The Art and Architecture of

Ancient Rome

Overview of Roman History

Republican and Augustan Rome

A Brief Overview of Roman History

Provinces of the Roman Empire, 180 CE

At its greatest extent, in the early second century CE, the Roman

Empire reached from the Euphrates River in Southwest Asia to

Scotland. The vast territory ringed the Mediterranean Sea-mare

nostrum- “our sea” is what the Romans called it

Impact of the Romans on the

Western World

• As the Romans absorbed the people that they

conquered, they imposed on them a legal,

administrative, and cultural structure that endured

for over 500 years.

• In the Eastern Mediterranean area, Roman

influence lasted until the 15th century, leaving a

lasting mark on the civilizations that later emerged

in Europe.

Those Confident Romans

• Conquering Romans saw themselves in heroic terms.

• They attributed heroic origins to their ancestors.

• According to Virgil’s epic poem, the Aeneid, theRomans were the descendants of Aeneas, a Trojanwho was the mortal son of the goddess Venus.

• With the help of Venus, Aeneas and a fewcompanions escaped burning Troy and made theirway to Italy.

• There they settled at the mouth of the Tiber River.

• The children of Aeneas were the first Romans.

• The Roman people, who in a promise from Jupiter toVenus, were destined to rule the world.

Archaeological Evidence

• Archaeologists paint a more mundane picture ofearly Rome.

• In Neolithic times, groups of people who all spokea common language, Latin, settled in permanentvillages south of the Tiber River.

• First settlements were little more than clusters ofhuts.

• By the 6th century BCE, Rome had developed intoa major transportation and trading center.

Early Rome:

Archaeological Evidence• Population grew with the

transition from the Bronze tothe Iron Age in the 10th c.BCE.

• Large nucleated settlementsdeveloped, including Rome.

• Traces of iron-age huts(thatched) and cemeteriesdating from the 9th-7th c. BCEhave been found in severalplaces in Rome.

• Surviving literary accounts ofthe beginnings of Rome arebased entirely on legend -show us how the Romansliked to see themselves.

Early Rome

The Seven Hills

Roman Hut Urn

Palatine Hut Foundations

Palatine Hut Foundations

Remember those fat hungry babies

Romulus and Remus?

According to legend……• Legend has it that the twins were descendents of Aeneas

• Romulus killed Remus in a fight over which one of thetwo brothers had the support of the local gods to rulethe new city and give it his name.

• After founding Rome, Romulus not only created theRoman Legions and the Roman Senat, but also addedcitizens to his new city by abducting the women of theneighboring Sabine tribes, which resulted in the mixture ofthe Sabines and Romans into one people.

• Romulus would become ancient Rome's greatestconqueror, adding large amounts of territory and people tothe dominion of Rome.

• After his death, Romulus was deified as the god Quirinus,the divine persona of the Roman people

The Rape of the Sabine WomenJean Louis David, Oil on canvas, 1794-99

While Romulus was busy in

Rome….• Three distinct groups appeared in central Italy: in

Latium, Etruria, and Samnium.

– - they each spoke different languages (Latin, Etruscan,Oscan).

• They had similar social and political systems, butrather different religious and funerary practices.

• Individual settlements were separate, each with a‘king’ or small ruling elite of warrior-landowners.

• Romulus became one of those very early kings.

Roman Time Periods

• Time of Kings: c. 753 BCE- 510 BCE

• Republican Period: 509 BCE-27 BCE

• Imperial Period: 27 BCE- c. 200 CE

• Late Empire : 193 CE-237 CE

The Time of the Kings• Legend preserves the names of

seven king, but there wereprobably more.

• Over the course of the 6th c.Rome grew into a major powerin Italy.

• The city now contained a largetemple of Jupiter, land drainsand culverts to increasehabitable land, and large stonearistocratic houses.

• The Romans built a defensivewall enclosing the city(approximately 1000 acres),and began to control much ofthe region of Latium.

