Combustion properties of peat and other kinds of vegetation on abandoned

peatland in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia Nina YULIANTI

1*, Aswin USUP

2, and Hiroshi HAYASAKA

1’

1Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University, N13 W18, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-8628, Japan 2University of Palangka Raya, Jalan Yos Sudarso, Palangka Raya 73112, Indonesia

*Corresponding author: nina_bdp82@yahoo.co.id; Nina@eng.hokudai.ac.jp

ABSTRACT

Recently, Indonesia was recognized as 4th most CO2 emitting country after the USA,

the European Union, and China. Rapid development of tropical peat swamp forests has

increased Indonesian CO2 emissions dramatically because of the burning of peat layers. At

present, peatland-forest fires have reached a serious level of severity. Four large fires

occurred in the first decade of the present century, giving an average interval of only about

2.5 years. To consider a more effective fire prevention strategy based on the various

properties of peat and vegetation, the authors of this paper choose the Mega Rice Project area,

Central Kalimantan as the study area and collected peat as well as timber and ferns. The basic

combustion and other properties were newly analyzed by using various instruments such as

the Bomb Calorimeter, Thermogravimetry and Differential Thermal Analysis apparatus, and

a CHNS/O analyzer. Field observations of actual peat fires were also carried out to more

comprehensively understand the combustion and fire propagation characteristics. The results

clearly showed that the calorific value and carbon content of peat near Palangka Raya was

higher than wood and ferns, even higher than low-grade coal. The lowest ignition temperature

was 253oC for ferns and the highest 295

oC for peat. Both peat and ferns under dry conditions

become highly flammable, and may be considered high-risk fuels. Based on the analytical

results of this research and field observations of peat fires in the MRP area, the authors are

now proposing an effective fire line by deep and wide ditches combined with the fire-resistant

(low flammability or little fire prone) trees to protect urban areas and farmland.

Key words: abandoned peatland, Central Kalimantan, combustion properties, fern, fire line,

peat fires, wood

1 INTRODUCTION 2

Central Kalimantan has the largest areas of tropical peatland in Indonesia covering an 3

area of about 3 million ha (Wetland, 2004). Over millions of years, this area has accumulated 4

organic carbon and acted as a carbon sink. In 1996/1997, more than 1 million ha of peat 5

swamp forest (hereafter PSF) of Central Kalimantan has drained by drainage channels for 6

conversion to agricultural land under the Mega Rice Project (hereafter MRP). The effect was 7

a lowering of ground water levels (hereafter GWL), mainly in the following dry season, that 8

are a cause of severe wildfires. Page et al. (2002) showed that as much as 70% of the PSF was 9

destroyed by the fire in 1997. The highest numbers of fires in Indonesia have been recorded in 10

the years 2002, 2004, and 2006 (Putra et al. 2008). After these fires, the larger part of PSF 11

was lost and has become abandoned peatland with ferns and grass as the dominating 12

vegetation. 13

The peatland fires produce toxic smoke as well as they release large amounts of green 14

house gases (CO2, SO4 and N2O). Hooijer et al (2006) estimated that CO2 emission from this 15

source in Indonesia was an average of 1,42 Gt/y as a lower limit with the possible average 16

maximum 4,32 Gt/y. Further, biodiversity on peatland and PSF are endangered. 17

The area of MRP that is now not under cultivation (ex-MRP) may be subject to 18

uncontrolled and unpredictable wildfires but effective preventive measures are not carried out 19

at present. Limitations of firefighting facilities and personnel result in frequent and 20

increasingly serious fires, and study on peat fires is not very active due to complicating 21

factors like that it involves combustion type or smoldering fires. In addition, firefighting 22

efforts that are handled by the government are little effective. Indeed, fire behavior and 23

characteristics on peatland are unique and the environment is fragile when compared with 24

other types of land so ways of fires management would differ. 25

3

Weather conditions and the quantity and quality of fuel are also closely related with 1

fire spreading. Total accumulation of organic carbon of peatland was reported as from 240Gt 2

to 480Gt (Rieley et al. 1997), from the peat and vegetation. In the fire process, carbon is a 3

major compound of the chemical reactions in the combustion. The fuel in peat fires are dry 4

peat and fresh and/or dead vegetation. Peat and vegetation behave similarly in fires as both 5

are organic matter, when there is little moisture they are highly flammable, even though 6

flammability charts show different values depending on the wood variety (Ragland et al. 7

