Subiectele pentru examenul de licenţăAnul universitar 2012-2013

A. Examen - discipline de specialitate

Teoria şi practica traducerii

1.The Concept of Translation. The Theories on  Methods and Techniques of

Translation. The Method of Introspection based on the Semantical Theory of

linguistical signs, and the Method of Interpretation and the Descriptive

Method based on the theory of pragmatics of the translated text.

The term translation,itself have several meanings:it can refer to the general subject

field, the product(the text that had been translated)or the process(the act of the

producting the translation, otherwise known as translating).The process of

translation between 2 different written languages involves the translator changing

an original text(the Source Text) in the original verbal language(the source

language)into the written text (the target text)in different verbal language(the target

language).This type corresponds to ‘interlingual translation’,and is one of the 3

categories of translation.The Jacobson’s categories are the following:

a.intralingual translation-an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other

signs of the same language.

b.interlingual translation-an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some

other language.

c.intersemiotic translation-an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of

non-verbal sign system.

Intralingulan translation would occur,for example when we rephrase an expression

or text in the same language to explain or clarify something we might have said or

written.Intersemiotic translation would occur if a written text were translated, for

example into music, film or painting.It is interlingual translation which is the

traditional,although by no means exclusive,focus on translation studies.

The Theories on  Methods and Techniques of Translation

Translation method refers to the way a particular translation process is carried out

in terms of the translator’s objective, i.e., a global option that affects the whole

text.There are several translation methods that may be chosen, depending on the

aim of the translation: interpretative-communicative (translation of the sense),

literal (linguistic transcodification), free (modification of semiotic and

communicative categories) and philological (academic or critical translation).Each

solution the translator chooses when translating a text responds to the global option

that affects the whole text (the translation method) and depends on the aim of the

translation. The translation method affects the way micro-units of the text are

translated: the translation techniques. Thus, we should distinguish between the

method chosen by the translator, e.g., literal or adaptation, that affects the whole

text,and the translation techniques, e.g., literal translation or adaptation, that affect

microunits of the text.Logically, method and functions should function

harmoniously in the text. For example, if the aim of a translation method is to

produce a foreignising version, then borrowing will be one of the most frequently

used translation techniques. Each translation had adopted a different translation

method, and the techniques were studied in relation to the method chosen.

The Method of Introspection based on the Semantical Theory of linguistical

signs, and the Method of Interpretation and the Descriptive Method based on

the theory of pragmatics of the translated text

2.Language Functions: six functions of language according to Jakobson,

namely, Referential, Expressive (Emotive), Conative,  Poetic, Phatic,

Metalingual ones.  Text-Categories: the texts with pictures, charts, graphs,

diagrams and the ones without visuals, and Text-Types: descriptive,

narrative, expository, and argumentative ones.

Sophie Jakobson defined six functions of language (or communication functions),

according to which an effective act of verbal communication can be

described.Each of the functions has an associated factor. For this work, Jakobson

was influenced by Karl Bühler's Organon-Model, to which he added the poetic,

phatic and metalingual functions.

The six functions of languageThe Referential Function 

corresponds to the factor of Context and describes a situation, object or

mental state. The descriptive statements of the referential function can

consist of both definite descriptions and deictic words, e.g. "The autumn

leaves have all fallen now."

The Expressive (alternatively called "emotive" or "affective") Function 

relates to the Addresser (sender) and is best exemplified by interjections and

other sound changes that do not alter the denotative meaning of an utterance

but do add information about the Addresser's (speaker's) internal state, e.g.

"Wow, what a view!"

The Conative Function 

engages the Addressee (receiver) directly and is best illustrated

by vocatives and imperatives, e.g. "Tom! Come inside and eat!"

The Poetic Function 

focuses on "the message for its own sake"(the code itself, and how it is used)

and is the operative function in poetry as well as slogans.

The Phatic Function 

is language for the sake of interaction and is therefore associated with the

Contact factor. The Phatic Function can be observed in greetings and casual

discussions of the weather, particularly with strangers. It also provides the

keys to open, maintain, verify or close the communication channel:

"Hello?", "Ok?", "Hummm", "Bye"...

The Metalingual (alternatively called "metalinguistic" or

"reflexive") Function 

is the use of language (what Jakobson calls "Code") to discuss or describe

itself. (All this article is an example of metalinguistic Function).

Text categoriesLiterary text categories

1) category of segmentation manifests itself through the literary text division into

parts, chapters, paragraphs that are characterized by formal and compositional

autonomy

2) category of connectedness is realized through cohesion (formal connectedness

and coherence (content connectedness)).

3) category of prospection is associated with the plot development, which can be

prospective or cataphoric (looking towards the future; realized by means of flash-

forwards) and retrospective or anaphoric (looking towards the past) realized by

means of flashbacks.

4) category of retrospection

5) category of anthropocentricity is reflected through the subordination of the text

to the task of person characterization

6) category of local-temporal reference of the text is expressed through the system

of tenses and lexical time markers as well as place description

7) category of conceptuality accounts for the embodiment of social, moral,

aesthetic ideas of a literary work, which constitute its concept

8) category of informativity is responsible for information stratification into:

factual, conceptual and implicit (or subtext)

9) category of systemic character is attributed to the literary text because its macro

and microelements and functions integrate in a closed system that serves a specific

purpose. Pecularities: no element exists independently; limited in time and space;

its constituents cannot be developed, substituted, removed

10) category of integrity and completeness differentiated a text from a non-text

11) category of modality is the result of the author’s subjective interpretation of

reality

12) category of pragmatic orientation consists in stimulating the reader’s feedback

– intellectual and emotional reactions

Categories of time, space, person – literary text universals

3.Register Analysis. Registers as varieties of language viewed from the point

of view of formality. Shifts of Register. Restricted Registers: the role of the

translator as communicator in a very restricted register with particular

linguistic, pragmatic, and ideological conventions.

Special purposes language courses are not restricted to the English language: there

has been general acceptance of the acronym LSP or Languages for Special Pur-

poses. However, much of the research on LSP is written in English and English for

Special Purposes (ESP) has received greater attention than the more general term

from curriculum experts and materials designers. One of the most complete bibli-

ographies of ESP, that of Robinson (1980), lists over 500 entries of theoretical and

applied work done within only the last ten years. In effect, ESP has become an um-

brella term covering a wide range of interests and approaches to student centered

learning. Munby indicates his acceptance of this term as he defines ESP courses in

which "the syllabi and materials are determined in all essentials by the prior analy-

sis of the communicative needs of the learner, rather than by non-learner centered

criteria such as the teacher's or institution's predetermined preference for General

English or for teaching English as part of a general education" (1978:2). Specific

content areas have their own acronyms: EST refers to the English of Science and

Techno- EBE refers to English for Business and Economics EOP refers to English

for Occupational Purposes; VESL refers to Vocational ESL; and EAP refers to

English for Academic Purposes. These acronyms reveal the content areas to be in-

cluded in the curriculum; it remains the language instructor's job to specify the

content in the syllabus. In other words, these questions must be addressed: What is

distinctive about the language of science? How is the language of science similar

to or different from the language of technology? How are areas such as science,

technology or business different from general English? These questions are more

often asked than answered. One early and influential attempt to answer these ques-

tions was based on the argument that different uses of a Language will necessarily

be accompanied by different surface structure features--stated simply this means

that the language of science will look and sound different from other varieties of

English. Such a view makes intuitive sense. The proponents of this "function helps

determine form" point of view were Halliday, McIntosh, and Strevens in their book

The Linguistic Sciences and Lang- Teaching (1964). They can be credited with in-

troducing a term, which has become part of the jargon of applied linguistics--that

of "register" or "a variety of language distinguished according to use" (1964:89).

Halliday, McIntosh, and Strevens then defined louse" in terms of three parameters:

field, mode, and style or tenor. Field was used to refer globally to language activi-

ties such as Politics, linguistics, or music; tenor was used to refer to the interper-

sonal role relationships between people (e.g., teacher/student, parents/children,

boss/ employees); mode was used to refer to the medium of communication se-

lected (e.g., speech, writing). Thus, register in the Halliday, et al., framework en-

compassed a number Of socio-cultural features of communication. Problems arose,

however, when the framework began to be applied to specific contexts. Correla-

tions were found between linguistic features such as grammatical structures or lexi-

cal choices and specific registers. These correlations led people to believe it was

possible to predict what a register would look or sound like from the occurrences

of grammar and lexicon. The Misleading assumption was that because a text ex-

hibited certain surface structure linguistic features, then it must belong to a specific

register.

Later Halliday and Hasan in Cohesion in English (1976) would define cohesion

or intersentential connectivity also in terms of grammar and lexis. Although Halli-

day, et al., never intended for grammar and lexis to be the sole determiners of reg-

ister, many interpreted register in this narrow fashion because there did exist some

very specialized registers of English that could be learned with dictionary and

grammar in hand. For example, the topics and questions addressed to hotel em-

ployees are generally restricted to a narrow semantic field. Similarly, the language

use of airline pilots and air traffic controllers is restricted to clearly identifiable lex-

ical items and grammatical structures. Early studies in ESP, thus, concentrated on

registers that were fairly homogeneous and that did not show a great deal of variety

among Users. When the same methods were applied to more complex registers, it

became clear that grammar and lexicon alone were insufficient predictors what

people would actually say and write. These early studies were important because

they showed the inadequacy of a register approach alone and the need to include

more variables in the descriptive process. The methodology for register analysis

(very often computational linguistics) was necessarily bound to the words on a

page and proceeded in linear, word-by-word, or sentence-by-sentence parsing. The

methodology became similar to that of "explication de texte"--a structuralist

methodology for making the formal features of a literary work explicit. Explication

de texte attempts intensive analysis of written text assuming that the sum Of the

parts is greater than the whole; register analysis too often loses sight of the global

meaning of a text by an overemphasis on the parts.

One goal of register analysis dovetailed with that of contrastive analysis--

where there were differences, one could predict difficulty. Language teachers

could concentrate on lexical differences such as the higher frequency of noun com-

pounds in scientific English as well as grammatical distinctions such as the higher

incidence of passive voice constructions in scientific English with the intention

that difficulties with the language would be removed once students had enough

practice in manipulating the forms distinctive to a register. Such a solution to the

register problem was necessary because few ESP teachers have the same domain

specific knowledge that their students have, and thus without this top-down con-

ceptual orientation to the subject matter, these teachers were attempting to teach

what they knew best grammar and vocabulary. While register studies based on sta-

tistical descriptions helped create materials that were more authentic representa-

tions of what students would actually encounter in the real world, they still were

not helping students make the semantic and pragmatic connection that comprehen-

sion entails. Thus, register analysis was a valuable tool for identifying classroom

materials with high content validity; the mistake was to try to teach these materials

by the same principles that they were selected. Selinker, Todd-Trimble, and Trim-

ble underscored the problems students encounter when teaching overemphasizes

discrete point features of language. They remarked that students "often seem un-

able to comprehend the total meaning of the EST discourse even when they under-

stand all the words in each sentence and all the sentences that make up the dis-

course" .

