The Biology SOL Guide: What Do You Really Need to Know? Biology 2017-2018

Unit 1: Scientific Investigation (Chapter 1: BIO.1)

• What are the basic steps of the Scientific Method?

1. Ask a Question

2. Do Background Research on Related Topics

3. Develop a Hypothesis

4. Conduct Tests / Do the Experiment

5. Collect Data

6. Organize Data in a Logical Way (Graphs and Tables)

7. Make Conclusions Based on the Outcome

• Making Observations

o Gather data using senses

o Making notes about what is going on

• Conducting Research and Using Scientific Literature

o Resources: Online databases and journals

o Scientific Literature: Journal articles that are peer-reviewed

o Validating a “good source” as from a reputable organization

• Hypothesizing

o Educated Guess based on first observations

o Must be TESTABLE

o Format in an “If _______, then ________” statement

• Defining Variables and designing investigations based on hypotheses

o Independent Variable: Factor that is purposefully changed (Example: amount of water given to a plant)

o Dependent Variable: Factor that is measured (Example: how tall the plant grows)

o Control: Factor that data is compared to (Example: plant that is given no water)

o Constant: Any factors kept the same so they don’t influence results (Example: temperature, amount of

light, type of plant, time of day for measuring, etc)

• Data Analysis: Graphing, Tables, and Math Calculations

o GRAPHING: IV on the X-Axis (bottom) and DV on the Y-Axis (left side)

▪ Bar Graph: For presenting categories (Example: Data of People’s Favorite Color Skittle)

▪ Line Graph: For presenting change over time (Example: Data of Population Numbers in

Woodbridge from 1990-2010)

o Tables: For presenting raw data numbers and math calculations

o Math Calculations:

▪ Mean: Finding the AVERAGE (Add all data points together, then divide by the number of points:

[5+4+6]/3= Mean of 5)

▪ Mode: Most common/frequent number in the data set (Example Data: 4, 4, 6, 1, 4… Mode = 4)

• Types of Data

o Qualitative: Descriptive Data such as color, texture, or relative size (small, medium, large)

▪ Qual- : “quality”, putting observations in words

o Quantitative: Numerical Data such as measurements (length, volume, mass) or percentages

▪ Quant- : “quantity”, explaining “how much” terms of number values

1

• Ideas in Science

o Theory: explanation based on MANY observations and experimental results, but cannot be definitely

proven due to limitations (Example: Theory of Evolution)

o Law: statement based on repeated experimental observations that describes some aspect of the

universe (Example: Law of Gravity)

Unit 2: The Chemistry of Life (Chapter 2: BIO.2)

• Water Chemistry and Properties

o A molecule of water is made of 2 Hydrogen atoms and 1 Oxygen atom (H2O) in a covalent bond

o Water is polar: has one positive end (Hydrogen side) and one negative end (Oxygen side)

▪ This causes water molecules to “stick” together like magnets

o The polar nature of water gives it several unique properties

▪ Cohesion and Adhesion

• Surface Tension

▪ High Heat of Vaporization

▪ Universal Solvent

▪ Ice is less dense than water

• Macromolecules: Carbon-based compounds that make up all living things

o Carbohydrates: Fast energy from sugars

▪ Monomer (simplest form): Monosaccharides

• Sugars found in juice, candy

▪ Polymers (complex form): Bread, potatoes

o Lipids: Fats, used to store energy in the body

▪ Monomer (simplest form): Fatty Acid

▪ Examples: Oils, waxes, and fats (vegetable oils, butter, beeswax)

o Nucleic Acids: Contains genetic information

▪ Monomer (simplest form): Nucleotides

▪ Examples: DNA, RNA, ATP

o Proteins: Make up body structures of organisms

▪ Monomer (simplest form): Amino Acid

▪ Examples: Muscle, Meat

▪ ENZYMES: Type of protein used to catalyze (speed up) chemical reactions

• Have specific shapes to bind with specific substrates (See FIGURE 2)

• LOWER the activation energy of a reaction, meaning less energy is needed (See FIGURE 3)

• Rates/effectiveness change based on temperature and pH

• Are not used up in the reaction

• Essential to body functions in organisms

Figure 1. Hydrogen bonding of water molecules

Figure 2. Enzyme to substrate bonding and products

Figure 3. Graphing of reaction with and without enzyme; lower line is always WITH the enzyme

2

Unit 3: Cell Structure (Chapter 3: BIO.3 and BIO.4)

