manganese Aluminium Trihalomethanes Chloroform Trichloromethane Chlorodibromomethane Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Arsenic Mercury Cadmium Plumbum Chromium Argentum Cuprum Zinc Magnesium Natrium Selenium Sulphate Disinfection By-Product N itrosodimethylamine Chlorination Disinfection By-Product Dissolved Organic Oxygen Partition Coefficient Total Organic Carbon Powdered Activated Carbon Granulated Activated Carbon National Secondary School Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Million Litres Per Day

Vlll

ABSTRACT

d

The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are

undertaken by four agencies namely Public Works Department Kuching Water

Board Sibu Water Board and LAKD However the Medical Department will

assist on supplying gravity feed water supply to areas not yet supplied by any of

the four agencies The objective of this study was to determine the level of

trihalomethanes found in the respective water supply authorities between the

last 10 years from 1996 until 2005 Trihalomethanes are one of the disinfection

by-products and considered to be carcinogenic to the affected consumers in the

long term

The data for this study was collected from the Water Supply Branch JKR

Headquarters in Kuching Sarawak and the data is based on the previous ten

(10) years of data collected by JKR Headquarters from 1996 until 2005 The data

was later analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)

Version 110 whereby descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data

Pearson Product Moment Coefficient was used to determine the relationship

between the average level of trihalomethanes present in treated water detected

by each of the water supply authority and soil type of the area It is a measure of

association that allows researchers to determine the strength and direction of an

association

An r value of -0199 from the statistical analysis indicated that a negative

relationShip exists between the average range oflevel of trihalomethanes and soil

type In other words the higher the level of trihalomethanes detected the less

ix

I

peat the soil type is which means that trihalomethanes can occur anyway

regardless if the soil is of peat soil type or non-peat soil

Two hypotheses have been developed for the purpose of studying the relationship

between trihalomethanes and the soil type namely the Null Hypothesis (Ho) and

the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) The Null Hypothesis (Ho) indicates that there is

no association between the soil type factor and the occurrence of

trihalomethanes As for the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) this hypothesis

indicates that there is an association between the soil type factor and the

occurrence of trihalomethanes Based on the analysis it can be interpreted that

the Null Hypothesis is significant whereby it indicated no association between

the soil type and the occurrence of trihalomethanes

Even though this study proposed the use of powdered or granular activated

carbon (pAC or GAC) at the affected treatment plants to remove dissolved

organics colour and taste and odour-causing compounds the cost factor needs to

be considered by JKR Sarawak before any implementation on the usage of PAC

or GAC is to be carried out for the affected treatments plants As at end of 2005

JKR Sarawak has not use the PAC or GAC at their affected treatment plants

However this study also suggested another option which is the privatization of

all the treatment plants under JKR Sarawak Nevertheless this option will have

to be carefully studied by the potential private sectors in terms of return

investments and the socio-economic status of the rural people where most of

these treatment plants are located

x

ABSTRAK

Pembangunan pengoperasian dan penyelenggaraan bekalan air di ~arawak

dilaksanakan oleh empat agensi iaitu Jabatan Kerja Raya Lembaga Air

Kuching Lembaga Air Sibu dan Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara

Walaubagaimanapun Jabatan Kesihatan akan membantu dari segi bekalan air

secara graviti di kawasan yang belum dibekalkan oleh salah satu daripada

agensi-agensi terse but Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan tahap

trihalomethane yang didapati di loji-Ioji perawatan air sepanjang 10 tahun

antara tahun 1996 hingga 2005 Trihalomethane adalah salah satu daripada

hasil sampingan perawatan air dan dianggap sebagai kasinogenik kepada orang

awam untuk jangka masa yang lama

Data-data untuk kajian ini telah diperoleh dari Cawangan Bekalan Air JKR

IbuPejabat di Kuching Sarawak dan data-data tersebut merangkumi data-data

yang telah dikumpul oleh JKR IbuPejabat selama 10 tabun dari tahun 1996

hingga 2005 Data-data tersebut telah dianalisa dengan menggunakan Pakej

Statistik Sains Sosia (SPSS) Versi 110 yang mana statistik secara diskripsi

digunakan untuk menganalisa data-data tersebut Pemalar Momen Produk

Pearson digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan di antara purata tahap