Register analysis is a necessary first step in an analysis of the linguistic needs

of students in ESP Courses. Register analysis can guide teachers in the selection

and preparation of materials that should by their content validity motivate students

to learn. Register analysis thus helps ensure appropriateness of content.However,

the assumption underlying Language Teaching for Special Purposes is that a focus

on the actual use made of language will lead to an improvement in student attitude,

motivation, and ultimately performance. ESP, thus, falls well within the framework

of communicative language teaching which is currently becoming an international

phenomenon. To prevent the focus of ESP from becoming either too narrow or too

wide, teachers need to continue evaluating program goals in light of student perfor-

mance both inside and outside the classroom. Therefore, the content of an ESP syl-

labus should be based on an approach that combines register analysis with dis-

course analysis. Register analysis can be used to determine authenticity of lan-

guage in relation to lexical and grammatical features. Discourse analysis can be

used to help deter mine the authenticity Of the message as an act of communica-

tion involving a sender, receiver, and situational context in which a message is em-

bedded. Thus, these procedures help better isolate what should be taught in the

Classroom. Language teachers, however, must continue to struggle with the prob-

lem of how to make the language used in the classroom more like the language

used outside- the classroom.

4.Translation and Interpretation as two branches of translation: written and oral ones.

Over the past few years, the terms "Language Translation" and "Language Inter-

pretation" have emerged as two of the busiest buzzwords in the Language Service

Industry. Although they appear to be and are often mistaken to be synonyms, there

are significant differences between translation and interpretation. The primary sim-

ilarity between the two is that they are both modes of language conversion.Lan-

guage Interpretation is essentially about spoken language.Language Translation

primarily deals with written text.</b> Many people believe both tasks involve

substituting words from one language to words from another.  However, both Lan-

guage Interpretation and Language Translation demand a meticulous knowledge of

more than just the language itself. Importantly, both translation and interpretation

have various cultural references and cultural nuances.Along with converting one

spoken language into another, Interpretation basically encompasses converting a

spoken source language into spoken target language, and vice versa. Language In-

terpreters are required to be very attentive and excessively careful before they per-

form any interpretation task. They need to thoroughly understand what needs to be

communicated and the context in which it's being communicated in both the lan-

guages.As Language Translators convert written material from a source language

into another target language, excellent writing skills and analytical abilities are

fundamental for successful translation. In addition, expert editing skills are critical

for effective translation. Language Translation also involves replacement of words

with more appropriate words in the other language. Those who offer translation

services also manage the flow of ideas in the cultural context to ensure that the re-

sulting document is the closest possible translation to the target language.If one is

considering making a profession in either of these fields, then it should be under-

stood that both Interpretation and Translation language services demand a love of

both languages. However, there is a difference in the set of aptitudes and the train-

ing needed for each job. Expertise in Language Interpretation demands extensive

research, strong analytical skills, mental dexterity, and a fantastic memory. On the

other hand, the key skill set needed to deliver Language Translation service is the

ability to write well and express oneself clearly in the target language and the

source language. This is why many professional translators prefer translating only

into their native language. A rich library of dictionaries and reference materials are

necessary for effective Interpretation and Translation.Both Language Interpretation

and Language Translation have become promising career options, especially as

globalization continues. Internationally, there are a growing number of institutes

which teach Professional Language Translation and Professional Language Inter-

pretation

5.The Process of Translation. Main stages of written translation – pre-translation analysis and the use of principle techniques: choice of lexis adequate to style, genre and register, various lexical and grammatical transformations, substitution, omission, and antonymous translation.  Basics of the process of oral translation, namely, consecutive and simultaneous translation and conference interpreting.

Process of translationIn modern translation studies we distinguish the following major types of translation:

1. Interpreting can be defined as the translation of speech orally, as opposed to translation of written texts. It requires special skills (note taking, summarizing, language skills), a good memory, sheer mental stamina and, often, arduous training.There are several types of interpreting:• Simultaneous interpreting: The interpreter starts to translate before the speaker has fin-ished his/her utterance. Most often used at large events such as conferences and carried out by panels of at least two interpreters using special equipment. As this type of work is particularly tiring and stressful, the rule of thumb is that an interpreter should be able to take a break after 45 minutes of continuous work.• Liaison interpreting: A generic name for business interpreting; also just interpreting for trade conventions and other general business situations. Usually refers to the activities of a single interpreter who accompanies an individual or delegation around.• Consecutive interpreting: The interpreter starts to translate only after the speaker has finished his/her utterance. Often used at smaller conferences etc., generally used in court-room settings, speeches. Just one interpreter is often enough.• Telephone Interpreting: Interpreting carried out over the phone, using a three-way call-ing phone patch; also with video-conferencing.2. Word-For-Word Translation: Transferring the meaning of each individual word in a text to another, equivalent word in the target language. Sometimes called 'Literal Transla-tion'. While this is clearly appropriate for dictionaries, it can produce very for complex passages of text.3. Literary translation: Translation of literary works (novels, short stories, plays, po-ems, etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in its own right.4. Free Translation: Translating loosely from the original. Contrasted with word for word or literal translation, this may be the best method depending on the most appropri-ate unit of translation involved.5. Descriptive translation: One must bear in mind that it is the notional meaning of the source language unit and not always its morphological nature or structural form that is to be rendered in the target language. As a result, the target language unit, which equiva-lently/faithfully conveys the denotative/connotative meaning of the corresponding source language unit may not necessarily belong to the same language stratification level. De-pending on the notion expressed by the source language word/lexeme, it may be con-veyed in the target language sometimes through a word-combination or even through a

sentence, i.e., descriptively. Descriptive translating/interpreting is very often employed to render the sense/meaning of idioms/ phraseologisms, which have no equivalents in the target language. Descriptive translation is also employed in foot-notes to explain obscure places in narration.6. Antonymic translation is employed for the sake of achieving faithfulness in convey-ing content or the necessary expressiveness of sense units. It represents a way of render-ing when an affirmative in structure language unit (word, word-combination or sentence) is conveyed via a negative in sense or structure but identical in content language unit, or vice versa: a negative in sense or structure sense unit is translated via an affirmative sense unit.The antonymic device is employed in the following cases: a) when in the target language there is no direct equivalent for the sense unit of the source language; b) when the sense unit of the source language has two negations of its own which create an affirmation; c) in order to achieve the necessary expressiveness in narration; d) in order to avoid the use of the same or identical structures close to each other in a text (stylistic aim and means).7. Back-translation: If one text is a translation of another, a back-translation is a transla-tion of the translated text back into the language of the original text, made without refer-ence to the original text. In the context of machine translation, this is also called a "round-trip translation." Comparison of a back-translation to the original text is some-times used as a quality check on the original translation, but it is certainly far from infalli-ble and the reliability of this technique has been disputed.8. Machine Translation: Machine translation (MT) is automatic translation, in which a computer takes over all the work of translating. Obviously, a computer will work much faster (and is cheaper) than a human being. It can be a useful method if the purpose of the translation is a limited one; for example, to gain a rough idea of what a text contains ('gisting') and/or to process large numbers of documents very rapidly.MT works best on highly repetitive texts, involving a restricted range of vocabulary. Typ-ically, these are highly intricate scientific or technical texts. It does less well on more general or varied texts, and those involving a high degree of abstraction, and with these often yields useless results. The problem here is that it fails to cope with speech acts.Even on repetitive texts, the finished output often needs to be checked to by a human translator, and varying degrees of post-editing might be necessary.Another factor is the source language - target language pair. MT works best also where languages are of a similar type (isolating: English - Spanish) or related (German - Eng-lish) or closely related (Norwegian - Danish). At the time of writing, the obvious advan-tage of using MT to translate from one dialect to another in the same language (e.g. US English - British English) seems to have been overlooked but, using the same logic, it should work well on this.9. CAT: Computer-assisted translation (CAT), also called "computer-aided translation," "machine-aided human translation (МАНТ)" and "interactive translation," is a form of translation wherein a human translator creates a target text with the assistance of a com-puter program. The machine supports a human translator.Computer-assisted translation can include standard dictionary and grammar software. The term, however, normally refers to a range of specialized programs available to the translator, including translation-memory, terminology-management, concordance, and alignment programs With the in-ternet, translation software can help non-native-speaking individuals understand web

pages published in other languages. Whole-page translation tools are of limited utility, however, since they offer only a limited potential understanding of the original author's intent and context; translated pages tend to be more humorous and confusing than en-lightening.Interactive translations with pop-up windows are becoming more popular. These tools show several possible translations of each word or phrase. Human operators merely need to select the correct translation as the mouse glides over the foreign-language text. Possi-ble definitions can be grouped by pronunciation.10. Pseudo-translation is a technique needed for pseudolocalization that is used in soft-ware localization. In contrast to the usual translation process it is the process of creating text that mimics a foreign language without the goal of expressing the source text mean-ing in the target language.One approach to pseudo-translation involves the addition of special characters typical for the locale of the target language (for example a diacritical mark like a German Umlaut 'a'), as well as changing the number of characters belonging to the text. In that approach, the text is pseudo-translated in a way that allows to recognize the original source text. Another pseudo-translation solution involves the use of machine translation technology, which not only generates the necessary special characters but also gives developers a good indication of the length of a string in a particular target language.Pseudo-translation precedes the actual translation in the software development process. Its purpose is to test that the software is prepared for translation.Elena Shapa suggests the following classification model:1) According to the unit of translation, translation can be:• sound translation;• word translation;• word-combination, idioms or phraseological units translation;• sentence translation;• paragraph translation;• text translation;• intertextual translation.2) According to the aim of translation, translation can be:• literal translation;• summative translation, when the main ideas are rendered in the translated version;• abstract/adnotare, not more than a paragraph (sometimes not more than 6-7 sentences).3) According to tasks and objectives of translation, translation can be:• literary translation;• informative translation;• semantic translation.4) According to number of translators, translation can be:• individual translation;• committee translation.She also specifies the following translation types: • Formal equivalence translation (FЕ): This refers to a translation approach which attempts to retain the language forms of the original as much as possible in the translation, regardless of whether or not they are the most natural way to express the original meaning. In this type of translation, the trans-lator chooses one of a limited number of meanings assigned to each word. The translator