• Cell Theory

1. The cell is the most basic unit of life.

2. All living things are made of cells.

3. Cells can only come from existing cells (cell division).

• Prokaryotes: “Pro” = “No” Nucleus

o Simple (no organelles) and unicellular

o Example: Bacteria

• Eukaryotes: “Eu” = “You” have cells with nuclei

o Complex and can be unicellular or multicellular

▪ Unicellular Example: Protists (Paramecium, Euglena) and Yeast (which is a fungus)

▪ Multicellular: Oak Tree, Squirrel, Human, and Mushroom

o Organelles: “Organs” of the cell, all have specific “jobs” (functions)

ORGANELLE Its like the… Function

Nucleus Brain Controls the activity of the cell

Nucleolus n/a Makes ribosome inside the nucleus

Mitochondria Power-plant Produces energy (ATP)

Lysosome Stomach Digests food, destroys old organelles/invaders using enzymes

Ribosome Factory Makes proteins, important for translation of DNA

Rough ER Highway Transports materials in the cell, HAS RIBOSOMES

Smooth ER Highway Transports materials in the cell, does not have ribosomes

Golgi body Post Office Packages products and sends them where they need to go

Vacuole Storage Unit Stores water or food products

Cell Membrane Skin Protects the cell as an outer barrier, controls what enters and leaves the cell

o The Cell Membrane: Protective barrier, controls what enters and leaves the cell

▪ Key Parts (see FIGURE 4)

• Phospholipid Bilayer

• Protein Channels

• Carbohydrate Chains

▪ Transport: Getting things in and out of a cell

• Passive: Required no energy

• Active: Cell must use ATP

• Surface Area to Volume Ratio

o Way of expressing the relationship of the amount of material inside the cell to the amount space

covered by cell membrane

o The smaller the ratio, the easier transport is for the cell (saves time/energy = better)

Figure 4. Cell Membrane and Key Parts

3

Unit 4: Cellular Processes (Chapter 4, 5, & 6: BIO.4 and BIO.5)

• Energy in a Cell

o Photosynthesis: Process by which plants convert sunlight energy into chemical energy

▪ Sunlight + CO2 + Water = Glucose (Sugar) + Oxygen

o Cellular Respiration: Process by which food (sugar) is converted into ATP

▪ Glucose (Sugar) + Oxygen = CO2 + Water + ENERGY (in the form of ATP)

o ATP: Adenosine Tri-Phosphate

▪ Energy molecule used by cells

▪ Contains 3 phosphate groups and energy is released by breaking off the 3rd one

• The Cell Cycle

o Growth and Asexual Reproduction: Body Cells (Somatic Cells) Only

o Interphase

▪ G1: Growth phase 1

▪ S: Synthesis of DNA

▪ G2: Growth phase 2

▪ G0: Inactive phase some cells enter after first cycle, some cells like brain and nerve cells never

divide again

o Mitosis: Produces two diploid daughter cells (human cells: 2n=46)

▪ Prophase: Chromosomes become visible

▪ Metaphase: Chromosomes line up in the middle

▪ Anaphase: Chromosome pull apart to opposite sides

▪ Telophase: Cell forms a cleavage furrow / cell plate and begins division

▪ Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm creating 2 separate cells

o Meiosis: Produces four haploid gametes (eggs and sperm: n=23)

▪ Sexual Reproduction: half the genetic information comes from each parent

▪ 23 chromosomes from mother + 23 chromosomes from father = 46 chromosomes in offspring

▪ Meiosis has 2 stages of division:

• Meiosis I: Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I

• Meiosis II: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II

o Spermatogenesis: 4 sperm are produced (two carry an X sex chromosome and

two carry a Y sex chromosome)

o Oogenesis: 1 egg is produced plus 3 polar bodies (polar bodies are “wasted”

genetic information, this allows all the organelles to go into one big egg)

Unit 5: Genetics (Chapter 6 & 7: BIO.5 and BIO.6)

• Genetics is the study of inheritance (how traits are passed down from generation to generation)

o Chromosome: DNA tightly coiled (see structure to the right >>>)

▪ Contains genes (packets of genetic information)

▪ Humans have 46 chromosomes in their body cells

o Allele: different forms of the same gene (must have 2 copies, one from each parent)

o Genotype are letters describing the alleles

▪ Can be homozygous (same letters like AA or aa) or heterozygous (different letters like Aa)

o Phenotype is the appearance of the characteristic (“phen” is “seen)

▪ Tells what this gene coding for: Fur color, leg length, etc.