1991) and degree of peat decomposition (Konovalov and Roman, 1973). This report studies 8

the characteristic of peatland fuels especially its relation to the thermal and combustion 9

properties. 10

Two of the authors in this paper (Usup and Hayasaka) have been describing 11

combustion and the thermal characteristics of peat fires in previous papers. However, the 12

ideas there are not sufficient to establish appropriate methods to extinguish and prevent fires 13

in these fire prone tropical peatland forests, and this paper provides important additional 14

information about peat and surface vegetations on abandoned peatland. After fires, unburnt 15

peat has the potential to burn again because the depth of the peat layer near Palangka Raya is 16

as deep as 3 meters and in some cases deeper, and re-growth of surface vegetation provide 17

fuel for repeated peat fires. 18

A more detailed knowledge of the basic combustion and fuel material properties of the 19

peat and other combustible agents in this area is essential for fire prevention, fire fighting, and 20

control to be able to design a fire protection strategy for the future. To enable this, the 21

objective of this paper is to elucidate the combustion properties of combustibles that may 22

serve as fuel in fires on tropical peatland. Further, the report evaluates the relationship of 23

these factors with peat fire severity by observation of actual fires near Palangka Raya, Central 24

Kalimantan, Indonesia. 25

4

STUDY SITE AND METHODS 1

The study site was located in the Block C of the ex-MRP area near Palangka Raya, 2

Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. It is in the area from 2.175o to 2.298

o S and from 114.028

o to 3

114.142o E (shown in Fig. 1). This area had severe and repeated fires in the drought season 4

from July to October in 1997, 2002, 2004, 2006, and 2009, emitting large amounts of CO2, 5

mainly burning peat but also from damaging farmland and recovering secondary forest. Since 6

around 1997, two of the authors in this paper (Usup and Hayasaka) have been studying fires, 7

peatland, forest and farmland, and vegetation in the area of the study. During recovery of the 8

forest here, the density of ferns first becomes higher than that of trees due to the low growth 9

rates of woods. To determine the combustion properties, peat, fern, and wood samples at 10

various study sites were collected. 11

The main parameters established in this study are the calorific value, ignition 12

temperature, carbon content, and major elements of the peat and other kinds of vegetation like 13

shown in Fig 2. During fire events, we have observed fire behavior and temperature changes 14

of peat fires with the help of a thermal video system (TVS 600). 15

The calorific values were determined by the Bomb calorimeter (IKA Calorimeter C 16

7000) using dried samples. In all experiments the calorimeter was filled with oxygen at 3.00 17

MPa, and temperatures ranged from 18oC to 30

oC. 18

The thermal-balanced used in this study is a combined Thermogravimetry and 19

Differential Thermal Analysis (TG-DTA) apparatus (Seiko A3600). Approximately four to 20

nine milligrams of powdered sample in an aluminum tray were placed in a JASCO A 6300 21

Simultaneous Thermal Analyzer in the TG-DTA. Samples were heated to 45oC - 570

oC at 22

a constant rate of 10oC min

-1 in the airflow of 200 ml min

-1. 23

Total concentration of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur in the peat and ferns 24

were analyzed using a CHNS/O analyzer (PE2400 Ⅱ; PerkinElmer Inc., USA). After the 25

5

samples were crushed or powdered by a ball mill, they were burned at 975℃. After 1

combustion, SOx, NOx, and CO2 in the gases were fixed by Copper (Cu) and converted to S, 2

N, and C. 3

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4

Combustion Properties of Peat 5

Calorific values and ignition temperature 6

The calorific values were used to determine the amount of heat released by the 7

combustion reaction. Samples from the Taruna Jaya, Central Kalimantan were analyzed for 8

the calorific values, and the peat at various depths showed values of 22.39 to 26.06 kJg-1 9

