THE JOHN ZINK HAMWORTHY COMBUSTION HANDBOOK

THE JOHN ZINK HAMWORTHY

COMBUSTION HANDBOOK SECOND EDITION

Volume 1 FUNDAMENTALS

Edited by

Charles E. Baukal, Jr.

iQ|CRC Press IC**" J Taylor Si Francis Croup

^ Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Contents

List of Figures : ix List of Tables xxix Foreword to the First Edition xxxiii Preface to the First Edition xxxv Preface to the Second Edition xxxvii Acknowledgments xxxix Editor xli Contributors xliii Prologue xlvii

1. Introduction 1 Charles E. Baukal, Jr.

2. Refining and Petrochemical Industries 31 Erwin Platvoet, Rasik Patel, David Brown, Jason D. McAdams, and James G. Seebold

3. Fuels 45 John Ackland, Jeff White, and Richard T. Waibel

4. Combustion Fundamentals 79 Steve Londerville, Joseph Colannino, and Charles E. Baukal, Jr.

5. Solid Fuel Combustion in Suspension 125 Steve Londerville and Timothy Webster

6. Catalytic Combustion 137 Klaus-Dieter Zschorsch ,

7. Heat Transfer 159 Jay Karan and Charles E. Baukal, Jr.

8. Flare Radiation 207 Wes Bussman and Jeff White

9. Fundamentals of Fluid Dynamics 227 Wes Bussman, Zachary L. Kodesh, and Robert E. Schwartz

10. Oil Atomization 309 I.-Ping Chung and Steve Londerville

11. Cold Flow Modeling 327 Christopher Q. Jian

12. Thermal Efficiency 339 Charles E. Baukal, Jr. and Wes Bussman

13. CFD-Based Combustion Modeling 353 Michael A. Lorra and Shirley X. Chen

vii

viii Contents

14. Pollutant Emissions 381 Charles E. Baukal, Jr., I.-Ping Chung, Steve Londerville, James G. Seebold, and Richard T. Waibel

15. NOx Emissions 417 Charles E. Baukal, Jr. and Wes Bussman

16. Noise 479 Wes Bussman, Jay Karan, Carl-Christian Hantschk, and Edwin Schorer

17. Combustion Training 513 Charles E. Baukal, Jr. and Myra N. Crawford-Fanning

Appendix A: Units and Conversions 551

Appendix B: Physical Properties of Materials 555

Appendix C: Properties of Gasses and Liquids 563

Appendix D: Properties of Solids 583

Index 587

List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Operating refineries capacity and gross input (thousands of barrels per day) and number of operating refineries in the United States from 1949 to 2011 3

Figure 1.2 Product mix for U.S. refineries from 1949 to 2011 3

Figure 1.3 Annual final energy consumption for U.S. refineries from 1986 to 2010 4

Figure 1.4 Energy cost for U.S. refineries from 1988 to 2005 4

Figure 1.5 Typical petroleum refinery. 5

Figure 1.6 Offshore oil rig flare 6

Figure 1.7 Flare pilot 6

Figure 1.8 Duct burner flame 6

Figure 1.9 Schematic of a duct burner used to enhance the power from a gas turbine 6

Figure 1.10 Front of a boiler burner 7

Figure 1.11 Thermal oxidizer drawing 7

Figure 1.12 Vapor combustor system 7

Figure 1.13 Biogas flare system 8

Figure 1.14 Vapor recovery system 8

Figure 1.15 Flare gas recovery system 8

Figure 1.16 Schematics of (a) side- and (b) top-fired reformers 11

Figure 1.17 Down-fired burner commonly used in top-fired reformers 11

Figure 1.18 Elevation view of a terrace-wall-fired furnace 11

Figure 1.19 Schematic of a process heater 12

Figure 1.20 Schematic of a typical process heater 12

Figure 1.21 Fired heater size distribution 13

Figure 1.22 Schematic of center or target wall firing configuration 14

Figure 1.23 Horizontal floor-fired burners firing toward a center wall 14

Figure 1.24 Wall-fired burner 14

Figure 1.25 Schematic of a horizontally mounted, vertically fired burner configuration 14

Figure 1.26 Examples of process heaters.... 15

Figure 1.27 Typical heater types 16

Figure 1.28 Cabin heater 17

Figure 1.29 Crude unit burners 18

Figure 1.30 Typical burner arrangements 19

Figure 1.31 Drawing of a typical combination oil and gas burner 20

Figure 1.32 Process heater heat balance 20

x List of Figures

Figure 1.33 Schematic of a burner (B) arrangement in the floor of vertical cylindrical furnaces 20

Figure 1.34 Schematic of a burner (B) arrangement in the floor of rectangular cabin heaters 21

Figure 1.35 Adiabatic equilibrium NO and CO as a function of the equivalence ratio for an air/CH4 flame 21

Figure 1.36 Schematic of an oxy/fuel burner 22

Figure 1.37 Schematic of an oxygen-enriched air/fuel burner 22

Figure 1.38 Schematic of a burner using oxygen + recycled combustion products 23

Figure 1.39 Schematic of flue gas recirculation 23

Figure 1.40 HALO®™ burner designed to entrain furnace gases into the flame 23

Figure 1.41 Schematic of a premix burner 24

Figure 1.42 Drawing of a typical premix (radiant wall) gas burner 24

Figure 1.43 Painting of a diffusion flame 24

Figure 1.44 Schematic of a diffusion burner 25

Figure 1.45 Schematic of a partially premixed burner 25

Figure 1.46 Schematic of a staged-air burner 25

Figure 1.47 Drawing of a typical staged-air combination oil and gas burner 25

Figure 1.48 Schematic of a staged-fuel burner 25

Figure 1.49 Drawing of a typical staged-fuel gas burner 25

Figure 1.50 Drawing of a typical natural draft gas burner 26

Figure 1.51 Natural draft burner 26

Figure 1.52 Flames impinging on tubes in a cabin heater 27

Figure 1.53 Flames pulled toward the wall 27

Figure 1.54 Oil burner needing service 27

Figure 1.55 Highly lifted down-fired burner flame 27

Figure 1.56 John Zink Co. LLC (Tulsa, Oklahoma) R&D Test Facility. 28

Figure 1.57 Cold flow testing 28

Figure 1.58 Example of CFD model result 28

Figure 1.59 Virtual reality engineering simulation 29

Figure 2.1 Typical refinery process flow diagram 34

Figure 2.2 Simplified crude distillation flow diagram 35

Figure 2.3 Typical visbreaking flow diagram 35

Figure 2.4 Typical hydrotreating flow diagram 36

Figure 2.5 Catalytic reforming process flow diagram 37

Figure 2.6 Simplified process diagram for delayed coking 37

Figure 2.7 Simplified process diagram of a steam reforming based hydrogen plant 39

Figure 2.8 Typical PSA system flow diagram 40

Figure 2.9 Typical flow diagram of an ammonia plant 40

Figure 2.10 Typical methanol plant process flow diagram 41

List of Figures xi

Figure 3.1 Capping a burning oil well 46

Figure 3.2 Refinery flow diagram 49

Figure 3.3 Flow diagram of UOP fluid catalytic cracking complex 50

Figure 3.4 Simplified process flow diagram for hydrogen reforming/pressure swing adsorption 53