Ancient coin showing the Temple of Jupiter

The Roman Republic:

The Capital of Italy• Towards the end of the 6th c.BCE Rome abolished

the monarchy and established a new political order- the Republic.

• The king was replaced by 2 consuls and a numberof lesser magistrates elected yearly by the malecitizen body.

• The consuls chose an advisory body called theSenate (later you had to have well-definedqualifications to serve; like landed wealth, military& political service).

The Patricians• The Roman aristocracy

• Consuls led the army in warand had executivelegislative powers.

• Army service was a duty ofcitizenship, but in realitylimited to those who couldafford their own equipment.

• A small number ofaristocratic families, thepatricians, gained amonopoly on theconsulship and most othercivic and priestly officesfrom the middle of the 5thcentury on.

The

Plebeians

• Rome’s working class, the plebeians had little individual power.

• Grouped together, however, they became a Roman mob and had to be

handled carefully.

• By the first century CE, plebeians comprised a formal class, which held its

own meetings, elected its own officials and kept its own records.

• The term plebeian referred to all free Roman citizens who were not members

of the patrician, senatorial or equestrian classes.

• For 200 years plebeian organizations fought to improve the lot of its members.

• Principal demands: debt relief, fairer distribution of economic resources (like

land).

• 4th c. the plebeians won equal rights - a plebian could now run for consul. In

342, a rule was established mandating that one of the two consuls be plebeian.

Roman Territorial Expansion

• Romans conquered and destroyed Veii in Etruria in 396BCE, then moved on to take control of the rest of Latiumand Samnium until all of central Italy was under theircontrol.

• By 300 BCE Rome was the dominant power in Italy.

• Rome continued to expand its power both north and souththrough war and colonization.

• Roman imperialism was the result of continuous war, andcontinuous war was the result of the Roman system ofalliances in Italy.

Rome: Capital of the Mediterranean

• 3rd-2nd c. BCE.

• Rome continued to gain power

by making her enemies into

allies.

• After Rome had control of

peninsular Italy, it moved to

control Sicily (first province),

bringing war with Carthage

(North African power).

• By 100 BCE most of the

Aegean, large parts of Asia

Minor and North Africa came

under direct Roman rule.

Rome battling for Carthage

After more than a century of conflict, known as the Punic Wars,

the Romans defeated Carthage, a Phoenician city in North Africa,

gaining control of the Western Mediterranean.

Effect of Conquests

• Rome changed from a mainly agricultural society

to a commercial and political power.

• The nobility grew vastly more wealthy from spoils

of military campaigns - the plebs also participated

in the economic benefits.

• The upper classes adopted sophisticated habits, the

influence of Greek culture grew pervasive

(educated and cultured Greeks were slaves to elite

Romans, educated Roman children, served as

secretaries, etc.).

• Spurred the development of Roman architecture,

visual arts, and literature on Greek models.

Civil Wars: 90-31 BC• Widening gulf between rich and

poor led to unrest.

• The republican style army andnegotiating skills of Rome’spoliticians achieved an empire -but had trouble governing it(war, invasion, slave revolts).

• A professional, long-servicearmy was established in 107-100 by abolishing the oldproperty qualifications andenlisting and training aproletariat force.

• Problem: generals could makethe army their own privateweapon to achieve politicalgoals.

Rise of the

Dictators

• Much of the 1st century was taken up with a series of

military dictatorships (magistrates given supreme powers

to deal with emergencies).

• Internal wars - the Italian allies, spurred on by opposing

Roman generals Marius and Sulla, rebelled against Rome

(“Social Wars”), winning the right of Roman citizenship.

Marius Sulla

Julius Caesar

• 46 BCE, verysuccessful general,Julius Caesar emergedvictorious over hisrivals for control ofRome.

• Assumed autocraticpowers.

• Ruled Rome until hisassassination in 44BCE.