• Mendelian Genetics: Gregor Mendel (Austrian Monk that studied the traits of pea plants)

o Classical genetics where typical dominance and recessive patterns apply 4

• Non-Mendelian Inheritance: o Incomplete Dominance: The heterozygous genotype creates a new intermediate phenotype (White

flower (aa) crossed with red flower (AA) makes pink flowers (Aa)

o Codominance: Both phenotypes are expressed (example: blood type)

o Sex-Linked Inheritance: gene is linked to either the X or Y chromosome

• Crosses: Hypothetical breeding of individuals to predict offspring

o P: first generation/parents

o F1: first set of offspring

o F2: second set of offspring after crossing F1

• Punnett Squares: Table used to work out a problem to determine the possible offspring

• Pedigree Chart: Diagram used to track the passing down of a trait through a family (circles are females, squares

are males, colored in means they have the trait, and ½ colored means they are a carrier)

• Karyotyping: technology of photographing and then arranging the chromosomes pairs in order from 1-23, plus

the sex chromosomes

o Looks for genetic disorders such as Trisomy-21 (which appears as three copies of chromosome 21)

o Males are XY and females are XX

Unit 6: DNA & Biotechnology (Chapter 8 & 9: Chapter 6 & 7: BIO.5 and BIO.6)

• DNA: Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid

o Carries the genetic information for all living things

o Made up of nucleotides (a nitrogen based, a sugar, and a phosphate)

o Double-stranded, twisted latter (called the Double Helix Model)

• History of DNA Structure

o Chargaff discovered that A&T and C&G always occur in the same amounts

o Rosalind Franklin took X-Ray photos of DNA, which revealed it was a double helix

o Watson and Crick used the findings of the previous two to create a model with nitrogen bases on the

inside and the sugar + phosphates on the outside in a twisted latter format

• DNA Replication: process of DNA copying itself (occurs in the S phase of Interphase in Mitosis)

o A pairs with T and C pairs with G

• Protein Synthesis

o DNA stores the instructions for making the proteins that make up body structures

o Part 1: Transcription: mRNA is formed from DNA (when making mRNA from DNA, A=U and C=G)

o Part 2: Translation: mRNA attaches to a ribosome where the codons are read to form the appropriate

proteins

▪ Codons: sets of 3 letters

▪ Universal Genetic Code Table: All organisms use this code to make proteins (See FIGURE 5)

• DNA Technologies

o DNA Fingerprinting: Matching bands of DNA from an individual to a sample to identify criminals or

genetic relationships

o Recombinant DNA: formed by laboratory methods of genetic recombination to bring together genetic

material from multiple sources (combining the DNA of multiple organisms)

5

Figure 5. All organisms use this code to make proteins from mRNA

Unit 7: Evolution (Chapter 10, 11, & 12: BIO.7)

• Evolution is change in populations of organisms over time

• Charles Darwin: English scientist who explored the Galapagos Islands

o Studied finches and tortoises

o Came up with Natural Selection: idea that organisms change by certain individuals of a population with

advantageous adaptations reproducing more than those without it (Survival of the Fittest)

• Patterns of Evolution:

o Gradualism: Principle the states that changes result from small, slow changes over a long period of time

o Punctuated Equilibrium: Theory that states that speciation occurs suddenly and rapidly followed by long

periods with little change

• Evidence for Evolution

o Fossils: Fossils on the bottom layer of rock are oldest (deepest) and get younger as you move toward the

surface. The fossil record can show the change over time as it shows “snap-shots” of what organisms

looked like across long periods of time. Fossils also allow for dating (determination of age).

▪ Relative Dating: Determining an approximate age of a fossil based on its position in the rock

layers

▪ Absolute or Radioactive Dating: analyzing the rate of molecular change in an object to

determine its age (radioactive isotope decay)

o Homologous Structures: features that are similar and structure, but may appear differently or have

different functions in different organisms (example: the similar bones in the human hand, a dog’s way,

and a bat’s wing--it would be unlikely for many species to have such similar anatomy if each species

evolved independently)

o Embryology: early development in many species follow similar patterns suggesting a common ancestor

o Molecular Evidence: 6

▪ Analysis of DNA sequences: the more similar the DNA sequences between organisms, the more

closely related they are evolutionarily

▪ Homeobox genes: Sequences of genes found in many organisms that control the development

of specific structures

▪ Protein comparison: many multicellular organisms have specialized cells made of the same

proteins, suggesting a common ancestor

• Speciation: the rise of 2+ species from an existing species

o The original species goes away, leaving only the new ones

o Reproductive isolation: when members of different populations can no longer successfully mate (can be

due to physical changes that prohibit mating or the offspring of the two mating produce offspring that

are not viable)

o Geographic isolation: when populations are divided by physical barriers that prevent breeding (example:

birds isolated on different islands)