Figure 3.5 Simplified process flow diagram for Flexicoking 54

Figure 3.6 Viewing oil flame through a burner plenum 56

Figure 3.7 Burner firing heavy oil (1) 56

Figure 3.8 Burner firing heavy oil (2) 56

Figure 3.9 Naphtha distillation curve 57

Figure 3.10 Flame speed for various gases 64

Figure 3.11 Crude oil distillation curve 65

Figure 3.12 Viscosity of fuel oils 67

Figure 3.13 100% TNG flame 69

Figure 3.14 80% TNG/20% N2 flame 69

Figure 3.15 90% TNG/10% N2 flame 70

Figure 3.16 90% TNG/10% H2 flame 70




Figure 3.20 100% H2 flame 71

Figure 3.21 50% TNG/25% H2/25% C3H8 flame 71

Figure 3.22 100% C3H8 flame 71

Figure 3.23 50% TNG/50% C3Hg flame 72

Figure 3.24 100% C4H10 flame 72

Figure 3.25 Simulated cracked gas flame 72

Figure 3.26 Simulated FCC gas flame 72

Figure 3.27 Simulated coking gas flame 73

Figure 3.28 Simulated reforming gas flame 73

Figure 3.29 100% Tulsa natural gas 73

Figure 3.30 100% hydrogen ; 73

Figure 3.31 100% propane 74

Figure 3.32 50% hydrogen/50% propane 74

Figure 3.33 50% hydrogen/50% Tulsa natural gas 74

Figure 3.34 50% propane/50% Tulsa natural gas 74




xii List of Figures




Figure 3.41 25% hydrogen/25% propane/50% Tulsa natural gas 76

Figure 3.42 50% hydrogen/25% propane/25% Tulsa natural gas 76

Figure 4.1 Typical cabin-style process heater 81

Figure 4.2 Carbon atom with six protons, neutrons, and electrons 82

Figure 4.3 Periodic table 83

Figure 4.4 Composition of air by volume 86

Figure 4.5 Species concentration versus excess air for the following fuels 90

Figure 4.6 Adiabatic flame temperature versus equivalence ratio for air/H2, air/CH4, and air/C3H8

flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure 104

Figure 4.7 Adiabatic flame temperature versus air preheat temperature for stoichiometric air/H2, air/CH4, and air/C3H8 flames where the fuel is at ambient temperature and pressure 104

Figure 4.8 Adiabatic flame temperature versus fuel preheat temperature for stoichiometric air/H2, air/CH4; and air/C3Hg flames where the air is at ambient temperature and pressure 105

Figure 4.9 Adiabatic flame temperature versus fuel blend (CH4/H2 and CH4/N2) composition for stoichiometric air/fuel flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure 106

Figure 4.10 Adiabatic flame temperature versus fuel blend (CH4/H2) composition and air preheat temperature for stoichiometric air/fuel flames where the fuel is at ambient temperature and pressure 107

Figure 4.11 Sample Sankey diagram showing distribution of energy in a combustion system 107

Figure 4.12 Available heat versus gas temperature for stoichiometric air/H2, air/CH4, and air/C3H8

flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure 108

Figure 4.13 Available heat versus air preheat temperature for stoichiometric air/H2, air/CH4, and air/C3Hs flames at an exhaust gas temperature of 2000°F (1100°C) where the fuel is at ambient temperature and pressure 109

Figure 4.14 Available heat versus fuel preheat temperature for stoichiometric air/H2, air/CH4, and air/C3H8 flames at an exhaust gas temperature of 2000°F (1100°C) where the air is at ambient temperature and pressure 110

Figure 4.15 Graphical representation of ignition and heat release 110

Figure 4.16 Species concentration versus stoichiometric ratio for the following fuels 113

Figure 4.17 Adiabatic equilibrium reaction process 116

Figure 4.18 Adiabatic equilibrium calculations for the predicted gas composition as a function of the 02:CH4 stoichiometry for air/CH4 flames where the air and CH4 are at ambient temperature and pressure 116

Figure 4.19 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the major species as a function of the air preheat temperature for air/CH4 flames where the CH4

is at ambient temperature and pressure 117

Figure 4.20 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the minor species as a function of the air preheat temperature for air/CH4 flames where the CH4

is at ambient temperature and pressure 118

List of Figures xiii

Figure 4.21 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the major species as a function of the fuel preheat temperature for air/CH4 flames where the air is at ambient temperature and pressure 119

Figure 4.22 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the minor species as a function of the fuel preheat temperature for air/CH4 flames where the air is at ambient temperature and pressure 120

Figure 4.23 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the major species as a function of the fuel blend (H2 + CH4) composition for air/fuel flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure 120

Figure 4.24 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the minor species as a function of the fuel blend (H2 + CH4) composition for air/fuel flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure 121

Figure 4.25 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the major species as a function of the fuel blend (N2 + CH4) composition for air/fuel flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure 121

Figure 4.26 Adiabatic equilibrium stoichiometric calculations for the predicted gas composition of the minor species as a function of the fuel blend (N2 + CH4) composition for air/fuel flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure 122

Figure 4.27 Equilibrium calculations for the predicted gas composition of the major species as a function of the combustion product temperature for air/CH4 flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure 122

Figure 4.28 Equilibrium calculations for the predicted gas composition of the minor species as a function of the combustion product temperature for air/CH4 flames where the air and fuel are at ambient temperature and pressure 123

Figure 5.1 Subbituminous char burnout Coen code A = 60 and E = 17,150 129

Figure 5.2 Pet coke char burnout Coen Code A = 15 and E = 19,000 129

Figure 5.3 Coal dust flame velocity versus equivalence ratio 129

Figure 5.4 Fuel introduction for conveying options 131

Figure 5.5 Front of Coen biomass burner 132

Figure 6.1 Catalyst's function 138

Figure 6.2 (a) Bulk materials: pellets catalyst-spheres and rings (balls, rings, and cylinders) and (b) types of monolith catalyst monolith (honeycomb) material 140

Figure 6.3 Typical horizontal catalytic system with a preheat exchanger 143

Figure 6.4 Typical compact catalytic waste gas cleaning system 144

Figure 6.5 Typical required reactor inlet/reaction temperature, Tc 145

Figure 6.6 The arrangement is a catalyst facility consisting of ceramic monoliths 147

Figure 6.7 Reactor designs and flows: (a) Single-bed reactor, (b) vertical two-bed reactor (operating temperature > 480°C, ATc > 150 K), (c) horizontal cylinder two-bed reactor (operating temperature > 480°C, ATC > 150 K), and (d) multiple-bed reactor 148

Figure 6.8 Simple catalytic waste gas cleaning system 152

Figure 6.9 Catalytic waste gas cleaning system with a burner and blower 153

Figure 6.10 Catalytic waste gas cleaning system with a heat exchanger 153

Figure 6.11 Catalytic waste gas cleaning system with hot water/air production 154

xiv List of Figures

Figure 6.12 Catalytic waste gas cleaning system with steam production and waste liquid injection 154

Figure 6.13 Simple catalytic waste gas cleaning system with regenerative heat transfer system 155

Figure 6.14 Regenerative heat transfer system, temperature profile 155

Figure 6.15 Catalytic waste gas cleaning system with regenerative heat transfer system including back purge flow system 156

Figure 6.16 Catalytic waste gas cleaning system with regenerative heat transfer system, one-way flow reactor 157

Figure 7.1 Typical fired heater 161

Figure 7.2 Heat transfer through a plane wall: (a) temperature distribution and (b) equivalent thermal circuit 164

Figure 7.3 Equivalent thermal circuit for a series composite wall 164

Figure 7.4 Temperature drop due to thermal contact resistance 165

Figure 7.5 Temperature distribution for a composite cylindrical wall 166

Figure 7.6 Thermal conductivity of (a) some commonly used steels and alloys and (b) some refractory materials 169