Augustus First Emperor of

Imperial Rome• Octavian was born in 63 BCE

to Julius Caesar’s niece.

• Caesar adopted him in 45 BCE,making him his heir.

• When Caesar was murdered 6months later, Octavian foughtfor 13 years to establish himselfand to eliminate all possiblerivals for power.

• Final victory: Battle of Actiumin 31 BCE.

• With the defeat of Antony andhis ally Cleopatra VII, Egyptbecame a Roman province.

• Octavian granted title,Augustus, supreme ruler.

Augustus’ Reforms

• Augustus called himself‘princeps’ - first citizen, orleader among equals.

• The Senate remained the mostimportant political body, but itspowers were restricted byAugustus’ control of fiscal andmilitary policy.

• The army now owed itsallegiance to the ruling emperoronly.

• More military campaigns wereundertaken to consolidatenatural boundaries, increaserevenue.

• Reorganization of taxation andadministration of the provinces.

Augustus, continued

The provincial empire doubled in size, 1/5 of the

population of Italy was resettled in overseas

‘colonies.’

Augustus ruled for 44 years, blending tradition with

innovation.

With the help of his wife, Livia, he proved to be an

incomparable administrator.

Brought opposing factions together, and established

efficient rule throughout the empire.

Laid the foundation of an extended period of

stability, the Pax Romana.

Roman Empire at the death of Augustus, 14 CE

The City of Rome

• By the start of the empire, Rome was the largestcity in the ancient world, having a population ofabout 1,000,000.

The Pax Romana• The Roman Peace

• Long period of relative peace in the Roman Empire.

• During this time the Romans still fought a consistent number of wars

against neighboring states and tribes, most notably the Germanic tribes

and Persians.

• Nonetheless, the Pax Romana was an era of relative tranquility, in

which Rome endured neither major civil wars, nor serious invasions.

• This period is generally considered to have lasted from 27 BCE, when

Augustus Caesar declared an end to the great Roman civil wars of the

first century, until either 180 CE, when emperor Marcus Aurelius died,

or the death of his son, Commodus, in 193 CE.

• It was a time in which Roman commerce thrived, unhampered by pirates

or marauding enemy troops. It was not always peaceful; rebellions

frequently appeared, but were quelled.

After the Death of Augustus

• Augustus successor was his step son Tiberius.

• His dynasty, the Julio-Claudian, produced a few goodleaders, but overall this period of Roman history wasmarked with suspicion, intrigue and terror.

• Dynasty ended with crazy Nero, who committedsuicide.

• Civil war followed, until a powerful general,Vespasian, seized control, starting the Flaviandynasty.

• The Flavians straightened out Roman finances andstabilized the frontier.

End of the Flavian Dynasty• When the emperor Domitian was assassinated in 96 CE,

people were very much afraid that there would be unrestlike after the assassination of Julius Caesar, or after Nero'ssuicide, and there would be another civil war.

• Quickly the Senate met and chose one of the senators to beemperor.

• They chose Nerva, who was an old man with no sons whomight want to inherit the throne.

• Nerva died two years later, but not before starting a newsystem for choosing the next emperor.

• He chose somebody who seemed like he would do a goodjob, and he adopted him as his son.

• The man Nerva adopted was Trajan.

The Good Emperors:

Nerva and Trajan

• Nerve's system seemed to

work well.

• Roman had a succession

of good emperors.

beginning with Trajan.

• Under Trajan the empire.

reached its greatest

geographical extent.

Hadrian• Trajan also had no sons,

and so he adopted hisnephew Hadrian.

• Next Hadrian becameemperor.

• Hadrian was welleducated and widelytraveled.

• His love of Greek culturebrought about newbuilding program and artspatronage throughout theempire.

Antoninus and Marcus Aurelius

• When he died in 134 CE,

Hadrian’s adopted son

Antoninus Pius became

emperor.

• Next Antoninus adopted a

grown man to follow him,

and that was Marcus

Aurelius.