fills in the words that belong in the sentence but follows the word arrangement and gram-mar that is characteristic of the original language. Such a translation is often viewed as accurate. However, it can result in awkward, misleading, incomprehensible, or even amusing sentences.• Interlinear translation presents each line of the source text with a line directly beneath it giving a word by word literal translation in a target language. An interlinear translation is useful for technical study of the forms of the source text.• Literal translation is where the forms of the original are retained as much as possible, even if those forms are not the most natural forms to preserve the original meaning. Lit-eral translation is sometimes called word-for-word translation (as opposed to thought-for-thought translation).• Word-for-word translation: A form of literal translation which seeks to match the in-dividual words of the original as closely as possible to individual words of the target lan-guage. The translator seeks to translate an original word by the same target word as much as possible (this is technically called concordance). In addition, the order of words of the original language will be followed as closely as possible. No English translation, except for some interlinear translations, is a true word-for-word translation, but those who prefer this form of translation typically promote formally literal versions.• Loan translation means borrowing the meaning parts of a source word and directly translating them to the target language, instead of using a native term from the target lan-guage. The meaning parts of the source word are directly translated to equivalent mean-ing parts of the target language. Sometimes the borrowing is partial, with part of a term borrowed and part of it native in form. A word which is created through loan translation is also called calque.• Idiomatic translation is where the meaning of the original is translated into forms which most accurately and naturally preserve the meaning of the original forms. Id-iomatic refers to being in the common language of average speakers, using the natural phrasings and idioms of the language.•Dynamic translation: If a translation is dynamic we mean that the original meaning is communicated naturally in it, as well as accurately. A dynamic translation pays careful attention to the natural features of the target language. A dynamic translation attempts to speak in the language of the average fluent speaker of the language.• Common language translation (CLT) is a version of the source text which is in the plain, ordinary language of the average speaker. It follows an idiomatic translation ap-proach. The vocabulary and grammatical constructions are chosen carefully to ensure that they are in common usage by ordinary speakers of the language.• Vernacular translation: Translation into the everyday language of people, as distin-guished from a literary dialect of their language or some other dialect or language of edu-cation or social prestige.• Meaning-based translation (MB) properly focuses on the critical need for translation to preserve meaning. Adequate translation cannot always preserve forms of the original, but it must always preserve the meaning of the original.• Thought-for-thought translation: In such a translation the meaning of the original text is expressed in equivalent thoughts, that is, meanings. Thought-for-thought translation is typically contrasted with word-for-word translation.• Interpretive translation: A translation which includes interpretation of the meaning of

the source text, rather than simply the translation of that text. One logically legitimate use of this term would be for instances where a translator inserts information which, is extra-neous to the particular passage being translated. Such information, if relevant to study of the implications of that passage, belongs elsewhere, such as in a commentary, rather than in the translation itself.• Front translation is designed to assist a native translator. It is prepared by an advisor for a specific translation project for the mother tongue translators under his supervision. The advisor creates a front translation with the goal of making the meaning explicit and as easy as possible for the mother tongue translator, whose ability in English (or another national language) is limited, to use. The front translation contains all the meaning of the original, including implicit information which may need to be made explicit in the trans-lation.

7.Techniques of Translation: Direct Translation techniques (Borrowing,

Calque,Literal Translation) and Oblique Translation Techniques

(Transposition, Modulation, Reformulation or Equivalence, Adaptation

and Compensation).

Direct Translation Techniques

Direct Translation Techniques are used when structural and conceptual elements of

the source language can be transposed into the target language. Direct translation

techniques include:

Borrowing

Calque

Literal Translation

Borrowing

Borrowing is the taking of words directly from one language into another without

translation. Many English words are "borrowed" into other languages; for example

software in the field of technology and funk in culture. English also borrows nu-

merous words from other languages; abbatoire, café, passé and résumé from

French; hamburger and kindergarten from German; bandana, musk and sugar

from Sanskrit.

Borrowed words are often printed in italics when they are considered to be "for-

eign".

Calque

A calque or loan translation (itself a calque of German Lehnübersetzung) is a

phrase borrowed from another language and translated literally word-for-word.

You often see them in specialized or internationalized fields such as quality assur-

ance (aseguramiento de calidad, assurance qualité taken from English). Examples

that have been absorbed into English include standpoint and beer garden from

German Standpunkt and Biergarten; breakfast from French déjeuner (which now

means lunch in Europe, but maintains the same meaning of breakfast in Québec).

Some calques can become widely accepted in the target language (such as stand-

point, beer garden and breakfast and Spanish peso mosca and Casa Blanca from

English flyweight and White House). The meaning other calques can be rather ob-

scure for most people, especially when they relate to specific vocations or subjects

such as science and law. Solución de compromiso is a Spanish legal term taken

from the English compromise solution and although Spanish attorneys understand

it, the meaning is not readily understood by the layman. An unsuccessful calque

can be extremely unnatural, and can cause unwanted humor, often interpreted as

indicating the lack of expertise of the translator in the target language.

Literal Translation

A word-for-word translation can be used in some languages and not others depen-

dent on the sentence structure: El equipo está trabajando para terminar el informe

would translate into English as The team is working to finish the report. Sometimes

it works and sometimes it does not. For example, the Spanish sentence above could

not be translated into French or German using this technique because the French

and German sentence structures are different. And because one sentence can be

translated literally across languages does not mean that all sentences can be trans-

lated literally. El equipo experimentado está trabajando para terminar el informe

translates into English as The experienced team is working to finish the report

("experienced" and "team" are reversed).

Oblique Translation Techniques

Oblique Translation Techniques are used when the structural or conceptual ele-

ments of the source language cannot be directly translated without altering mean-

ing or upsetting the grammatical and stylistics elements of the target language.

Oblique translation techniques include:

Transposition

Modulation

Reformulation or Equivalence

Adaptation

Compensation

Transposition

This is the process where parts of speech change their sequence when they are

translated (blue ball becomes boule bleue in French). It is in a sense a shift of word

class. Grammatical structures are often different in different languages. He likes

swimming translates as Er schwimmt gern in German. Transposition is often used

between English and Spanish because of the preferred position of the verb in the

sentence: English often has the verb near the beginning of a sentence; Spanish can

have it closer to the end. This requires that the translator knows that it is possible

to replace a word category in the target language without altering the meaning of

the source text, for example: English Hand knitted (noun + participle) becomes

Spanish Tejido a mano (participle + adverbial phrase).

Modulation

Modulation consists of using a phrase that is different in the source and target lan-

guages to convey the same idea: Te lo dejo means literally I leave it to you but

translates better as You can have it. It changes the semantics and shifts the point of

view of the source language. Through modulation, the translator generates a

change in the point of view of the message without altering meaning and without

generating a sense of awkwardness in the reader of the target text. It is often used

within the same language. The expressions es fácil de entender (it is easy to under-

stand) and no es complicado de entender (it is not complicated to understand) are

examples of modulation. Although both convey the same meaning, it is easy to un-

derstand simply conveys "easiness" whereas it is not complicated to understand

implies a previous assumption of difficulty that we are denying by asserting it is

not complicated to understand. This type of change of point of view in a message

is what makes a reader say: "Yes, this is exactly how we say it in our language".

Reformulation or Equivalence

Here you have to express something in a completely different way, for example

when translating idioms or advertising slogans. The process is creative, but not al-

ways easy. Would you have translated the movie The Sound of Music into Spanish

as La novicia rebelde (The Rebellious Novice in Latin America) or Sonrisas y lá-

grimas (Smiles and Tears in Spain)?

Adaptation

Adaptation occurs when something specific to one language culture is expressed in

a totally different way that is familiar or appropriate to another language culture. It

is a shift in cultural environment. Should pincho (a Spanish restaurant menu dish)

be translated as kebab in English? It involves changing the cultural reference when

a situation in the source culture does not exist in the target culture (for example

France has Belgian jokes and England has Irish jokes).

Compensation

In general terms compensation can be used when something cannot be translated,

and the meaning that is lost is expressed somewhere else in the translated text. Pe-

ter Fawcett defines it as: "...making good in one part of the text something that

could not be translated in another". One example given by Fawcett is the problem

of translating nuances of formality from languages that use forms such as Spanish

informal tú and formal usted, French tu and vous, and German du and sie into Eng-

lish which only has 'you', and expresses degrees of formality in different ways.

As Louise M. Haywood from the University of Cambridge puts it, "we have to re-

member that translation is not just a movement between two languages but also be-

tween two cultures. Cultural transposition is present in all translation as degrees of

free textual adaptation departing from maximally literal translation, and involves

replacing items whose roots are in the source language culture with elements that

are indigenous to the target language. The translator exercises a degree of choice in

his or her use of indigenous features, and, as a consequence, successful translation

may depend on the translator's command of cultural assumptions in each language

in which he or she works".

8.Equivalence in Translation. Types of Equivalents (Four types according to

V.N.Komissarov, namely, only one part of the contents is preserved; the

different versions are distinguished by the portion of contents preserved; what

is preserved is juxtaposed to what is lost; and finally, the part to be preserved

is rationally chosen in function of the translator's considerations.)

A translated text can never be identical to its original,it can only be equivalent to it

in certain respects.These can be systematized in the form of five equivalence

frameworks,not all of wich can be fulfilled simultaneously.Werner Koller,who

identifies the 5 most important ones as follows:

a.The extralinguistic, ‘real-world’ referents to which the text relates.For e.g.:in the

sencentce:”The capital of Italy is Rome”., and Die Hauptstadt von Italien ist

Rom,the words ‘Rome’ and Rom have the same denotation,and are thus

denotatively equivalent.

b.The connotations conveyed in the text,that is,the culturally normative feelings or

associations evoked by a specific term or phrase,and by different levels of usage or

styles,or social and geographical dialects.The equivalence relation constituted here

is called connotative equivalence.For e.g.,the connotations evoked by the term

‘breakfast’ in English-speaking context may differ radically from the associations

this term evokes in Islamic countries during Ramadan.

c.The linguistic and textual norms of usage that characterize a particular text.The

type of equivalence which relates to text types is called text-normative

equivalence.For e.g.,a letter layout differs widely across linguistic and cultural

communities,and this needs to be taken account of in translation.

d.The recipients of the translation for whom the translation is ‘specially

designed’,so that is fulfils its specially designed’,so that it fulfils its special

communicative function for these recipients.This type of equivalence is translation

of Bible.

e.The aesthetic,formal characteristics of the original text.This type of equivalence

is formal-aesthetic equivalence.For e.g.,if the translator succeeded in maintaining

wordplays,rhymes,assonance,alliteration phenomena in the translation,he or she

would have managed to achieve formal-aesthetic equivalence.

The choice of a translator is forced ot make between differently equivalent

expressions depends in each individual case on the hierarchy of equivalence

demands he/she sets up for himself/herself,or is asked to follow.Translation is only

possible with reference to the concept of equivalence,for there can be no exact

transference of meaning across texts in different languages,only an approximation

appropriate to purpose.But how far that purpose can be achieved is also dependent

on the limits of translatability.Only when the central concept of equivalence is

clarified,is it possible to evaluate the quality of a translation.

9.Cohesion and Coherence in Interpretation and Translation. The Role of

Coherence as a covert potential meaning relationship among parts of a text,

and the translator’s process of interpretation of the text in order to

appropriate the meaning for the intended reader. The Coherence shift of

expression made by the translator.