Figure 7.7 Temperature-thickness relationships corresponding to different thermal conductivities 170

Figure 7.8 Thermal boundary layer development in a heated circular tube 171

Figure 7.9 Orthogonal oscillations of electric and magnetic waves in the propagation of electromagnetic waves 177

Figure 7.10 Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation 177

Figure 7.11 Spectral blackbody emissive power. 179

Figure 7.12 Radiation transfer between two surfaces approximated as gray bodies 180

Figure 7.13 Network representation of radiative exchange between surface i and the remaining surfaces of an enclosure 181

Figure 7.14 View factor of radiation exchange between faces of area cL4, and dAj 181

Figure 7.15 View factor for aligned parallel rectangles 184

Figure 7.16 View factor for coaxial parallel disks 184

Figure 7.17 View factor for perpendicular rectangles with a common edge 185

Figure 7.18 Infrared thermal image of a flame in a furnace 185

Figure 7.19 Emission bands of (a) COz and (b) HzO 186

Figure 7.20 Total emissivity of water vapor at the reference state of a total gas pressure p = 1 bar and a partial pressure of HzO pa -> 0 188

Figure 7.21 Total emissivity of carbon dioxide at the reference state of a total gas pressure p = 1 bar and a partial pressure of COz pa -> 0 : 188

Figure 7.22 Radiation heat transfer correction factor for mixtures of water vapor and carbon dioxide 189

Figure 7.23 Photographic view of a luminous flame 192

Figure 7.24 Photographic view of a nonluminous flame 192

Figure 7.25 Photographic view of a radiant wall burner 193

Figure 7.26 Vertical heat flux distribution for oil and gas firing in a vertical tube furnace 193

List of Figures xv

Figure 7.27 Distribution of dimensionless average radiant flux density at the tube surfaces for various flame lengths 194

Figure 7.28 Maximum flame radiation as a function of the C/H weight ratio in the fuel 195

Figure 7.29 Radiation heat transfer in a cylindrical furnace 197

Figure 7.30 Cross section of a furnace wall 198

Figure 7.31 Cross section of a process tube 199

Figure 8.1 Electromagnetic spectrum 208

Figure 8.2 Flare firing propane at 60,000 lb/h (27,000 kg/h) corresponding to an HR rate equal to 1.2 billion Btu/h (350 MW) 209

Figure 8.3 Illustration defining radiation level 209

Figure 8.4 Solar radiation level at angles normal to the solar beam and horizontal to the surface of the Earth in Tulsa, Oklahoma 210

Figure 8.5 View of Tulsa from the sun during the months of January and July. 210

Figure 8.6 Effects of doubling the distance of the flame epicenter from an observer 211

Figure 8.7 Relative radiation level as a function of distance from the source 212

Figure 8.8 Spectral emission of radiation from luminous and nonluminous flames 212

Figure 8.9 Generalized diagram showing relative atmospheric radiation transmission of different wavelengths 213

Figure 8.10 Estimates of the fraction of flame radiation transmitted through the atmosphere at various distances and percent relative humidity 214

Figure 8.11 API 521 recommendations 216

Figure 8.12 Various models commonly used in industry to estimate flare radiation 217

Figure 8.13 Illustration for example calculation 218

Figure 8.14 Steam-assisted flare (a) without steam and (b) with steam 219

Figure 8.15 Smoking flare 219

Figure 8.16 A couple brands of handheld radiometers 220

Figure 8.17 The major components that make up a flare radiometer 220

Figure 8.18 A radiometer certificate of calibration 221

Figure 8.19 Illustration showing a radiometer not viewing the entire flare flame 222

Figure 8.20 Radiometers with different types of windows 222

Figure 8.21 Transmissivity curve of zinc selenide 223

Figure 8.22 Transmissivity curve of sapphire 223

Figure 8.23 Reflected radiation at a wavelength of 1 x 10~6 m for zinc selenide 223

Figure 8.24 The John Zink radiometer cube 224

Figure 9.1 (a and b) Ratio of specific heat (k) for various pure-component gases at different temperatures 232

Figure 9.2 The pitch drop experiment is a long-term experiment, which measures the flow of a piece of pitch through a funnel 233

Figure 9.3 Dynamic viscosity as a function of temperature for various fluids 235

Figure 9.4 Temperature versus viscosity for various hydrocarbons 236

xvi List of Figures

Figure 9.5 Viscosity of mid-continent oils 237

Figure 9.6 Osborn Reynold's experimental apparatus used to study the transition from laminar to turbulent flow. 238

Figure 9.7 Smoke rising from a soldering iron 238

Figure 9.8 Photograph showing examples of a (a) laminar and (b) turbulent flame 239

Figure 9.9 Various sizes of Pitot-static tubes 239

Figure 9.10 The simple Pitot tube illustrating the difference between the static, velocity, and total pressure 240

Figure 9.11 Illustration showing measurements of static, velocity, and total pressure inside a pipe 240

Figure 9.12 Illustration of the Pitot-static tube 240

Figure 9.13 Photograph of the Pitot-static tube 241

Figure 9.14 Illustration showing the fluid flow pattern through a long-radius elbow. 242

Figure 9.15 Loss coefficients through various fittings 243

Figure 9.16 Well-rounded bell inlet on a premixed burner. 243

Figure 9.17 Moody diagram showing friction factor versus Re 245

Figure 9.18 Flow past a cylinder at a Reynolds number of 10,000 246

Figure 9.19 Stack downwash 246

Figure 9.20 Steam washing down the downwind side of a stack 246

Figure 9.21 Flame pulled down on the outside of a flare tip due to stack downwash effect 247

Figure 9.22 Flame pulled down on the outside of a flare tip due to stack downwash effect (closer view) 247

Figure 9.23 An upward projecting flame 248

Figure 9.24 Damaged flare tip and appurtenances caused by external burning: (a) flare tip and (b) flare pilot 248

Figure 9.25 Wind tunnel test showing flow past a small-scale building 248

Figure 9.26 Illustration showing a gas plume being pulled into the downwind side of a building 248

Figure 9.27 Photograph showing recirculation pattern created between two small-scale buildings 248

Figure 9.28 Photographs showing a recirculation pattern created on the downwind side of a small-scale hill located inside a wind tunnel 249

Figure 9.29 Downwash on the backside of a volcano (Mount Mayon, Philippines) bellowing steam and ash 249

Figure 9.30 Illustration showing the effect of stack height on the plume downwind of a mountain 249

Figure 9.31 Internal burning inside a steam-assisted flare tip 249

Figure 9.32 Schlieren photographs showing airflow patterns near a cup filled with hot coffee and another filled with ice water 250

Figure 9.33 Illustration showing air falling into a flare tip creating internal burning 250

Figure 9.34 Flow past a cavity 250

Figure 9.35 Illustration showing internal burning by action of wind 251

Figure 9.36 A view looking inside a wind tunnel showing a small-scale model 251

Figure 9.37 Scale model wind tunnel test analyzing the gas plume downstream of a vent stack 252

List of Figures xvii

Figure 9.38 Satellite photograph showing the plume of smoke and ash from a volcano 252

Figure 9.39 Smoke venting from a stack and dispersing downwind 252

Figure 9.40 Illustration defining the plume rise of a buoyant gas vented from a stack 253

Figure 9.41 (a) Vent stack with a low plume rise and (b) vent stack with high plume rise 253