Unit 8: Ecology (Chapter 13, 14, 15, & 16: BIO.8)

• Levels of Ecological Organization

o Biosphere (Entire Earth)

o Biome (Specific region defined by temperature and precipitation)

o Ecosystem (specific ecological area include biotic and abiotic factors)

o Community (all living organisms in an area: plants, animals, fungi, bacteria)

o Population (all individuals of a particular species in an area)

o Individual Organism

• Ecosystem Ecology

o Producer > Consumer > Decomposer

▪ Producer: Photosynthetic organism (Ex: grass)

▪ Primary Consumer: Herbivores, the first to eat a producer (Ex: rabbit)

▪ Secondary Consumer: Carnivore/Omnivore, eats the primary consumers (Ex: snake)

▪ Tertiary Consumer: Carnivore/Omnivore, eats the secondary consumers (Ex: eagle)

o Parts of an Ecosystem

▪ Biotic: living things such as plants and animals

▪ Abiotic: nonliving parts of the environment like water and rocks (does not include “dead” things,

only things that were never alive at all)

o Autotroph v. Heterotroph:

o Auto-: “self”, -troph: “food”

organisms that “make their own food”

▪ Photosynthesis

▪ Chemosynthesis

o Hetero- “different”, -troph: “food”

organisms that need a “different source for their food”

▪ Herbivore

▪ Carnivore

▪ Omnivore

• Energy Flow Through Ecosystems

o Food Chain: simple diagram showing the movement of energy from one organism to another

o Food Web: complex diagram showing the movement of energy through an entire ecosystem

Figure 6. Energy Pyramid Example

7

o Energy Pyramid: shows the movement of energy in an ecosystem as it relates to biomass (See FIGURE 6)

▪ Producers have the greatest biomass (there are the most plants)

▪ Tertiary Consumers, or “top predators”, have the smallest biomass (they are fewest in number)

• Community Relationships

o Symbiosis: interrelationships between organisms

▪ Mutualism: relationship where both organisms benefit (pollinating insect and flower)

▪ Commensalism: relationship where one organism benefits and the other is unaffected (barnacle

on a whale)

▪ Parasitism: relationship where one organism benefits and the other is harmed flea on a dog)

• Population Ecology

o Population Growth Factors

▪ Immigration: movement of individuals into a population

▪ Emigration: movement of individuals out of a population

o Carrying Capacity: maximum number of organisms an ecosystem can support, assuming unlimited

resources

o Limiting Factors: factors that prevent or change the way a population grows (availability of resources,

predation)

o Growth Curve Graphs (See FIGURE 7)

▪ Exponential Growth: dramatic increase in population over time

▪ Logistic Growth: slow growth followed by short period of more rapid growth before

stabilization

• Nutrient Cycling (See FIGURE 8)

o Nitrogen Cycle

o Carbon Cycle

o Phosphorus Cycle

Figure 7. Growth curve showing logistic growth and carrying capacity

Figure 8. Nitrogen and Carbon Cycle Diagrams

8

• Succession: change and replacement of organisms in an ecosystem over time

o Primary Succession: First organisms to colonize a barren landscape, often plants are the pioneer species

o Secondary Succession: Organisms that colonize an area after an intermediate disruptive event

o Climax Community: Community that is relatively stable, rich in biodiversity, and has not undergone

succession in a long period of time

• Human Impacts on Ecosystems

o Human Population Growth

▪ Human population growth has exceeded all predictions for that number trend

▪ Humans have been able to grow beyond their natural carrying capacity because of technologies

like agriculture, medicine, and sanitation

o Resources

▪ Non-renewable: resources that are used up much faster than they can form (coal, oil)

▪ Renewable: resources that cannot be used up or that can be replenished in a short period of

time (hydroelectric, solar, wind)

o Air and Water Pollution

▪ Pollution: any unnatural or undesirable factor added to the air, water, or soil

▪ Air Pollution is made of smog and ozone, released from factories, cars, etc.