Understanding the concepts of cohesion and coherence are crucial for a successful

process of translation. Cohesive ties help to identify semantic relations in the text

and thus contribute to their interpretation. As Mona Baker notes, “the main value

of cohesive markers seems to be that they can be used to facilitate and possibly

control the interpretation of underlying semantic relations” Øverås regards the

level of cohesion as essential in distinguishing various characteristics of

translation:It is the level of cohesion, combined with other aspects found to be

typical in translation, that may serve as a guide in the search for the distinguishing

characteristics of translation. The third code apparently consists of a series of

features present in individual translations to a greater or lesser extent. Coherence,

Baker (1992) argues, is derived from the interaction of the information contained

in the text and reader’s knowledge and experience. The translator has to bear in

mind that the target reader does not have the same background knowledge as the

source reader. Coherence thus depends on the ability of the reader to make sense of

it. The question that Baker (1992) asks herself is this: is meaning property of text

(supporters of this opinion are e.g. Blum-Kulka or Sinclair) or of communicative

situation (Firth or Malmkjaer)? Baker (1992) inclines towards the latter opinion: It

therefore seems reasonable to suggest that, regardless of whether meaning is a

property of text or situation, coherence is not a feature of text as such but of the

judgement made by the reader on the text.

10.Translation Methods. Method of Introspection based on the Semantical

Theory of linguistical signs, and the Method of Interpretation and the

Descriptive Method based on the theory of pragmatics of the translated text.

Translation Methods

There are four basic theories or methods of translation which have been used by those who do

the work of translating from the original languages.

1. Literal or Highly Literal. This is where the exact words, word order and syntax are as liter-

ally followed and translated into English as possible. Many of the interlinears, such as Berry's In-

terlinear are examples of this method of translation. Young's Literal Translation is another ex-

ample of this method of translation.

Even though these are highly accurate to the Greek, yet often times they are difficult to read in

English. For instance YLT reads in John 3:16, "for God did so love the world, that His Son - the

only begotten - He gave, that every one who is believing in him may not perish, but may have

life age-during." Berry's Interlinear reads, "For so loved God the world that his Son the only

begotten he gave, that everyone who believes on him may not perish but have life eternal."

Although these are accurate translations, due to word order and syntax they are difficult to read

in English. They are best used as tools for those who wish to study the literal English translation

along side the original language. And for those who are more concerned with the structure of the

original than the structure of English. They would be difficult to use in public readings or even

daily Bible reading.

2. Formal Equivalence, Form-Oriented or Modified Literal. This is where the actual words

are translated and then adjusted slightly in order and syntax to conform to the target language.

This method respects the verbal inspiration of the Scriptures. It focuses on the form or the very

words of the text and translates them. It is based upon the philosophy that each and every word

of the text is important and carries a meaning of its own which is possible to express in another

language.

This method involves a single process whereby the words are directly translated from the origi-

nal to the target language. The emphasis is given to translating the words and the various parts of

speech as closely as is possible without distorting the meaning. This means that nouns are trans-

lated as nouns, verbs as verbs, articles as articles, adverbs as adverbs and adjectives as adjec-

tives. Close attention is given to grammar so that tenses, moods, numbers and persons are trans-

lated as closely as possible. The KJV is especially accurate in translating the second person plu-

ral as "ye" (a distinction which is lost in many versions by translating both singular and plural

numbers as "you").

This method is sometimes recognized (and criticized) as the word-for-word method of transla-

tion. It is the most accurate of all methods of translation in versions which are readily available.

It is the method which was employed by the KJV, ASV and NKJV translators. Because of these

translator's respect for each word, when they added English words which did not correspond to a

Greek word, they italized these words, so that the reader could know that these words were sup-

plied by the translators. This type of honesty and ethical responsibility cannot be found in the

modern-speech versions today.

3. Functional Equivalence, Context-Oriented, Idiomatic or Dynamic Equivalence. This

method of translation departs from the formal equivalence method in two areas: (1) It is con-

cerned with the thought of the writer, (as if they knew!) and (2) The reaction of the translated

message by the person reading it (as if they could predict it). It is based on the underlying theory

that communication takes place, not in word form, but in sentence form or that the sentence is

the smallest unit of communication. (Although we recognize that the definition of words must be

considered in their context, this does not mean that words have no meaning of themselves or do

not communicate themselves. Just yell "Fire" real loud in a crowded place sometime and see if a

single word can communicate. Or whisper "Shop" or "Sale" to a woman and see what happens

next).

This method of translation is defended by such men as Eugene A. Nida and Charles R. Taber in a

book entitled The Theory and Practice of Translation. In contrasting what they term the "new fo-

cus" (Dynamic Equivalence) and the "old focus" (Formal Equivalence) they write, "The new fo-

cus...has shifted from the form of the message to the response of the receptor. Therefore,

what one must determine is the response of the receptor to the translated message. The response

must then be compared with the way in which the original receptors presumably reacted to the

message when it was given in its original setting" (p 1).

In order to achieve this result they go through a three step process which involves: (1) Analyzing

what they think the inspired writer meant; (2) Transferring the thought to the target language;

and (3) Restructuring it to fit what they think the person reading it will understand (Ibid. p 33).

This last step involves a number of subjective judgments and decisions based upon emotions, at-

titudes and even doctrinal bias. The result is more interpretation than translation.

The fundamental difference between Formal Equivalence and Dynamic Equivalence is that FE is

a word-for-word translation (which derives doctrine from God's Word) while DE is a thought

translation which allows the translator's doctrine to determine what he thinks the Word of God

should say. Needless to say, we reject the Dynamic Equivalence approach to translation as being

an accurate or valid method of translation.

4. Paraphrase or Unduly Free. This method is hardly worthy of being called a method of trans-

lation, since it is not concerned with the words or sometimes not even the meaning of the origi-

nal. It is so loose that it will allow excess words, whole sentences or even paragraphs to be in-

serted into the text without any justification other than the paraphraser's belief that he is produc-

ing a product which is easier to understand than the Word of God. Most are nothing but com-

mentaries and very poor ones at that, since they are packed with the false doctrines of the author

of such works. Further, some of them include words and thoughts which are vulgar and disre-

spectful of the dignity which should befit the Word of God. Such liberties are taken in this

method that even liberal scholars do not recognize this as a valid or accurate method of transla-

tion. Neither should we! While we recognize that there is a place for paraphrasing and comment-

ing upon the Scriptures, honesty demands that we call it a commentary or a paraphrase of the

Scriptures rather than trying to pass it off as the Word of God in a more readable or understand-

able form.

11.Difficulties  in Translating: the absence of conceptual equivalence or comparability of meaning, the lack of’ cultural’ information, the absence of grammatical and syntactical structures, and the absence of lexical and stylistical equivalents, the presence of neologisms, colloquialisms and others.There are several problems in translating.for example:

Words carry different meanings:English words are known for being

polysemous. Words may be ambiguous, and thus, be mistranslated if interpreted

out of context. Also, words can acquire different meanings across languages like

denotative, connotative, collocational, etc

There are emotive and stylistic differences:words mean different things for

different people: words may differ in their emotive values or stylistically, i.e.

words may be formal, neutral, or informal.

There are terminological differences:emphasizing the previous statement,

equivalents are not always found easily for new terms in recent developments of

telecommunications, regulatory, science, technology, computer, internet, etc. This

is because new concepts and objects are constantly appearing and emerging. This

may cause terminological inconsistencies.

There are cultural differences:this is the issue of what is acceptable in one

language and what is frowned upon in another language. This may sometimes

depend on the context, place, users, etc. Euphemism, which is using a more

pleasant word or expression to replace an unpleasant word or expression, can be

used.

12.Translation and Culture. Translation as an essential tool in ensuring that languages, values, beliefs, histories and narratives can be mutually shared and comprehended. The term 'culture' addresses three salient categories of human activity: the

'personal,' whereby we as individuals think and function as such; the 'collective,'

whereby we function in a social context; and the 'expressive,' whereby society

expresses itself.Language is the only social institution without which no other

social institution can function; it therefore underpins the three pillars upon which

culture is built. Translation, involving the transposition of thoughts expressed in

one language by one social group into the appropriate expression of another group,

entails a process of cultural de-coding, re-coding and en-coding. As cultures are

increasingly brought into greater contact with one another, multicultural

considerations are brought to bear to an ever-increasing degree. Now, how do all

these changes influence us when we are trying to comprehend a text before finally

translating it? We are not just dealing with words written in a certain time, space

and sociopolitical situation; most importantly it is the "cultural" aspect of the text

that we should take into account. The process of transfer, i.e., re-coding across

cultures, should consequently allocate corresponding attributes vis-a-vis the target

culture to ensure credibility in the eyes of the target reader.

Multiculturalism, which is a present-day phenomenon, plays a role here, because it

has had an impact on almost all peoples worldwide as well as on the international

relations emerging from the current new world order. Moreover, as technology

develops and grows at a hectic pace, nations and their cultures have, as a result,

started a merging process whose end(-point?) is difficult to predict. We are at the

threshold of a new international paradigm. Boundaries are disappearing and

distinctions are being lost. The sharp outlines that were once distinctive now fade

and become blurred.As translators we are faced with an alien culture that requires

that its message be conveyed in anything but an alien way. That culture expresses

its idiosyncrasies in a way that is 'culture-bound': cultural words, proverbs and of

course idiomatic expressions, whose origin and use are intrinsically and uniquely

bound to the culture concerned. So we are called upon to do a cross-cultural

translation whose success will depend on our understanding of the culture we are

working with. Is it our task to focus primarily on the source culture or the target

culture? The answer is not clear-cut. Nevertheless, the dominant criterion is the

communicative function of the target text.Let us take business correspondence as

an example: here we follow the commercial correspondence protocol commonly

observed in the target language. So "Estimado" will become "Dear" in English and

"Monsieur" in French, and a "saludo a Ud. atentamente" will become "Sincerely

yours" in English and "Veuillez agreer Monsieur, mes sentiments les plus

distingues" in French. Finally, attention is drawn to the fact that among the variety

of translation approaches, the 'Integrated Approach' seems to be the most

appropriate. This approach follows the global paradigm in which having a global

vision of the text at hand has a primary importance. Such an approach focuses from

the macro to the micro level in accordance with the Gestalt-principle, which states

that an analysis of parts cannot provide an understanding of the whole; thus

translation studies are essentially concerned with a web of relationships, the

importance of individual items being decided by their relevance within the larger

context: text, situation and culture. In conclusion, it can be pointed out that the

transcoding (de-coding, re-coding and en-coding?—the term 'transcoding' appears

here for the first time) process should be focused not merely on language transfer

but also—and most importantly—on cultural transposition. As an inevitable

consequence (corollary?) of the previous statement, translators must be both

bilingual and bicultural, if not indeed multicultural.Is it our task to focus primarily

on the source culture or the target culture? The answer is not clear-cut.

Nevertheless, the dominant criterion is the communicative function of the target

text.Let us take business correspondence as an example: here what we do is to

follow the language commercial correspondence protocol commonly observed in

the target language. So "Estimado" will become "Dear" in English and "Monsieur"

in French, and a "saludo a Ud. atentamente" will become "Sincerely yours" in

English and "Veuillez agreer Monsieur, mes sentiments les plus distingues" in

French. Finally, attention is drawn to the fact that among the variety of translation

approaches, the ?Integrated Aproach? seems to be the most appropriate. This

approach follows the global paradigm in which having a global vision of the text at

hand has a primary importance. Such an approach focuses from the macro to the

micro level in accordance with the Gestalt-principle which lays down that an

analysis of parts cannot provide an understanding of the whole and thus translation

studies are essencially concerned with a web of relationships, the importance of

individual items, being decided by their relevance in the larger context: text,

situation and culture. In conclusion, it can be pointed out that the transcoding

process should be focused not merely on language transfer but also—and most

importantly—on cultural transposition. As an inevitable consequence of the

previous statement, translators must be both bilingual and bicultural if not

multicultural.