Figure 9.42 (a) Smoke dissipating in an unstable atmosphere (high turbulence) and (b) smoke dissipating in a stable atmosphere (low turbulence) 254

Figure 9.43 Heavier-than-air plume vented from a stack in a stable atmosphere 254

Figure 9.44 Illustration showing how the heater draft typically varies inside a heater at various elevations 255

Figure 9.45 Four methods air is commonly supplied in process heaters 255

Figure 9.46 Illustration showing a U-tube manometer connected to the side of a natural draft heater 258

Figure 9.47 U.S. standard for variation of atmospheric pressure with elevation 258

Figure 9.48 Plot showing that the atmospheric pressure is approximately linear at altitudes less than about 500 ft (150 m) 259

Figure 9.49 Illustration showing how the pressure varies inside a stack filled with hot air 259

Figure 9.50 Illustration showing how the hydrostatic pressure and draft varies inside a stack filled with hot air 260

Figure 9.51 Illustration showing how the hydrostatic pressure and draft inside a stack filled with hot, warm, and cooler ambient air varies with elevation 260

Figure 9.52 Illustration showing how the hydrostatic pressure and draft varies with stack height 261

Figure 9.53 Example problem illustrating effects of temperature and height on draft 261

Figure 9.54 Illustration showing the hydrostatic pressure and draft profile at various elevations inside a stack filled with hot air 262

Figure 9.55 Illustration showing how the heater pressure profile changes as the stack damper is closed and the burner damper opened 263

Figure 9.56 Illustration showing the pressure and draft profile for a typical natural draft heater 264

Figure 9.57 Positive draft inside a heater forcing flame out through the burner intake 264

Figure 9.58 (a) Refractory brick dislodged from the heater wall due to warping of the heater casing, (b) Large chunk of refractory that has fallen from the heater wall into the throat of a burner 265

Figure 9.59 (a) Coke buildup on a burner tip caused by low draft through the burner, (b) Long flame impinging on process tubes caused by low draft at the burner elevation 265

Figure 9.60 A process tube penetrating the convection section of a heater.. 265

Figure 9.61 Sight ports on a heater left open allowing tramp air to enter 266

Figure 9.62 Access door on a heater not properly sealed allowing tramp air to enter 266

Figure 9.63 Illustration showing the effects of closing the burner and stack damper on draft and excess 02 267

Figure 9.64 Results showing the draft profile for various burner and stack damper settings operating at a constant burner heat release and heater 02 267

Figure 9.65 Schematic of a heater used in the SMR industry for hydrogen production 268

Figure 9.66 Example of a typical draft profile inside a down-fired heater 268

xviii List of Figures

Figure 9.67 Illustration comparing the pressure inside of a down-fired heater and the pressure inside a vacuum cleaner hose 269

Figure 9.68 Illustration showing inclined manometers essentially expand the scale of a U-tube manometer by orienting it at an angle 270

Figure 9.69 Inclined manometer typically used to measure heater draft 270

Figure 9.70 Inclined manometer reading 0.2 and 0 in. of WC 271

Figure 9.71 (a) Dial pressure gauge reading 0.2 in. WC and (b) electronic pressure transmitter used to measure heater draft 271

Figure 9.72 Illustration used in example problem to demonstrate how much the draft varies with elevation inside a heater 272

Figure 9.73 Plot showing how the draft per foot of heater height varies with flue gas temperature for two different ambient conditions 272

Figure 9.74 Illustration showing ways the wind can impact heater draft levels 273

Figure 9.75 Data trends showing wind effects on heater draft and excess 02 at high- and low-wind speeds over a 10-min period 274

Figure 9.76 (a-c) Illustrations showing burner designs with various air intake configurations 274

Figure 9.77 Experimental data showing effects of a crosswind past a burner intake on excess 02 275

Figure 9.78 Illustration showing the path of combustion air as it passes through a burner 275

Figure 9.79 A typical air-side capacity curve for a natural draft burner 276

Figure 9.80 Example of a fuel capacity curve 278

Figure 9.81 Graph showing how the fuel capacity curve varies in the subsonic and sonic flow regimes 279

Figure 9.82 Photographs of gas exiting a nozzle at sonic and subsonic flow conditions 280

Figure 9.83 Example of a fuel capacity curve for a particular burner firing several fuels 281

Figure 9.84 Burner tips commonly used in the burner industry 281

Figure 9.85 Illustration showing four nozzles having the same port area but with different internal designs 282

Figure 9.86 Photographs of a PSA gas burner showing rounded port inlets caused by corrosion from metal dusting 283

Figure 9.87 Illustration showing a several important factors that influence the flow rate through nozzles 283

Figure 9.88 Example showing how the orifice discharge coefficient affects the fuel pressure of a burner operating at a constant HR 284

Figure 9.89 Fuel ports plugged with pipe scale and dirt 284

Figure 9.90 Fuel ports plugged with mortar 284

Figure 9.91 Flame patterns (a) before and (b) after cleaning coke from fuel ports 285

Figure 9.92 Coke buildup in the main body of the fuel nozzle 285

Figure 9.93 Illustration showing partial blockage near the outlet of a fuel port 285

Figure 9.94 Comparing a burner (a) without and (b) with partially plugged primary fuel tips 286

Figure 9.95 Example showing the effects of fuel port blockage on the fuel capacity curves 287

Figure 9.96 Burner tip with coking on the inside 287

Figure 9.97 Fuel tips partially plugged upstream of the ports 288

List of Figures xix

Figure 9.98 Photograph of a gas exiting a nozzle 289

Figure 9.99 Mixing downstream of a free jet 289

Figure 9.100 General structure of a turbulent free jet 290

Figure 9.101 Illustration showing a simple version of an eductor 291

Figure 9.102 The basic components of an eductor system 292

Figure 9.103 Flow path of secondary gas entrained into an eductor designed with a well-rounded bell inlet : 292

Figure 9.104 Eductor tubes on a steam-assisted flare 293

Figure 9.105 Eductor system on a flare pilot 293

Figure 9.106 Eductor systems on pre-mixed wall-fired burners 293

Figure 9.107 Eductor systems on premixed burners and pilots 294

Figure 9.108 A general representation of how the pressure of the primary jet influences the entrainment performance of an eductor system 294

Figure 9.109 A Venturi inlet on a premixed burner pilot covered with heavy fuel oil 294

Figure 9.110 Illustration showing a premixed burner flashing back 295

Figure 9.111 Schlieren photograph showing a turbulent flame front downstream of a premixed burner 295

Figure 9.112 Illustration that demonstrates flame propagation 296

Figure 9.113 Premix radiant-wall burner (a) tip and (b) firing in a heater 296

Figure 9.114 Flashback of a premixed radiant wall burner with the flame stabilized inside the burner tip 297

Figure 9.115 Flashback of a premixed radiant wall burner with the flame stabilized inside the venturi (glowing red from heat) 297

Figure 9.116 Premixed radiant wall burner tip damaged from flashback 297

Figure 9.117 Laminar flame speed of several fuel components 297

Figure 9.118 (a) Twenty-two birthday candles arranged in 8 in. (20 cm) diameter circle, (b) Twenty-two birthday candles arranged in 2 in. (5 cm) diameter circle 298

Figure 9.119 Burners firing in a vertical-cylindrical (VC) heater showing no signs of flame-flame interactions 299

Figure 9.120 Burners arranged in a tight circle causing flames to collapse toward the center of the burner circle 299

Figure 9.121 Two steam jets starting out parallel and being attracted to each other due to the low-pressure zone 299