• Can causes health problems and/or acid rain (rain with a pH of less the 5.5)

• Green House Effect: Occurs when CO2, H2O, and methane molecules absorb energy

bouncing back off Earth’s surface and cause this energy to be retained in the

atmosphere

• Related to climate change and global warming

▪ Water Quality

• Indicator Species: species of organism that is first affected by pollution, which can

provide scientists with a sign of how healthy and ecosystem is

• Biomagnification: pollutant accumulates in the bodies of organisms in increasing

amounts as it moves up the food chain

▪ Examples of Pollutants

• Mercury

• PCB

o Deforestation: process where natural forests are cut down or burned, either to use the wood or to use

the land area for other purposes

▪ Habitat loss causes species to go extinct

▪ Release of stored carbon from forests (carbon sink)

o Introduced/Invasive Species: non-native species will compete with native species for resources and

upset the ecosystem’s balance

o Conservation Efforts:

▪ Sustainability

• Managing resources responsibly so as to preserve them for the future

• Preventing overfishing, deforestation, etc.

▪ Umbrella species protection

• Protection of one individual species ultimately protects the ecosystem as well

• Example: Protection of manatees leads to protection of other organisms and the marine

habitat

▪ Protecting natural resources:

• Government agencies like the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)

• National Parks 9

• Virginia Ecology

o Northern VA is a Temperate Deciduous Forest (See FIGURE 9)

o Key Flora (Plants):

▪ Trees: American Beech, American Elm, American Sycamore, Eastern White Pine, Flowering

Dogwood, Red Maple. River Birch, Virginia Pine, White Oak

▪ Other Plants: Common Elderberry, Spicebush, Wild Grape, Wild Strawberry, Common

Dandelion, Common Milkweed, Common Cattail, Kentucky Bluegrass

o Key Fauna (Animals):

▪ Fish: Bluegill, Largemouth bass, Yellow Perch, Common Catfish

▪ Reptiles: Black Rat Snake, Common Snapping Turtle, Copperhead snake, Eastern Box Turtle

▪ Amphibians: American Toad, Bullfrog, Spotted Salamander, Spring Peeper

▪ Birds: American Crow, American Robin, Bald Eagle, Canadian Geese, Great Blue Heron, Mallard

Duck, Red-tailed Hawk, Turkey Vulture, Wild Turkey

▪ Mammals: Beaver, Eastern Cottontail Rabbit, Eastern Gray Squirrel, Raccoon, Red Fox, Striped

Skunk, Virginia Opossum, White-tailed Deer

Unit 9: Classification/Taxonomy (Chapter 17: BIO.6)

• Taxonomy: process of naming and classifying organisms

• Linnaean System of Classification

o Carolus Linnaeus: scientist that lived in the 1700’s and created a 7 level system for organizing living

things

o Later an 8th level was added (Domain)

o Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus species

• Binomial nomenclature (Scientific naming): two part naming system that gives all species a Latin name

o Genus species

o Ex: Homo sapiens

• Classification based on Evolutionary Relationships

o Current classification systems take all of the following into account:

▪ Evidence based on living species

Figure 9. Food Web for a Deciduous Forest that might be found in VA

10

▪ Fossil Record

▪ Molecular Information/DNA

o Phylogeny: evolutionary history of a group of animals, shown as branching tree diagrams

o Cladistics: classification based on common ancestry

▪ Cladograms: evolutionary tree that hypothesizes relationships of organisms to each other based

on common ancestors (See FIGURE 10)

Figure 10. Cladogram Example for Vertebrates to Mammals

• Dichotomous Keys: Tool that allows the user to determine the identity of items in the natural world, including

plants and animals. Keys consist of a series of choices that lead the user to the correct name of a given item (See

FIGURE 11)

Figure 11. Dichotomous Key Example 11

Unit 10: The Diversity of Life (Chapter 18-26: BIO.4)

12

OTHER IMPORTANT INFORMATION

• Germ Theory of Disease

o Long ago, people thought disease was caused by “miasmas” or poisonous air. They also believed in

“spontaneous generation” or that living things, like rats or maggots, could appear out of thin air.

o Through the work of several scientists, we know have the knowledge that infectious disease is caused by

microorganisms and that living things can only come from other living things.

o Scientists and Experiments to Know:

▪ Louis Pasteur: Pasteurization

▪ Robert Koch: Koch’s Postulates

• Viruses – NOT ALIVE

o Viruses do no have cells.

o Basic viral structure is a nucleic acid core (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat.

o Viruses can only reproduce inside a living “host” cell

o The viral replication process includes the following steps:

1. An individual virus infects an organism by attaching to a host cell.

2. A virus inserts its genetic material (DNA or RNA) into the host cell.

3. The viral genetic material (DNA or RNA) takes control of the host cell and uses its organelles to

produce more viruses, instead of carry out normal functions.

4. The newly formed viruses are released from the host cell and go on to infect new host cells, either

inside the same organism or another organism altogether.

13