• Marcus Aurelius

reestablished military

authority among the

Germanic tribes.

The Emperor Commodus

• Unfortunately Marcus Aureliusallowed his not so competentson, Commodus, to succeedhim as emperor.

• You remember him fromGladiator.

• That was the end of the “goodRoman emperors”.

• Commodus died in 193 CE

Do you see a resemblance?

How did the Romans control

such a large empire?

• Inspired leadership and military tactics.

• Careful planning, and massive logistical support.

• Rome’s most enduring contributions to Western

civilization its….

– system of laws,

– governmental and administrative organization

– sophisticated civil engineering

– and architecture, all reflect these qualities

• In short, they knew how to run things.

Why were they so successful?

• To keep people in the empire happy the Romansundertook building projects on an unprecedentedscale and complexity.

• They mandated the construction of :

– central administrative and legal centers

• forums and basilicas

– Recreational facilities

• racetracks, stadiums and theaters

• They also built:

– public baths, aqueducts, roads bridges, middle classhousing even entire towns

• All to make life more efficient and pleasant forcitizens.

A Roman Arena in Jordan

Romans also built public baths in many

cities. This one is in Bath, England.

How did they do this?

• Roman builders and architects developed rational

plans using easily worked, but durable materials.

• Used highly sophisticated engineering methods.

• To facilitate communication they built a vast

network of roads and bridges.

• Many Roman roads and bridges are still in use

today, and some aqueducts need only minor

repairs in order to function again.

PONT DU GARD,

Nimes, France• Spans a valley.

• Romans built it inthe 1st centuryBCE.

• It has 3 tiers ofarches.

• Water was carriedvia gravity flowfrom Nimes to thecity, a distance 30miles with a dropof 54 feet over thewhole length.

• The lower archspans 82 feet andis constructed ofuncementedblocks weighingup to 2 tons each.

The Republican and Augustan

Period

Architecture

And

Sculpture

Greek Influence on the Romans

• Romans admired Greek art.

• Some historians suggest that the Romans may haveconquered the Greeks, but Greek culture conquered theRomans.

• The Romans adopted many Greek gods and myths.

• The Romans used Greek orders and designs in theirarchitecture.

• They imported Greek art and Greek artists.

– However in Rome, just as in Greece, artists were considered nomore than skilled laborers.

Republican and Augustan Period

• Early Republican art reflected Etruscaninfluences.

• Later expansion of the empire brought aboutexposure to a variety of art forms.

• Roman art became increasingly eclectic.

• During this period architecture evolvedslowly, while sculpture underwent dramaticchange.

Roman Republican Architecture

• The Romans were master builders and engineers.

• Not only did they build temples and palaces theyalso had to satisfy the needs of ordinary peopleefficiently and inexpensively.

• Romans relied heavily on the arch and the vault.

• Beginning in the 2nd c. BCE, Romans started usingconcrete as a building material.

• Concrete much less costly than cut stone andordinary laborers, rather than master stonecutters.

• Concrete could be mixed on site, rather thantransporting heavy stones.

Romans used a variety of construction

methods depending on the job.

Example of concrete use from Pompeii.

• Modern use of Roman style concrete.

Elements of Architecture

Roman Construction

• The Romans used marble as a building material, but it was lessavailable to them then to the Greeks. Travertine was a cheaper, morereadily available substitute.

• The Romans used marble mainly as a decorative facing or outer layerover a core of cheaper material, such as concrete.

• Concrete was made from lime, sand and gravel with rubble. It wasinvented 1000 years earlier by the people of Asia Minor who used itfor fortification only.

• The Romans knew how to hide the ugliness of concrete with facadesand facings of brick, stone, plaster or marble.

• Today, much of Ancient Rome’s marble facings have disappeared dueto looting.

Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia

• Dedicated to the goddess of fateand chance.

• Grander than any building in Romein its time.