Figure 9.122 Red smoke pulled into the low-pressure zone created on the back side of an airplane wing 300

Figure 9.123 Illustration showing the flow pattern and static pressure along the centerline between two unventilated (bounded by a lower wall) parallel flowing jets 300

Figure 9.124 Flames impinging on process tubes in radiant section 300

Figure 9.125 Flame impinging on process tubes in convection section 301

Figure 9.126 Ruptured process tube caused by prolonged flame impingement 301

Figure 9.127 (a) Candle flame held next to a piece of glass, (b) Soot particle 301

Figure 9.128 Burners arranged in a tight circle causing flames to collapse toward the center 302

XX List of Figures

Figure 9.129 Diffusion burners arranged in a straight line 303

Figure 9.130 Loss coefficients used for estimating the mass flow rate of tramp air flowing through an open heater sight port 304

Figure 9.131 Illustration of air leaking into a flare system filled with methane 305

Figure 10.1 Liquid disintegration of a cylindrical jet caused by wave formations on liquid surface 311

Figure 10.2 A hollow-cone swirl spray with high viscosity liquid (v = 6mm2/s) 313

Figure 10.3 John Zink Spray Laboratory equipped with a PDPA 315

Figure 10.4 Spray angle relative to a stable oil flame 315

Figure 10.5 A gun with a 90° machine angle, its spray angle actually is about 30° 315

Figure 10.6 Patternator to collect water sprayed out of an oil gun 315

Figure 10.7 Patternation measurements for a gun shown in Figure 10.5 316

Figure 10.8 Simplex swirl atomizer 316

Figure 10.9 Simplex swirl atomizer with return flow. 317

Figure 10.10 John Zink EA oil gun 317

Figure 10.11 John Zink MEA gun 317

Figure 10.12 John Zink High Efficiency Residual Oil (HERO) gun 318

Figure 10.13 Y-jet atomization principle 318

Figure 10.14 WDH waste aqueous gun design with one liquid exit port surrounded with eight atomizing ports 318

Figure 10.15 Patternation comparison for HERO and WDH guns 319

Figure 10.16 Coen elliptical cap slots for low-NOx 319

Figure 10.17 Droplet size measurements of the MEA oil gun at different air pressures 319

Figure 10.18 Droplet size measurements of the MEA oil gun at similar air-water differential pressures 320

Figure 10.19 Droplet size measurements of MEA oil gun at the same air-water differential pressure but different mass ratios 320

Figure 10.20 Droplet size comparison measured by PDPA for different oil gun designs 320

Figure 10.21 Steam consumption for different oil gun designs 321

Figure 10.22 Steam consumption curve for a constant steam-oil differential pressure oil gun 321

Figure 10.23 A typical oil gun capacity curve showing oil gun turndown ratio 321

Figure 10.24 Comparison of NOx emissions for the HERO and MEA oil guns 322

Figure 10.25 Diagram of Y-jet 323

Figure 11.1 Illustration of geometric similarity. 328

Figure 11.2 Typical relationship of Eu =/(Re) 330

Figure 11.3 Velocity measurement using a Pitot tube and manometer 331

Figure 11.4 Airflow/helium bubble analog flow visualization 332

Figure 11.5 Illustration of mixing 332

Figure 11.6 Cutaway view of the burner to be installed on the prototype 333

Figure 11.7 Scale physical model of the combustion air system 333

List of Figures xxi

Figure 11.8 Burner no. 1 exit air velocity—Baseline 335

Figure 11.9 Burner no. 1 exit air velocity—After modifications 335

Figure 11.10 Burner no. 2 exit air velocity—Baseline 335

Figure 11.11 Burner no. 2 exit air velocity—After modifications 335

Figure 11.12 Burner no. 1 peripheral velocity distribution 336

Figure 11.13 Burner no. 2 peripheral velocity distribution 337

Figure 12.1 Historical (1980-2010) world energy consumption 340

Figure 12.2 2010 World energy consumption 340

Figure 12.3 U.S. energy consumption by industry sector 341

Figure 12.4 2010 Energy flow by source and end use in the United States 341

Figure 12.5 Sankey diagram for the energy flows into and out of a furnace 342

Figure 12.6 Available heat lost due to increased excess Oz as a function of the flue gas exit temperature for methane as the fuel 342

Figure 12.7 Available heat lost due to increased excess 02 as a function of the fuel for a fixed flue gas exit temperature (400°F) 342

Figure 12.8 Ratio of NOx formed at a given excess 02 level compared to the amount of NOx formed at 1% excess 02 343

Figure 12.9 Example demonstrating how variations in ambient temperature and humidity can result in dramatic changes in CO emissions 343

Figure 12.10 Cabin-style process heater 344

Figure 12.11 Process burners in a cabin heater 344

Figure 12.12 Air leak around a tube penetration in the convection section 346

Figure 12.13 Open sight port in the floor of a process heater 346

Figure 12.14 Poorly sealed sight port on the side of a process heater 346

Figure 12.15 Example of a convection section removed so that tubes can be cleaned 346

Figure 12.16 Air infiltration as a function of heater draft 347

Figure 12.17 Typical draft profile in a process heater (AP = pressure drop) 348

Figure 12.18 End wall photo of an operating process heater. 348

Figure 12.19 Smoke bomb test to find leaks in a heater 349

Figure 12.20 Thermal image showing a partially open explosion door 349

Figure 12.21 Plugged convection section tubes 350

Figure 12.22 Sight port refractory plug seal 350

Figure 12.23 Sight port designed to reduce air leaks and protect operators against hot furnace flue gases, high radiant heat, and positive pressure surges in the heater. 351

Figure 12.24 Engineered tube seals 351

Figure 13.1 Investigation of an isothermal flow field 354

Figure 13.2 Original topographic data 354

Figure 13.3 Representation of topographical data in a CFD model (blue showing lower elevation, red showing higher elevation) 354

xxii List of Figures

Figure 13.4 Close-up view of a burner in a test furnace 355

Figure 13.5 Representation of a process burner, colored by temperature (blue showing low temperatures, red high temperatures) 355

Figure 13.6 Point measurement of a scalar in a turbulent flow 357

Figure 13.7 Plot of the (3-function for several values of Z and Z" 367

Figure 13.8 Representation of a luminous flame utilizing a soot model 371

Figure 13.9 Discretized geometry of a typical process burner 372

Figure 13.10 Discretized geometry of a typical boiler burner 372

Figure 13.11 Close-up view of primary and secondary tips 373

Figure 13.12 Rendered view inside an ethylene cracker showing flow patterns near the premixed radiant wall burners 374

Figure 13.13 Illustration of a flame envelope defined as an isocontour of 2500 ppm CO 375

Figure 13.14 Illustration of combustion products indicating poor mixing between fuel and oxidizer 375

Figure 13.15 Smaller combustion product envelopes indicate improved mixing between oxidizer and fuel 375

Figure 13.16 CFD model of two burners 376

Figure 13.17 CFD simulation optimizes burner performance leading to uniform heat flux on process tubes 376

Figure 13.18 Improved flame pattern maximizes burner performance 376

Figure 13.19 Combining John Zink's (a) physical and (b) CFD simulation capabilities allows them to provide comprehensive solutions for their customers 377

Figure 13.20 (a) Before—testing reveals a wide flame with an unacceptable appearance. CFD calculations indicate flame spreading out above the burner tile, (b) After—Design modifications were developed using CFD simulation 377

Figure 14.1 Number of people (in millions) living in counties with air quality concentrations above the level of the primary (health-based) National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in 2008 382