(Table 1). The calorific value of the surface peat layer (0-20 cm) is higher than that of the 10

deeper layers. The values were higher than in Usup et al. (2004), 18.36 to 23.48 kJg-1

and also 11

in Lailan et al. (2004) in Selangor, Malaysia, 7.13 kJg-1

to 22.69 kJg-1

. The differences may be 12

due to the properties of the basic components of the peat or wood. Andriesse (1988) found 13

that the calorific value of peat is related to the carbon content, type of peat, degree of 14

decomposition, and ash content. In addition, decreases in moisture of samples lead to 15

increases in the calorific values. 16

These calorific values for peat in Table 1 are higher than lignite (low grade coal/brown 17

coal) (Singh et al. 2009) and sub-bituminous coals of Central Kalimantan (Belkin et al. 2009). 18

The ignition temperatures were between 250oC and 295

oC, also higher than that of lignite but 19

lower than that of bituminous coal reported for Turkish coals (Haykiri-Açma et al. 2001). 20

These two relatively high values established here were due to the peat which in the beginning 21

stage of coalification. The International Energy Agency (IEA) was includes peat as a solid 22

fuel and in the coal category (Alpern and de Sousa, 2002). 23

24

25

6

Carbon content and other major contents of peat 1

Carbon content is an indicator to determine the flammability of fuel. Previous research 2

reported that the carbon content in Central Kalimantan peat ranged from 53.1 to 57.8% 3

(Salampak, 1999). In Usup et al. (2004) reported that a lower carbon content of 31.7 to 38.2%. 4

The differences may relate to the level of decomposition and mineral soil content. 5

Decomposition of peat depends on either natural processes or soil tillage and repeated fires, 6

and the location of peat would influence the soil mineral content. The peat in coastal, 7

watershed, and developed areas is likely to be contaminated by soil minerals from sea or river 8

water flow and human activity. 9

Table 1 shows that the carbon content of the peat ranged from 55.8-63.2%. The 10

percentages were higher than the lignite of Central Kalimantan (Belkin et al. 2009). Here the 11

samples were collected from abandoned burnt peatland where large fires had occurred five 12

times and the peat here was more decomposed than in undisturbed peatland areas. The 13

decomposition stage could be distinguished by the color of the peat (Soil Survey Staff, 1998). 14

In this site, peat has dark brown to black with fiber content less than one-sixth of the total 15

volume determined by rubbing and it was classified as Sapric. The C/N ratio of the peat 16

clearly shows high values of 44-58%, indicating that the degree of decomposition of the 17

organic materials was high. In addition, the hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur contents, 2.57 %, 18

1.02%, and 0.02% respectively, were little different from the values of other peat and lignite; 19

the nitrogen content of the peat here was slightly higher than that of lignite. 20

Thermogravimetry (TG) and Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) of peat 21

Fig. 3 shows the TG- and DTA-temperatures showing the weight loss and the 22

temperature rise of the peat. The curves show characteristic of the peat such as ignition 23

temperatures and combustion temperatures. The DTA curves of the peat samples did not 24

show a clear endothermic peak of water at around 100oC due to the low water content. From 25

7

around 250oC, both weight loss and temperature increase. This change could show the 1

ignition temperature of the peat volatile matter. 2

This peat sample has two exothermic peaks with the first peak around 350oC and the 3

second peak around 4700C. The first exothermic peak is caused by decomposition of peat 4

solids such as hemicelluloses and celluloses into carbon gas. The amount of mass loss was 5

gradually increasing from 10 to 66% of total weight. At the second exothermic peak, the 6

amount of flammable gas was small as only lignin remained in the peat. The ash content was 7

only around 0.1% of the total weight, showing that most of the solid components of the peat 8

was lost during the combustion process. 9

Combustion properties of various vegetation types 10

Wood 11

The results showed that Tarantang (Campnosperma, sp) and Gerunggang (Cratoxylum 12

arboresen) have the lowest calorific values, around 16 kJg-1, whereas, Pilau (Agathis 13

borneensis) has the highest calorific value. The wood with high calorific values was classified 14

as high-risk fuels. Calorific values of wood also have a reciprocal relationship with their 15

flammability (Nunes reguira et al. 1996). 16

The ignition temperatures of wood were from 253 to 283oC. The lowest ignition 17

temperature was 253oC of Balangiran (Shorea balangiran) and the highest was Tarantang 18

