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Speaking to Persuade
The goal is to influence the attitudes, beliefs, or behavior of the listeners
More difficult than speaking to inform
Types of Persuasive Speeches
Three types of questions give rise to persuasive speech situations: Questions of fact Questions of value Questions of policy
Questions of fact Deal with occurrences and the reasons that they
have happened, are happening, or will happen in the future
Examples: My purpose is to persuade my audience that a major
earthquake will hit California within the next fifteen years
My purpose is to persuade my audience that automobile airbags can save thousands of lives over a ten-year period
Questions of value
A discussion question revolving around the worth of an object, person, or situation
Involve facts but go further. They also call for judgments about right and wrong, ethical and unethical.
Example: My purpose is to persuade my audience that
stem cell research is not morally justifiable
Questions of policy Questions that deal with whether certain courses of
action should be taken Include matters of both fact and value within
themselves, but go beyond them to consider what should or should not be done.
Example: “What steps should be taken to control the problem of car theft?” Demands both that the audience know certain facts about
car theft, and that they consider it wrong. Once this is established, the speaker can go further to advocate that one or more solutions be carried out.
Questions of policy
Examples: My purpose is to show my audience that a
permanent site should be established for the Olympic Games.
My purpose is to persuade my listeners that stricter controls should be placed on genetic research.
Three sources of persuasion
Persuasion: a means by which one person can cause another to want to believe, to think, or to do.
Aristotle stated that there are three primary sources by which people can be persuaded: Pathos Ethos Logos
Pathos
A listener’s personal needs, drives, and desires
Need to analyze the needs of the listeners Appeal to their emotions Example in advertising:
Making us feel insecure about our attractiveness or social acceptability and then offering a solution in the form of a product
Pathos
Sample website using Pathos: http://www.rpi.edu/dept/llc/webclass/web/p
roject1/group4/env.html
**From Renesslaer Polytechnic Institute
Pathos
The audience’s attitude towards you and your topic will fall somewhere on a scale between “very positive” and “very negative.”
Each audience has a different set of needs
Audience Analysis Learning everything you can about the background, attitudes, and
interests of the people who will listen to you Questions to ask about the audience:
Do my audience members already know much about this topic? What can I tell them about this topic that they do not already know? Will this topic interest some audience members more than others? If I take a stand on this issue, will my audience agree with me? If they do not agree, what interests or needs do they have through which I
might change their minds?
Audience attitudes
Positive audience Neutral audience Disinterested audience Opposed audience
Need to gain their trust and then convince them of your viewpoint
Neutral audience
Needs information to make it possible for them to form an opinion
A significant amount of factual information can be convincing
Use specific examples and experiences common to most of her listeners
Disinterested audience
Need to light a fire under the listeners Show the audience how the topic will affect
them directly Need to be shown the seriousness of the
problem, the closeness of danger, or the way in which they will be affected
Opposed audience
Listeners need to be “softened up” to the point where they will really listen to your arguments and consider them fairly
Must present sound arguments to back up your position
Opposed audience
Sample topic: “Lack of integrity in student government elections”
Example of a bad opening: Student politics and student government in this school
are riddled with graft and corruption. The recent election showed me quite clearly that we cannot trust either the winners or the losers. In an election where vote buying occurred and campaign workers tampered with ballot boxes..
Opposed audience
Example of a better opening: This school has always had good student leadership. I
think you will agree that since our first year here we have been fortunate in the people we have elected as our class officers. I know many of you are dedicated to good student government here, as I am. I was very surprised and shocked, therefore, to discover some irregularities in our recent election process. Please listen as I recount some facts that have come to my attention…
Evidence to suit your audience
Type of Audience Kinds of Evidence
Positive Narrative, Examples, Comparisons
Neutral Facts, Statistics, Testimony, Examples
Disinterested Facts, Statistics
Opposed Narrative, Facts, Statistics, Examples, Comparisons
Reaching Your Audience Activity
Topic: Driving Age should be raised to 18 List how you would approach this topic for:
Positive audience Neutral audience Disinterested audience Opposed audience
*Use the chart as a guide, and provide specific examples for each audience.
Ethos
The speaker’s character in the minds of the audience (including competence, sincerity, and good will)
Ethos is established by: Showing that you are well prepared and competent By being sincere in what you say By appearing genuinely interested in your audience
Ethos-Preparation
Frequent use of evidence and supporting materials
Referring to your own experience with the topic
Ethos-Sincerity
Sincerity: the speaker’s motives for advocating a particular attitude, belief, or behavior must originate from a genuine concern for the best interests of the audience rather than self-interest
Ethos-Genuine Interest in Audience
Show interest and good will toward your audience
Complimenting them on their sound judgment, or reasoning ability
Common ground technique-identifying commonalities with listeners
Humor
Ethos
Sample website using ethos: http://www.rpi.edu/dept/llc/webclass/web/p
roject1/group4/commercial.html
**From Renesslaer Polytechnic Institute
Logos
Thinking process that allows the listener to arrive at logical conclusions
Need valid evidence and correct reasoning Evidence: raw material with which you
prove or support statements Reasoning: the process of putting this raw
material into a logical argument
Logos
Building an argument is similar to how a river is formed Rivers begin in the mountains and hills in tiny
rivulets and creeks (evidence) These creeks and rivulets flow together (the
reasoning process) to form larger streams These larger streams then run together to form
a mighty river (the conclusion)
Logos
Sample website using logos: http://www.rpi.edu/dept/llc/webclass/web/p
roject1/group4/research.html
**From Renesslaer Polytechnic Institute
Listening for Faulty Reasoning
Logical fallacies: false or faulty methods of reasoning Name calling: when a speaker gives a person
or idea a bad label without providing any evidence to prove what is said. If a speaker calls someone a liar or a criminal, make sure they give good reasons for using such labels.
Logical fallacies
Card stacking: the speaker, instead of presenting all of the important evidence, tells the audience only those facts that support the point he or she is trying to make. Leaves out the bad aspects of the idea and neglects to point out the benefits any alternatives might have.
Logical fallacies
Bandwagon technique: The speaker tries to convince you that because everyone else is doing something—using a certain shampoo or voting for a particular candidate, for example—you should do it too or you will regret being left out.
Logical fallacies
Glittering generality: a word or phrase that is so vague that everyone can agree on its value but no one is really sure exactly what it means. Example: “freedom of speech” or “equal
rights” Interpretation of these phrases depends on the
individual
Logical fallacies
Begging the question: Speakers never prove the points they are trying to make. They take it for granted that their ideas are true without providing proof. Example: “Brittany is the best president of
student council we ever had. We should reelect her.”
Logical fallacies
Non sequitur: A Latin phrase meaning “it does not follow.” May provide evidence to back up a statement, but if you examine the evidence you will find that it does not really prove the point. Example: Saying you will be a good class
president because of your tennis playing and cooking skills.
Logical fallacies
Hasty generalization: when the speaker does not have enough evidence to support the broad conclusion drawn. Often uses the words “everyone,” “always,”
“never,” “all the time,” and “nobody.”
Example: Everyone in Philadelphia loves cheesesteaks.
Ethos, Pathos, and Logos Activity In groups, look through your ads. Decide
whether each ad uses pathos, ethos, logos, or all three. On a separate piece of paper, list the appeal each ad uses, explain how it is used, and evaluate if it is effective. Attach your ads to your paper. Make sure you put the names of your group on your paper.