• Discovered while clearing rubbleafter bombing in WWII.

• Reflects clear influence ofHellenistic style.

• Multi leveled, enclosed stairwaysand open air terraces.

• Built of concrete with a veneer oflimestone.

• Marvel of planning andengineering.

• Does it remind you of anything?Think Egypt and Persia.

Model of Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia,

c. 100 BCE

Typical Roman buildingUrban temples in commercial setting

Roman Temple Plan

• This is a sample of a small

urban temple in Rome.

• The rectangular cella has

columns that are engaged or set

into the wall.

• There are also columns on

the porch that reflect the Greek's

prostyle plan.

Temple of Portunus, Rome, 2nd c. BCE

• The Temple of Portunus is perhaps the most frequently cited example ofRoman Republican temple architecture in the world.

• Built in the late-second to first

century BCE, the temple

dedicated to the god of ports and

harbors rises gracefully near the

Tiber in Rome.

• Its raised podium and

colonnaded porch are a

combination of Etruscan and

Greek architectural elements.

• Constructed with local stone and

travertine, the temple was

converted into a church in the

ninth century.

Maison Carree• The Maison Carree at Nimes in

southern France is one of the best

preserved temples to be found

anywhere in the territory of the

former Roman Empire.

• The temple owes its preservation

to the fact that it was rededicated

as a Christian church in the fourth

century, saving it from the

widespread destruction of temples

that followed the adoption of

Christianity as Rome's official

state religion.

• It subsequently became a meeting

hall for the city's consuls, a canon's

house, a stable during the French

Revolution and a storehouse for

the city archives.

• It became a museum after 1823.

The Temple was built c. 19-16 BCE by the Emperor Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa,

who was also the original patron of the Pantheon in Rome.

Romans also continued the Greek tradition of building large outdoor theaters.

This theater in France, built during the reign of Augustus

could hold 7000 people

Reconstruction drawing of Roman Theater

at Orange in France

• Romans built many large outdoor theaters into hillsides.

• Similar to Greek theater design but with a few differences.

• The orchestra or stage area is a semi-circle.

• A raised stage, behind the orchestra, is enclosed with an

elaborate wall facing the audience.

• Unlike Greek theaters which felt like they were part of the

surrounding landscape, Roman theaters totally isolated their

audiences in an architectural setting.

Situated in the Rhone valley, the ancient theatre of Orange,

with its 100 yd. long facade, is one of the best preserved of

all the great Roman theatres, and it is still in use today!

Republican Sculpture

Verism

• Convention of rendering accurate and faithful portraits ofindividuals.

• Sculptors wanted to create believable images based oncareful observations.

• Romans had a tradition of ancestor veneration whichinvolved creating wax masks of deceased family members,which were then kept at home.

• Patrons in the Republican period clearly admired veristicportraiture.

• Often hired skilled Etruscan artists to execute thesculptures.

Aulus Metelluslate 2nd or early 1st c. BCE,

bronze

• This Roman's official portrait wascreated by an Etruscan artist inbronze.

• His name is inscribed on his toga inEtruscan letters.

• Originally called "The Orator"because of his outstretched arm as ifhe is addressing a group.

• He wears a typical Romantoga and sturdy leather boots, bothcharacteristic of a Roman official.

• Portrait of

Pompey the

Great

• c. 50 BCE

• Very realistic

and

individualized

Augustan Sculpture

Drawing inspiration from Etruscan and Greek art as well as

Republican traditions, Roman artists of the Augustan age

created a new style:

A Roman Form of IdealismGrounded in the appearance of the everyday world.

Roman Form of Idealism

• Enriched the art of portraiture for both

government officials and ordinary citizens.

• Recorded contemporary historical events on

commemorative arches, columns and

mausoleums erected in public places.

• Contributed shamelessly to Roman Imperial

propaganda.