trihalomethane di dalam air terawat yang dikesan oleh loji-Ioji perawatan air

dengan jenis tanah di kawasan loji-Ioji tersebut Ia adalah pengukuran

hubungan yang membenarkan penyelidik-penyelidik menentukan kekuatan dan

arab hubungan tersebut

Nilaii bersamaan -0199 dari analisa statistik menunjukkan bahawa terdapat

hubungan secara negatif di antara purata tahap trihalomethane dengan jenis

Xl

tanah Dalam kata lain semakin tinggi nilai tahap trihalomethane yang dikesan

semakin kurang sifat tanah gambut pada tanah tersebut yang bermakna

trihalomethane boleh berlaku tanpa mengira tanah tersebut adaJah tanah

gambut ataupun bukan tanah gambut

Dua hipotesis telah direka bagi tujuan mengkaji hubungan di antara

trihalomethane dan jenis tanah iaitu Hipotesis Null (Ho) dan Hipotesis

Alternatipound Hipotesis Null (Ho) menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan di antara

jenis tanah dan penghasilan trihalomethane Untuk Hipotesis Alternatif

hipotesis ini menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara jenis tanah

dengan penghasilan trihalomethane Berdasarkan analisa yang dijalankan

interpretasi terhadap Hipotesis Null adalah penting yang mana analisa ini

menunjukkan tiada hubungan di antara jenis tanah dan penghasilan

trihalomethane

Walaupun kajian ini mencadangkan penggunaan serbuk atau butiran karbon

teraktif (pAC atau GAG) di loji-Ioji perawatan air untuk mengeluarkan bahan

organic terlarut warna serta rasa dan kompaun penyebab bau factor kos perlu

diben perhatian oleh JKR Sarawak sebelum penggunaan PAC atau GAC

dimulakan di loji-Ioji perawatan air yang terlibat Sehingga akhir taboo 2005 JKR

Sarawak belum menggtmakan PAC atau GAC ke atas loji-loji perawatan air yang

terlibat Kajian ini juga mencadangkan opsyen penswastaan kesemua loji perawatan

air JKR Sarawak Walaubagaimanapoo kajian secara menyeluruh perlu dijalankan

oleh pihak sector swasta dari segi pulangan modal pelaburan dan status sosioshy

ekonomi masyarakat di kawasan pedalaman di mana kebanyakan loji-Ioji ini didapati

XlI

CHAPTER 1

d

INTRODUCTION

11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak


undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works

Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to

the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water

Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water

I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water

within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The

Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying

gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by

JKR

A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation

tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close

proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water

from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water

is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also

known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test

1

j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW

ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP

STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)

I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I

JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)

(88) bull lilt atbdIcd

Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned

Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply

Authorities

(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)

It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take

place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into

2

big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top

part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine

particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration

tank

The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which

will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is

being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear

water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination

will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate

all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria

and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they

drink the untreated filtered water

Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well

is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on

top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it

reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and

the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes

are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses

3

12 Methodology

This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority

throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are

being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities

(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of

Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11

When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the

Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered

as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by

the consumers

The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves

a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply

enough treated water to the consumers

4

Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU

LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES

Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities


5

Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities

W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION

I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH

2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN

J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT

4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN

5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA

6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT

7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN

I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN

34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH

1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH

9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU

10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI

12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP

IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG

14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION

15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG

16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK

17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN

II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK

III Wm12t 84 SPAOH

19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM

2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA

21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG

12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN

n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW

24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6

13 Objective OfThe Study

The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found

in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until

2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)

chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and

bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic

matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination

Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in

the long term

Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried

out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken

at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However

the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was

discussed in this study

14 Scope Of The Study

In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were

studied

7

_ _ _______

(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in

the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through

the use of secondary data and information and

(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the

catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the

occurrence of trihalomethanes

This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from

1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR

Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of

trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study

looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce

the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if

rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable

insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water

throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak

8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes

There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the

widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential

risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public

health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other

trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the

chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing

microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and

inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of

disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products

8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and

halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection

while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is

a by product ofchlorination and chloramination

1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the

tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1

Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December

9

Trihalomethanes (THMs)

mducts

1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll

for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles

halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is

important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same

time maintaining control of waterborne diseases

In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)

converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to

meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has

effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection

According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs

consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins

nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be

further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes

which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)

are small organic compounds similar in structure to

methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major

of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when

-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking

The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform

blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human

10

Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik UNIVERSlll MALAYSIA SARAWAJ(