(Campnosperma, sp). The differences between the temperatures may be related to the amount 19

of minerals and fiber in wood (Müller-Hagedorn et al. 2003). The carbon contents of wood 20

samples were less than fifty percent, with the measured values of 13 local woods ranging 21

from 20.41 to 40.43%. The lower carbon content was in Mertibu (Dactyloclaudus 22

stenotachys) with the higher value in Tumih (Combretucarpus rotundatus). 23

24

25

8

Ferns 1

Several kinds of ferns established themselves early after fires in this peatland. The 2

most common fern species is Stenochlaena palustris, the so-called kalakai (Wardani, et al. 3

2005). Other fern species that are commonly found in abandoned peatland are Pteridium 4

aquilinum, the so-called hawuk and Osmunda cinnamomea, the so-called pakis. About three 5

years after the fires, ferns covered more than 60% of the burnt area. They have rapidly spread 6

rhizomes on the soil surface and do not require much of nutrients to grow. When fully grown 7

they rise to more than about 3m from the soil surface. For this reason, ferns are available as a 8

potential fuel for fires. Ferns would be a good fuel source and igniter for other vegetation and 9

peat. In addition, the bushes and ferns soon re-grow to become highly vulnerable to fire. 10

Related with fern flammability, Table 3 shows that the calorific values of ferns were 11

established to be from 16.29 kJg-1

to 18.14 kJg-1

depending on the species. These values are 12

similar to the calorific values of wood. The carbon content of Stenochlaena palustris was 13

45.1%, Pteridium aquilinum was 47.7% and Osmunda cinnamomea was 44.2%. The results 14

indicate that high carbon contents suggest high calorific values. It means that not only brown 15

or dry ferns but also green or fresh ferns are a high-risk burnable substance. Dry ferns would 16

become a more dangerous fuel due to its lower water content during the dry season. The TG-17

DTA result of ferns showed combustion of volatile matter would also start from around 18

250oC, similar to the temperature for peat or wood. During combustion the temperature rises 19

gradually until the first exothermic peak, and after that the temperature increases rapidly until 20

the glowing or char phases. After the combustion over, most of total fern weight is lost and 21

the final residue was small amounts of ash. 22

Observation of actual fires in abandoned peatland 23

In the early 1980s, the tropical forests of Kalimantan, Indonesia burned due to serious 24

drought (July 1982-April 1983) combined with mismanagement of the forests. Then, the 25

9

following severe fires occurred during the drought season of 1997/98, the first year of the 1

Mega Rice Project land clearing on South and Central Kalimantan Peatland (Noor, 2001). In 2

this century (the 21st), Indonesia has had large fires four times at short intervals of two or 3

three years. These fires occurred in 2002, 2004, 2006, and 2009. The main factors causing 4

these of fires were long droughts, El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events and forest-5

peatland degradation (Putra et al. 2008; Langner, 2009; Rieley and Limin, 2009). 6

Fire types in peatland 7

Fig. 4 shows a typical surface fire situation in abandoned peatland with three 8

combustion types, namely, flaming, smoldering, and glowing. The active fire with flaming 9

has high flame temperatures, around more than 800oC (Saharjo, 2006). Under high 10

temperatures, not only dead vegetative matter such as trees, bushes, grass, and ferns but also 11

fresh, growing vegetable matter in this vegetation burn with relatively high fire spreading 12

rates. Smoldering and glowing fires are flameless combustion and show low spreading rates 13

due to lower temperatures. 14

In ground peat fires, the fire spreading behavior could be simply explained by heat 15

flows near the ground surface. At the top of the peat layer or ground surface, heat from peat 16

fires warms air near the surface and the heated air moves upward. With this movement, cool 17

surrounding air would move into the surface area and cool the surface. However, with the 18

burning underground peat, the cooling flow of incoming air disrupted by the heat rising from 19