14.Pragmatics and Translation. The possibility of the translator to capture and translate appropriately the non-linguistic dimensions of verbal communication thanks to his knowledge of pragmatics.The noun “pragmatics” is regarded from different sides, the simplest of which is

“practical considerations”. The branch of semiotics dealing with causal and

other relations between words, expressions, or symbols and their users.

In an adequate translation the communicat- ive effect is close to that of the source

text.At best the text’s communicative effect coincides with the author’s

communicative intention.Two types of translation are caused by the above

principle: communicative translation and semantic translation.Sociolinguistic

aspect of the theory of translation includes the consideration of translation as

socially determined communicative process, social norm of translation and

viewing translation as the reflection of a social world. The objects of description

are various kinds of socially conditioned pragmatic relations, which determine the

essence of translation as communicative act: pragmatics of source text, which

determines  its functional type; pragmatics of target text, oriented to a different

culture orientation of the translator for meeting the requirements of the society, that

is, social norm of translation; pragmatics of the language units of both source and

target languages, the pragmatics, which is connected with stratification and

situational varieties of lexicon.The importance of socio linguistic factors for

reaching adequacy of translation can’t be underestimated. It may be illustrated by

possible translations of the personal pronoun you, which may be translated

as ти and ви. Pragmatic approach to the analysis of the situation will show the

translator the right way.To sum up the above said, it is necessary to stress the

importance of the translator’s background knowledge. That is, profound

knowledge of history, culture, mode of life of the country, the language of which

he studies and is supposed to know for being a good translator.Translating process

reveals double pragmatic orientation. On one hand, it is realized within inner

lingual communication and thus being oriented to the original. On the other hand,

translation is a concrete speech act which is pragmatically oriented to a certain

recipient. Pragmatic task of the translation aims at ensuring maximal equivalency

with the original. Pragmatic aspect of the translation is very important especially in

translation of nationally-biased units of lexicon.

14.History of Translation Theory. Latin as the lingua franca of the western

learned world in the Middle Ages. The translations of Bede’s Ecclesiastical

History and Boethius’ Consolation of Philosophy. The first great English

translation of the Wycliffe Bible. Modern translation: tendencies in the

translation of literary and poetical works.

Early history

The word translation itself derives from a Latin term meaning "to bring or carry across". The

Ancient Greek term is 'metaphrasis' ("to speak across") and this gives us the term 'metaphrase' (a

"literal or word-for-word translation") - as contrasted with 'paraphrase' ("a saying in other

words"). This distinction has laid at the heart of the theory of translation throughout its history:

Cicero and Horace employed it in Rome, Dryden continued to use it in the seventeenth century

and it still exists today in the debates around "fidelity versus transparency" or "formal

equivalence versus dynamic equivalence". The first known translations are those of the Sumerian

epic Gilgamesh into Asian languages from the second millennium BC. Later Buddhist monks

translated Indian sutras into Chinese and Roman poets adapted Greek texts.

Arabic scholars

Translation undertaken by Arabs could be said to have kept Greek wisdom and learning alive.

Having conquered the Greek world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific

works. During the Middle Ages, translations of these Arabic versions were made into Latin -

mainly at the school in C�rdoba, Spain. These Latin translations of Greek and original Arab

works of learning helped underpin Renaissance scholarship.

Religious texts

Religious texts have played a great role in the history of translation. One of the first recorded

instances of translation in the West was the rendering of the Old Testament into Greek in the 3rd

century BC. A task carried out by 70 scholars this translation itself became the basis for

translations into other languages.

Saint Jerome, the patron saint of translation, produced a Latin Bible in the 4th century AD that

was the preferred text for the Roman Catholic Church for many years to come. Translations of

the Bible, though, were to controversially re-emerge when the Protestant Reformation saw the

translation of the Bible into local European languages - eventually this led to Christianity's split

into Roman Catholicism and Protestantism due to disparities between versions of crucial words

and passages. Martin Luther himself is credited with being the first European to propose that one

translates satisfactorily only toward his own language: a statement that is just as true in modern

translation theory.

Modern Theory and Practice

Whilst industrialisation has led to the formalization of translation for business purposes since the

eighteenth century it is, perhaps, the internet and mechanical translation that has really

revolutionised the field. In terms of theory Lawrence Venuti's call for "foreignizing" strategies

marks a call for fidelity over transparency in translation. The two poles of metaphrase and

paraphrase, however, still set the terms of debate from the age of Babel to that of Babel Fish.

Bede’s Ecclesiastical History and Boethius’ Consolation of Philosophy.

15.The Linguistic Bias: ,,Translating is Transcoding”. Definition of

transcoding. Sociolinguistics and Translation. The connection of translation

not only with words and texts, but with the translator’s personal way of

understanding words and texts.

Transcoding is the ability to adapt digital files so that content can be viewed on

different playback devices. Working like an interpreter, a transcoder translates files

to a suitable format for the end user. The translations are built upon complicated al-

gorithmic computations and require significant processing resources.Transcoding

servers and services reformat material that would otherwise have to be developed

separately for different platforms. They are commonly used for adapting content

for mobile devices or serving video. There are a number of different ways that

transcoding can take place but the overall process remains the same. The source

format is translated into a raw intermediate format and then re-translated into a for-

mat the end user's device recognizes.In one example, the original material is ana-

lyzed by a program that creates a separate version containing annotations. The an-

notations include information that will instruct the reformatting process. When a

request for the file is sent to the hosting server, the server submits the annotated

version to an authoring application. The material is reformatted there and sent on

to a proxy server. The proxy server accesses information about device preferences

and adapts the material as needed before delivering it to the end user.There are two

main options for those who want to automate the reformatting of content: using a

transcoding server product or using a transcoding service. Transcoding services are

application service providers (ASPs) that take responsibility for the entire process

and deliver the reformatted content from legacy material.

16.The Interdisciplinary Character of Translation Studies. The involvement of rather diverse disciplines, ranging from Linguistics to Anthropology, from textual and literary studies to those of complex linguistic aptitudes and language acquisition in Translation Studies.

Interdisciplinarity has been with us since the earliest days of T&I research. In

most cases, it has been a matter of T&I scholars (often also practitioners in their

own right) trying to stir the collaborative interest of colleagues in such fields as

linguistics, psychology etc. Less often, T&I scholars have been co-opted into

projects anchored in other domains. Thus, interdisciplinarity may refer either to

insiders "looking out", and hoping to apply the knowledge available "out there"

to the study of translation / interpreting, or to outsiders "looking in", and hoping

to glean findings that can then be integrated into their respective "home

disciplines". In the ideal world of truly symbiotic relationships, the two may

coincide.

As individuals in society and as researchers in our respective disciplines, we

have come to see the shortcomings (as well as some advantages) of confining

ourselves to our own paradigms, our own models and indeed, our own selves.

Interdisciplinarity is the recognized by-product of the fluidity and complexity of

our lives, a healthy reaction to the often-exaggerated compartmentalization of

academe. As T&I scholarship has gained ground, and as T&I scholars have

come to be viewed as team members in good standing on the academic playing

field, interdisciplinary collaboration has been on the rise as well, with greater

readiness to acknowledge the potential for mutually beneficial collaboration.

When it comes to the research skills required for pursuing interdisciplinary – as

opposed to intradisciplinary – research, certain recurrent problems tend to

emerge, regardless of the particular disciplines involved. Encouraged by the

organizers of the symposium to address this topic from a personal perspective, I

take my own experience as a point of departure, starting with the following

question: How did my choice of an interdisciplinary research project affect my

own research skills, and how adequate were they in dealing with the other

discipline (in my case, cognitive psychology and psycholinguistics). There

appears to be a difference between interdisciplinary cooperation within the

humanities and outside of the humanities (most commonly with the social

sciences), where the paradigms, the methods and the history of research are

markedly different. The following are some questions and challenges

encountered in moving beyond TS/IS and beyond the pale of the humanities:

Given the need to go beyond a thorough familiarity with Interpreting Studies

literature, the "interdisciplinarian" must become equally and thoroughly fa-

miliar with what has been done on in the other discipline. How can this be

achieved within a reasonable time, if indeed it can be achieved at all?

If one's advisor comes from within TS / IS (or, as is often the case, from lin-

guistics), to what extent can s/he ensure that the interdisciplinary research

involving a more "distant" field is in keeping with the requirements of that

other field and does not appear uninformed or naïve? Is it in fact essential to

have a second advisor from the other discipline?

From the institutional point of view, researchers are often hemmed in by the

requirement to conduct their research within the confines of their own fac-

ulty or even their own department. The creation of a joint framework, if it is

at all feasible, may entail administrative, logistical and financial constraints.

What are the chances of straddling two departments and being accepted in

both?

Perhaps the manner in which the process unfolded in my own case is an ex-

ception; perhaps not. Despite my "esoteric" field and my lack of familiarity

with the central areas of research, I was invited to spend two months at the

Max Planck Institute in Nijmegen, The Netherlands, and was encouraged to

consult with the in-house scholars, notwithstanding the fact that they had lit-

tle or no interest in interpreting as such, and to ask questions, including

methodological ones. It was through this interaction that I was able to nar-

row down my research question, to access the relevant cognitive psychologi-

cal literature and to learn about potential pitfalls. However, when the time

came to link this newly acquired information to my object of research – in-

terpreting – it became necessary to return to my natural turf, a translation de-

partment. The cognitive psychologists could provide extensive background

information, but could not help me create the desired interface. Only in a

Translation Studies setting was I able to complete the process.

A doctoral student in my department, whose topic lies at the interface of

(community) interpreting and medical sociology, is a case in point:

The physician at the medical institution which granted her the permission to

conduct the observations and who expects to tap some of her findings, is

keen on quantitative information. The student, on the other hand, is more in-

terested in qualitative research. The implicit requirement to provide quantita-

tive findings confronts her with the need to deal with questions that (1) are

of little interest to her; and (2) are not part of her academic background.

Sociologists as well as medical researchers whom she has tried to involve in

her study wish to apply research methods not normally used in TS / IS. More

important, their research questions lean toward the epidemiological, whereas

hers focus on (mis)communication and (mis)understandings.

When all is said and done, the study will probably end up being largely uni-

directional; i.e. a translation scholar will tap the expertise of another disci-

pline (medical sociology) which, in turn, will be wary of integrating the

findings and conclusions thereof. In other words, the interpreting scholar (a

doctoral student, in this case) will be borrowing, but will have little chance

of repaying the loan.

17.Simultaneous and Consecutive Interpretation. Techniques of both types of interpretation. The stages of the translator’s preparation for interpretation. The sources of information before the process of interpretation.