Figure 14.2 Comparison of growth measures (gross domestic product, vehicle miles traveled, population, and energy consumption) and emissions (C02 and aggregate emissions) from 1970 to 2010 in the United States 383

Figure 14.3 Distribution of air pollution emissions by pollutant type and source category 383

Figure 14.4 Adiabatic equilibrium CO as a function of equivalence ratio for air/fuel flames 388

Figure 14.5 Adiabatic equilibrium CO as a function of gas temperature for stoichiometric air/fuel flames 388

Figure 14.6 Adiabatic equilibrium CO as a function of air preheat temperature for stoichiometric air/fuel flames 389

Figure 14.7 Adiabatic equilibrium CO as a function of fuel preheat temperature for a stoichiometric air/CH4 flame 389

Figure 14.8 Adiabatic equilibrium CO as a function of fuel composition (CH4/H2) for a stoichiometric air/fuel flame 390

Figure 14.9 Adiabatic equilibrium CO as a function of fuel composition (CH4/N2) for a stoichiometric air/fuel flame 390

Figure 14.10 Bacharach smoke tester included a hand pump, filter papers, and spot scale sheet 392

Figure 14.11 Particulate sampling train 393

List of Figures xxiii

Figure 14.12 Sampling at different isokinetic variations 394

Figure 14.13 Minimum number of traverse points for particulate traverses 395

Figure 14.14 Type S pitot tube 396

Figure 14.15 BERL experimental facility. 400

Figure 14.16 CSS 400

Figure 14.17 CDFB 401

Figure 14.18 Low NOx diffusion flame burner (LDFB) 401

Figure 14.19 CDFB total hydrocarbon emissions versus heating value of HC fuel mixture 402

Figure 14.20 CDFB total hydrocarbon emissions versus combustion zone stoichiometry. 402

Figure 14.21 CDFB total hydrocarbon emissions versus propylene and ethylene spikes 402

Figure 14.22 CDFB total hydrocarbon emissions versus hydrogen content of HC fuel mixture 402

Figure 14.23 CDFB total PAH at stack outlet 403

Figure 14.24 CDFB total PAH and benzo(a)pyrene at furnace outlet compared to stack outlet 404

Figure 14.25 Lagrangian jet model predictions 405

Figure 14.26 CDFB photoionization current (pA) versus theoretical air (%) 406

Figure 14.27 Range and average of emissions at the stack outlet for the CDFB 407

Figure 14.28 Range of measurements of HAPs at the stack outlet for the CDFB 408

Figure 14.29 Emissions for refinery fuel gas (16% H2, propane, natural gas) for the CDFB 408

Figure 14.30 Range of emissions for natural gas and refinery fuel gas for the CDFB and the ultralow NOx diffusion burner 409

Figure 14.31 Emission factor comparison for low NOx burner and conventional burner 409

Figure 14.32 Total PAH emissions 4 rings and greater versus stoichiometric ratio 410

Figure 14.33 Benzene and PAH emissions versus stoichiometric ratio for the CDFB 410

Figure 14.34 CO and PAH emissions versus stoichiometric ratio for the CDFB 411

Figure 14.35 HC and PAH emissions versus stoichiometric ratio for the CDFB 411

Figure 14.36 HC, aldehyde, VOC, and PAH emissions versus stoichiometric ratio for the CDFB 412

Figure 14.37 Total heavy VOC emissions vs. stoichiometric ratio for the CDFB 412

Figure 14.38 Typical process heater, petroleum refinery emissions factors 413

Figure 15.1 Schematic of NO exiting a stack and combining with 02 to form NOz 418

Figure 15.2 Schematic of acid rain 419

Figure 15.3 Acid rain deterioration examples 419

Figure 15.4 Schematic of smog formation 420

Figure 15.5 NOx emissions in the United States between 1970 and 1999 based on the process 420

Figure 15.6 Schematic of fuel NOx formation pathways 422

Figure 15.7 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of equivalence ratio for air/fuel flames 423

Figure 15.8 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of gas temperature for stoichiometric air/fuel flames 424

xxiv List of Figures

Figure 15.9 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of air preheat temperature for stoichiometric air/fuel flames 424

Figure 15.10 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of fuel preheat temperature for a stoichiometric air/CH4 flame 425

Figure 15.11 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of fuel composition (CH4/H2) for a stoichiometric air/fuel flame 425

Figure 15.12 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of fuel composition (CH4/N2) for a stoichiometric air/fuel flame 426

Figure 15.13 Conversion ratio of fuel-bound nitrogen to N02 of various nitrogen-containing fuels as a function of fuel-nitrogen content 426

Figure 15.14 Conversion rate of fuel-bound nitrogen to NOx for two different oil-fired burners 427

Figure 15.15 Relative NOx versus air/fuel ratio for premix and diffusion flames 427

Figure 15.16 National NOz ambient air quality trends 428

Figure 15.17 Sampling system schematic as recommended by the U.S. EPA 430

Figure 15.18 Schematic of four general strategies for reducing NOx emissions 431

Figure 15.19 Example of a staged fuel burner 435

Figure 15.20 Example of a staged air burner (Hamworthy DFR burner) 435

Figure 15.21 Schematic of FuGR 436

Figure 15.22 Example of a burner incorporating FuGR (John Zink Halo™ burner) 436

Figure 15.23 Remote stage fuel tip 436

Figure 15.24 Illustration showing how the remote stage method provides lower NOx emissions 437

Figure 15.25 Radiant wall burners firing (a) without remote staging, NOx = 24 ppmvd and (b) with remote staging, NOx = 16 ppmvd 437

Figure 15.26 Flameless combustion system 440

Figure 15.27 TANGENT™ technology low NOx thermal oxidizer burner 440

Figure 15.28 History of low NO burner development for (a) round flame burners and (b) radiant wall burners, firing on gaseous fuels 441

Figure 15.29 COOLstar burner 442

Figure 15.30 Computational fluid dynamic modeling of the COOLstar burner 442

Figure 15.31 Schematic of the selective catalytic reduction process 444

Figure 15.32 NOx removal efficiency versus temperature for SCR 444

Figure 15.33 Common catalyst configuration used in SCR systems 445

Figure 15.34 SCR process flow diagram 446

Figure 15.35 Typical catalyst deactivation for an SCR as a function of operating time 447

Figure 15.36 Selective non-catalytic reduction system 447

Figure 15.37 SNCR temperature window 447

Figure 15.38 Effect of residence time on SNCR NOx reduction efficiency 448

Figure 15.39 Effect of ammonia slip on SNCR NOx reduction efficiency 448

Figure 15.40 Catalytic cleaning NOx reduction system 449

List of Figures xxv

Figure 15.41 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of the fuel blend composition for H2/CH4 blends combusted with 15% excess air'where both the fuel and the air are at ambient temperature and pressure 451

Figure 15.42 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of the fuel blend composition for C3H8/CH4 blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air are at ambient temperature and pressure 451

Figure 15.43 Adiabatic equilibrium NO as a function of the fuel blend composition for H2/C3H8 blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air are at ambient temperature and pressure 451

Figure 15.44 Ternary plot of adiabatic equilibrium (a) temperature and (b) relative NO (fraction of the maximum value) as a function of the fuel blend composition for H2/CH4/C3H8 blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air are at ambient temperature and pressure 452

Figure 15.45 Raw gas (VYD) burner 452

Figure 15.46 VYD burner closeup 452

Figure 15.47 Test furnace 453

Figure 15.48 Measured NOx (percent of the maximum ppmv value) as a function of the fuel blend composition for H2/TNG blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure 453