Augustus of Prima Portaearly 1st c. BCE, marble

• This was a new style in Romanportraiture. It combined Greekidealism and Roman realism.

• Found in the villa of his wife, Livia

• Illustrates the use of imperialportraiture for governmentpropaganda.

• Sculptor combined gesture of theorator in the Aulus Metellus with theideal proportion of Polykleitos SpearBearer.

• Mythological imagery, Cupid, son ofVenus, reminds viewer of Augustus’family connection to Aeneas andVenus

• Why is he barefoot?

LiviaMarble, c.20 BCE

• Wife of Augustus

• Strong and resourceful

woman remained by his side

for over 50 years.

• Her son, Tiberius became

emperor after Augustus

• This sculpture reveals her

strong features in the

realistic tradition of Roman

portraits.

Livia

The Ara Pacis

• In 13 BCE, the Roman Senate decreed that the Ara Pacisbe built to celebrate Augustus' triumphant return from thewars in Spain and Gaul, although the dedication or officialinauguration took place about three and a half years later,in January 9 BCE.

• This altar to Peace was located in the Campus Martius (theField of War), a place ironically where the military didexercises.

• In the succeeding centuries, however, the altar waseventually covered up as the level of the area was raiseduntil finally it was buried and forgotten, only to beuncovered in part in the Renaissance, with slabs of thealtar dispersed to various locations.

• Eventually the area was excavated and slabs wererecovered from a number of owners; the altar was restoredand installed in its own pavilion in 1938. Today, the AraPacis is installed in a new museum, which opened in 2006.

Ara Pacis: Altar of Peacecombination of realism, idealism and propaganda

Ara Pacis Augustae

"Altar of Augustan Peace",

• The altar was meant to be a vision of the Roman civic religion.

• It sought to portray the peace and prosperity enjoyed as a result of the

Pax Romana brought about by the military supremacy of the Roman

empire.

• The Ara Pacis was elaborately and finely sculpted entirely in white marble, depictingscenes, in which the Emperor and his family were portrayed in the act of offering sacrificesto the gods.

• Various figures bring forth cattle to be sacrificed.

• Some have their togas drawn over their heads, like a hood; this signifies that they are actingin their official capacity.

• Others wear laurel crowns, traditional symbols of victory.

• Men, women, and children all approach the gods.

The figures in the procession are not idealized types,

as are typically found in Greek sculpture, but are

instead recognizable portraits of individuals.

Can you locate Livia?

ALLEGORY OF PEACE, from the Ara Pacis

.•The allegory depicts the fertility of Italy renewed by the Pax Augusta.

Allegory of Peace and Prosperity

• The Allegory of Peace is a panel on the north side of the Ara Pacis.

• It depicts Earth (Terra Mater) or Peace, with two babies, representing abundanceand fertility.

• Also a piece of Augustan Propaganda

• A figure to the left rides on a swan and symbolizes the air, while to

the right, riding on a sea- monster, a figure symbolizes the wind of the

sea.

• Below are a sheep and a cow in the center, and a river (symbolized by

an urn and reeds) to the left, and, to the right, the waves or the sea.

Gemma Augusteaearly 1st century CE, onyx 7”x9”

Gemma AugusteaGem of Augustus

• Low-relief cameo gem cutfrom a double-layeredArabian onyx stone.

• One layer is white, whilethe other is bluish-brown.

• The painstaking method bywhich the stone was cutallowed for minute detailwith sharp contrastbetween the images andbackground, also allowingfor a great deal of shadowplay.

• Works referenced:

• Janson, History of Art, Abrams 2001

• Marilyn Stockstad’s Art History: Second Edition (Volumes one andtwo)

• Metropolitan Museum of Art’s “Timeline of Art History.” Availableonline at http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/splash.htm

• Strickland, Carol. The Annotated Mona Lisa. 1992

• “The Web Gallery of Art.” Available online at http://www.wga.hu

• http://www.artchive.com/artchive/E/el_greco.html