Simultaneous and Consecutive Interpretation In consecutive interpretation the in-terpreter has the advantage of knowing the line of argument before he interprets. Speeches given at international conferences (excluding written statements) gener-ally last a few minutes, giving the interpreter time to analyze them. He analyses the nuances and subtleties of the speech, although the message is delivered at a speech averaging 150 words a minute. Few activities require such concentration or cause such fatigue! When conference interpreting first began, some years ago, the speak-ers offered to stop after every sentence and give the floor to the interpreter. This was a manifestation of the belief that interpretation consisted of a mere word-for-word translation and the speaker felt that, by using this method, the interpreter could commit to memory all of the words in the preceding sentence and then trans-

late them. However, the meaning of an individual sentence is rarely clear when it is taken out of context, and today interpreters request that speakers carry on with their discourse because the rest of the speech will often clarify a statement which was obscure and reveal the assumptions underlying any one sentence. The time lag which the interpreter enjoys in consecutive interpretation is cruelly lacking in si-multaneous interpretation. It may therefore seem inconsistent to claim that simulta-neous likewise provides an opportunity for exploration and comprehension of the message. But let us look more closely at simultaneous interpretation before exam-ining the methods of analysis used in interpretation in general.The observer is struck by the fact that the interpreter manages to do two things at once: listen and speak. But this is not exactly the case. In order to understand what simultaneous in-terpretation involves, let us look more closely at what happens. When we speak spontaneously our words do not come out in spurts: we do not first think out what we are going to say and then stop thinking while we speak; nor do we stop speak-ing in order to mentally compose what we are going to say next. On the contrary, our speech is continuous. To be specific, it involves two superimposed processes in a cause and effect relationship: mental impulses and their oral expression. Seen in time, however, the words are uttered at the precise moment the following thought is conceived; at the precise moment the product of the conceptualizing process is uttered, the mind is already focused on further development of the thought which is to be expressed in the following statement。The simultaneous interpreter does vir-tually the same thing as when he is speaking spontaneously. He hears the next sen-tence while he is stating the preceding idea, yet he does not listen to the next sen-tence but to the sentence which he himself is delivering. He does, however, hear the meaning of the sentence being delivered by the speaker and it is this meaning which he retains in order to deliver the sentence himself immediately afterwards. Thus, just as when he speaks spontaneously, the words he hears while interpreting are those which he utters, but the thoughts which his mind focuses on are those which will produce his next words. The difference is that, here, the thought he will utter comes from an outside source. This is just a very common occurrence carried to extremes. We might go as far as to say that there are no thoughts which are completely the product of one in-dividual, or completely original, and that in any situation what one says is only the end product of a thought which is born of the input of countless outside sources which nourish us as children and enrich us as adults. The work of an interpreter is, therefore, only an extreme case of reconstruction of ideas from outside sources. In practice, however, the simultaneous interpreter is relieved of the immediate task of developing the thought he has just stated. In place of this he substitutes analysis and comprehension of the speaker’s line of thought. Simultaneous interpretation involves “hearing” the thoughts of another instead of one’s own thoughts. It also involves speaking spontaneously because all speaking involves talking and listen-ing at the same time, although usually one “hears” one’s own thoughts. Simultane-ous interpretation means reordering the steps in the mental process which we all experience when we speak spontaneously. This is why, if correctly taught, simulta-neous interpretation can be learned quite rapidly, assuming one has already learned

the art of analysis in consecutive interpretation. The problem in simultaneous inter-pretation stems not from the technique used, but from a series of other problems. Let us simply say here that simultaneous is too often considered as a simple word-for-word translation, with a certain number of words stored in the memory (proba-bly to avoid the trap of false cognates and not translate actuel by actual) and then repeated in the target language. During the time lag which separates the speaker’s words from those of the interpreter, the interpreter had better things to do than memorize the words he has heard, because the speaker relentlessly continues to de-liver his idea and the interpreter must do the same to avoid sputtering out snatches of ideas. Even memorizing a half dozen words would distract the interpreter, whose attention is already divided between listening to his own words and those of the speaker. It would be impossible for him to memorize ones in another language. It is humanly impossible to listen attentively to one thing while saying another. The interpreter listens and says the same thing. By avoiding the pitfall of word memorization the interpreter manages to understand the thought which will pro-duce his next words. Thus the simultaneous interpreter is an analyst or mind-reader, not a parrot. His memory does not store the words of the sentence delivered by the speaker, but only the meaning which those words convey. There are even different names for different kinds of simultaneous interpreters.Whispering interpreters are simultaneous interpreters who whisper their transla-tions. Usually they work under circumstances where the listeners are a minority as far as their language is concerned: it can be one person, or perhaps just a few. Is it one or two people, then the interpreter will usually work without sound equipment and he will literally whisper his translation to his listeners. Conversation interpreters can be simultaneous interpreters, but not necessarily. In the abovementioned example of the marketing research company it is clear that a simultaneous interpreter is needed to translate the interviews. But is there time for people to pause during a conversation, and is there no objection to having par-ticipants in the conversation wait for the translation each time a sentence is spoken, you may consider using a consecutive interpreter. Court interpreters (= legal interpreters) are usually simultaneous interpreters. The chance, however, that you will need a court interpreter, is rather slim - unless you work for a court. Since most courts already have a list of interpreters they work with, we will not explain the work of this kind of simultaneous interpreters any further. Conference interpreters are, in fact, always simultaneous interpreters. They gener-ally work in interpreter's booths. 18. Five Principles and Five Skills for Training Interpreters. The first principle is:Before introducing any new training exercise, explain its

potential value for psycholinguistic and professional reasons and explain how it

can be adapted by interpreters later in different circumstances. Example: a self-

training exercise to improve attention and concentration and to make both

hemispheres work synchronically. It can be used in any environment with

moving or parked cars.The most simple exercise is to go along any street, trying to

repeat all the digits and letters of all the car number plates (going either in the same

or the opposite direction).Next level of difficulty: do the same and simultaneously

translate or convert the same number plates from language 1 (L1) into language 2

(L2).Next level of difficulty: do the same, simultaneously translating the plates

into

L2 and counting the number of cars in each colour in either L1 or L2 (e.g. 5 reds,

7 whites, 4 cherry, etc.)Final level of difficulty: do the same, simultaneously

translating the plates into L2 and counting the number of cars in each colour in

both languages (e.g. five reds, siete blancos <“7 whites” in Spanish>, 4 cherry,

ocho negros <“8 blacks” in Spanish>, etc.)

The second principle is:Increase the self-confidence of students, particularly where

their memory is concerned. This is absolutely necessary, because almost all

students complain of not being able to memorise new information or retain certain

pieces of important data in their short- and long-term memory (STM and LTM).

Example: an exercise with interesting or funny data which is used in order to

demonstrate to students that they can easily remember quite complicated data so

long as it is important or interesting to them. Here I explain how our memory

works and how it deals with the important and non-important information which

we intend to memorise.The exercise is called “Very Interesting” or “Muy

Interesante” and it is a dictation of short texts containing interesting figures, dates

or plusmarks, etc. For example: “The American fast-food chain Macdonald’s,

appeared for the first time in 1955, but it had no tables or chairs until 1966.” The

dictation may be in either language or may alternate between the two languages

once self-confidence is gained and the exercise is being used purely to train STM

and LTM.

The third principle is:Work hard on the students’ concentration and level of

attention from the very beginning.Example: An exercise with distractions, like

extra sounds, excessive gesticulation,etc. This kind of “distractive modelled

environment” I call “training in obstacled conditions.” Any instructor can create

his or her own list of distractions, depending on the level of the group or the

specific aim. For more information about my approach to training in difficult

conditions, see my article in Rusistica magazine.

The fourth principle is:A new exercise has to be very clear and straightforward in

order to be understood and worked through the first time (with a short debriefing

afterwards). Next time, the training exercise has to be difficult (an authentic or

nearly real-life level of difficulty). A “real-life level of difficulty” refers mainly to

the speed of presentation or the sentence complexity, or a lot of specific

vocabulary.

The fifth principle is:It is not my task to teach vocabulary.Firstly, this is because

the trainee interpreters studying the MA in Interpreting de facto have to have a

“sufficient” level of proficiency in L2 and L3. It is the primary criterion for

admission to such MA courses. The aim is clear: we do not teach languages, we

teach “interpreting.”Secondly, I think in any case that it is a waste of time to teach

new vocabulary on a word-to-word level in MA courses. It is the students’

responsibility to learn vocabulary all the time if they want to be professional

interpreters. At the same time the “ideal course” may include some specific hours

of training dedicated purely to wordto-word drills (not teaching) from L1 into L2,

alternating both languages all the time.It is necessary to recognise that most of the

modern schools of interpreting at undergraduate and PG level use a lot of linguistic

methods in their teaching practice, working on vocabulary on a word-to-word basis

and on sentence, paragraph and whole text structures, as well as providing a huge

amount of theoretical information. At the same time, they ignore (or simply omit)

certain psycholinguistic techniques —such as those I have described above —

which are essential for any professional interpreter (working with both

simultaneous — SI and consecutive — CI interpreting).Pearl, in the article

mentioned above, makes some very precise and critical observations on this point.

19.Memory in Interpreting. The necessity of including some psycholinguistic elements in the training of future interpreters.

1. Interpreting is defined as "oral translation of a written text" (Shuttleworth & Cowie: 1997:83). Mahmoodzadeh gives a more detailed definition of interpreting: Interpreting consists of presenting in the target language, the exact meaning of what is uttered in the source language either simultaneously or consecutively, preserving the tone of the speaker .Whether novice or experienced, all interpreters find this profession demanding and challenging. Phelan says that "when an interpreter is working, he or she cannot afford to have a bad day. One bad interpreter can ruin a conference" In discussing the qualifications required for an interpreter, Phelan mentions that:"The interpreter needs a good short-term memory to retain what he or she has just heard and a good long-term memory to put the information into context. Ability to concentrate is a factor as is the ability to analyze and process what is heard" .Mahmoodzadeh also emphasizes that a skillful interpreter is expected to "have a powerful memory." Daniel Gile (1992,1995) emphasizes the difficulties and efforts involved in interpreting tasks and strategies needed to overcome them, observing that many failures occur in the absence of any visible difficulty. He then proposes his Effort Models for interpreting. He says that "The Effort Models are designed to help them [interpreters] understand these difficulties [of interpreting] and select appropriate strategies and tactics. They are based on the concept of Processing Capacity and on the fact that some mental operations in interpreting require much Processing Capacity."According to Gile, Consecutive Interpreting consists of two phases: a listening and reformulation phrase and a reconstruction phase :Phase One: I=L+M+NI=Interpreting, L=listening and analyzing the source language speech, M=short-term memory required between the time information is heard and the time it is written down in the notes, and N=note-taking.Phase Two: I= Rem+Read+PIn this Phase Two of Consecutive Interpreting, interpreters retrieve messages from their short-term memory and reconstruct the speech (Rem), read the notes (N), and produce the Target Language Speech (P). Gile's Effort Model for Simultaneous Interpreting is:SI=L+M+P SI=Simultaneous Interpreting.L=Listening and Analysis, which includes "all the mental operations between perception of a discourse by auditory mechanisms and the moment at which the interpreter either assigns, or decides not to assign, a meaning (or several potential meanings) to the segment which he has heard."M=Short-term Memory, which includes "all the mental operations related to storage in memory of heard segments of discourse until either their restitution in the target language, their loss if they vanish from memory, or a decision by the interpreter not to interpret them."P=Production, which includes "all the mental operations between the moment at which the interpreter decides to convey a datum or an idea and the moment at which he articulates (overtly produces) the form he has prepared to articulate" .Gile emphasizes that the memory effort is assumed to stem form the need to store the words of a proposition until the hearer