THE OCCURRENCE OF TRIHALOMETHANES IN

SARAWAKS JABATAN KERJA RAYA WATER SUPPLIES

AND THE POSSIBLE RELATIONSHIP WITH SOIL TYPES PKHIDMAT MAKLUMAT AKADEMIK

111111111 f~illll 11111 1000246232

By

CHRISTOPHER ANAK GEORGE

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of


Faculty of Resource Science and Technology UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA SARAWAK

December 2005

Ii

I

I

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

d





Mohamad










~


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements

Table of Contents

Appendices

List of Tables

List of Figures


Abstract

CHAPTER 1

11

12

13

14

CHAPTER 2

21

22

23

CHAPTER 3

31

32

33

INTRODUCTION


Methodology


Scope Of The Study

LITERATURE REVIEW







Trihalomethanes



Data Sources


Data Analyses

Page t

i

II

iv

v

vi

Vll

IX

1

4

7

7

9

16

17

17

20

32

33

37

37

38

11


I




44 Correlation 46

45 Discussions 50


51 Conclusion 60


BmLIOGRAPHY 63

iii

APPENDICES

Page


Malaysia (DOE 1995)









- 2005





tv

LIST OF TABLES

Page



Sarawak



Sarawak




10 Years (1996 - 2005)


Trihalomethanes



Trihalomethanes

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Page


Supply Authorities

Authorities

Catchment Areas

Area Boundary

Gazetting Processes








vi

I I

I I







VB



Vlll

ABSTRACT

d









long term










association




ix

I























x

ABSTRAK
























Xl













trihalomethane











XlI

CHAPTER 1

d

INTRODUCTION











JKR







1




I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I





Authorities




2




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10

Ii

I

I

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

d





Mohamad










~


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements

Table of Contents

Appendices

List of Tables

List of Figures


Abstract

CHAPTER 1

11

12

13

14

CHAPTER 2

21

22

23

CHAPTER 3

31

32

33

INTRODUCTION


Methodology


Scope Of The Study

LITERATURE REVIEW







Trihalomethanes



Data Sources


Data Analyses

Page t

i

II

iv

v

vi

Vll

IX

1

4

7

7

9

16

17

17

20

32

33

37

37

38

11


I




44 Correlation 46

45 Discussions 50


51 Conclusion 60


BmLIOGRAPHY 63

iii

APPENDICES

Page


Malaysia (DOE 1995)









- 2005





tv

LIST OF TABLES

Page



Sarawak



Sarawak




10 Years (1996 - 2005)


Trihalomethanes



Trihalomethanes

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Page


Supply Authorities

Authorities

Catchment Areas

Area Boundary

Gazetting Processes








vi

I I

I I







VB



Vlll

ABSTRACT

d









long term










association




ix

I























x

ABSTRAK
























Xl













trihalomethane











XlI

CHAPTER 1

d

INTRODUCTION











JKR







1




I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I





Authorities




2




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements

Table of Contents

Appendices

List of Tables

List of Figures


Abstract

CHAPTER 1

11

12

13

14

CHAPTER 2

21

22

23

CHAPTER 3

31

32

33

INTRODUCTION


Methodology


Scope Of The Study

LITERATURE REVIEW







Trihalomethanes



Data Sources


Data Analyses

Page t

i

II

iv

v

vi

Vll

IX

1

4

7

7

9

16

17

17

20

32

33

37

37

38

11


I




44 Correlation 46

45 Discussions 50


51 Conclusion 60


BmLIOGRAPHY 63

iii

APPENDICES

Page


Malaysia (DOE 1995)