the fire zone and so there is no flow of cooling air. Further, this kind of peat fire tends to 20

move toward underground layers and it was observed that these fires leave deep holes with 21

depths of more than 30cm at the peat fire site. As a result, the spreading rate of peat fires 22

becomes relatively slower due to the smoldering type of peat combustion underground with 23

low temperature combustion (around 500 or 600 o

C (Rein et al. 2008)). This unique fire 24

10

behavior answers some of the question why smoldering fires occur over long durations, and 1

why peat fires are difficult to extinguish. 2

Above the forest floor, fire comes with flames or of this type of fire, called surface 3

fires. In abandoned peatland, surface fires also could reach dangerous levels mainly due to 4

ferns. Page et al. (2009) stated that peatland dominated with ferns over more than 50% of the 5

total area could be a high fire risk, as ferns are a favorable fuel with its high calorific value 6

and low ignition temperature; its values are the same as peat and wood. This means that ferns 7

are fire prone vegetation, particularly under dry conditions. 8

Ground water level and fire activities 9

Even with the details described above, smoldering fire behavior is still not well 10

understood, mainly as it is an underground phenomenon. The previously sited studies (Usup 11

et al. 2004; Putra et al. 2008; Wosten et al. 2008; Page et al. 2009) were limited to stating that 12

ground peat fire spreading is closely related to peat physical characteristic such as ground 13

water level (hereafter GWL) and peat moisture. According Putra et al. (2008), fires ignite 14

when GWL becomes around -20cm and the number of fires increase when GWL drops to 15

deeper layers. Due to the high calorific value of peat it becomes a very combustible and easily 16

burning fuel. In addition, Limin et al. (2008) reported that the maximum peat layer depths lost 17

during fires was as deep as 60cm below the surface. It may be hypothesized that the fire stops 18

here due to the peat moisture at deeper layers (more than -60cm), where it could be as high 19

135% as the reported by Moreno et al. (2008). When moisture reaches such values well over 20

half of the total peat weight, the smoldering would have difficulty to spread further. 21

Peat surface temperature in smoldering 22

To observe actual peat fire conditions, we have now used a thermal video system 23

(TVS) to measure the peat fire propagation. The apparent temperature profile of an actual peat 24

fire in the MRP area on September 15, 2004 was observed with TVS. The observations 25

11

showed that the temperatures in the peat fire zone ranged from 100 to 500oC. The temperature 1

around 500oC was the glowing combustion temperature of peat and coincided with the 2

observed glowing temperature of TG-DTA like shown in Fig. 3. The lower temperature was 3

in the frontlines (boundaries), where it was around 125oC, just above the boiling point of 4

water. In this situation the water content of the peat would generally vaporize, following 5

which the peat layer will start to ignite, this lower temperature boundary may be termed a so-6

called pre-heating zone (Rein et al. 2008), this was the situation simultaneous with that in the 7

center of the burning area, in the center, the temperatures recorded by the TVS were higher 8

ranging from 300 to 500

oC. In this central zone where the flaming combustion occurred there 9

will also be a release of heat and smoke in large amounts. 10

Smoke or haze from peat fires 11

During the high season of fires, then in addition to producing the intense radiance of 12

the heat, peat fires also generate smoke and haze. This atmospheric pollution contains carbon, 13

nitrogen, sulphur, and potassium gasses, and both particles of solid and liquid matter 14

including PM10, PM2.5 and ultrafine fractions PM1 (Levine, 1999; Simoneit, 2002). The 15

visual inspections of the actual fire established that different types of combustion generated 16

differently colored smoke. The flaming vegetation yields black (brown) smoke, and peat 17

smoldering yields dense white smoke (such as shown in Figure 4). According to experiments 18

by Pryor (1992), radicals of wood smoke generate gaseous combustion products that are more 19

toxic than cigarette smoke and have long lifetimes in air and these radicals could be deposited 20

deep in the lungs of living species that are exposed to this smoke. During the peak fire season 21

(October, 2006), concentrations of CO and PM10 in Palangka Raya, Capital of Central 22

Kalimantan has reached around 21.9ppm and 1700µg/m3, respectively (Putra, 2010). These 23

values show that the air quality is very unhealthy and hazardous for human life. The 24