Figure 15.49 Measured NOx (percent of the maximum ppmv value) as a function of the fuel blend composition for C3H8/TNG blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure 454

Figure 15.50 Measured NOx (percent of the maximum value in both ppmv and lb/MMBtu) as a function of the fuel blend composition for H2/C3H8 blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure 455

Figure 15.51 Measured NOx (fraction of the maximum value in both ppmv and lb/MMBtu) as a function of the fuel blend composition for TNG/H2/C3H8 blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure for gas tip #2 456



Figure 15.54 Measured NOx (fraction of the maximum value) in (a) ppmv and (b) lb/MMBtu) as a function of the fuel blend composition for TNG/H2/C3H8 blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure for a constant fuel gas pressure of 21 psig 457

Figure 15.55 Measured NOx (fraction of the maximum value in ppmvd) as a function of the fuel pressure for all 15 different TNG/H2/C3H8 blends (A through O) combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure 458

Figure 15.56 Measured NOx (fraction of the maximum value) in (a) ppmv and (b) lb/MMBtu) as a function of the fuel blend composition, fuel gas pressure and calculated adiabatic flame temperature for TNG/H2/C3Hg blends combusted with 15% excess air where both the fuel and the air were at ambient temperature and pressure 458

Figure 15.57 Effects of firebox temperature on NOx 459

Figure 15.58 Velocity thermocouple (suction pyrometer) 460

xxvi List of Figures

Figure 15.59 Effect of firebox temperature on NOx for various types of diffusion burners firing NG at 3% excess 02 461

Figure 15.60 Effect of firebox temperature on NOx for various types of diffusion burners firing NG at various excess Oz levels 462

Figure 15.61 Effect of firebox temperature on NOx for various types of diffusion burners firing NG at 3% excess Oz and various air preheat temperatures 462

Figure 15.62 Effect of firebox temperature on NOx for various types of partially premixed burners firing NG at 3% excess Oz .463

Figure 15.63 Effect of firebox temperature on NOx for diffusion and partially premixed low NOx burners firing on NG at 3% excess 02 463

Figure 15.64 Schematic showing the effect of chromium in Fe-Cr allows an oxide scale structure based on isothermal oxidation studies at 1000°C (1800°F) 465

Figure 15.65 A plot showing predicted NO concentration as a function of time for various exhaust gas temperatures 465

Figure 15.66 Schematic showing test furnace and sample probe locations 467

Figure 15.67 (a) NO emissions at locations before and in the middle of the convection section at various depths and (b) top surface is in middle of convection section, bottom surface before convection section 468

Figure 15.68 Illustration showing theorized flow pattern within test furnace 468

Figure 15.69 (a) NOx (NO + NOz) at locations before and in the middle of the convection section at various depths and (b) top surface is in middle of convection section, bottom surface before convection section 469

Figure 15.70 (a) NOx (NO + NOz) at various locations in the upper 10' (3 m) of the radiant section of the field test furnace and (b) NO and N02 at various locations in the upper 10' (3.0 m) of the radiant section of the field test furnace 469

Figure 15.71 Schematic showing the layout of a typical reforming furnace 470

Figure 15.72 Test furnace and MK-II™ burner 471

Figure 15.73 Schematic of the MK-II™ burner 471

Figure 15.74 Effects of furnace temperature on NOx emissions 471

Figure 15.75 Effects of combustion air temperature on NOx emissions at various turndown conditions 472

Figure 15.76 Effects of furnace 02 concentration (excess air) on NOx emissions at various combustion air temperatures 472

Figure 15.77 Photographs of (a) MK-II™, (b) low-NOx, and (c) conventional burner technologies 473

Figure 15.78 Comparison of NOx emissions for the conventional, low-NOx and MK-II™ burner technologies 473

Figure 15.79 Effects of percent PSA gas duty on flame appearance firing the MK-II™ burner 473

Figure 15.80 Effects of PSA gas composition on flame appearance firing the MK-II™ burner at a constant heat release 474

Figure 16.1 Community located close to an industrial plant 480

Figure 16.2 Tree falling in the forest 481

Figure 16.3 Pressure peaks and troughs 482

Figure 16.4 Cross-section of the human ear 482

List of Figures xxvii

Figure 16.5 Relationship of decibels to watts 483

Figure 16.6 Calculating SPL at a distance r. 484

Figure 16.7 Threshold of hearing in humans 485

Figure 16.8 Threshold of hearing and threshold of pain in humans 485

Figure 16.9 A-weighted scale for human hearing threshold 485

Figure 16.10 A-weighted burner noise curve 485

Figure 16.11 Weighting curves A, B, C, and D 486

Figure 16.12 Block diagram of a sound level meter 486

Figure 16.13 Same sound spectrum on three different intervals 487

Figure 16.14 Typical burner noise curve 488

Figure 16.15 Nomogram for noise level addition , 489

Figure 16.16 Atmospheric attenuation 490

Figure 16.17 Typical earplugs and muffs. 492

Figure 16.18 Test flare at John Zink test site in Tulsa, OK. Combustion of identical fuel flow rates with different degrees of mixing 494

Figure 16.19 Typical noise signature emitted from a flare 494

Figure 16.20 Photograph of a high-pressure and low-pressure flare burning the same fuel 495

Figure 16.21 Shadow photograph of a burning butane lighter 495

Figure 16.22 Engineer measuring flare noise 496

Figure 16.23 PWL Lw calculated from measured noise data, plotted versus heat release rate, Qcombuse for different types of industrial flares under various operating conditions 496

Figure 16.24 Predicted sound pressure field contour plots for a multipoint LRGO flare system 497

Figure 16.25 SPL emitted from a steam-assisted flare operating at normal conditions and at over-steamed conditions (combustion instability) 498

Figure 16.26 Burner SPL normal and with instability. 499

Figure 16.27 Development of orderly wave patterns within a high-speed gas jet 500

Figure 16.28 Illustration showing the region of maximum jet mixing noise 500

Figure 16.29 Photograph showing shock waves downstream of an air jet 500

Figure 16.30 Screech tone emissions 501

Figure 16.31 Noise radiating from a valve 501

Figure 16.32 Photograph of two enclosed flares 502

Figure 16.33 A steam-assisted flare with a muffler 503

Figure 16.34 Steam jet noise emitted with and without muffler 503

Figure 16.35 Example for noise abatement in steam-assisted flares by reducing the amount of steam required to ensure smokeless combustion 504

Figure 16.36 Water injected into a high-pressure flare 504

Figure 16.37 Noise spectrum from a high-pressure flare with and without water injection 505

Figure 16.38 Sound pressure versus frequency for a burner operating with and without a muffler 505

xxviii List of Figures

Figure 16.39 Illustration showing two different muffler designs 506

Figure 16.40 Illustration showing a common plenum chamber for floor burners in a furnace 506

Figure 16.41 Noise emissions from a steam control valve 506

Figure 16.42 Illustration used for burner noise example 507

Figure 16.43 SPL spectrum for high-pressure flaring 508

Figure 16.44 Noise contributions separately based on the mathematical model 508

Figure 16.45 Effect of distance on flare noise -.. 509

Figure 17.1 Quiz cards example 518

Figure 17.2 Molecule modules example 519

Figure 17.3 ASTD competency model 531

Figure 17.4 Example of a PowerPoint template slide 534

Figure 17.5 Example of an introduction slide 537

Figure 17.6 BP, Texas City, Texas refinery. 538

Figure 17.7 Free-standing diffusion burner slide 540

Figure 17.8 (a) Irregular flame patterns in an operating process heater and (b) closed air registers on the two improperly adjusted burners 540