receives the end of that proposition. The storage of information is claimed to be particularly demanding in SI, since both the volume of information and the pace of storage and retrieval are imposed by the speaker .In both models, Gile emphasizes the significance of Short-term Memory. It is actually one of the specific skills which should be imparted to trainees in the first stage of training. Among all the skills and techniques which are required for a good interpreter, memory skill is the first one which should be introduced to trainee interpreters. Memory in Interpreting 2.1 Short Term vs. Long Term Memory Psychological studies of human memory make a distinction between Short-Term Memory (STM) and Long-Term Memory (LTM). The idea of short-term memory simply means that you are retaining information for a short period of time without creating the neural mechanisms for later recall. Long-Term Memory occurs when you have created neural pathways for storing ideas and information which can then be recalled weeks, months, or even years later. To create these pathways, you must make a deliberate attempt to encode the information in the way you intend to recall it later. Long-term memory is a learning process. And it is essentially an important part of the interpreter's acquisition of knowledge, because information stored in LTM may last for minutes to weeks, months, or even an entire life. The duration of STM is very short. It is up to 30 seconds. Peterson (1959) found it to be 6 - 12 seconds, while Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) and Hebb (1949) state it is 30 seconds. Memory in interpreting only lasts for a short time. Once the interpreting assignment is over, the interpreter moves on to another one, often with different context, subject and speakers. Therefore, the memory skills which need to be imparted to trainee interpreters are STM skills.2.2 Major Characteristics of STMInput of information: It is generally held that information enters the STM as a result of applying attention to the stimulus, which is about a quarter of a second according to the findings of both Sperling(1960) and Crowden(1982). However, McKay's (1973, in Radford and Govier, 1991: 382) findings do not fully support this, asserting that unattended information may enter the STM.Capacity: As mentioned in the previous section, the capacity of STM is limited and small. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) propose that it is seven items of information (give or take two). Miller (1956) says it is seven "chunks." Another possibility may be that the limiing factor is not the STM's storage capacity, but its processing capacity (Gross:1990:55).Modality: To store information in STM, it must be encoded, and there is a variety of possibilities as to how this operates. There are three main possibilities in STM: (1) Acoustic (Phonemic) coding is rehearsing through sub-vocal sounds (Conrad, 1964 and Baddeley:1966). (2) Visual coding is, as implied, storing information as pictures rather than sounds. This applies especially to nonverbal items, particularly if they are difficult to describe

using words. In very rare cases some people may have a "photographic memory," but for the vast majority, the visual code is much less effective than this (Posner and Keele: 1967). (3) Semantic coding is applying meaning to information, relating it to something abstract (Baddeley:1990, Goodhead:1999)Information Loss: There are three main theories as to why we forget from our STM: (1) Displacement—existing information is replaced by newly received information when the storage capacity is full (Waugh and Norman:1965) (2) Decay—information decays over time (Baddeley, Thompson and Buchanan, 1975). (3) Interference—other information present in the storage at the same time distorts the original information (Keppel and Underwood:1962).Retrieval: There are modes of retrieval of information from STM: (1) Serial search—items in STM are examined one at a time until the desired information is retrieved (Sternberg:1966). (2) Activation—dependence on activation of the particular item reaching a critical point (Monsell:1979, Goodhead:1999).3. Memory Training The purpose of memory (STM) training in interpreting is to achieve a better understanding of the source language, which will lead to adequate interpreting. As Lin Yuru et al. put it, "Memory in consecutive interpreting consists of nothing more than understanding the meaning, which is conveyed by the words" (Lin et al., 1999:9). Understanding is the first step in successful interpreting; therefore, memory training is to be provided in the early stage of interpreter training. Memory functions differently in consecutive and simultaneous interpreting, because the duration of memory is longer in CI than in SI. There are different methods of training STM for CI and SI respectively. Interpreting starts with the encoding of the information from the original speaker. According to Gile's Effort Model, interpreting is an STM-centered activity; the process of interpreting could be re-postulated into:Encoding of information from the Source Language + Storing Information + Retrieval of Information + Decoding Information into the Target language.In Consecutive Interpreting, there is probably up to 15 minutes (depending on the speaker's segments) for the interpreter to encode and then store the information. This is the first phase of Gile's Effort Model for CI. In the second phase of Gile's Model, the interpreter starts to retrieve information and decode it into the target language. In SI, encoding and decoding of information happen almost at the same time. The duration for storing the information is very limited. Therefore, in the first step of interpreting, encoding (understanding) information uttered in the SL is the key to memory training.According to the previous description, there are three main possibilities of storing information in STM: (1) Acoustic Coding; (2) Visual Coding and (3) Semantic Coding. Visual coding may be used by interpreters in conference situations with multimedia. Notes in interpreting are to assist in such visual coding of information. But in most interpreting

contexts, interpreters will depend on acoustic and semantic coding. Therefore, exercises should be designed for this purpose. The following methods are recommended:Retelling in the Source Language: The instructor either reads or plays a recording of a text of about 200 words for the trainees to retell in the same language. The trainees should not be allowed to take any notes. In the first instance, trainees should be encouraged to retell the text in the same words of the original to the largest possible extent. The following tactics should be used by the trainees after a certain time of training on retelling: Categorization: Grouping items of the same properties; Generalization: Drawing general conclusions from particular examples or message from the provided text; Comparison: Noticing the differences and similarities between different things, facts and events; Description: Describing a scene, a shape, or size of an object, etc. Trainees are encouraged to describe, summarize, and abstract the original to a large extent in their own words in exercises (2) to (5). Shadowing Exercise: Which is defined as "a paced, auditory tracking task which involves the immediate vocalization of auditorily presented stimuli, i.e., word-for-word repetition in the same language, parrot-style, of a message presented through a headphone"(Lambert 1899:381). This kind of exercise is recommended for training of Simultaneous Interpreting, especially the splitting of attention skills and the short-term memory in SI.There is another tool which is effective in memory training: Mnemonic to Memory. Mnemonic is a device, such as a formula or rhyme, used as an aid in remembering. Mnemonics are methods for remembering information that is otherwise quite difficult to recall. A very simple example of a mnemonic is the '30 days hath September' rhyme. The basic principle of Mnemonics is to use as many of the best functions of the human brain as possible to encode information. The human brain has evolved to encode and interpret complex stimuli—images, color, structure, sounds, smells, tastes, touch, spatial awareness, emotion, and language—using them to make sophisticated interpretations of the environment. Human memory is made up of all these features. Typically, however, information presented to be remembered is from one source—normally words on a page. While reading words on a page reflects one of the most important aspects of human evolution, it is only one of the many skills and resources available to the human mind. Mnemonics seek to use all of these resources. By encoding language and numbers in sophisticated, striking images which flow into other strong images, we can accurately and reliably encode both information and the structure of information to be easily recalled later (Manktelow:2003). It is also advisable that Exercises with Interference (e.g. noises) be provided in order to prevent information loss in the Short-Term Memory, since the environment and other information present in the storage may reduce the information encoded. Recording speeches with specially 'inserted' noises as a background is a recommended classroom practice, since this is a very effective method to enable the students to concentrate and thus strengthen their STM duration.

4. Conclusion Short-Term Memory is an essential part of interpreting, but memory training has long been ignored by professional trainers. From the above analysis, we can conclude that memory skills in interpreting could be acquired by effectively designed exercises. With a well-'trained' short-term memory, interpreters are actually equipped with an effective tool for the encoding and decoding information. It is, therefore, advised that institutions of interpreter training include "memory training" in the design of their courses.

20.AIIC – (goals activities) and Conference Interpreters. Professional Standards. Stages and sources of information in the process of preparation for intepreting.

At a time when multilingual conferences are becoming ever more specialised and

technically complex, when an impersonal machine assigns an interpreter to a meet-

ing on tin in the morning and one on dairy products in the afternoon, when the

number of working languages is increasing as rapidly as the use of consecutive is

declining, and when newly-fledged (and sometimes decidedly under-fledged) col-

leagues are being hastily drafted in to fill ever more booths, there is a pressing

need to maintain quality and standards in the profession of conference interpreting,

to motivate newcomers to do so and show them how, and generally to recognise

that the profession’s reputation for quality and integrity rests on the sum of our in-

dividual efforts to secure it.This guide has therefore been put together to share

practical advice on professional practice in conference interpreting, with the aim of

contributing to high standards of professionalism and quality interpretation, and

thereby to the dignity and integrity of our profession. The present version of this

guide is an updated and expanded edition, based on one published in 1990.The

contents of this vademecum reflect the standards of quality, integrity, and profes-

sionalism espoused by the International Association of Conference Interpreters

(AIIC), a professional association that represents conference interpreters world-

wide and sets standards for the profession that are internationally recognised, in

particular the AIIC Code of Professional Ethics and Professional Standards. Many

practical suggestions have also been distilled from bouquets and brickbats shared

by delegates, clients, and colleagues.The major target audience of this guide is of

course beginners, new colleagues who have completed their professional training

in conference interpreting, passed their qualification exams, and are now venturing

out onto the market and into the booth. But the guide may also be useful for more

experienced colleagues, as an aide-mémoire covering best practices. Naturally, ex-

perienced interpreters will find many statements of the obvious, while newcomers

to the profession may not understand all the reasons behind some of the sugges-

tions. If this looks like a daunting amount of advice to take on board, don’t worry:

things quickly fall into place, and a lot of this advice is really just common

sense.The International Association of Conference Interpreters (AIIC) is the world-

wide professional association for conference interpreters. Membership of AIIC is a

badge of professionalism and quality that is recognised internationally. Whether

you are a freelance or staff interpreter, being admitted to AIIC is an important

milestone in your career.As this guide is an AIIC publication, you will not be sur-

prised to find yourself encouraged to apply for membership of your professional

association. You will find a detailed explanation of the application procedure in

Applying to AIIC: A Primer.As a member, you will have a chance to influence

how the profession develops. Do not just pay your dues, but be an active member:

Take an active interest in the affairs of the association, which is democratically run

and relies on volunteers to do much of its most important work. Read AIIC’s pub-

lications, including the Bulletin and Communicate!, and contribute a letter or an ar-

ticle. Attend regional meetings, go to AIIC assemblies, and join voluntary groups

tackling the issues that matter most to you. If you want to change something, see if

you can find like-minded colleagues and put proposals to your regional meeting

and to the Assembly in accordance with the procedure laid down for that pur-

pose.If you are asked to sponsor an application to join the association, read the

Regulations Governing Admissions and Language Classification carefully. Re-

member that when you sign a sponsorship form, you are stating that you would be

prepared to recruit that person for the language combination in question, and you

are vouching for his or her professionalism and ethics. Once you have agreed to be

a sponsor, you must be prepared to defend your judgment if challenged and to sup-

port the candidate. If you refuse to sponsor a prospective applicant, give your rea-

sons openly and fairly. Less demanding sponsors might be found elsewhere, but

you will have reminded that person of the standards set by the profession.