- 2005





tv

LIST OF TABLES

Page



Sarawak



Sarawak




10 Years (1996 - 2005)


Trihalomethanes



Trihalomethanes

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Page


Supply Authorities

Authorities

Catchment Areas

Area Boundary

Gazetting Processes








vi

I I

I I







VB



Vlll

ABSTRACT

d









long term










association




ix

I























x

ABSTRAK
























Xl













trihalomethane











XlI

CHAPTER 1

d

INTRODUCTION











JKR







1




I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I





Authorities




2




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10


I




44 Correlation 46

45 Discussions 50


51 Conclusion 60


BmLIOGRAPHY 63

iii

APPENDICES

Page


Malaysia (DOE 1995)









- 2005





tv

LIST OF TABLES

Page



Sarawak



Sarawak




10 Years (1996 - 2005)


Trihalomethanes



Trihalomethanes

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Page


Supply Authorities

Authorities

Catchment Areas

Area Boundary

Gazetting Processes








vi

I I

I I







VB



Vlll

ABSTRACT

d









long term










association




ix

I























x

ABSTRAK
























Xl













trihalomethane











XlI

CHAPTER 1

d

INTRODUCTION











JKR







1




I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I





Authorities




2




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10

APPENDICES

Page


Malaysia (DOE 1995)









- 2005





tv

LIST OF TABLES

Page



Sarawak



Sarawak




10 Years (1996 - 2005)


Trihalomethanes



Trihalomethanes

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Page


Supply Authorities

Authorities

Catchment Areas

Area Boundary

Gazetting Processes








vi

I I

I I







VB



Vlll

ABSTRACT

d









long term










association




ix

I























x

ABSTRAK
























Xl













trihalomethane











XlI

CHAPTER 1

d

INTRODUCTION











JKR







1




I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I





Authorities




2




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10

LIST OF TABLES

Page



Sarawak



Sarawak




10 Years (1996 - 2005)


Trihalomethanes



Trihalomethanes

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Page


Supply Authorities

Authorities

Catchment Areas

Area Boundary

Gazetting Processes








vi

I I

I I







VB



Vlll

ABSTRACT

d









long term










association




ix

I























x

ABSTRAK
























Xl













trihalomethane











XlI

CHAPTER 1

d

INTRODUCTION











JKR







1




I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I





Authorities




2




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10

LIST OF FIGURES

Page


Supply Authorities

Authorities

Catchment Areas

Area Boundary

Gazetting Processes








vi

I I

I I







VB



Vlll

ABSTRACT

d









long term










association




ix

I























x

ABSTRAK
























Xl













trihalomethane











XlI

CHAPTER 1

d

INTRODUCTION











JKR







1




I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I





Authorities




2




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10

I I

I I







VB



Vlll

ABSTRACT

d









long term










association




ix

I























x

ABSTRAK
























Xl













trihalomethane











XlI

CHAPTER 1

d

INTRODUCTION











JKR







1




I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I





Authorities




2




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10



Vlll

ABSTRACT

d









long term










association




ix

I























x

ABSTRAK
























Xl













trihalomethane











XlI

CHAPTER 1

d

INTRODUCTION











JKR







1




I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I





Authorities




2




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10

ABSTRACT

d









long term










association




ix

I























x

ABSTRAK
























Xl













trihalomethane











XlI

CHAPTER 1

d

INTRODUCTION











JKR







1




I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I





Authorities




2




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10

I























x

ABSTRAK
























Xl













trihalomethane











XlI

CHAPTER 1

d

INTRODUCTION











JKR







1




I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I





Authorities




2




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10

ABSTRAK
























Xl













trihalomethane











XlI

CHAPTER 1

d

INTRODUCTION











JKR







1




I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I





Authorities




2




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10













trihalomethane











XlI

CHAPTER 1

d

INTRODUCTION











JKR







1




I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I





Authorities




2




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10

CHAPTER 1

d

INTRODUCTION











JKR







1




I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I





Authorities




2




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10




I ---~~ _~--

SWB (3)

l5ibuWldU

I





Authorities




2




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10




tank















3

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10

12 Methodology









the consumers




4





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10





5






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10






















III Wm12t 84 SPAOH






24 NGJAGAU

25 NGTADA

J6 NGNGUNGUN

no NGDAP


6









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10









the long term








studied

7

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10

_ _ _______
















8

= -c--~---- ___===============================

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW


















9


mducts





















10


mducts





















10

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