Figure 17.9 Burners firing across the floor in a process heater (a) before adjustment and (b) after adjustment 541

Figure 17.10 Schematic of flame rollover in a cabin heater 541

Figure 17.11 Main computer screen for Zeopardy game used to review for final test 541

Figure 17.12 Overall ratings by students on their interest in and the benefit of each course section 542

Figure 17.13 Shintech plant in Plaquemine, Louisiana 542

Figure 17.14 Photo of part of the thermal oxidation system during installation 543

Figure 17.15 Series of furnaces showing the progression towards blow-off of a burner flame 543

Figure 17.16 Slide showing the 3Ts of combustion: time, temperature, and turbulence 545

Figure 17.17 Animated P&ID with a picture of an actual control valve 545

Figure 17.18 Student ratings of interest and benefit of each course topic 546

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Summary of Process Heating Operations 2

Table 1.2 Summary of Emissions from Refinery Processes 5

Table 1.3 Some American Petroleum Institute-Recommended Practices Related to Combustion Equipment 9

Table 1.4 Average Burner Configuration by Heater Type 13

Table 1.5 Major Fired Heater Applications in the Chemical Industry 13

Table 2.1 Major Petroleum Refining Processes 32

Table 2.2 Major Refinery Processes Requiring a Fired Heater 33

Table 2.3 Hydrogen Usage by Industry 38

Table 2.4 Typical Product Distributions for Common Pyrolysis Feeds 43

Table 3.1 Example Pipeline Quality Natural Gas 47

Table 3.2 Commercial Natural Gas Components and Typical Ranges of Composition 47

Table 3.3 Quantitative Listing of Products Made by the U.S. Petroleum Industry 48

Table 3.4 General Fraction Boiling Points 50

Table 3.5 Composition of a Typical Refinery Gas 51

Table 3.6 Typical Composition of Steam Reforming/PSA Tail Gas 52

Table 3.7 Typical Composition of Flexicoking Waste Gas 53

Table 3.8 Requirements for Fuel Oils (per ASTM D 396) 55

Table 3.9 Typical Analysis of Different Fuel Oils 55

Table 3.10 Naphtha Elemental Analysis 57

Table 3.11 Distillation Fractions as a Function of Temperature Determined by ASTM Method D86 57

Table 3.12 Typical Flared Gas Compositions 58

Table 3.13 Volumetric Analysis Summary 59

Table 3.14 Constants of FG Mixtures 60

Table 3.15 Constants of Components 62

Table 3.16 Viscosity Conversion Chart 68

Table 4.1 Density Comparison of Average Air and 79% N2 21% Oz Assumption 87

Table 4.2 Common Gaseous Fuels 88

Table 4.3 Combustion Data for Hydrocarbons 93

Table 4.4 Specific Gravity and Properties of Common Liquid Fuels 100

Table 4.5 Liquid Fuel Properties by API Gravity as well as Common Coals 101

Table 4.6 Adiabatic Flame Temperatures .N. 103

Table 5.1 Coal Analyses As-Received Basis 126

Table 5.2 Class of Coals 126

xxix

XXX List of Tables

Table 5.3 Fuel Properties of Biomass and Solid Fuels 127

Table 6.1 Catalyst Types in Different Processes 140

Table 6.2 Typical Reactions in Catalytic Waste Gas Cleaning 145

Table 6.3 Examples of Minimum Inlet Temperature for Various Fresh Catalysts 146

Table 6.4 Notes on Material Selection 148

Table 7.1 Thermal Conductivity of Common Materials 162

Table 7.2 Properties of Various Substances at 32°F (0°C) ....162

Table 7.3 Properties of Selected Gases at 14.696 psi 163

Table 7.4 One-Dimensional, Steady-State Solutions to the Heat Equation with No Generation 164

Table 7.5 Typical Convective Heat Transfer Coefficients 171

Table 7.6 Summary of Convection Correlations for Flow in a Circular Tube 174

Table 7.7 Constants of Equation 7.56 for Circular Cylinder in Cross Flow 175

Table 7.8 Constants of Equation 7.61 for the Tube Bank in Cross Flow 175

Table 7.9 Spectrum of Electromagnetic Radiation 178

Table 7.10 View Factors for Two-Dimensional Geometries 182

Table 7.11 View Factors for Three-Dimensional Geometries 183

Table 7.12 Correlation Constants for the Determination of the Total Emissivity for Water Vapor and Carbon Dioxide 187

Table 7.13 Mean Beam Lengths for Radiation from a Gas Volume to a Surface on Its Boundary 190

Table 8.1 Approximate Composition of Dry Air 213

Table 8.2 American Petroleum Institute 521 Recommendations for Radiation Exposure to Personnel 216

Table 9.1 Properties of Various Gases 231

Table 9.2 Equivalent Sand Grain Roughness (e) for Various Pipe Material and Surfaces 244

Table 9.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Draft Technique 257

Table 10.1 Liquid Fuel Properties 310

Table 10.2 Effect of Dimensionless Parameters on Liquid Breakup Length 313

Table 10.3 Combustion Performance of the HERO Gun 322

Table 10.4 Combustion Test Results for the MEA Oil Gun 322

Table 10.5 Effect of Operational Parameters on Pollutant Emissions 322

Table 11.1 Mass Flow Measurements 334

Table 12.1 Importance of Combustion to Industry 340

Table 12.2 Major Process Heating Operations 340

Table 12.3 Examples of Processes in the Process Industries Requiring Industrial Combustion 340

Table 13.1 Universal "Empirical" Constants Used in the Standard k-e Turbulence Model 358

Table 13.2 Cartesian Differential Equation Set 359

Table 13.3 Cylindrical Differential Equation Set 360

Table 13.4 Discrete Ordinates for the SN Approximation (N = 2,4, and 6) 369

List of Tables xxxi

Table 14.1 U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) as of October 2011 382

Table 14.2 Combustion Emission Factors (lb/106 Btu) by Fuel Type 384

Table 14.3 Location of Traverse Points in Circular Stacks 395

Table 15.1 NOx Emission Factors by Fuel Type 422

Table 15.2 Uncontrolled NOx Emission Factors for Typical Process Heaters 422

Table 15.3 Summary of NOx Control Techniques 431

Table 15.4 Reduction Efficiencies for NOx Control Techniques 432

Table 15.5 NOx Control Technologies in Process Heaters 432

Table 15.6 NOx Reductions for Different Low-NOx Burner Types 440

Table 15.7 Data for NOz Decomposition over Metal Oxides at 773 K (842°F) 464

Table 16.1 Speed of Sound in Different Media and at Different Temperatures 482

Table 16.2 The 10 Octave Bands 483

Table 16.3 Octave and One-Third Octave Bands 487

Table 16.4 A-Weighting of the Burner Sound Curve from Figure 16.14 488

Table 16.5 Addition Rules 489

Table 16.6 Sound Levels of Various Sources 492

Table 16.7 OSHA Permissible Noise Exposure 492

Table 16.8 Calculation of the Typical Combustion Noise Spectrum of a Stable Burning Flare from the Overall Sound Pressure Level (OASPL) 495

Table 16.9 OASPL Determined Experimentally and Using the Mathematical Model 509

Table 17.1 Course Outline 539

Documents

THE JOHN ZINK HAMWORTHY COMBUSTION HANDBOOK