Preparing for the conference

If ensuring proper working conditions is the first pillar of quality in conference in-

terpreting, diligent preparation is the second. Always prepare thoroughly for your

meetings.The more you know about the context, subject matter, and terminology of

the meeting, the better your performance in the booth will be. A conference inter-

preter needs to have as good a knowledge of the terrain as any trekker heading into

the Himalayas. In today’s market, many meetings are becoming increasingly spe-

cialised and technical, and at the same time, with more and more qualified inter-

preters entering the profession, competition is becoming more and more intense.

Colleagues who are known to prepare their assignments scrupulously are always at

the top of recruiters’ lists.Thorough preparation takes time and effort. Make sure

that you schedule sufficient time to do the necessary research before the confer-

ence.

2.1 Information sources

There are three main sources of information that interpreters use to prepare for an

upcoming meeting: conference documents, the World Wide Web (WWW) and

other background information and terminology resources, and the pre-conference

briefing.The most useful conference documents are:

program or agenda

background papers on the subjects and organisations involved

documents to be discussed

texts of speeches to be delivered

PowerPoint presentations and the speakers’ notes

multilingual glossaries of the relevant terminology

summaries or minutes of previous meetings

list of speakers and delegates

speakers’ bios

Although the standard AIIC contract does require the conference organiser to pro-

vide documents to the interpreters in sufficient time to prepare, one would be

rather lucky to receive all of the above --- in all relevant languages --- in good time

before the conference. It is of course the responsibility of the chief interpreter or

team leader to deliver polite reminders to the conference organiser. Often, though,

some documents will not be finalized until the wee hours of the morning before the

conference starts. It can help to ask for drafts in whatever state they are in, re-

minding the organiser that all documents provided will be treated as strictly confi-

dential and will be destroyed or returned at the organiser’s request.

Increasingly, documents are being placed on the Internet for the delegates and in-

terpreters to download themselves. Also, more and more documents are being sent

out by e-mail. It is a very good idea to ask the organiser to convert huge and un-

wieldy PowerPoint and PDF files into smaller file formats (like .rtf) before send-

ing. Make sure that your inbox is large enough to receive inbound file attachments.

(All members of AIIC get a 50 MB AIIC.MAIL mailbox, so if you are a member,

don’t forget to set up your AIIC.MAIL service.) Save e-mailed conference docu-

ments in a dedicated directory created for each conference.

In the case of PowerPoint documents, be sure to request a copy that includes the

speaker’s notes under each slide --- these are often suppressed in the version dis-

tributed to delegates.

When a full set of conference documents is not available in all the relevant lan-

guages (and even when it is), the World Wide Web (WWW) is an extremely

powerful tool for preparation of both subject matter and multilingual terminology.

It is well worth investing time in learning how to search expertly for information

on the web. Two Communicate! articles on this subject are available here and here;

these are now slightly dated, but the basic principles remain more than relevant.

Encyclopedias, basic textbooks for beginners, pre-existing topical glossaries in the

relevant languages, and other introductory materials are also very helpful sources

of background information and terminology.

The first time you work for an organisation, be sure to get hold of its basic texts

(Charter or Constitution, Statutes, Rules of Procedure, Standing Orders, etc.) in the

languages you cover. Study these in detail; the better your mastery of the organisa-

tion’s structure, procedures, and jargon, the more likely you are to be recruited

again. Interpreters must identify with and fit in to the "corporate culture" of the or-

ganisation. (A very good orientation for interpreters preparing for their first free-

lance contract at the United Nations in New York is available here: Premier contrat

freelance: Nations Unies - New York.)

2.2 Glossary preparation

On the basis of the conference documents and your own research, prepare your

own multilingual glossary for the meeting. Never be a terminology freeloader, re-

lying on others to do the work. Glossary preparation is an important learning

process, the main point of which is to help you understand and memorize the ter-

minology. On-the-fly glossary lookups while interpreting are distracting and diffi-

cult --- especially when using somebody else’s glossary.

In your glossary, include not only unfamiliar technical terms, but also recurring

topical items of a more general nature, in order to contextualize yourself and to in-

crease their ‘availability’, so that they are on the tip of your tongue when you need

them. Pay attention to usage that is specific to the particular body or topic at hand;

a Management Committee in one context may be Steering Group in another. It can

be helpful to make a separate list for acronyms, titles of officials, and the names of

committees.

Make sure that you know how to pronounce names and other proper nouns, and, if

necessary, include an indication of their pronunciation in your glossary. Similarly,

make sure that you know the names of all the relevant countries in all your work-

ing languages; pay attention to any that may have changed as a result of political

developments.

In compiling your glossary, whether on a computer or on paper, make sure that you

have a logical system for sorting terms (e.g. by subject, organisation, committee,

etc.) in alphabetic order for each language so you will be able to find the term you

are looking for quickly.

Be prepared to share your glossary with the other members of the team. It can be

very helpful to cross-reference your glossary against those prepared by other col-

leagues, including colleagues working in other booths. You may discover some

gaps in your preparation, and you may find that there are other translations for

terms that you have already captured.

2.3 Coordination with the organiser

Another important aspect of preparation is one that is the responsibility of the con-

sultant interpreter or team leader. This is coordinating closely with the confer-

ence organiser in the run-up to the conference, to ensure that technical and other

arrangements are in place. Inter alia, it is a good idea to have distributed to all the

speakers, through the conference organiser or secretariat, a copy of AIIC’s Guide-

lines for Speakers. It is also good practice to visit the conference hall the night be-

fore the conference, to make sure that the technical set-up is satisfactory, and,

when mobile booths are being used, that they are positioned properly in the meet-

ing room with a direct view of the speaker and of the projection screen. AIIC has

prepared a checklist for conference organisers that may be useful in the pre-confer-

ence coordination process.

2.4 The pre-conference briefing

Finally, a pre-conference briefing, even a very short one immediately before a

session, can be a valuable addition to the interpreters’ preparation for a difficult

technical meeting. It can also enhance the professional image of the interpreters. A

well-organised briefing, i.e. one attended by experts, preferably covering the work-

ing languages of the conference, and by the interpreters, who have studied the con-

ference documents and done background research in advance, can greatly improve

interpretation performance. Experts usually appreciate informed questions, and in

the course of discussing the significance of a term or a process, they develop a

much better understanding of the interpreters’ work and much greater confidence

in the interpreters’ ability to deal with technical subject matter.

The pre-conference briefing may also be a good opportunity to remind speakers of

the need to provide to the interpreters a copy of any text that is to be read out dur-

ing the conference, and to demonstrate the appropriate reading speed for high-qual-

ity interpretation of a recited written text. This is best handled by the chief inter-

preter or team leader.

20.Interpreter Honors Code. Ten Plus one Rules of a Good Interpretation

Standards of practice define the framework from which an oral language

interpreter’s performance is conducted and measured. Standards of practice guide

how a language interpreter will perform his/her role, duties and responsibilities.

Ethical principles focus on the “shoulds” of an interpreter’s performance when

ethical and other considerations impact an interpreter’s ability to adhere to the

standards of practice. Standards of practice and ethical principles are

complementary guideposts to equip an interpreter with clear parameters for

delivery of quality interpretation service. The development of and adherence to

standards of practice and ethical principles reinforces and supports consistent

practice for all interpreters. Standards of practice serve in all areas where criteria

for professional performance are needed in making decisions and may be used in

making determinations regarding professional misconduct, incompetence or

incapacity. Standards of Practice enable service providers, employers and

non/limited English speakers requiring the services of an interpreter to recognize

what standards of performance can be expected by a competent interpreter. They

also assist educators in developing curriculum and in providing appropriate

instruction. In the event that the Standards of Practice set a standard that is higher

than an employer’s or service provider’s policy or procedure, the interpreter should

comply with the standard set by the Standards of Practice. The recommended

standards of practice and ethical principles for the LITP integrates the work of

Across Languages Translation and Interpretation Service, a London, Ontario based

community interpreter service and the American National Council on Interpreting

in Healthcare. There are forty-seven standards of practice interconnected with

eight ethical principles:

1. Accuracy and Fidelity

2. Confidentiality

3. Impartiality

4. Respect for Persons

5. Maintaining Role Boundaries

6. Accountability

7. Professionalism

8. Continued Competence

ROLE OF THE TRANSLATOR

"“Every translation shall be faithful and render exactly the idea and form of the

original – this fidelity constitutes both a moral and legal obligation for the

translator” . - International Federation of Translators (FIT). The Translator's

Charter (approved by the Congress at Dubrovnik in 1963, and amended in Oslo on

July 9, 1994)

TRANSLATOR'S CODE OF ETHICS

Professional Practice

Translators should endeavor to provide service of the highest quality in their

professional practice.

Accuracy

The translator must translate accurately. By accurate translation we understand a

translation that preserves the meaning, style and register of the source document.

Confidentiality

The translator must respect, under all circumstances, confidentiality and privacy of

the information contained in all documentation provided by the client for the

purpose of translation, unless otherwise required by law. All information submitted

shall be confidential and may not be reproduced, disclosed or divulged.

Impartiality and Conflict of interest

In order to maintain professionalism, the translator must remain impartial and

declare any potential conflict of interest (including personal or ethical values and

opinions) that may affect his/her performance while translating a document.

Limitation of practice

The translator must know his/her linguistic limitations and decline assignments

that go beyond his/her skills and competence.

The translator must only accept assignments that he/she can complete and deliver

in a timely manner (by the due date).

The translator must accept documents that he/she can translate, no work should be

subcontracted to colleagues without prior written permission.

The translator should possess sound knowledge of the source language and be an

expert in the target language.

The translator should accept translations only for fields or subject matters where

he/she has knowledge and experience.

Accountability

The translator is accountable for his/her work and must recognize and

acknowledge translation mistakes and try to rectify them even when the translation

has been completed, in order to avoid potential liability and risk issues.

Professional Development

The translator

Must seek professional development courses to maintain, improve and ex-

pand translation skills and general knowledge through self-teaching, formal

and informal continuing education.

Must acquire the proper terminology and enhance his/her knowledge by cre-

ating and updating terminology files.

Must seek evaluative feedback and practice self-evaluation concerning per-

formance.

Respect for all parties

The translator must show respect for all parties involved in the translation

assignment, including respect for self, for the agency and to its clients.

The translator must respect copy rights and intellectual property. Translated

documents remain the client’s exclusive property.