12

dangerous conditions are shown by the number of respiratory problem that reported hundreds 1

of people suffering health problems and as many as 29 peoples died (Limin et al. 2007). 2

When smoke from peat fires become thick, sunlight hardly reaches the ground surface 3

and then convection is suppressed, potentially leading to stagnation of the smoke reducing, 4

even stopping, air circulation and reducing visibility extremely. This condition is serious for 5

the environment, not only for humans, transportations and communications. During major 6

fires, the massive smoke clouds from peat fires blanket all of Kalimantan Island as well as 7

neighboring countries such as Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei Darussalam. It has been the 8

cause of health problems of residents and traffic accidents due to the low visibility and lower 9

agricultural production due to the weak sunlight. Numerous MODIS images clearly showed 10

these conditions and large white balls of smoke are clearly visible in the images (Hayasaka, 11

2007). This situation clearly shows that the smoke or haze situation in Central Kalimantan is a 12

major international issue. 13

Fire line concept 14

In the recent decade, fire prevention and firefighting in Central Kalimantan have 15

become an urgent global problem. When peat fires occur they always burn for long times and 16

are difficult to put out. With only simple equipment such as water pumps it will be difficult 17

to suppress the fires because the water supply is not sufficient during dry seasons. Thus, more 18

effective fire prevention methods are urgently needed in the future, particularly to protect 19

villages near forest and farmland. Fig. 5 showed a fire line concept has three components, 20

ditches, a fire barrier layer, and fire-resistant (low flammability or little fire prone) trees. It is 21

adopted from experience with farming methods and effective fire line creation implemented 22

in other countries. 23

The ditch is designed to extinguish ground fires as it separates burnt and yet unburnt 24

peat layers. Two of the authors (Usup and Hayasaka) have already provided ditches to protect 25

13

a small part of the study site. Because GWL could collapse down to -60cm or more, the depth 1

and width of ditches should be around these dimensions. Shorter vegetation such as grass, 2

ferns, bushes and other vegetative matter should be cut or reduced by herbicides ahead of the 3

ditches to avoid surface fire spreading. Following that, the ditches can be filled by mineral 4

material to break off ground fires too. The result would be a so-called fire barrier layer, and it 5

can be created with the abundant mineral resources available in Central Kalimantan such as 6

small stones (gravel), sand, and mineral soils. The combustion analysis found that Balangiran 7

(Shorea balangiran) had the highest ignition temperature (least fire prone) and it may offer 8

the best potential for firebreaks in abandoned peatland. Planting of fire-resistant trees has 9

been shown to achieve success in grasslands of sub-tropical forests. For example Pinus 10

ponderosa is a commonly available species that has been shown to be resistant to several 11

times of forest fires in the USA (Everett et al. 2000). While, in the Kunming area, China, has 12

reported several species of fire-resistant trees including Myrica rubra var. typical, Myrica 13

rubra var. atropurpurea, Camellia aleifera, Acacia dealbata, Alnus nepalensis, and 14

Exbucklandia populnea (Shi-you et al. 2009). In summary, the provision of firebreaks using 15

trees and ditches would be able to decrease fire propagation in the MRP area. The 16

management of such firebreaks and ditches can be performed by close cooperation between 17

government and local communities. 18

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 19

The authors thank Mr. Yukiyasu Yamakoshi and Mr. Ohichi of the Hokkaido Industrial 20

Research Institute, Sapporo, Japan for assistance with the calorific value analysis and the TG-21

DTA analysis. Mr. Tsunehiro Watanabe of the Graduate School of Environmental Science, 22

Field Science Center for Northern Biosphere of Hokkaido University, Nayoro, Japan is 23

thanked for help with the CHNS/O analysis. We also thank colleagues of the Agrotechnology 24

Division, University of Palangka Raya, Indonesia for help during the sample collection at the 25

14

study site. This research was supported by the JST-JICA project on “Science and Technology 1

Research Partnership for Sustainable Development” Wild Fire and Carbon Management in 2

Peat-Forest in Indonesia”. 3

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